A Tentative Syntax of Modern Indoeuropean PDF

Fernando López-Menchero Díez
Ópitjī eurōpā́ iosjo kṓnātijā kómtagtis
A tentative syntax of Modern Indoeuropean
Version 1. March 2013

Énduktis
Sindhueuropājās átidemtis dn̥ ghwās məgnós áiwesi bhébhowe wighowos. Káputlom wenghos
ghi egēsmn̥ dhn̥ ghewós skribhtī́ tristimónjosjo wéseti, ítətom telom stúdjosjo dhugtr̥ dn̥ ghwãm
wr̥ dhomeni keitoi. Bheustjos paukom ad wr̥ tnóm esti nū ad kómtagtijoi wóqqejmenos wilowoi.
Polā́ sā swḗristā aw esti werijosei dn̥ ghuwidjōi əptéwijōi.
Tosjo enskroibhī meinom nē newī sindhueuropājosjo kómtagtjos pl̥ nowr̥ gnā́

aposkroibhodeiktim esti, ghina spekjẽm plḗjestā n̥ gnōtā́ dāiteī́ nū́ tenāi wéseti. Ati káiwonim
démomos áitijom aw móghnijom protimonom bhocóis cójistois kowésmn̥ bhos sm̥ bhodhóm.
Protimonos so oqoskīrḗd krītós órtujēd esti, qos penqe sm̥ ghesla átnōm prāi bhāstor.
Bhod ólterom sesgesmn̥ sindhueuropājāi ambhi kómtagteī ghoretum chélomos, jota kṓnāiwos
enskroibhos so bhrougis sjēti newōm jékmonom ordhésmenei awti eti práiloghom proti
gnōnom déikmenei, enpronktī newa dhébhjosawe ékslegmona atidemtipropodōi n̥ serṓi.
Prówelutijom jekmn̥ stānom dektéwijom esti sólwotos bhātrodeqsteī́ .
Pelúwijes pr̥ kskās wḗropropēd dew n̥ lūtās, mənḗsonti, déikmn̥ tos kem ptōtis pérəmāms regonts
sjūtra. Esti weteljājãm dn̥ ghwãm pérəmom próitijom, jóqodhei ántitjom sedleinom preismēd
sémlibhos génesjom bhrū́ gjetoi démtibhos; komsqr̥ teinom awti stā́ nejom awti génesjom;
ghōdheinom, loudhweinom senoprekonjokloweinomqe dətēiwom. Nūper dúsqoristom
kómmoinim rektum tosmei ádklētm̥ , ud edqom an bhūt.
Jotna bholetum wélīmes toqe peluwom loisṓm, qoi kóbotos peros ékosmi stéighmenei
ménmenjoi onənḗr. Tōdem bhúrtjolom epidhídhēntes, epi gígantom skándomos omsons.
Introduction
The reconstruction of Indoeuropean language has always been a big challenge. The main
difficulty is the lack of direct written testimony, so that the base for study lies mainly on the
vocabulary of its daughther languages. Little attention has been paid until now to its syntactic
grammar analysis. This approach is however very important to attain a wider knowledge of the
language.
The aim of this document is not to present a fully fledged description of the new Indoeuropean
syntax, since most of its aspects remain unknown at the present time. We just reconstruct a
partial but possible pattern squaring with the current understanding of Late Indoeuropean in
accordance with prevailing theories. This pattern is obviously different from the original one
which was spoken some five millennia ago.
We definitely wish to encourage further research on indoeuropean syntax, so that this

temptative document may be useful to raise further issues or even counter the available
information, bringing in new or more solid items into our reconstruction process. An evolutive
state of the issue has to be accepted in the presentation of the model as whole.
Many questions will probably long remain unsolved, as for instance the case governing the
absolute clauses. Italic languages have an absolute ablative, whereas Ancient Greek uses
mainly the genitive for similar constructions; Sanskrit either the locative or the genitive;
Gothic, Lithuanian and Old Church Slavonic the dative. It is for the moment very difficult to
determine a common denominator for this, if it ever existed.
We would also like to highlight the efforts of many scholars who have successfully contributed
to step further in this monumental domain. By just laying a little brick, we ride on giants’
shoulders.
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A Tentative Syntax of Modern Indoeuropean
Udbholowédheta Pronunciation guide
c /gu̯ /
ch /gu̯ h/
dh /dh/
bh /bh/
gh /gh/
j, w /i̯ /, /u̯ /
djo, tjo, kje, bhje /di̯ o/, /ti̯ o/, /ki̯ e/, /bhi̯ e/
dwo, two, kwe, bhwe /du̯ o/, /tu̯ o/, /ku̯ e/, /bhu̯ e/
qa, qe, qi, qo, qu /ku̯ a/, /ku̯ e/, /ku̯ i/, /ku̯ o/, /kwu/
gt, ght, kt /kt/
bt, bht, pt /pt/
ss /ss/ /s/
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
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Endiks Index
A.-Bhāniqestjes Parts of the sentence
1.-Sentmn̥ ptōtjesqe The substantive and cases 7
Kluwēiwā Nominative
Kəlēiwā Vocative
Loktēiwā Accusative
Génesjā Genitive
Dətēiwā Dative
Stā́nejā Locative
Dhḗtlejā Instrumental
Próitijā Ablative
2-Epikeimn̥ The adjective 20
Genos Gender
Sreidhmos Number
Ptōtimojos Case variation
Gwā́mona Grades
Bhéwtijom Positive/ natural
Səmostāiwom/eksóptijom Equative
Səmodhēiwom Comparative
Perəmóm uperdhēiwom Absolute superlative
Séqijom uperdhēiwom Relative superlative
3.-Rēidhmōs Numerals 24
4.-Antinṓmona (proroká uporokáqe) Pronouns and determinants 39
Énonmija Personal
Widíktija Demonstrative
Éiktija Possessive
Pr̥ktija Interrogative
Réidhmeja Numeral
Anabhr̥tija Relative
5.-Doljās Particles 49
6.-Ənawərēmn̥ The adverb 58
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7.-Wərēmn̥ The verb 69
Énonmōs Persons
Prāwos First
Dwóteros Second
Tritjos Third
Woqes Voices
Qíqerjā Active
Medhjā Middle
Pətjomnī Passive
Éksonmis Impersonal
Ambhítowā spekjēs wr̥tjōm General outlook of tenses and moods

modesomqe
Wr̥tja Tenses
Enstānt Present
N̥roki Aorist
Kómsqr̥tom Perfect
Bhewsont Future
Módesa Moods
Déiktijom Indicative
Próknejom Precative
Upotágtijom Subjunctive
Óptijom Optative
Éntagtijom Imperative
Bhrūgtjes/ wəlēntjom Usages/ valency

Bhéutijā Natural
Stāiwā Stative/ essive
Kéntijā Inceptive/ fientive
Propódejā Progressive
Éntonwā Intensive
Ménghijā Frequentative
Wéistijā Causative
Wn̥skāiwā Desiderative
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Chapter A1: The substantive and the cases
B.-Bhānis The sentence
1.-Bhānipr̥ptus Form of the sentence 106
Sm̥ plobhānis The simple sentence

Apṓgnujā bhānis The negative sentence
Pr̥ ktijā bhānis The interrogative sentence
Skrígtijā bhānis The exclamative sentence
Énbhətijā bhānis The emphatic sentence
N̥dhigsnimobhrūgtjes Uses of the infinitive
Atikōpjobhrūgtjes Uses of the participles
Qr̥tr̥ nōmn̥ /Pətjomnonōmn̥ Agent/ patient noun
Perəmá kómtagmona The absolute clauses
Sm̥ bhondhos Agreement
2.-Bhānism̥bhendhmn̥ Sentence combination 136
Komjougos Coordination
Wedhmosjūtra Copulative clauses

Delmosjūtra Disyuntive clauses
Winomosjūtra Distributive clauses
Enbhorosjūtra Illative clauses
Praiqinasjūtra Causal clauses
Protiwr̥tnosjūtra Adversative clauses
Ekswōqosjūtra Explicative clauses
Upojougos Subordination
Kómplēsjūtra Completive clauses

Anábhōrsjūtra Relative clauses
Ambhistānosjūtra Circumstancial clauses
Soikowōdos The expression of finality

Sānowōdos The expression of place
Mēlowōdos The expression of temporality
Antimēlowōdos The expression of anteriority
Səmitiwōdos The expression of simultaneity
Posmēlowōdos The expression of posteriority
Upódhētiwōdos The expression of condition
Səmostātíwōdos The expression of comparison
Wéismn̥ wōdos The expression of cause
Sqérmn̥ wōdos The expression of effect/ consecution
Protistoupowōdos The expression of concession
Koituwōdos The expression of manner
3.-Ambhítowos wistolos módesom, General pattern of moods, tenses and their

wr̥ tjōm esomqe kómseqmenos sequence 227
4.-Kómseqtis módesom Sequence of moods 231
References Ənábhorās 232
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A.-Bhāniqestjes Parts of the sentence
1.-Sentmn̥ ptōtjesqe The substantive and the cases
Kluwēiwā Nominative
Qis, qid? Who, what?
Upológhejā Subject
Marijā séncheti Mary is singing

Petros bhúdhmeni swépeti Peter sleeps on the floor
Nū smeustrom crújeti The computer is loading now
Anadókejā Attribute
Swesōr mene māmjā esti My sister is nurse

Domos məgnā The house is big
Dəlkú tod This is sweet
Westā ghortei bhewti The party is in the garden
Kluwējō Markos My name is Markos
Práidoikwā Predicative
Smaurós kéideti dānus The river goes down turbid

Ksērā́ āmrei bhebhowe westis The clothes appeared dry in the morning
Rōdos molét kwōn The dog appeared joyful
Gerōn cəlēnós propāt The old man look tired
Komnopraiseds nōmnājeto He was appointed chairman of the board
Glēkis sā klújetor / kərjetór She is reputed (to be) intelligent
Glēkis sā kn̥ sḗjeti / kn̥ séjetor She is considered (to be) intelligent
Maqā kom wr̥ stā́ esti cenā The girl became a woman
Maqā cenā genét The girl became a woman
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Kəlēiwā Vocative
Anagā́rujā Appellative
Susanna, cəmje kom-ke Susana, come here
O, qoleu, snētrīprija… Oh distaff, friend of them who spin…
Gheuse, Kaison, mərísomnōs twoi Hail, Cesar, those who are going to die
koiluwérjonti salute you
Qote wólneswn̥t (=wólneswents) Whither are you fleeing, full of wounds?

bhúgjesi? (pro nominative)
Skrígtijā Exclamative
N̥widlé! You, ignorant!
Wīré paukreddhēs (=pau kreddhēnt You, man of little faith (=little trusting man)
wīré)
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Loktēiwā Accusative
Qim, qid? Whom, what?
Dhn̥ghuqermenjā Of direct object
Nāwn̥s dr̥kō I see some ships

Ekwom éikesi You’ve got a horse
Práidoikwā Predicative
Tewom adwésontm̥ modnei chelō I want you present at the meeting
Komnopráisedm̥ em nōmnājónt They appointed him chairman of the board
Ins “n̥ káputins” werjont/nōmnājont They name(d) them “the headless”
Dhwolnom te kn̥ sejō I think you are a fool
Glēkim tewom qeisō I consider you (to be) intelligent
Regm̥ tewom dhēsō/ wortesō I’ll make you a king
Wítn̥stijā Of extension
Apo km̥tom stāwāt léiteses metrōm The hotel was separated one hundred
awonjom meters from the beach
Dhochōu stighomes We walked during two days
Upológhosoikejā Of destination of the subject
Rōmām eiti He goes to Rome
Lugtētjām n̥knunti They arrive to Paris
Nebhos skandét It went up to the sky
Dóljakómoqesardijā Of point of view relating a particle
Platnām qelónt ambhí They circulated around the square
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Génesjā Genitive
Qejos/ qesjo? Whose, of what?
Swéljonejā: genesbhenstijā Of kinship: Family relation
Gorlos, Marijās sūnús, twe koilújeti Charles, the son of Mary says hello to you
Dúghterm̥ lubhējō dā́ mosjo-two I am in love with your mate’s daughter
Potēiwā Possessive
Pətros domus The father’s house
Deiwōm weqtjes The things of the gods
Órenom némētom (=orn̥ némētom) The sanctuary of the eagles
Cows Martéinosjo esti The cow is Martin’s
Augtōros Author
Swónatās Mózartjos Mozart’s sonates
Aitis sólwosjo Part of a whole
Domõs dhworis pətḗjeti The door of the house is open
Apo louksām werjom nē moghō I cannot open the window of the kitchen
peqónjosjo
Peculiar qualiy
Swégonis qáljotā
Stephania, a woman who has wide
Stebhanjā, uruwijós widjās cenā knowledge
Ortus Origin
Dhūlās pērom (dhūlapērom) The danger of the storm
Áitijā Partitive
Kūmós álchosjo A lot of money

Méiwijestā dhghómenom The minority of the people
Pau wídjosjo / sn̥stewos Little wisdom / sense
Magjṓs (mā́səmos) bhrātrom The elder of the brothers
Tritjos rēgom The third king /the third of the kings
Qis maqōm One of the boys
Edqid prī́smosjo ménenos Something of (from) the original idea
Aw: Edqod mēmsóm However: Some meat
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Upológhejā Subjective
Pówerōm déktewi mendhos The children’s interest in learning
Súwoljā dhghómenom The people’s goodwill
Qérmenjā Objective
Németom bhejos Fear towards the enemies (possibly

subjective too: the enemies’ fear)
Ōdjom kwonom Hatred towards dogs
Stéimenos Of material
Westim webhe kosjo snḗmonos Weave a cloth of this thread
Awā swednās aqās A source of fresh water
Mḗtijā Of measure
Roupjom penkwe eurōm A five-euro coin

(penkwḗurojom roupjom)
Plāmn̥ sm̥ghéslosjo pəstrōm A book of 1000 pages

(=sm̥ghéslopəstri plāmn̥)
Wéismenjā, woinājā́ ghaln̥ nītijāwe Of cause, fault or mourning
Glaghā́ upostosjo dusdréwmenos A complaint for alleged ill-treatment
Kómplēmn̥ epikéimenom Complement of adjectives
Kómwids lawtlōm Conscious of the benefits
Ghoilos séghosjo Happy about his victory
Plēnós wóinosjo (=Plēnós/pl̥nós woinō) Full of wine
Bhōwijóm qéronom Likely behaviour
Bheugtum bhīluwóm Fleeing is common among cowards
Wərḗmənīs With verbs
Kelutjos tosjo mémona (=kélutim I remember that trip

mémona, =kélutibhi mémona)
Colnōm bhibhjai (=bhíbheimi colna) I am afraid of airplanes
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Dətēiwā Dative
Qismōi? To whom, for whom?
n̥dhn̥ghuqérmenjā Of indirect object
Dómūnōi dəsdhi (dōdhi) klāwm̥ ati Give the key back to the landlord
Tḗmētoprāmn̥ toibhos dō 18 atnons It is forbidden to sell alcohol to minors

wetānóm under the age of 18
Solwa epiworṓi wedét wēra He told the policeman all the truth
Méndhesjā Of interest - benefactive
Élnēsāi wosjom adjḗr tod They have prepared this room for her
Newām sūnewéi spondjét dwírotlām He promised a new bicycle to his son
Tebhei (prōd) strouda I’ve been struggling for you
Láwtlejā lēutijāwe Of benefit or damage
Wobhjā jéweti me dē peqtewei Fibre helps me make digestion
Swērū́ témōlos dusḗjeti koilutātei Tobacco seriously damages your health

(=swērū́ témōlos lēwti kóilutātm̥)
Séikmenos Of purpose
Bherō ta eksí tewe (tebhei) gnōnōi I explain this for your information
Ágrēnoīs eiti He goes for fruits
Wismértewei píbeti He drinks to forget
Leistjos Of permission
Tr̥knō tebhei kantum I allow you to sing
Potēiwā Possessive
Meghei trija sonti mūrogaldhra I’ve got three mobile telephones
Epikeimn̥kómplēmn̥ Complement of adjectives
Skousā ekā meghei sústātis These trousers are comfortable to me
Leubhtéwijom esti tebhei wergom You have to love your work (agent)
(qr̥tṓr)
12
Qermn̥ sóikejā Of destination of the object
Westra mūdlonjōi nijóm I took the garments to the laundry
Sontom nojṓi sesentét He sent the letter to his director
Swordiwoidōi supājét apṓdsmonom He threw the deodorant to the dustbin
Amikonemestous Of friendship and enmity
Némotes sonti Barkeinolāwōi They are enemies of the Barcelona team
Ámēiks ámikbhos Friend of his friends
Epikéimənīs With adjectives
Smeustrom tebhei práiloghom The computer is available to you
Smoldom bhustejei ēsú esti Coffee is good to wake up
Tlātis kómmoinis widubhos (esti) Patience is common to wise people
Dhētlom tod tétkn̥bhos bhrūgi (esti) This instrument is useful to carpenters
Sm̥lis pətrei esti He looks after his father (he is similar to)
Ja dhídhēsi susn̥stewei prótija senti What you are doing is contrary to good
sense
Kr̥dītós esmi pərostətōi I got angry with my boss
Doljāīs With particles
Wai n̥ wədrobhos wóikobhos! Woe to the villages without water!
Wai wiknobhos! Woe to the losers!
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Stā́ nejā Locative

Qismi? In what, where?
Stānom qodhei qertis gígistoi Place where action happens
Perímona, bhodis domei Experiments...better at home
Lugtētjāi trebhō I live in Paris
Pəstrei septméi molos esti There is a mistake on page seven
Nédjotjosjo Of proximity
Dmudhworeī sedēbhwāt He was sitting at the door of his house
Ambhibhówosjo Of environment
Anawoidos óljoisi strāt uponīmoisi The report spread among all the students
uponojoisiqe and teachers
Daitis qom qertis gígistoi Time when action happens
Mēloi tosmi nē menēm qota sā kluwōjāt At that moment I couldn’t remember what
her name was.
Énteronejā Of interval
Ati tritjei stéstōwe diwí He rose again on the third day
Jektrom tod kswekstoi qā́ qosmi This medicine has to be taken every six
emtéwijom loudei hours (every sixth hour)
Ambhístānejā Of circumstance
Wipodoi amēikn̥ s gnēses In adversity you will know your friends
Pérəmom kómtagmn̥ Absolute clause
Anateplói, eksí sodét By a mild weather, he went out
Cādhésmenjā Of immersion
Mē egneī supāje apṓdsmonom Don’t throw the deodorant into the fire
Cītakórsokos-two en swordikorbheī Your cv landed in the dustbin

dhghomést
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Méntijā- menesqérmenjā Cogitative – of mental activity
Tosmi proksútəmōs ejes They are vey demanding about this
Dólmoisi-swo wistr̥nós cnānokom nē Distracted with (on) his calculations, he

pr̥tet did not notice his wife’s arrival.
Wērom bhūt monjom praiwodei tosmi The report was right on that prediction
(=tom ambhí praiwodom) (=about that prediction)
Dhabhrotagnṓtijā Of ability and knowledge
Bhūtiwidjei suwids Expert in physics
Tjēmn̥ plokjoi esti bhlogós He is a genius in origami
(=Tjēmn̥ plókjosjo esti bhlogós, (=He is a genius of origami, he is an

tjēmn̥ plókjejos esti bhlogós, origamic genius, he is an origamigenius)
tjēmn̥ plokobhlogós so)
Qā́litjejā Of quality
Ismi widējō pelu stórgosjo I see a lot of love in him
Dokosjo Of recipient
Ghesr̥ sí-two, potei, ā́tmonm̥ bhistujō Into your hands, Lord, I commend my
mene spirit.
Regs regnāpowoqnostins swojéi The king entrusted the responsibilities of the

minésterei mn̥ dāst kingdom to his minister
Wərēmənī́ s With verbs
Lóndhomom mākesjāi glínāmi I stick the map on the wall
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Dhḗtleyā Instrumental
Qī? With what, through what?
Móghtrosjo Of means
Thoms pedīs spārkons klawdét Tom closed the drawers with his feet
Omsō nijét kwonm̥ atqe putlom ghesnḗ He bore the dog on his shoulder taking the
child by the hand
Dolō ēpe wergopedom Hannibalis Hannibal got his job by fraud
Solwa per leudherotā́ lukḗ plewet Liberty penetrates everything with its light
Kómopjom/septis Equipment/arrangment
Opejō ghortom r̥stāis I equip the garden with plants
Wéismenjā Of cause
Wərstã wī spordhā remetor The match was cancelled because of the

rain
Məgnã prósātī (=məgnād prósātjes) Of big satiation the glutton dies

mərijeto edōn
Qr̥tros Of agent
Dhonghos Guttenbherghē wertós esti Press was invented by Guttenberg
Atiloiqōs mormeikāis cr̥ontor The remnants were devoured by ants
Jā́tlejā Of transit place
Douknom bolkō trāt The train passed through the tunnel
R̥kḗsmenjā Of content
Wodã dəsdhi moi pōtlom Give me a glass of water
Stānom móghmoni A place with energy
Sm̥ séqejā Comitative
Dhochei alājai qāqei pətrē I go for a walk every day with my father
Kattã robhéjeti He is playing with the cat (and the cat is

delighted)
16
Plā́ mənīs eiti sī donsonjom She goes to school with her books
Koitús Manner
Káttābhi robhéjeti He is playing with the cat (the cat is

however quite embarrassed)
Ougtū n̥két melō sī She arrived with a strong cold
Léubhnijā bhewtī Lovely by nature
Swontī bhréneti (=swonteī́ bhréneti) He excels in music
Londhoswēdhū (=lóndhosjo swēdhum According to the custom of the country

ad)
Weltū préponti kom They ressemble in their looks
Daitispāmn̥ épmenei/ n̥kēiwā daitis Of time or space for accomplishement/ Time

dhabhrotēpteī́ necessary for acquiring an ability
Penqe dédoka poleinom mēnsbhís I learnt Polish in five months
Dédoke angleinom seks mēnsīs He learnt English in six months
Wī tribhís pəstroīs (trisú pəstrosí) He developed his work in three pages

wergom wijét
Anabhondhos Relation
Oqō kaikos Blind in one eye
Pretjom Price
Qā́ wn̥tō kólsomom solta? For how much have you bought the scarf?
Epikéimənīs With adjectives
Stornotepstī kómopnā domus A house equipped with central heating
Potlā woinō plēnā́ (=plēnā́ /pl̥nā́ A bottle full of wine

wóinosjo)
Ghl̥tō opnis dheghoms A land abundant in gold
Jewesājō deiwoīs mene I swear by my gods
Sprigējō skównobhis I’m fed up with the exams
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Próitijā Ablative
Qejes? From what?
Proitistānom Place of departure
Douknom Lóndhonēd séptəmāi The train departs from London at seven

óighetoi
Weteljād bhewmi I am from Italy.
Apóstətis məgnā́ ərésmenes A great distance from the starting point
Peritjes-two dídksketi He is learning from your experience
Awr̥/probhowos/ortus Source/origin
Plámenes senēd menr̥ aimm̥ tod I copied this idea from an old book
Práimēlos qertjos Initial moment of an action
Dn̥tikormos meghei esti amrēd I’ve got a toothache since this morning
ékosmēd (apó)
Dr̥ksmostānom Place of perspective
Cown̥s cerjes ghénghn̥tins They watched the cows advancing from the
prōd spokjānt mountain
Deltis Separation
Dele grānóm pélowād Separate the grain from the chaff
Səmodhētis Comparison
Senjós esti woghnos tewe tosmōd Your car is older than this one
Wr̥dhom n̥sjes meghmonjós A word is mightier than a sword

(meghmónterom)
Kritā́ esti swésərjos She is different from her sisters
Steimn̥
Material
Leimēd qeqr̥n̥tai dómewes tāi
These houses are made of mud
Egēsmn̥
Lack
Wīrós eke sl̥wosn̥stewés egējet This man lacks common sense
18
Epikéimənīs anawərḗmənīsqe With adjectives and adverds
Siktopedom newōm dhm̥ōm The destination of new employees is

komjugnostātwes swebhodhjom independent of their marital status
Pətrjād porsótenos (That which is) far from the homeland
Pətrjād porsōd/dew/qeli Far from the homeland
Weismn̥ Cause
Məgnād prósātjes (=məgnã prósātī) Of big satiation dies the glutton

mərijeto edōn
Apo dhersoi smeughtwes Refrain from smoking
Apo Markēd stəsoi Steer clear of Mark
Wī Alaskálistjes ghéimeni stāsi Desist from going to Alaska in winter
Cīmons eme nī ghrippād wr̥tewei Take vitamins to ward off flue
Mātrés kéudheti He hides himself from his mother
Domm̥ alkéseti wr̥ stād He will protect the house from rain
19
Chapter A2: The adjective
2.-Epikeimn̥ The adjective
Genos Gender
Paulos ekwos (mas.) Small horse

Paulā owis (fem.) Small sheep
Paulā domus/domos (fem.) Small house
Paulom stādhlom (neu.) Small stall
Akris donts Sharp tooth

Akris secūris (fem) Sharp axe
Akris bhāmn̥ (neu) Sharp speech
Akri ēchr̥ (neu.) Sharp drink
Swādus bhreugs (mas.) Sweet fruit

Swādus (swādwī́) woqs (fem.) Sweet voice
Swādu bharsjom (neu.) Sweet bread
Juwōn wīrós (mas.) Young man

Jūnī́ (jūnīks) cenā (fem.) Young woman
Juwon weidmṇ (neu.) Young science
Piwōn wīrós (mas.) Fat man

Píwerī (píwerjā/a) cenā (fem.) Fat woman
Píwerī edā́ Fat food
Piwon ednom (neu.) Fat meal
Sreidhmōs Numbers
Paulos ekwos (sing.) Small horse

Paulōs ekwōs (plur.) Small horses
Paulās ówejes (plur.) Small sheep
Paula stādhla (plur.) Small stalls
Ákrejes dontes (plur.) Sharp teeth
Ákrija bhā́mona/échona (plur.) Sharp speeches/drinks
Swā́ dewes bhreuges/woqes (plur.) Sweet fruits/voices
Swā́ duwa bharsja Sweet breads
Júwenes/píwones wīrṓs Young men
Jū́ nijes/píwerjās cenās Young women
Júwona wéidmona Young sciences
Píwerijes edā́s Fat foods
Píwona edna Fat meals
Ptōtimojos Case variation
Juwōn wīrós jūnīm spékjeti akrī The young man sees a young woman with a
cenām sekūrī paulei ekwoi sharp axe on a small horse
Prāi píwenos wīrosjo bhéronti ákrejes The fat man’s sharp teeth prefer fat meal
dontes píwona edna swādewés bhrūcós than sweet fruit
20
Gwā́ mona Grades
Bhéwtijom/dhḗmenjom Natural/Positive
Albhos ekwos White horse

Paulā domus Small house
Akris donts Sharp tooth
Swādus bhreugs Sweet fruit
Jūnī́ cenā Young woman
Piwon ednom Fat meal
Səmostāiwom/Eksóptijom Equative /Elective
Albhóteros ekwos A so white horse / The whiter horse

Paulóterā domus Such a small house / The smaller house
Akríteros donts Such a sharp tooth / The sharper tooth
Swādúteros bhreugs Such a sweet fruit / The sweeter fruit
Jewísteros bhrātēr Such a young brother / The younger
brother
Səmodhēiwom Comparative
Albhjṓs ekwos owejes The horse is whiter than the sheep

Bhrēwād méwijā domus The house is smaller than the bridge
Bhrēwā méwijā domū The bridge is smaller than the house
Akrijṓs sekūris dentes The axe is sharper than a tooth
Swādúterom melit bhrugés kosmēd Honey is sweeter than this fruit
Jéwijṓs cenā kā wīrḗd óisosmēd This woman is younger than that man
Piwijós ednom kod bhrugés This meal is fatter than the fruit
Perəmóm uperdhēiwom Absolute superlative
Albhos albhos ekwos A very white horse

Álbhistos ekwos A very white horse
Mínwistā domus esti The house is very small
Ákristos donts A very sharp tooth
Swādútəmom melit Very sweet honey
Jéwistos wīrós A very young man / the very young man
Píwistom ednom Very fat meal
Séqijom uperdhēiwom Relative superlative
Albhósəmos ekwos óljoisōm The whitest horse of all

Minwmā́ domus oisāsōm The smallest house of these
Akrísəmos donts ēsos The sharpest tooth of the mouth
Swādúsəmos bhreugs dhghmos The sweetest fruit of the earth
Piwósəmos nósterōm The fattest one of us
21
Chapter A2: The adjective
Bheungtjes Functions
Ádnomwos Attributive
Mātḗr mene māmjā esti My mother is nurse / a nurse / the nurse

Pəter-so wetwḗs esti His father is old
Wl̥dā́ ghortei (=ghórtejā) esti The party is in the garden (=gardenly)
Práidoikwos Predicative
Éndoikwā bheungtis Especificative function
Reudhei kelújonti woghnei They travel in a red car

Anglom éikonti ámeikm̥ They’ve got an English friend
Wetwesn̥s powojét stolons, nē newons He cleaned the old tables, but not the new
aw ones
Witórejā bheunctis Explicative function
Wetwesn̥s powojét stolons (oljons He cleaned the old tables (he cleaned all the
powojét stolons, qoi wétweses). tables, which were old).
Nōmnkómplēmn̥ Noun complement
Stornjās agronjom A/the hospital of the centre

Stornjāgronjom A/the central hospital
Stórnījom agronjom A/the central hospital
Ekwōm kr̥ stus A/the race of horses

Ekwokr̥ stus A/the horse race
Ékwejos kr̥ stus A/the horse race
Kr̥ stuwom ekwos A horse of races

Kr̥ stwekwos A/the race horse
Kr̥ stujós ekwos A/the race horse
Teutās wistoqojos A/the history of the people

Teutãm wistoqojos A/the history of the peoples
Teutawistoqojos A/the history of the people(s)
Téutājos wistoqojos A/the popular history
Nāwom katus A/the fight of ships

Nawkatus A/the naumachia
Nāwikós katus A naval fight
22
Deiwosjo énterloukjom The God’s twilight

Deiwṓm énterloukjom The Gods’ twilight
Deiwḗnterloukjom The twilight of the God(s)
Diwjóm énterloukjom The divine twilight
Rūmā́i porāi uponejər A/the lesson in open air

Rūmoporauponejər An/the open air lesson
Rūmoporājóm uponejər An/the open air lesson
Bhrēwā uper Dā́ naprim A/the bridge over the Dnieper

Uperdā́napribhrēwā A/the bridge over the Dnieper
Uperdā́ naprijā bhrēwā A/the bridge over the Dnieper
Márejes wentos The wind from the sea

Mariwentos The seawind
Márijos wentos The sea wind
Sjewtewei/sjewtejei bhoungjom A/the machine to sew

Sjūbhoungjom A/the sew machine
Sjéwtujom/sjéwtijom bhoungjom A/the sewing machine
Bhāmnā awis A talking bird

*Bhāmnāwis A talking bird
Petonts awis A flying bird

*Petontawis A flying bird
Plējosa déikmona More examples
Ghoilos, -ā, -om esmi I am happy

Rōdos, -ā, -om egṓ I am joyful
Lubhətós, -ā́ , -óm essi You are in love, fascinated
Prītós, -ā́ , -óm tū You are pleased, satisfied
Smidhós, -ā́ , -óm esti He/she/ it is cheerful
Endhūmós so/ is (id) He (it) is enthusiastic
Tr̥ pnā sā/ sī/ is She is amused
Kuprṓu/ jōrṓu, -ā́ i, -ói swos(i) We both are eager
Dhabhnṓu/ -ā́ i, -ói weje We both are surprised
Komseghnṓu, -ā́ i, -ói stas You both are concentrated
Wistr̥nṓu, -ā́ i, -ói juwe You both are distracted
Amghesnṓu, -ā́ i, -ói stes They both are overwhelmed
Wiqr̥ nṓu, -ā́ i, -ói tōu/ tāi/ toi/ eje They both are disappointed
Bhīluwes/ dwoisuwes, (-uwijes,) –uwa We are afraid
smos(i)
Creughōs, -ās, -a/ ā wejes/ n̥ sme We are sad
Ghislṓs, ghisnṓs, -ā́ s, -á/ -ā́ ste You are indignated
Kighrṓs, spudrṓs, -ā́ s, -á/ -ā́ juwes/ You are stressed
jusmé
Kr̥ dītṓs, kr̥ dīmnṓs, -ā́s, -á/ -ā́ sonti/senti They are angry
Rustṓs, -ā́ s, -á/ -ā́ toi/ tāi/ ta/ tā/ ejes/ ija They are furious
23
Chapter A3: Numerals
3.-Rēidhmōs Numerals
ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS

CARDINAL COLLECTIVE ORDINAL PARTITIVE
qotjoi, qotjāi? qotis? qomos, qomā, qomod? qowṓs, qowā́ s, qowá?
1 sems, smjā, sem semtis prāwos preiwṓs
2 dwōu, dwāu, dwōu dwoitjom, dwoinom dwóteros dwīswṓs
3 trejes trija tisres troinom tritjos trīswṓs
4 qetwores, qétesres, qetwṓr qétwr̥ tis qətwr̥ tos qətwr̥ swṓs
5 penqe penqtis penqtos penqswṓs
6 (k)s(w)eks (k)s(w)ekstis (k)s(w)ekstos (k)s(w)ekswṓs
7 septm̥ séptm̥ tis séptəmos septm̥ swṓs
8 oktōu óktotis oktowós oktoswṓs
9 newn̥ néwn̥ tis néwn̥ mos newn̥ swṓs
10 dekm̥ dékm̥ tis dekəmós dekm̥ swṓs
11 sémdekm̥ sémdekm̥ tis semdekəmós semdekm̥ swṓs
12 dwōdekm
́ ̥ dwōdekm
́ ̥ tis dwṓdekəmos dwōdekm̥ swṓs
13 tréjesdekm̥ tréjesdekm̥ tis tréjesdekəmos trejesdekm̥ swṓs
14 qétwordekm̥ qétwordekm̥ tis qétwordekəmos qetwordekm̥ swṓs
15 pénqedekm̥ pénqedekm̥ tis pénqedekəmos penqedekm̥ swṓs
16 (k)s(w)éksdekm̥ (k)s(w)éksdekm̥ tis (k)s(w)éksdekəmos (k)s(w)eksdekm̥ swṓs
17 septmdekm ̥ ̥ séptrmdekm ̥ ̥ tis septrm̥ dekəmos septm̥ dekm̥ swṓs
18 óktōdekm̥ óktōdekm̥ tis óktōdekəmos oktōdekm̥ swṓs
19 néwndekm
̥ ̥ néwndekm
̥ ̥ tis néwn̥ dekəmos newndekm
̥ ̥ swṓs
20 dwídkm̥ tī dwídkm̥ totis dwídkm̥ təmos dwidkm̥ tswṓs
21 sems dwídkm̥ tīqe sémdwidkm̥ totis prāwos dwídkm̥ təmos semdwídkm̥ tswṓs
30 trídkm̥ ta trídkm̥ totis trídkm̥ təmos tridkm̥ tswṓs
40 qétwrdkm ̥ ̥ ta qétwrdkm ̥ ̥ totis qétwrdkm ̥ ̥ təmos qetwrdkm ̥ ̥ tswṓs
50 penqédkm̥ ta pénqedkm̥ totis penqédkm̥ təmos penqedkm̥ tswṓs
60 (k)s(w)éksdkṃta (k)s(w)éksdkm̥ totis (k)s(w)éksdkm̥ təṃos (k)s(w)eksdkṃtswṓs
70 séptm̥ dkṃta séptmdkm ̥ ̥ totis séptmdkm̥ ̥ təmos septm̥ dkṃtswṓs
80 oktṓdkm̥ ta óktōdkm̥ totis oktṓdkm̥ təṃos oktōdkm̥ tswṓs
90 néwndkm ̥ ̥ ta néwndkm ̥ ̥ totis néwndkm
̥ ̥ təmos newndkm ̥ ̥ tswṓs
100 km̥ tom km̥ temtis km̥ témtəmos km̥ temswṓs
200 dwikm̥ tṓs /dwoi km̥ toi dwíkm̥ temtis dwikm̥ témtəmos dwikm̥ temswṓs
300 trikm̥ tṓs / trija km̥ tā́ tríkm̥ temtis trikm̥ témtəmos trikm̥ temswṓs
400 qetwrkm ̥ ̥ tṓs /qetwṓr km̥ tā́ qétwrkm ̥ ̥ temtis qetwrkm ̥ ̥ témtm̥ os qetwrkm ̥ ̥ temswṓs
500 penqekm̥ tṓs /penqe km̥ tā́ pénqekm̥ temtis penqekm̥ témtəmos penqekm̥ temswṓs
600 (k)s(w)ekskm̥ tṓs / (k)s(w)ékskm̥ temtis (k)s(w)ekskm̥ témtəmos (k)s(w)ekskm̥ temswṓs
(k)s(w)eks km̥ tā́
700 septmkm ̥ ̥ tṓs /septm̥ km̥ tā́ séptmkm
̥ ̥ temtis septmkm
̥ ̥ témtəmos septmkm
̥ ̥ temswṓs
800 octōkm̥ tṓs /oktōu km̥ tā́ óctōkm̥ temtis octōkm̥ témtəmos octōkm̥ temswṓs
900 newnkm̥ ̥ tṓs /newn̥ km̥ tā́ néwnkm̥ ̥ temtis newnkm
̥ ̥ témtəmos newnkm̥ ̥ temswṓs
1 000 sm̥ gheslom sm̥ ghéslotis sm̥ ghéslotəmos sm̥ ghesloswṓs
10 000 teusmn̥ téusmn̥ tis téusmn̥ tos teusmn̥ swṓs
24
12 354 teusmn̥ dwoi sm̥ ghesla trija téusmn̥ tis dwīskā́ sqe dwōdekm
́ ̥ qis téusmn̥ tos trīs dwōdekm
́ ̥ qis téusmn̥ swṓs
kmtā́ qetwores sm̥ ghéslotjes trīskā́ s km̥ témtəmos qətwr̥ tos trīs km̥ temswṓs
penqédkm̥ taqe km̥ temtjes penqédkm̥ təmos penqekm̥ temswṓs
pénqedkm̥ totis qətwr̥ swṓs
qétwr̥ tisqe
100 000 km̥ tom sm̥ ghesla km̥ temtis km̥ tom sm̥ gheslótəmos kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis sm̥ ghesloswṓs/
sm̥ gheslotjom/ km̥ temswṓs sm̥ gheslōm
km̥ temskā́ s
sm̥ ghéslotjes
1 000 000 weltjom wéltjonom wéltjomos weltjoswṓs
1 000 000 000 próweltjom próweltjonom próweltjomos proweltjoswṓs
25
ADJECTIVES
DISTRIBUTIVE DISTRIBUTIVE MULTIPLICATIVE CLASSIFICATIVE CLASSIFICATIVE
(I) (II) (I) (III)
qonṓs, -ā́ s, -a? qokṓs, -ā́ s, -á? qoplós, -ā́ , -óm? qogenós, -ā́ , -óm? qobhujós, -ā́ , -óm?
1 preiwṓs preiwṓs sm̥ plos sm̥ genós sm̥ bhujós
2 dwīsnṓs dwīskṓs dwoplós /dwojós dwogenós dwobhujós
3 trīsnṓs trīsKṓs triplós /trojós trigenós /trojós tribhujós /trojós
4 qətwr̥ snṓs qətwr̥ skṓs qətwr̥ plós qətwr̥ genós qətwr̥ bhujós
5 penqsnṓs penqskṓs penqeplós penqegenós penqebhujós
6 (k)s(w)eksnṓs (k)s(w)ekskṓs (k)s(w)eksplós (k)s(w)eksgenós (k)s(w)eksbhujós
7 septm̥ snṓs septm̥ skṓs septm̥ plós septm̥ genós septm̥ bhujós
8 oktosnṓs oktoskṓs oktoplós oktogenós oktobhujós
9 newn̥ snṓs newn̥ skṓs newn̥ plós newn̥ genós newn̥ bhujós
10 dekm̥ snṓs dekm̥ skṓs dekm̥ plós dekm̥ genós dekm̥ bhujós
11 semdekm̥ snṓs semdekm̥ skṓs semdekm̥ plós semdekm̥ genós semdekm̥ bhujós
12 dwōdekm̥ snṓs dwōdekm̥ skṓs dwōdekm̥ plós dwōdekm̥ genós dwōdekm̥ bhujós
13 trejesdekm̥ snṓs trejesdekm̥ skṓs trejesdekm̥ plós trejesdekm̥ genós trejesdekm̥ bhujós
14 qetwordekm̥ snṓs qetwordekm̥ skṓs qetwordekm̥ plós qetwordekm̥ genós qetwordekm̥ bhujós
15 penqedekm̥ snṓs penqedekm̥ skṓs penqedekm̥ plós penqedekm̥ genós penqedekm̥ bhujós
16 (k)s(w)eksdekm̥ snṓs (k)s(w)eksdekm̥ skṓs (k)s(w)eksdekm̥ plós (k)s(w)eksdekm̥ genós (k)s(w)eksdekm̥ bhujós
17 septmdekm
̥ ̥ snṓs septmdekm
̥ ̥ skṓs septrmdekm̥ ̥ plós septrmdekm̥ ̥ genós septrmdekm ̥ ̥ bhujós
18 oktōdekm̥ snṓs oktōdekm̥ skṓs oktōdekm̥ plós oktōdekm̥ genós oktōdekm̥ bhujós
19 newndekm
̥ ̥ snṓs newndekm
̥ ̥ skṓs newndekm
̥ ̥ plós newndekm
̥ ̥ genós newndekm̥ ̥ bhujós
20 dwidkm̥ tsnṓs dwidkm̥ tskṓs dwidkm̥ toplós dwidkm̥ togenós dwidkm̥ tobhujós
21 semdwídkm̥ tsnṓs semdwídkm̥ tskṓs semdwidkm̥ toplós semdwidkm̥ togenós semdwidkm̥ tobhujós
30 tridkm̥ tsnṓs tridkm̥ tskṓs tridkm̥ toplós tridkm̥ togenós tridkm̥ tobhujós
40 qetwrdkm ̥ ̥ tsnṓs qetwrdkm ̥ ̥ tskṓs qetwrdkm̥ ̥ toplós qetwrdkm̥ ̥ togenós qetwrdkm ̥ ̥ tobhujós
50 penqedkm̥ tsnṓs penqedkm̥ tskṓs penqedkm̥ toplós penqedkm̥ togenós penqedkm̥ tobhujós
60 (k)s(w)eksdkṃtsnṓs (k)s(w)eksdkṃtskṓs (k)s(w)eksdkm̥ toplós (k)s(w)eksdkm̥ togenós (k)s(w)eksdkm̥ tobhujó
s
70 septm̥ dkṃtsnṓs septm̥ dkṃtskṓs septmdkm̥ ̥ toplós septm̥ dkm̥ togenós septmdkm ̥ ̥ tobhujós
80 oktōdkm̥ tsnṓs oktōdkm̥ tskṓs oktōdkm̥ toplós oktōdkm̥ togenós oktōdkm̥ tobhujós
90 newndkm
̥ ̥ tsnṓs newndkm
̥ ̥ tskṓs newndkm
̥ ̥ toplós newndkm
̥ ̥ togenós newndkm
̥ ̥ tobhujós
100 km̥ temsnṓs km̥ temskṓs km̥ templós km̥ temgenós km̥ tembhujós
200 dwikm̥ temsnṓs dwikm̥ temskṓs dwikm̥ templós dwikm̥ temgenós dwikm̥ tembhujós
300 trikm̥ temsnṓs trikm̥ temskṓs trikm̥ templós trikm̥ temgenós trikm̥ tembhujós
400 qetwrkm ̥ ̥ temsnṓs qetwrkm ̥ ̥ temskṓs qetwrkm ̥ ̥ templós qetwrkm ̥ ̥ temgenós qetwrkm ̥ ̥ tembhujós
500 penqekm̥ temsnṓs penqekm̥ temskṓs penqekm̥ templós penqekm̥ temgenós penqekm̥ tembhujós
600 (k)s(w)ekskm̥ temsn (k)s(w)ekskm̥ temsk (k)s(w)ekskm̥ templós (k)s(w)ekskm̥ temgenó (k)s(w)ekskm̥ tembhuj
ṓs ṓs s ós
700 septmkm ̥ ̥ temsnṓs septmkm ̥ ̥ temskṓs septmkm̥ ̥ templós septmkm ̥ ̥ temgenós septmkm ̥ ̥ tembhujós
800 octōkm̥ temsnṓs octōkm̥ temskṓs octōkm̥ templós octōkm̥ temgenós octōkm̥ tembhujós
900 newnkm ̥ ̥ temsnṓs newnkm ̥ ̥ temskṓs newnkm̥ ̥ templós newnkm ̥ ̥ temgenós newnkm ̥ ̥ tembhujós
1 000 sm̥ gheslosnṓs sm̥ ghesloskṓs sm̥ ghesloplós sm̥ gheslogenós sm̥ gheslobhujós
10 000 teusmn̥ snṓs teusmn̥ skṓs teusmn̥ plós teusmn̥ genós teusmn̥ bhujós
26
12 354 dwōdekm
́ ̥ qis dwōdekm
́ ̥ qis dwōdekm
́ ̥ qis dwōdekm
́ ̥ qis dwōdekm
́ ̥ qis
téusmn̥ snṓs trīs téusmn̥ skṓs trīs téusmn̥ plós trīs téusmn̥ genós trīs téusmn̥ bhujós trīs
km̥ temsnṓs km̥ temskṓs km̥ templós km̥ temgenós km̥ tembhujós
penqekm̥ temsnṓs penqekm̥ temskṓs penqekm̥ templós penqekm̥ temgenós penqekm̥ tembhujós
qətwr̥ snṓs qətwr̥ skṓs qətwr̥ plós qətwr̥ genós qətwr̥ bhujós
100 000 kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis
sm̥ gheslosnṓs/ sm̥ ghesloskṓs/ sm̥ ghesloplós sm̥ gheslogenós sm̥ gheslobhujós
km̥ temsnṓs km̥ temskṓs
sm̥ gheslōm sm̥ gheslōm
1 000 000 weltjosnṓs weltjoskṓs weltjoplós weltjogenós weltjobhujós
1 000 000 000 proweltjosnṓs proweltjoskṓs proweltjoplós proweltjogenós proweltjobhujós
27
ADVERBS
ITERATIVE (I) ITERATIVE (II) ITERATIVE (III) ITERATIVE (IV) ITERATIVE (V)
CONTINGENTIAL DISTRIBUTIVE
qoqis? qoqr̥ t? qonim? qotim? qowr̥ tis? qoqr̥ pis?
1 semli semqr̥ t prāwnim semwr̥ tis semqr̥ pis
2 dwīs dwiqr̥ t dwonim dwiwr̥ tis dwiqr̥ pis
3 trīs triqr̥ t trinim triwr̥ tis triqr̥ pis
4 qəturs qəturqr̥ t qétwr̥ nim qəturwr̥ tis qəturqr̥ pis
5 pénqenqis penqqr̥ t penqnim penqwr̥ tis penqqr̥ pis
6 (k)s(w)éksn̥ qis (k)s(w)eksqr̥ t (k)s(w)eksnim (k)s(w)ekswr̥ tis (k)s(w)eksqr̥ pis
7 séptm̥ qis séptmqr ̥ ̥t séptm̥ nim séptmwr ̥ ̥ tis séptmqr ̥ ̥ pis
8 óktonqis óktoqr̥ t óktonim óktowr̥ tis óktoqr̥ pis
9 néwn̥ qis néwnqr ̥ ̥t néwn̥ nim néwnwr ̥ ̥ tis néwnqr ̥ ̥ pis
10 dékm̥ qis dékmqr ̥ ̥t dékm̥ nim dékmwr ̥ ̥ tis dékmqr ̥ ̥ pis
11 sémdekm̥ qis sémdekmqr ̥ ̥t sémdekm̥ nim sémdekmwr ̥ ̥ tis sémdekmqr ̥ ̥ pis
12 dwōdekm
́ ̥ qis dwōdekmqr
́ ̥ ̥t dwōdekm
́ ̥ nim dwōdekmwr
́ ̥ ̥ tis dwōdekmqr
́ ̥ ̥ pis
13 tréjesdekm̥ qis tréjesdekmqr ̥ ̥t tréjesdekm̥ nim tréjesdekmwr ̥ ̥ tis tréjesdekmqr ̥ ̥ pis
14 qétwordekm̥ qis qétwordekmqr ̥ ̥t qétwordekm̥ nim qétwordekmwr ̥ ̥ tis qétwordekmqr ̥ ̥ pis
15 pénqedekm̥ qis pénqedekmqr ̥ ̥t pénqedekm̥ nim pénqedekmwr ̥ ̥ tis pénqedekmqr ̥ ̥ pis
16 (k)s(w)éksdekm̥ qis (k)s(w)éksdekmqr ̥ ̥ t (k)s(w)éksdekm̥ nim (k)s(w)éksdekmwr ̥ ̥ tis (k)s(w)éksdekmqr ̥ ̥ pis
17 séptrmdekm ̥ ̥ qis séptrmdekmqr ̥ ̥ ̥t séptrmdekm ̥ ̥ nim séptrmdekmwr ̥ ̥ ̥ tis séptrmdekmqr ̥ ̥ ̥ pis
18 óktōdekm̥ qis óktōdekmqr ̥ ̥t óktōdekm̥ nim óktōdekm̥ wr̥ tis óktōdekmqr ̥ ̥ pis
19 néwndekm ̥ ̥ qis néwndekmqr ̥ ̥ ̥t néwndekm ̥ ̥ nim néwndekmwr ̥ ̥ ̥ tis néwndekmqr ̥ ̥ ̥ pis
20 dwídkm̥ tonqis dwídkmtoqr ̥ ̥t dwídkm̥ tonim dwídkmtowr ̥ ̥ tis dwídkmtoqr ̥ ̥ pis
21 sémdwidkmton ̥ ̥ qis sémdwidkmtoqr ̥ ̥t sémdwidkm̥ tonim sémdwidkm̥ towr̥ tis sémdwidkmtoqr ̥ ̥ pis
30 trídkmton ̥ ̥ qis trídkmtoqr ̥ ̥t trídkm̥ tonim trídkmtowr ̥ ̥ tis trídkmtoqr ̥ ̥ pis
40 qétwrdkm ̥ ̥ tonqis qétwrdkmtoqr ̥ ̥ ̥t qétwrdkm ̥ ̥ tonim qétwrdkmtowr ̥ ̥ ̥ tis qétwrdkmtoqr ̥ ̥ ̥ pis
50 pénqedkmton ̥ ̥ qis pénqedkmtoqr ̥ ̥t pénqedkm̥ tonim pénqedkmtowr ̥ ̥ tis pénqedkmtoqr ̥ ̥ pis
60 (k)s(w)éksdkmton ̥ ̥ qis (k)s(w)éksdkmtoqr ̥ ̥ t (k)s(w)éksdkm̥ tonim (k)s(w)éksdkmtowr ̥ ̥ tis (k)s(w)éksdkmtoqr ̥ ̥ pis
70 séptmdkm ̥ ̥ tonqis séptmdkmtoqr ̥ ̥ ̥t séptmdkm ̥ ̥ tonim séptmdkmtowr ̥ ̥ ̥ tis séptmdkmtoqr ̥ ̥ ̥ pis
80 óktōdkm̥ tonqis óktōdkmtoqr ̥ ̥t óktōdkm̥ tonim óktōdkmtowr ̥ ̥ tis óktōdkmtoqr ̥ ̥ pis
90 néwndkm ̥ ̥ tonqis néwndkmtoqr ̥ ̥ ̥t néwndkm̥ ̥ tonim néwndkmtowr
̥ ̥ ̥ tis néwndkmtoqr̥ ̥ ̥ pis
100 kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis kmtemqr
̥ ̥t km̥ temnim kmtemwr
̥ ̥ tis kmtemqr
̥ ̥ pis
200 dwíkmtemn ̥ ̥ qis dwíkmtemqr ̥ ̥t dwíkm̥ temnim dwíkmtemwr ̥ ̥ tis dwíkmtemqr ̥ ̥ pis
300 tríkmtemn
̥ ̥ qis tríkmtemqr
̥ ̥t tríkm̥ temnim tríkmtemwr
̥ ̥ tis tríkmtemqr
̥ ̥ pis
400 qétwrkmtemn ̥ ̥ ̥ qis qétwrkmtemqr ̥ ̥ ̥t qétwrkm ̥ ̥ temnim qétwrkmtemwr ̥ ̥ ̥ tis qétwrkmtemqr ̥ ̥ ̥ pis
500 pénqekm̥ temn̥ qis pénqekmtemqr ̥ ̥t pénqekm̥ temnim pénqekmtemwr ̥ ̥ tis pénqekmtemqr ̥ ̥ pis
600 (k)s(w)ékskmtemn ̥ ̥ qis (k)s(w)ékskmtemqr ̥ ̥ t (k)s(w)ékskm̥ temnim (k)s(w)ékskmtemwr ̥ ̥ tis (k)s(w)ékskmtemqr ̥ ̥ pis
700 séptmkmtemn ̥ ̥ ̥ qis séptmkmtemqr ̥ ̥ ̥t séptmkm ̥ ̥ temnim séptmkmtemwr ̥ ̥ ̥ tis séptmkmtemqr ̥ ̥ ̥ pis
800 óctōkmtemn ̥ ̥ qis óctōkmtemqr ̥ ̥t óctōkm̥ temnim óctōkmtemwr ̥ ̥ tis óctōkmtemqr ̥ ̥ pis
900 néwnkmtemn ̥ ̥ ̥ qis néwnkmtemqr ̥ ̥ ̥t néwnkm ̥ ̥ temnim néwnkmtemwr ̥ ̥ ̥ tis néwnkmtemqr ̥ ̥ ̥ pis
1 000 sm̥ ghéslonqis sm̥ ghésloqr̥ t sm̥ ghéslonim sm̥ ghéslowr̥ tis sm̥ ghésloqr̥ pis
10 000 téusmn̥ qis téusmnqr ̥ ̥t téusmn̥ nim téusmnwr ̥ ̥ tis téusmnqr ̥ ̥ pis
28
12 354 téusmn̥ qis dwīsqe téusmnqr̥ ̥ t dwīsqe téusmn̥ nim dwīsqe téusmnwr̥ ̥ tis dwīsqe téusmnqr̥ ̥ pis dwīsqe
sm̥ ghéslonqis trīs sm̥ ghésloqr̥ t trīs sm̥ ghéslonim trīs sm̥ ghéslowr̥ tis trīs sm̥ ghésloqr̥ pis trīs
kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis kmtemqr
̥ ̥ tis kmtemqr
̥ ̥ pis
pénqedkm̥ tonqis pénqedkmtoqr ̥ ̥t pénqedkm̥ tonim pénqedkmtowr ̥ ̥ tis pénqedkm̥ toqr̥ pis
qətursqe qétwrqr
̥ ̥ tqe qétwr̥ nimqe qétwrwr
̥ ̥ tisqe qétwrqr
̥ ̥ pisqe
100 000 kmtemn

̥ ̥ qis kmtemqr
̥ ̥ tis kmtemqr
̥ ̥ pis
sm̥ ghéslonqis sm̥ ghéslon̥ qis/ sm̥ ghéslon̥ qis/ sm̥ ghéslon̥ qis/ sm̥ ghéslon̥ qis/
kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis
sm̥ ghésloqr̥ t sm̥ ghéslonim sm̥ ghéslowr̥ tis sm̥ ghésloqr̥ pis
1 000 000 wéltjoqis wéltjoqr̥ t wéltjonim wéltjowr̥ tis wéltjoqr̥ pis
1 000 000 000 próweltjoqis próweltjoqr̥ t próweltjonim próweltjowr̥ tis próweltjoqr̥ pis
29
ADVERBS
MULTIPLICATIVE PARTITIVE SEQUENTIAL
qodhē? qogha? qokn̥ s?
1 semdhē semgha semkn̥ s
2 dwidhē dwigha dwikn̥ s
3 tridhē trigha trikn̥ s
4 qəturdhē qəturgha qəturkn̥ s
5 penqdhē penqgha penqkn̥ s
6 (k)s(w)eksdhē (k)s(w)eksgha (k)s(w)ekskn̥ s
7 séptm̥ dhē séptm̥ gha séptmkn ̥ ̥s
8 óktodhē óktogha óktokn̥ s
9 néwn̥ dhē néwn̥ gha néwnkn ̥ ̥s
10 dékm̥ dhē dékm̥ gha dékmkn ̥ ̥s
11 sémdekm̥ dhē sémdekm̥ gha sémdekmkn ̥ ̥s
12 dwōdekm
́ ̥ dhē dwōdekm
́ ̥ gha dwōdekmkn
́ ̥ ̥s
13 tréjesdekm̥ dhē tréjesdekm̥ gha tréjesdekmkn ̥ ̥s
14 qétwordekm̥ dhē qétwordekm̥ gha qétwordekmkn ̥ ̥s
15 pénqedekm̥ dhē pénqedekm̥ gha pénqedekmkn ̥ ̥s
16 (k)s(w)éksdekm̥ dhē (k)s(w)éksdekm̥ gha (k)s(w)éksdekmkn ̥ ̥s
17 séptrmdekm ̥ ̥ dhē séptrmdekm ̥ ̥ gha séptrmdekmkn ̥ ̥ ̥s
18 óktōdekm̥ dhē óktōdekm̥ gha óktōdekmkn ̥ ̥s
19 néwndekm
̥ ̥ dhē néwndekm
̥ ̥ gha néwndekmkn ̥ ̥ ̥s
20 dwídkm̥ todhē dwídkm̥ togha dwídkmtokn ̥ ̥s
21 sémdwidkm̥ todhē sémdwidkm̥ togha sémdwidkmtokn ̥ ̥s
30 trídkm̥ todhē trídkm̥ togha trídkmtokn ̥ ̥s
40 qétwrdkm ̥ ̥ todhē qétwrdkm ̥ ̥ togha qétwrdkmtokn ̥ ̥ ̥s
50 pénqedkm̥ todhē pénqedkm̥ togha pénqedkmtokn ̥ ̥s
60 (k)s(w)éksdkm̥ todhē (k)s(w)éksdkm̥ togha (k)s(w)éksdkmtokn ̥ ̥s
70 séptmdkm ̥ ̥ todhē séptmdkm ̥ ̥ togha séptmdkmtokn ̥ ̥ ̥s
80 óktōdkm̥ todhē óktōdkm̥ togha óktōdkmtokn ̥ ̥s
90 néwndkm ̥ ̥ todhē néwndkm ̥ ̥ togha néwndkmtokn ̥ ̥ ̥s
100 km̥ temdhē km̥ temgha kmtemkn
̥ ̥s
200 dwíkm̥ temdhē dwíkm̥ temgha dwíkmtemkn ̥ ̥s
300 tríkm̥ temdhē tríkm̥ temgha tríkmtemkn
̥ ̥s
400 qétwrkm ̥ ̥ temdhē qétwrkm ̥ ̥ temgha qétwrkmtemkn ̥ ̥ ̥s
500 pénqekm̥ temdhē pénqekm̥ temgha pénqekmtemkn ̥ ̥s
600 (k)s(w)ékskm̥ temdhē (k)s(w)ékskm̥ temgha (k)s(w)ékskmtemkn ̥ ̥s
700 séptmkm ̥ ̥ temdhē séptmkm ̥ ̥ temgha séptmkmtemkn ̥ ̥ ̥s
800 óctōkm̥ temdhē óctōkm̥ temgha óctōkmtemkn ̥ ̥s
900 néwnkm ̥ ̥ temdhē néwnkm ̥ ̥ temgha néwnkmtemkn ̥ ̥ ̥s
1 000 sm̥ ghéslodhē sm̥ ghéslogha sm̥ ghéslokn̥ s
10 000 téusmn̥ dhē téusmn̥ gha téusmnkn ̥ ̥s
12 354 téusmn̥ dhē dwīsqe sm̥ ghéslodhē trīs téusmn̥ gha dwīsqe sm̥ ghéslogha trīs téusmnkn ̥ ̥ s dwīsqe sm̥ ghéslokn̥ s
km̥ temdhē pénqedkm̥ todhē km̥ temgha pénqedkm̥ togha trīs kmtemkn
̥ ̥ s pénqedkmtokn
̥ ̥s
qétwr̥ dhēqe qétwr̥ ghaqe qétwrkn
̥ ̥ sqe
30
100 000 km̥ temdhē sm̥ ghéslon̥ qis/ kmtemn

̥ ̥ qis km̥ temgha sm̥ ghéslon̥ qis/ kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis kmtemkn
̥ ̥ s sm̥ ghéslon̥ qis/
sm̥ ghéslodhē sm̥ ghéslogha kmtemn
̥ ̥ qis sm̥ ghéslokn̥ s
1 000 000 wéltjodhē wéltjogha wéltjokn̥ s
1 000 000 000 próweltjodhē próweltjogha próweltjokn̥ s
31
Gérbhtijōs rēidhmōs Cardinal numbers
'1' to '4' '5' to '19' '5' to '19' from '20' onwards

Concordant numeric Juxtaposed numeric Genitival numeric Genitival numeric
Type of construction
phrase phrase phrase phrase
Cardinal number + Quantified noun +
Order of elements Indiferent Indiferent
quantified noun cardinal number
b
The numeral is inflected Yes No No Optionally a∙10
Case for the cardinal number in
Nom./ (voc.)/ acc. Indeclinable Indeclinable Indeclinable
subject/ object clauses
Case for the quantified noun in subject/
Nom./ (voc.)/ acc. Nom./ (voc.)/ acc. Genitive Genitive
object clauses
Case for the cardinal number in oblique Gen./ dat./ loc./ abl./
Indeclinable Indeclinable Indeclinable
clauses instr.
Case for the quantified noun in oblique Gen./ dat./ loc./ abl./ Gen./ dat./ loc./ abl./ Gen./ dat./ loc./ abl./ Gen./ dat./ loc./ abl./
clauses instr. instr. instr. instr.
Bhūt sems wīrós welpowosjoi There was one man in the waiting-room
Kómopjom smei dhghómenei kod This is the equipment for one person
Dwāi áwejes nisdoi sénchonti Two birds are singing in their nest
Dwāi áweje nisdoi sénchetes Two birds are singing in their nest
Trins eikō prokóns I have three suitors
En penqe wínāti bhrēwāns olnom The project involves five bridges
En bhodesmn̥ wínāti penqe bhrēwãm The project involves the upgrading of five
olnom bridges
Kom poréseti oktōu kr̥ keróns He will contribute with eight chickens
Kom poréseti kr̥ kerṓm oktōu He will contribute with eight chickens
Cówqolos newn̥ steighet gwewbhis The cowboy walked with nine cows
Dekm̥ eikō bhrātern̥ s I have ten brothers
Bhrātrom dekm̥ eikō I have ten brothers
Pénqedekm̥ eikō swésorn̥ s I have fifteen sisters
Swéserom pénqedekm̥ eikō I have fifteen sisters
32
Ud dwídkm̥ tī dhijō álomnōm tewe I admire your twenty pupils
Ud dwídkm̥ totim dhijō álomnōm tewe I admire twenty of your pupils
Ludhónt penqe dwídkm̥ tīqe judhmṓm Twenty-five soldiers came on Wednesday

mimódhochei.
Deiktins dōnt penque trídkm̥ tobhosqe They gave indications to thirty-five soldiers
judhmobhos
Kom km̥ tom ambhirōjṓm bhíbherti/ A hundred tourists (is)/ are taking
bhíbhr̥ nti sulnóm latom advantage of the sunny day
Nē gheghjājō km̥ tom adkl̥ nṓm agonts I don’t get bored managing one hundred
clients
Opḗs (opsús) esmi km̥ tom dhḗlíjomnos I am busy dealing with a hundred tourists
ambhirōjóīs
Dwikm̥ tóns epmes adchodhons /dwoi We received two hundred applications

km̥ toi epmes adchodhōm
Glaghās sm̥ gheslēd ludhónt stānōm The protests came from one thousand
places
Dwōdekm
́ ̥ átnomēnoses dinologjei koi The twelve months of year in the calendar
sonti: ougrónijos, dhechrónijos, are these: January, February, March, April,
taurónijos, wesónijos, bhlṓnijos, June, July, August, September, October,
ekwónijos, aidhrónijos, karpónijos, November, December.
wl̥ qónijos, woinónijos, dhoncónijos,
kwentónijos.
33
Ridhmēpikéimona Numeral adjectives
Kérdhesja Ordinal
Prāwos wosos nē ərḗjeti kr̥ pjobhim-two The first dress does not pass with your
shoes
Tod antjei gisto sm̥ ghéslosjo
newnkm
̥ ̥ témtəmī néwndkm ̥ ̥ təmī This happened by the end of the year
októwosjo átnosjo nineteen ninenety eight
Edjḗw esti prāwos karpólijosjo dwóterī Today is first of August of two thousand
sm̥ ghéslosjo dekəmosjo ten
Ausrom dékəmom éikomos Tomorrow we have tenth of December

kwentónijosjo
Áitija Partitive
Trejes qətwr̥ wōs eksignṓs/ghóstejes Three out of four foreigners are married
kómjugtōs sonti
Trejes qətwr̥ tōs eksignṓs kómjugtōs Three out of four foreigners are married
sonti
Trejes qətwr̥ wās eksignṓm kómjugtās/ Three quarters of the foreigners are
kómjugtōs sonti married
Trejes qətwr̥ tās eksignṓm kómjugtās/ Three quarters of the foreigners are
kómjugtōs sonti married
Krenghom moitāja penqwã kā́posjo I exchanged the ring for a fifth of this land
kosjo
34
Winómeja Distributive
Ékslegtiwortija Of selective value
Wétesi wétesi (=qā́kosmi wétesi) Each year / year by year
Diwí diwí (=qā́kosmi diwí) Each day/ day by day
Dwóterei (qā́ qosmi) wétesi Every two years
Péluplektiwortija Of multiplicative value
Dwīsnā́ wétesa Two consecutive years
Jektrom tod kəpsāis qríjetor This medicine is sold in boxes of twelve

dwódekm̥ skōm cl̥ kōm pills
Sm̥legtiwortija Collective
Sweksnā́ éiketi putlā́ She has six children (=he has a sextet of
(=swekstim éiketi putlōm) children)
Kaiwopelúwijogrébhtija Cardinal of pluralia tantum
Kūmā́ túmolōm trīsnoisu wórbhoisu There are lots of riots all three outskirts
sonti
Cardinal of a numeral group
Ridhmogromogrébhtija
There were ten pretty, fresh, youthful,
Dekm̥ bhūnt wənmā́s, newrā́s, kənistā́s, tender, graceful, comely, splendid lasses and
térunās, krákontes, chaisās, súerqejes ten budding, gorgeous, lusty, sturdy, sappy,
morignās joqe dekm̥ dhl̥ rṓs, kaljṓs, young lads.
súnorōs, wéjesjōs, moiwṓs, júwones
móghewes.
The two groups of ten travelled on a boat.
Dwisnā́ dekm̥ nāwí kelujont.
Classificative
Qórostija
There were three suitcases on the cart. Two
Wóghokoi trejes bhūnt westrodhōnja. men carried the three suitcases.
Wīrṓu trija nijetām westrodhōnja.
There were six suitcases, three on each cart.
Ksweks bhūnt westrodhōnja, trija Each of the two men carried three suitcases,
wóghokoi qā́qosmi. Wīrṓu trīsnā́ i.e. one cart each
nijetām westrodhōnja, t.e. wóghokom
semm̥ qāqos.
35
Ksweks bhūnt westrodhōnja, trija There were six suitcases, three on each cart,
wóghokoi qā́qosmi, qetworesqe wīrṓs. and four men. Every two men carried three
Dwīsnṓu wīrṓu trīsnā́ nijónt suitcases.
westrodhōnja.
Newn̥ bhūnt westrodhōnja trejesqe There were nine suitecases and three men.
wīrṓs. Wīrós preiwos trīsnā́ (trija) nijét Each man carried three suitcases.
westrodhōnja.
Apo épītn̥ s oktosnóns kowesn̥ t They evacuated the passengers eight by

eight
Apo épītes oktosnṓs kowésn̥ to The passengers were evacuated eight by

eight
Péluplektija Multiplicative
m̥ gā́tiwortija Of augmentative value
Dwoplóm luwét awoqrojom He paid a double fee
Wr̥ dhom tod dwoplóm éiketi usdoikom This word has a double meaning
Triplóm ghedāt kousnom She received a triple rent
Áitiwortija Of partitive value
Dwoplóm westrodhōnjom A double-bottom suitcase

(=dwóbhudhmi westrodhōnjom)
Dwoplā́ domus (=dwóplāris domus) A two-storey house
Qórostija Classificative
Komwodhos so dwoplós: ənapadṓs nē It (was) a twofold conflict: the invaders did

wekānt kəptolondhom leiktum, joqe not want to leave the captured ground and
enignṓs wedr̥ erktum nē wekānt the native population did not want to share
the water
Aigjom esjo dwogenóm: nē moghāt His illness had double consequences: he

ghostum neqe sweptum could neither eat nor sleep
Aigjom esjo dwobhujóm: neqe ghosāt His illness had a double origin: he neither
neqe lówāto ate nor washed himself
36
Ridhmēpiwərḗmona Numeral adverbs
Iterā́ tija Iterative adverbs
Tebhei dékm̥ qis (=dékmqr

̥ ̥ t) woqa: I’ve told it ten times to you: never close the
smeustrom neqom klawde prījósm̥ computer without first saving (your) files.
nedhskōrknetim əneu.
Stéleswortija With locative value
Sm̥ weghtom nē qid peum; The first time I did not understand
dwóweghtom trija labhóm wr̥ dha; anything; the second time I catched three
tríweghtom galmoupologhom labhóm; words; the third time I got the topic of the
qétwr̥ weghtom solwāns peum bhānins, conversation; the fourth time I understood
enim pénqeweghtom galmom seghtum whole sentences, and the fifth time I was
moghóm. able to hold a conversation.
Kswéksweghtom cm̥ jonts The sixth time I came, I met a young

(=kswéksweghtom jom ludhóm), doctor.
júwonm̥ medóm médodikm̥
Udbhórowortija With contingential value
Dhghjesi newom bhrūgtós esmi Yesterday I used the new car for the first
prāwnim woghnom time
Dwonim (=dwīs) məgsomobhrēunās For the second time (=twice), the

epitərunā́s maximum limits have been surpassed.
Nū trinim (=trīs) peqonjom klewtum This is the third time (=three times) now I
skelō have to clean the kitchen
Wétesi kosmei seghtṓr so sperstim This year this champion has won the
qétwr̥ nim (qəturs) wikét competition for the fourth time (=four
times)
Edjḗw médodikm tom pénqenim setíjai Today I visit this doctor for the fifth time
Ksweksnim cm̥ jonts (=jom ksweksnim When I came for the sixth time, I met an
ludhóm) senom medóm médodikm̥ old doctor.
Winómowortija With distributive value
Dōwn̥ kleitrom adést pénqewr̥ tis / She prepared the database in five times (=in
pénqeqr̥ pis (=pénqe séstisu) five sessions)
37
Péluplektija Multiplicative
Dékm̥ dhē lōbām qīt He paid ten times for his crime
Ambhimojā́ bhrūgtis Alternative use
Tridhē kādr̥ tod leutéwijom (=tribhís This problem can be solved in three ways
koitubhis) (=through three manners)
Áitija Partitive
Londhom medōn trigha widhét (=trija The governor divided the country in three
en kérora) parts (=in three regions)
Épiseqesja Sequential
Mḗlowortija Of chronological value
Prāwom, gerjā (bhudhjā) joqe ud Firstly, I wake and get up in the morning.
sistām. Dwóterom dr̥ kām lowom, Secondly, I wash my face, brush my teeth in
dontn̥ s melkō tribhís méiwn̥ bhis joqe three minutes and do my morning exercises.
ā́mreja (prṓtera) dhidhēm éukesa. Thirdly, I have a breakfast and get dressed.
Tritjom, prā́mēdjom edmi joqe owō
Of argumentative value
Prokónsowortija
She is a reputed person; firsly because of
Krōtós enā́ dhghōmōn, semkn̥ s prijṓm her friendly manners, secondly, because of
prowodhōm rōdhí, dwikn̥ s mlōdhrṓ her excellent artistical work, thirdly,
ártijō wergō, trikn̥ s sənitjóīs gousnoīs because of her exquisite tastes and fourthly
joqe qétwrkn
̥ ̥ s (enim ántjokn̥ s) ejos (and finally) because of her philosophical
widjolubhjóīs awonomoīs. contributions.
38
4.-Antinṓmona (proroká uporokáqe) Pronouns and determinants
Énonmija Personal
Widíktija antinṓmona Demonstrative
Is, id This, he, she

Def. nom os(i), ac. om/em, dat. esmei,
gen. s. esjo, pl. esom, altern. ad im,
ismei, ejos, eisom
Qismei jāmi cotēnṓi anábhorma Referred to something already mentioned

(anabhorikós wertos) (anaphoric value)
Petrōi pr̥kom qid eitr̥ ambhí mənjet, atqe I asked Peter what he thought about the trip,
neqid is proti wewqét but he didn’t answer anything
Trīs woida bhloigom, nē lubhjō aw ejos I’ve seen the film three times, but I don’t
antjom like the end of it
So, sā, tod This
Komkṓpotos anáwesn̥ta Conceptually present to both speaker and

bhətorklutr̥bhom hearer
Ordhēsmn̥ tod meghei ménestom prépeti This proposal seems reasonable to me
Bhādhjom tosmōi wīrōi skelō prīsnim

qām ati medoim I have to speak to this man before I meet
him again
Ghoi-ke, ghāi-ke, ghod-ke

This
Bhū́ mn̥tos anáwesn̥ta

bhətorklutr̥bhom Physically present to both speaker and
hearer
Eme bheitlom ghod-ke enim kl̥dom

sékādhi ghom-ke Take this axe and cut this piece of wood
Qis domei trébheti ghesāi?

Who lives in this house?
Ghod-ke chelō wesmn̥orkjom
I want this cupboard
39
Chapter A4: Pronouns and determinants
(E)ko, (e)kā, (e)kod This
Bhū́ mn̥tos komkṓpotoswe anáwesn̥ta Physically or conceptually present just to

oinim bhətorei speaker
Porsógaldhrom kod nē sū bhúngetoi This telephone does not work well
Chedhjō proti mē déwmenei kosmōi Please do not reply to this message

skréibhete
Édqismei tértinōi anábhorma Referred to something which will be

(km̥tabhorikós wertos) explained (cataphoric value)
Septəm bhūtiswenwornōs sonti koi: mū, The seven natural musical notes are these:
bē, miau, bau, kol, qa, crī C, D, E, F, G, A, B
Oiso, oisā, oisod That, yonder
Bhətores qeli, klūtori proqēd Far from speaker, near to hearer
Prāi enke sedlām oisām Bring that chair to me
Qori pn̥ tē stéighesi óisāsōd? Why are you going that way?
Eno, enā, enod (elno, elnā, elnod) That, yonder
Bhətorklūtr̥bhem qeli Both from speaker and from hearer far
Enod spekje ceri Look at that mountain
Kṓnāswo wəronkim elnām leintum Try to avoid that dip
Widíktijās doljās Demonstrative particles
Ke, ki This
An This other
Aw That, yonder
Sontom lege ke, pl̥nādhi em an kom Read this letter, complete this other one
joqe em aw olēje wī and destroy that one
40
Qā́ wn̥tera antinṓmona Quantitative pronouns
Edqis, edqid (qis, qid) Someone, anyone, something, anything
Esti qis kei an domei? Is there anyone here at home?
Edqid colnei me bhojəjet cīwei mene Something on the plane caused me to fear
ambhí for my life
Neqos, neqā, neqod Someone, something
Neqos klāwm̥ kām nānke Someone has found this key
Préimonē néwostis ghēdnā́ esti neqō The news was received with a certain
amount of pleasure
Edqos, edqod Some
Prōd dhēljognātjes edqā cece daitis Some time has elapsed since the baby’s
birth
Nē édqosmi plakējō sméudhmeni I don’t agree with some idea
Qisqe, qidqe Each (one)
Dəsdhi qísmeiqe séwijom Give to each one his share
Dekm̥ senti dómewes, qismiqe qetwora There are ten houses with four bedrooms
sweptorja each one
Qāqos, qāqā, qāqod Eacb one
Wergom ejos qāqos gnōwe Each one knows his work (of his)
Wergom sewe qāqos gnōwe Each one knows his own work
Epi dókmeni deiktrom qāqei dhētum You have to put a stamp on each document
skélesi
Qéjespejoi A few, some
Dwīspokna sonti dom qéjespeja kəpsāi There are still a few biscuits in the box
Drugholtōm glóghejes qéjespejoisom The tips of some pencils have been broken
bhrēgnā́s sonti
41
Solwos, solwā, solwod All, the whole
Dhochom solwom kei nē bhowe He hasn’t been here in all the day
Solwō tosjo alchō ōighei He departed with all his money
Oljoi, oljāi, olja All, every
Oljoīs tosjo ambhíqoloīs ōighei He departed with all his servants
Drewa āsḗjonti olja All the trees are dry
Neqis, neqid No one, none, nothing
Neqis woide qid gégoisissēt PLPF. PREC. No one knew what had happened
Apo neqī tod wérutum móghsesi You won’t be able to open it with anything
Nōinos, nōinā, nōinod No
Upéri qertim elnām dokots bhowāt There was no teacher supervising that
nōinos skewonts activity
Eksí nōinā einjom dhworī esti It is not possible to go out through any
door
Totjoi, totjāi, totja So/as many
Totjoi bhewent wīrṓs jotjāi cenās There were so many men as women
Tótjābhis sprigējō mōrotābhis I am fed up with so many stupid things
Tā́ wn̥tos, tā́ wn̥tā, tā́ wn̥tod So/as much
Meghei tā́ wn̥tom kobī (kobom) esti I am as successful as I had expected (I have
jā́ wn̥tom wolpsām so much success as I had expected)
Tā́ wn̥tō ednom (ghosmom) loda wergō I have forgotten the meal because of so
much work
42
Idémtera antinṓnoma Indentity pronouns
Enis, enid Some (one), a certain (one)
Anta jíjn̥ti énija gnōtla oknos epíloghei Certain signals cast doubt on this optimistic
tosmei bhātrei scenario
Me énijom (dhghomenom) ənaisunās I get annoyed at some people’s irrespectful

wístətjes pigḗjonti attitudes
Səmos, səmā, səmod Some, certain
Rətjes sonti səmāi kandostóm kom There are certain reasons to choose this
wolḗtewei candidate
Troudons wéwora səmons kā́denei I found some difficulties to solve this

tosmōi eksleutéwijōi problem
Ambhōu, ambhāi, ambhoi/ qóteros- Both

qid, qóterā-qid, qóterod-qid
Ambhōu albhōu (stes) Both are white
Qóteros-qid albhos (esti) Both are white (=each one is white)
Aljos, aljā, aljod Another (one), more of the previous (one)
Trins jāmi ēde ábelons, nū aw aljom He has already eaten three apples and now,
gléubheti he is peeling another one
Epi aljod n̥kḗjesi an? (=epi aw n̥kḗjesi Do you need anything else?
qid?)
Onjos, onjā, onjod Another (one), a different one
Dəsdhi-moi ábelom onjom, pūlós ke Give me another apple, this one is putrid
Nē kei stounom, onjosmei plā́meni The information is not here, it has to be

wertéwijom found in another book
Álteros, álterā, álterod / Ónteros, The one, the other (one)

ónterā, ónterod
Álteros wr̥isdḗjeti, álteros bhlēti If one of them is laughing, the other one is
weeping
Ónterobhi terpō, ónterobhi qn̥tjō With one of them, I feel pleasure, with the
other one, I suffer
43
Éteros, éterā, éterod

The blue one is edible, any other one is
m̥ dhrom édnijom, éterod qid wisowent poisonous (=the rest is poisonous)
(=loiqá wisówenta)
He knows it, the rest ignore it
So gnōwe, (te-/ke-) éteroi ngnōsā́jonti
The same (one)
Somós, somā́ , somód
You can open three different doors with the
Dhworins peltum krī́tijāns móghesi trins same key
somã klāwē
There are four versions of the same story
Wr̥stjes senti qétesres somosjo sqelī
The same (one)

Isem, idem
That is the same man that I saw yesterday
Wīrós elno isem qom dhjesi woida
He will travel on the same train as your
Douknei kelúseti ijo-em (=somō) qām brother
bhrātēr tewe
Himself, herself, itself
So-pe, sā-pe, tod-pe / S(w)el (e)pe
The president himself came to salute me
Praiseds so-pe (=swelpe) moi
koiluwertum ludhét
She works for helself
Sī tesãi-pe (=swélpesãi) drā́jeti
Any, anyone, anything
Qisqis, qidqid
Anyone understands these argumentations
Qisqis árgumona peuti ta
You are pretty with any garment
Wənmā́ qīqī westī essi
Whoever, whatever
Qisqomqe, qidqomqe / josqis, jāqis,
jodqid Bring whatever hare you may see
Prāi qimqomqe widḗjēsi kasjom enke

I give money to whoever needs it
Alchom dídōmi qismeiqomqe n̥kḗjēti
Tālis, tāli Of such kind/quality
Tāli gáudhjom mene seghom pos esti Such is my joy after the victory
Nē tāljom woida upelōm protimoghtrom I don’t know the remedy to such evils
Tāli chelō wesmn̥orkjom I want a wardrobe like this one

The other, any other
44
Neqóteros, neqóterā, neqóterod None of the two
Neqóteros wēra gnōwe None of the two knows the truth
Neqóterō móghnijom drātum It is impossible to work with any of these

two ones
45
Pr̥ktijá antinṓmona Interrogative pronouns
Qis, qid (swebhodhja) Who, what (independent)
Qis bhətoi? Who is speaking?
Qid wéqesi? What are you saying?
Qis so bhətoi? (Bhókejom) Who is this who is speaking? (Focal)
Qis so léwseti? (Bhókejom) Who is the one who is paying? (Focal)
Qos, qā, qod (n̥swebhodhja) Who, what (dependent)
Qos ambhíqolos cēme? What servant has come?
Qom somosodm̥ chélesi? What car do you want?
Qod tod pējr̥ woqta? (Bhókejom) What is this insult you have uttered? (Focal)
Qóteros, qóterā, qóterod Which of two
Qóterām plējós gnōwta cenām? Which woman do you know best?
Qóterosmi ghéseni tebhei wolsnos? In which hand do you have the wound?
Qótəmos, qótəmā, qótəmod Which of many / which of all
Qótəmā regtā́ protíweqtis? Which one is the right answer?
Qótəmom pl̥nim bhéidhesi perilóm? Which expert do you fully trust?
Qotjoi, qotjāi, qotja How many
Qotja lēgta plā́mona? How many books have you read?
Qótjoisu qrī́njoisu pr̥nāntor skousās kāi? In how many shops are these trousers sold?
Qā́ wn̥tos, qā́ wn̥tā, qā́ wn̥tod How much
Qā́ wn̥tom n̥kḗjesi alchom? How much money do you need?
Of how much weight did he/she take the

Qā́ wn̥tī póndesos ēme kr̥pusjām?
water melon?
Qālis, qāli
How, of what type?
How was the dish you chose?
Qāli eksi gusés estlom?
In what kind of a city do you intend to
Qálismi poleī wésēsi?
stay?
46
Atibhr̥tija antinṓmona Relative pronouns
Jos, jā, jod The one who, the one hat
Kwonm̥ jos bherti bhrātēr esti mene The one who is carrying the dog is my
(=kwn̥bhr̥tṓr bhrātēr mene esti / Kwonm̥ brother
[so] bheronts bhrātēr esti mene )
Take what you want
Eme jod welāsi
This is the key of the one who conceals so
Sā esti klāws josjo tā́wn̥tāms r̥kḗjeti many secrets
rūnāms
(of the one this is the key, who conceals so
(=Tosjo esti sā klāws, qos tā́wn̥tāms many secrets)
r̥kḗjeti rūnāms)
Qos, qā(i), qod Who, that
Wīrós qos ekwō wéghetor jentēr esti The man who is being conveyed by a horse
tewe (=ekwoweghmos wīrós jentēr esti is my cousin (=The man riding the horse is
tewe) my cousin)
Here is the enemy, by whose sword your

Kei esti nemots, qesjo n̥sī sūnús tewe
son has been killed
chn̥tós esti
This is the key the master of which conceals

Sā esti klāws qesās potis tā́wn̥tāms so many secrets
r̥kḗjeti rūnāms
The one of two who/which

Jóteros, jóterā, jóterod
There are two books on the shelf. Give me
Plā́mone dwoi stom skolpei, dəsdhi-moi the one you liked most
jóterod məgsi lubhojta
I’ll talk to the twin which I trust the most.
Jemō tloqsai joterō bheidhmn̥ plējós
meghei esti (=jóterom plējós bheidhō)
Jótəmos, jótəmā, jótəmod The one among many who/which
Jótəmos pr̥tóm məgnom ghedēt, drātum The one who wins the big price will stop
strigā́sēti working
Ersājēr jótəmoi ənagesn̥s (əgesmuktóns) Those who scold innocent people are
lā́jonti mistaken
47
Jotjoi, jotjāi, jotja Those many, so many
Jotjoi bhn̥toi ersā́jonti Those (many) who are speaking are wrong
Jewe jotjons n̥kḗjōnti Help those who may need it.
Jā́ wn̥tos, jā́ wn̥tā, jā́ wn̥tod That much
Jā́ wn̥tod welāsi eme Take as much as you want
Rēimn̥ kod jā́ wn̥tosjo qéqəmai This is a list of all I have acquired
Jālis, jālid Of that kind, of that quality
Odsām jā́ lija wiweqt I detested the kind of things he used to say
Anábhorām ghōda jā́ lismi pikāt I took as reference the kind of things he
painted
Áinuja antinṓmona Posessive pronouns
Mene tod (=menjom tod) This is mine
48
5.-Doljās Particles
əneu acc. olsí, ólteri oltrōd* acc., loc.

apo / apó / apsí abl. pəra acc.
apóteri abl. pəros abl.
ad acc. per(i)/perti acc., loc.
ambhí acc, loc. perom loc., abl.
ana (əna) acc, loc. pos(ti), pósteri postrōd* acc.
anta acc. poti acc.
antí acc., loc. prāi loc., abl.
awou abl. práiteri acc.
dē / de abl. prōd / pro acc., dat., abl.
dō/ do acc, dat. próteri acc.
ek / eksí / éksteri ekstrōd gen., abl. proti acc., dat., abl.
en / ení / ensí / endo entrōd* acc., loc. pūnim acc.
énteri acc, loc. rōdhí gen.
ektós abl. səní / sn̥ terí abl.
epi / opi acc., loc., instr. seqi gen.
jāwn̥ ts (qomdom) acc. teni / tenos gen.
kəmti instr. trāntis / teres / tr̥ qe acc.
kom komtrōd* instr, loc. upo acc., loc.
n̥ dheri n̥ dhertrōd* acc., loc. úperi / upsí úpertrōd* acc., loc.
n̥ dhi acc., loc. ud(i) / udsí abl.
nī nītrōd* acc., loc. wī / wi loc., abl.
obhi acc., loc. wr̥ stom acc.
*Káiwonim lokteiwã ptōtī *Only with the accusative case
49
Chapter A5: Particles
Əneu Without
Smoldom welmi goldom əneu I want coffee without sugar
Sukēnstim əneu óighoighei He departed without saying good-buy
Ad At, to, towards, according to
Ad gálgaljānt āsām They were talking by the fireplace
Ad léitomos sm̥mādom We are going to the party
Petrom ad, wērom tod nē bhūt According to Peter, this was not true
Ambhí Around, about
Ambhí dāmõs swepónt oljoi All the colleagues were sleeping around
Ciwānt dekm̥ ambhí dólsjobhis dhochoi They lived approximately on ten dollars a
day
Ambhí kolsom dhēt kolsowospom He put the scarf around the neck
Ambhí wedhrom gólgoljomos We are talking about the weather
Ana (əna) To, on, along in an upwards direction
Somosóds douknostātoriom əna wérgeti The train heads to the train station
Ana bhuwḗr tégesi They were on board
Nāwis əna (=práiteri) pluwét dānum The ship navigated along the river
Ana okrim montjos stighóm I hiked up to the top of the hill
Woghoi əna (=woghō) ludhét He came on cart (=by cart)
50
Anta Towards
Somosóds douknostātoriom anta The car heads towards the train station
wérgeti
The question aims at the new restriction
Pr̥kskā newans rirḗgseti anta measures
snitómestins
Antí In front of
Domom antí stāt(o) He stopped in front of the house
We are worried by the situation we are

Stāmr̥ tod antí sontjes, tétrudme facing
Apo / apó /apsí From, since, back
Pútlotjēd lépeti apó He stutters since his childhood
Domēd apó mene sentum ad km̥ tom From my house to the path there are one
sonti podes hundred steps.
Apó meghei dede ghornóm plāmn̥ He gave the lent book back to me
Ghwedhō, krāsi mewom ghawe apó Please call me back tomorrow
Apóteri Behind/ after
Dhóighēd apóteri sedḗjonti maqôs The boys are sitting behind the wall
Kaiwodáitibhes apóteri uksórm̥ wedhét After his bachelor times he got married
Awo(u)
Back
Awo dhobhnóm dhghjesi protipornjom
aanoke The spoiled goods came back yesterday
Awo porsógaldhrom stolom leloghóm

I laid the phone back on the table
51
Dē/de From upwards
Dē nébheses kádeti wr̥stā Rain falls from the sky
Dē km̥tom dólsjobhes pornetum We have to negotiate from one hundred

skélomos dollars downwards
Dō/ do Until
Dō stighét drómāntjom He walked until the end of the corridor
Dō oltrōd sr̥tā dānewi tetnēt The queue reached the other side of the river
Ek / eksí / éksteri / ekstrōd Outside

ektós
Dhūmājet eksí skreibhtorjēd He uses to smoke out of his office
Ekstrōd awmēd sodét prōnkom He went our of the hotel to call for a taxi
ghwātewei
Skownous eksí trijom nuwətṓs esti He passed two (out) of the three exams
En / ení / ensí / endo / entrōd Inside
Kleitlām ení mijomes We entered the cabin
Skreibhtorjei nē esti en He isn’t in his office
En te spektewi matérm̥ -two mímnāskō When I look at you I remember your mother
Énteri Between, among
Démese énteri esti prótimā There is a statue between the two buildings
Bhewet katus oljans énteri wénjāsi The was a fight among all the families
Gnōtos esti óiwowidsi énteri He is known among specialists
Epi / opi On, in addition, despite
Domus ēsāt dhm̥ bhonjoi epi The house was situated on a graveyard
Epi tūrjóm bhūt woinos There was cheese in addition to wine
Epi wr̥ stã, chádhsomos dom Despite the rain, we’ll keep walking
52
Jāwn̥ts (momdom) During
Kelutim jāwn̥ts swpónt They slept during the journey
Probhoudhos: solwom dhochom swpont Caveat: They slept (during) all the day
Km̥ti
Next to, beside
Domus ēsāt arwō km̥ti
The house was situated beside a field
Km̥ti bhokom mēmsóm dhēt
He put the meat close to the fire
Kom, komtrōd
Together
Kom dhēt wodr̥ glaktiqe = kom dhēt
wodr̥ glaktī He put the water and the milk together = he
put the water together with the milk
N̥dheri n̥dhertrōd
Deep under, underneath
Dhghmi n̥dheri esti kowṛ
There is a cavern underneath the ground
Dhghomm̥ n̥dheri kidḗr
They descended deep under the ground
N̥dhi
Further than, in addition to
Weqmn̥ ejos qid ordhésmenes n̥dhi His comment was something more than a
bhūt proposal
Tāi pr̥ kskās ghi jenti pūrḗd n̥dhi These questions go well beyond mere
lubhobhoudhēd curiosity
Tr̥stje n̥dhi spordhṓs pōtum skélonti Athletes must drink beyond thirst
Nī, nitrōd
Down, downwards, at the bottom
Klopnim nitrōd kéidonti ekwō
They go down the valley on horse
Nī klopneī esti lakus
At the bottom of the valley there is a lake
Nī sā n̥bhudhnóm spekét
She looked down the abyss
53
Obhi In the middle of
Obhi sentoi lougos ēst There was a log in the middle of the path
Obhi dhworim sedlām stelét He put a chair before the door
Olsí /ólteri/ oltrōd Beyond, on the other side
Olsí kreekwāi bhrankonim bhār Beyond the border French is spoken
Oltrōd loidom bhətos esti He has spoken more than permitted
Olsí Reinom sodónt twr̥mās Thee troops went beyond the Rhein.
Pəra Close, beside(s)
Polnins pəra senti toqe stṓnejes stoighei Beside the shops there are stands in the
street
Pəra drātim minusterjei, léismona Besides his work at the ministry, he gives
wéspenja dídōti donsonjei classes in an evening school
Tosjo pəra aiwos, yuwoon prépeti He looks young for his age
Pəros Before, in front of
Domēd pəros swepet ekwos The horse was sleeping in front of the house
John was appointed as Claudia’s boss

Stətos Johannis Claudyād pəros esti
About, around
Per(í)/perti
I am waking up about dawn
Gerjai perí ausōsm̥
The dog is turning around the tree
Kwōn drewom wr̥tetói perí
Apart from, besides
Perom
Apart from work, I found severe problems
Perom wergēd, trudná kā́dena wéwora
She is really friendly, to say nothing of her
Gheris bhod esti, wənmotāi perom beauty
54
Pos(ti), pósteri / postrōd Behind, after
The umbrella is behind the curtain

Pos wórsotrom praikonkei esti
Jodqid daitim pos pr̥kskesi, jewos Since you ask after time, you lose your right
skémbesi
ṓighei óbhjēdjom pósteri He departed after lunch
Poti (=wr̥ stom) Towards
Trejes kowireges grádjontoi stādhlom The three wise men advance towards the
poti stable
Mənjēs téwijā neustum poti welis qām You are more favourable to spending than to
spartum esti saving
Prāi /prai Before
Prāi n̥ket Petros Marjād Peter arrived before Maria
Rēgi kr̥seti prāi He runs before the king
Kersnād prāi ghighḗj! Come back before dinner!
Práiteri Along, depassing, laying aside
Nāwis práiteri (=ana) pluwét dānum The ship navigated along the river
Dikāns legm̥ práiteri dōt He gave orders laying aside the law
Prōd / pro Forwards, onwards, instead of , in favour

of
Pro stighomes séqomnom woikom We went on walking towards the next

village
Léudhseti Marjā Klaudjād pro
(=Klaudjās stānei) Maria will come instead of Claudia (=in
lieu of Claudia)
Ednom tod meghei (prōd) péqeti
(sudhēiwom) He’s cooking this fodd for me (benefactive)
Próteri In advance, further
Bhāmn̥ adést ejos modnom próteri He prepared his speech in advance of the
meeting
Teksnastānom m̥ gəmí próteri ménena
tewe sonti Your ideas are much further than the state
of technique
55
Proti Against, in exchange of
Trosopoljom proti stréudoime Let us fight against terrorism (malefactive)

(dusdhēiwom)
Bhrū́gjomnons proti qérponti loughās Lies turn against people who use them
Daitrom meghei dedōwe upóstānojos He gave me a watch in exchange of (my)

proti services
Markōi proti wewqét (=Markōi apo He answered to Mark

wewqét)
Markōi proti (=apo) wewqét cotōi He answered to Mark’s comment

Markōi proti (=apo) wewqét cotom He answered to Mark’s comment
Márkosjo proti cotom wewqét He refuted Marks’s comment
Pūnim Behind, back
Sr̥ tām eiti pūnim He goes to the rear of the queue
Dewmn̥ n̥ ket pūnim sontətorm̥ The message arrived back to its emissor
Rōdhí Because of, due to
Wī wr̥ stās wr̥ tēnā́ rōdhí spordhā esti The match was suspended because of the
rain
Nē enmemeiteto esti, néitosjo prótijosjo He was not allowed in, due to his rival’s
sewe rōdhí rancour
Səní/ sənterí Apart
Sm̥stōs oljoi ḗdāmes, Markos aw nobhes We were eating together, but Mark was
səní sēdāt sitting apart, though
Səní loiqēd kəmertom tom Annãi dhēka I’ve put this lobster apart from the rest for
lodis gwémsn̥ tei Anna, who is coming later
Seqi Vis-à-vis, in comparison to, relating
Ispanjās seqi, Márokom bhod wesolijós In comparison to Spain, Marocco is really

esti cheaper
Prótijosjo ejos seqi kn̥sḗjeti/ kn̥séjetor He is considered on a par with his rival
56
Teni / tenos Until
Snām kanenántjósjo tenos I swam until the end of the channel
Ucēbhwānt ostjom tenos They were wet until their bones
Trāntis / teres / tr̥qe Through
Wedṛ robhoi reimām teres soilāt Water dripped through a crack in the roof
(=Wedr̥ robhoreimã soilāt)
Probhupropodom trāntis eitum We have to go through a test process

skélomos
Ud(i) / udsí Out (to a visible place), from under
Ud lákuwes sodét sā́weljos The sun came out from the lake
Polmēd ud dhrāghe roupjom He pulled a coin out of his pocket
Uperi / upsí / úpertrōd Up, upwards, up to, over
Oros uperi skandét He hiked up to the mountain
Óresi uperi bhūt s’mmādos There was a party up on the mountain
Upo Under, below
Noinloi upo senti penkwe cā́mona We have five degrees below zero
Dhghmi upo bhūt dānus There was a river (just) under the ground
Oisoi Percéjwonta mūsá dhghomm̥ upo Those surviving mice fled under the
teqḗr ground
Wī / wi Asunder
Wī dhghmí skedḗr koimsās The drawing pins got scattered on the floor
Wī dew ghordhjēd dūtjōs dūlijēro The messengers dispersed far from the
mḷgātéwijābhos nówostibhos palace to anounce the news
Wr̥ stom (=poti) Towards
Trejes kowireges grádjontoi stādhlom The three wise men advance towards the
wr̥ stom stable
Mn̥jēs téwijā neustum wr̥ stom welis You are more favourable to spending than to
qām spartum esti saving
57
Chapter A6: The adverb
6.-Ənawərēmn̥ The adverb
An? Perhaps?
Dā, jāi Yes

Drūtṓ Surely
Oqoskīrḗd Obviously
Nāi Absolutely yes
Ghi, ka, smā, toi Certainly
Uta dā, uta jāi Rather yes
Wḗropropēd Probably
Bhewtum mógheti Maybe
Móghnijom Optionally
Optī Possibly
Bhéwonim In reality
Wērēd Truly
An nē Maybe not
Uta nē Rather not
n̥ móghnijom Impossible
Nē No
Ghawōd Not at all
Nei Absolutely not
Ghi nē Not at all
Énbhətidoljās Emphatic particles
-i, -em, -ka (This) right here, right now
58
Qom? When?
Nū Now
Mēlei kosmi/tosmi At this moment
Mēlei tosmi/énosmi At that moment
Tom(-ke) Then
Qomqe /qomqid At any moment

Edqom At some moment
Neqom Never
Áiwesi/ aiwi Always
Jomqid Whenever
Qā́qom At each moment
Ambhom In both moments
Kom-pe/tom-pe/oisom-pe In this very moment
Oisom-pe/im-pe/enom-pe In that very moment
Aljom In another moment again
Onjom In another moment else
Weghtei kosmi/tosmi This time

Weghtei tosmi/énosmi That time
Nūnoi Nowadays
Nūper For the moment
Prāi Before
Pos(ti)/ pósteri Afterwards
Jāwn̥ts/ momdom During
Migí/ bhroqoi (migí gisto) In a moment (it happened in a moment)
Meigm̥ pos/ bhroqom pos (meigm̥ pos In a moment (in a moment I’ll be with the
qoksū́ bhewsō) client)
Meigm̥ / bhroqom For a while/for a moment
Prestim On time
Bhwiteī́ /pārjei At the beginning
Antjoi At the end
Pauper/ nedūdom For a short time
Nedūdēd Short time ago
Nedūdoi Since short time ago
Dūdom/ dwāróm/ djēwks For a long time
Dūdr̥ d Since long ago
Dūdoi A long time ago
Qoilēd After a while
Qr̥ tusí Sometimes
Bhn̥ ghū Often
Mn̥ ghū Frequently
Apomomdomom From time to time
Qm̥dōqid(qe) Occasionally, incidentally
R̥ dhē Rarely
59
Sm̥ per Once and for all

Tn̥tom/protn̥tóm/sm̥ tn̥tom Continously/continually
Edjḗw, kéidiwi Today
Dhghjesi Yesterday
Ausrom/ krāsi Tomorrow
Auseri/ ausrí/ kwijós At dawn
Sūnpādei/ sūnpādoi At sunset
Praidhghjesi On the day before yesterday
Posausrom After tomorrow
Pernódiwi In a few days
Səmitū / səmitī At the same time
Jāmi/jām Already
Dom Still
Nedom /nē dom Not yet
Penqedíwijoi (énklawstijom dolos) In four days (inclusive counting)
Penktḗd prāi diwés Four days ago
Penqe dwām diwbhés Since four days ago
āmroi/ prṓteri In the morning
Wesproi In the evening
Medhidiwí At noon
Medhinoqtí At midnight
Noqtí By night
Noqtm̥ During the night
Ati Again
Ájeri/ ghrēw Early
Lodi Late
Sḗtjosi/ pósqoterom Later
Mogsū́ Soon
Pósqoterom mogsúteromwe Sooner or later
Wétesi kekn̥ dwesí/ procecəwesí Last year
Wétesi (é)kosmi This year
Wétesi nédsəmoi Next year
Pārjei At first
Olnim/ Antjei At last/ finally
Udhū́/ kitōd Immediately
Térmn̥ tos Finally
Épitəmēd Definitively
Éksemtī Exceptionally
60
Qom apo? Since when?
Nū-apo From now on

Mēlei kosmi/tosmi apo From this moment
Mēlei tosmi/énosmi apo From that moment
Tom(-ke) apo Since then
Qomqe /qomqid apo From any moment

Edqom apo From some moment
Neqom apo Since never
Áiwesi/ aiwi apo Ever since
Jomqid apo Since whenever
Qā́qom apo From each moment
Ambhom apo From both moments
Kom-pe/tom-pe/oisom-pe apo From this very moment
Oisom-pe/im-pe/enom-pe apo From that very moment
Aljom apo From another moment again
Onjom apo From another moment else
Qom dō? Until when?
Nū-dō Until now

Mēlei kosmi/tosmi dō Until this moment
Mēlei tosmi/énosmi dō Until that moment
Tom(-ke) dō Until then
Qomqe /qomqid dō Until any moment

Edqom dō Until some moment
Neqom dō Until never
Áiwesi/ aiwi dō For ever
Jomqid dō Until whenever
Qā́qom dō Until each moment
Ambhom dō Until both moments
Kom-pe/tom-pe/oisom-pe dō Until this very moment
Oisom-pe/im-pe/enom-pe dō Until that very moment
Aljom dō Until another moment again
Onjom dō Until another moment else
61
Qām? How?
Sū Well
Bhl̥ gū Wonderfully
Dus Badly
Bhodis Better
Wolis Preferably
Pedis Worse
Qā́wəntom How much?
Kā́wəntom/ tā́wəntom This much

Óisā́wəntom That much
Enā́wəntom That much
Qā́wəntomqid Any quantity

Édqāwəntom Some quantity
Néqāwəntom No quantity
Ólāwəntom Every quantity
Jā́wəntomqid Any quantity
Áljāwəntom/ ónjāwəntom Another quantity
Ligom A bit
Ge At least
Sətū, sətī Enough
Pau Little
Meiwis/ mínusi Less
Aitī Partly
Ambhí/ swāi-per/ ad qolom Approximately
Epi, n̥ dhi Additionally
Chonṓ Abundantly
Pelū́ Much
Məgis/ mājis/ plējis More
Welmí A lot
M̥ gəmí Plentily, at wide extent
Sl̥ wotós Completely
Pl̥ nim Fully
N̥ dhi/ n̥ dhidhughnóm Too/ too much
Káiwotos Only
Minumṓ, km̥ bhisəmṓ Minimum
Məgsəmṓ Maximum
Dōris/ prī For free
62
Qodhei? Where?
Kei/tei Here
Oisei /idhei There
Enei Over there
Qódheiqe /qódheiqid Anywhere

Édqodhei Somewhere
Néqodhei Nowhere
Ólodhei Everywhere
Jódheiqid Wherever
Qā́qodhei In each place
Ámbhodhei In both places
Kei-pe/tei-pe/oisei-pe In this very place
Oisei-pe/idhei-pe/enei-pe In that very place
Éterodhei In the rest of places
Áljodhei/ ónjodhei Somewhere else
Qō(i), qote, qotrēd? Whither?
Kei/ kote / kotrēd Here

Tei / tote/ totrēd Here
Oisei/ óisote/ óisotrēd There
Enei /énote / énotrēd Over there
Qō(i)qe / qō(i)qid To anywhere

Qóteqe / qóteqid To anywhere
Qótrēdqe /qótrēdqid To anywhere
Edqō(i) / édqote/ édqotrēd To somewhere

Neqō(i)/ néqote/ néqotrēd To nowhere
Olō(i) / ólote / ólotrēd To everywhere
Jō(i)qid / jóteqid / jótrēdqid To wherever
Qā́qō(i)/ qā́qote/ qā́qotrēd To each place
Ámbhō(i)/ ámbhote/ ámbhotrēd To both places
Kō(i)-pe/ tō(i)-pe/ oisō(i)-pe To this very place

Kote-pe/ tote-pe/ óisote-pe To this very place
Oisō(i)-pe/ idhō(i)-pe/ enō(i)-pe To that very place
Óisote-pe/ídhote-pe/énote-pe To that very place
Éterō(i)/ éterote/ éterotrēd To the rest of places

Aljō(i) / onjō(i) To somewhere else
Áljote / áljotrēd To somewhere else
Ónjote/ ónjotrēd To somewhere else
63
Qeti? Qotrōd? Wherefrom?
Keti/ kotrōd From here

Teti/ totrōd From here
Óiseti/ óisotrōd From there
Enei/ énotrōd From over there
Qétiqe /qétiqid From anywhere

Qótrōdqe /qótrōdqid From anywhere
Édqeti/ édqotrōd From somewhere

Néqeti/ néqotrōd From nowhere
Óleti/ ólotrōd From everywhere
Jétiqid / jótrōdqid From wherever
Qā́qeti/ qā́qotrōd From each place
Ámbheti/ ámbhotrōd From both places
Keti-pe/teti-pe/óiseti-pe From this very place

Kotrōd-pe/totrōd-pe/óisotrōd-pe From this very place
Óiseti-pe/ídheti-pe/éneti-pe From that very place
Óisotrōd-pe/ídhotrōd-pe/énotrōd-pe From that very place
Étereti/ éterotrōd From the rest of places

Áljeti/ áljotrōd From somewhere else
Ónjeti/ ónjotrōd From somewhere else
Qosōd? Whereby?
Kosōd/ tosōd By here

Óisosōd By there
Énosōd By over there
Qósōdqid By anywhere
Édqosōd By somewhere
Néqosōd By nowhere
Ólosōd By everywhere
Jésōdqid By wherever
Qā́qosōd By each place
Ámbhosōd By both places
Kosōd-pe/tosōd-pe/óisosōd-pe By this very place
Óisosōd-pe/ídhosōd-pe/énosōd-pe By that very place
Éterosōd By the rest of places

Áljosōd/ ónjosōd By somewhere else
64
Qismōi? What for?
Kosmōi/tosmōi For this

Óisosmōi For that
Énosmōi For that over
Qódhosmōiqe /qódhosmōiqid For any purpose

Édqosmōi For some purpose
Néqosmōi For no purpose
Ólosmōi For every purpose
Jódhosmōiqid For whatever purpose
Qā́qosmōi For each purpose
Ámbhosmōi For both purposes
Kosmōi-pe/tosmōi-pe/oisosmōi-pe For this very purpose
Oisosmōi-pe/idhosmōi-pe/enosmōi-pe For that very purpose
Éterosmōi For the rest of purposes
Áljosmōi For some other purpose
Ónjosmōi For another purpose
Qori? Qā-i? Qā-tu? Qija? Why?
Kori/ tori For this reason

Óisori For that reason
Énori For that reason
Qóriqid For any reason

Édqori For some reason
Néqori For no reason
Ólori For every reason
Jóriqid For whatever reason
Qā́qori For each reason
Ámbhori For both reasons
Kori-pe/tori-pe/óisori-pe For this very reason
Óisori-pe/ídhori-pe/énori-pe For that very reason
Éterori For the rest of reasons

Áljori For some other reason
Ónjori For another reason
65
Qota? How?
Kota/ tota / ita (itə) This way, like this, so

Óisota That way, like that
Énota That way, like that
Qótaqe /qótaqid Anyhow

Édqota Somehow
Néqota Nohow
Ólota Everyhow
Jótaqid In whatever way
Qā́qota In each way
Ámbhota In both manners
Kota-pe/tota-pe/óisota-pe In this very manner
Óisota-pe/ídhota-pe/énota-pe In that very manner
Éterota In the rest of manners

Áljota/ ónjota Somehow else/ otherwise
Qī? By what means?; In what manner?
Kō, tō This way, like this, so

Oisō That way, like that
Enō That way, like that
Qótaqe /qótaqid Anyhow

Édqō Somehow
Néqō By no means
Ólō Everyhow
Qōqid By whatever means
Qāqō In each way
Ambhō In both manners
Kō-pe/tō-pe/oisō-pe In this very manner
Oisō-pe/idhō-pe/enō-pe In that very manner
Éterō In the rest of manners
Áljō/ ónjō Somehow else
66
Apólūtēd/ perəm Absolutely

Bhelnim Aloud
Kr̥ dītós Angry/ angrily
Ərəmi/ wəlē Appropriately
Dus Bad
Andhṓ Blindly
Mnāmn ́ ̥ tos By heart
Sm̥ kloutnim/ sm̥ podō By chance
Próbhudhnim Carefully
Skīrḗd Clearly
Kómmoinī / kómmoinitos Commonly
Səmojēd/ Sm̥ cānim Conventionally
Kr̥ diks Cordially
Regtḗd Correctly
Dhn̥ ghū Directly
Reidhēd Easily
Somḗd / aiqēd Equally
Arti Exactly
Bhersi/ ōkū́/ twr̥ tēd Fast
Dhernim/ stərō Firmly
Dhreghnim Fluently
Kloutnim Fortunately
N̥ kū Forcingly, necessarily
Ml̥ kē By fumbling, gropingly
Déikmn̥ tos For instance
Swādū́ Gently, smoothly
Cā́mn̥ tos Gradually
Ghoilēd Happily
Molis Hardly
Uktim Honestly
Cərū, swērū́, nokī Importantly
Nṓmn̥ tos In the name of
N̥ bhrūgī In vain
Ghleunim Jokingly
Prósednim Kindly
Slagsū́ Loosely
Streptim Loudly
Moilēd Mildly
Bhewtī Naturally
Kolis Nearly
Gnṓsmn̥ tos Normally
Óbhidhēnim Officially
67
Séikesē On purpose
Pəlāmi Openly
Kómsqr̥ tim Perfectly
Swedhumenesbhi Politely
Orom Properly
Awis/ údsteunim Publicly (perceptibly)
Ústerotos Publicly (by the public)
Ksipū́ Rashly
Wērō/ wērēd Really
Rēdhis Regularly
Klāmi/ tājis / kustoisu Secretly
Tn̥ ghū, swērū́ Seriously
Tausnim Silently
Ml̥ sō Slowly
Ml̥ dū/ mlātim Softly
Dhn̥ ghū Straightly/ directly
Krepū́/ nertō/ nertēd/ bélown̥ tē Strongly
Abhnim Suddenly
Nekopīnḗd Unexpectedly
N̥ kloutnim, ghálerō Unfortunately
Bhrūgī Usefully
Bhelū/ lēnī /klamrḗd Weakly
Sū Well
Wəkē (wekonts) Willingly
Dusmenesbhi With bad intention
Dusqolḗd With difficulty
Ernim With energy
Sumenesbhi With good intention
Mr̥ sē With neglection
Pedbhi With the foot
Ghésr̥ tos With the hand
Kérsn̥ tos With the head
Ghornim With pleasure
Twoisḗd With violence
Widlḗd/ widrī Wisely
68
7.-Wərēmn̥ The verb
Énonmōs Persons
Prāwā First
Dwótera Second
Tritjā Third
Woqes Voices
Qíqerjā Active
Medhjā Middle
Pətjomnī Passive
Wr̥tja Tenses
Enstānt Present
N̥roki Aorist
Bhewsont Future
Módesa Modes
Óptijom Optative
Bhrūgtjes Uses
Bhéwtijā Natural
Stāiwā Stative
Kéntijā Inceptive
Éntonwā Intensive
Wənskāiwā Desiderative
69
Chapter A7: The verb
Énonmōs Persons
Prāwā –bhētei leghét dō First – refers to the speaker
(Egṓ) edqom welmi kwatsom I want some cheese
Dwótera-klutorei leghét dō Second- refers to the listener

trityā
Age (tū) dom Go ahead!
Third – n̥prōtei leghét dō Third-refers to that one who’s not

participating
Knakjes cīmōm ikónt tū́smona
Bananas have lots of vitamins
Woqes Voices
qíqerjā active
Térestijā Transitive
Markos dhanum ghortei óqeti Mark sees a pinetree in the garden
n̥térestijā Intransitive
Markos stéigheti Mark is walking
Bhondhwā Copulative
Markos pūnwōrós esti Mark is a fireman
70
Medhjā Middle
Dhnghuprótikokejā (Upologhos semli Direct reflexive (The subject is both the

qrtirstṓr qrtijatjārdisqe esti) initiator and the endpoint of the action)
Tegai I cover myself

Kei dhejai I place myself here
Markos spektlei óqetoi Mark looks himself at the mirror
Markos ksnújetoi Mark shaves
Ndhn̥ghuprótikokejā -swesudhēiwā Indirect reflexive - autobenefactive

Adejai owoqətjām I prepare myself an omelette
Pinjom sepai I provide myself with a stab
Aljoaljóterā Reciprocal
Céromedha We praise each other
Nokéjomedha We destroy each other
Sm̥stóterā Collective
Gr̥númedha We gather together
Wertéjomedha We appreciate ourselves
Térestijā Transitive
Gherijai I wish
Bhrūgjai I use
Qínumai I avenge
Mētijai I measure
n̥térestijā Intransitive
Mn̥tijai (mn̥tijā́ wr̥dhejāwe qertis) I put on, I pretend (mental o verbal activity)
Rēmoi (r̥moi) I reckon
Bhāmoi (bhəmoi) I speak
Medai I ponder
Éksemtjes Exceptions
Bhíbheimi I am afraid
Sprigējō I am fed up
Eusaj (Sweqr̥ tṓs propodōs) I get burnt (Spontaneous processes)

Kr̥dijai I get angry
Skedhai I get hurt
Dhuwəlijai I go mad
Rudhēskō (rudhēsmi) I get red

Albhēskō (albhēsmi) I get white
R̥ gēskō (r̥ gēsmi) I get white/ brilliant
Senēskō (senēsmi) I get old
71
Ərijai (Kr̥pesmowos) I stand up, I set out (Body motion)

Səlijai I spring
Pl̥ namaí I get near
Leghjai I go to bed
Bhudhjai I wake up, I get conscious
Qerpō sā́weljom əna I turn towards the sun
Sisdō I sit down
Eimi, steighō I go, I walk
Chadhō I fall
Skandō, keidō I go up, I go down
Mejai (Meitis) I change (change)

Wr̥tai, gignai I become
Gnāskai I am born
Mr̥ijai I die
r̥dhjō, augēskō, krēskō I grow
swājō I diminish
áussketi, lukḗsketi (en) It gets light
Stətijóm Stative
Keimoi I am lying
Ēsmoi Bherolinjei I find myself in Berlin
Sū qeisai (qismoi) I feel good
Gemō I am loaded
Senējō I am old
Rudhējō I am red
Sedējō I am sitting
Leghō I am lying
The spot is seen from the other side of the

Smitlām kētjā́ntimenes oqer
room
Sm̥logwos Collective
Praītā́i noqtí dus swper Last night we slept badly
Pətjomnī́ Passive
Markos néduwis óqetor Mark is seen by his neighbours
72
Ambhítowā spekjēs wr̥tjōm General outlook of tenses and moods

modesomqe
Qíqerjā woqs Active voice
deikō I show
wíwermi I find
gignō I produce
regō I govern
sōdejō I make s.o. sit
pr̥ nāmi I sell
kupjō I demand
dídōmi I give
newājō I renew
lubhējō I love, I like
mímnāskō I remind
esmi I am
bhewmi I am, I result to be
r̥ neumi I move
Medhjā woqs Middle voice/ passive/ deponent
deikā̌i/ deikōr I show myself/ I am shown

wiwrai/ wiwrar I find myself/ I am found
gignā̌i I produce myself
regā̌i I govern myself
sōdejā̌i I make myself. sit
pr̥ nəmai I sell myself
kupjā̌i I demand myself
dídōwai I give for myself
newājā̌i I renew myself
lubhējā̌i I love, I like myself
mímnāskā̌i I remind myself
seqā̌i I follow
bhəmai I say
r̥ nuwai I move myself
Example: First person endings. Active and middle

Active Thematic Athematic
Primary * ‐oh2 > ‐ō ‐mi
Secondary ‐om ‐m

Thematic Athematic
Middle Primary * ‐oh2ei >*‐oai > ‐āi > ‐ā̌i *‐h2ei > ‐ai/ ‐mai
Secondary *‐oh2e > *‐oa > ‐ā/ ‐oma *‐h2e > a/ ma
73
Deikō ‘show’. Active voice. Present and aorist.
Indicative
Subjunctive Optative Precative Imperative
Effective Protelative
deikõ/
deikō deikom deikoijəm deiksēm -----
deikōm
déikesi deikes déikēs(i) deikois deiksēs deike
déiketi deiket déikēt(i) deikoit deiksēt déiketu
déikōwos(i)/
déikowos(i) déikowes déikoiwes déiksēwes -----
déikōwes
déikētas/
Present déiketas déiketom déikoitom déiksētom déiketanu
déikētom
déikētes/
déiketes déiketām déikoitām déiksētām déiketenu
déikētām
déikōmos(i)/
déikomos(i) déikomes déikoimes déiksēmes -----
déikōmes
déikete déikete déikēte déikoite déiksēte déikete
déikonti deikont déikōnt(i) deikoijənt deiksēnt déikontu
dikóm dikām dikõ / dikōm dikoijəm diksēm -----
dikés dikās díkēs(i) dikois diksēs dike
dikét dikāt díkēt(i) dikoit diksēt díketu

díkōwos(i)/
dikowes díkāwes díkoiwes díksēwes -----
díkōwes
díkētas/
diketom díkātom díkoitom díksētom díketanu
Aorist díkētom
díkētes/
diketām díkātām díkoitām díksētām díketenu
díkētām
díkōmos(i)/
dikomes díkāmes díkoimes díksēmes -----
díkōmes
dikete díkāte díkēte díkoite díksēte díkete
dikónt dikānt díkōnt(i) dikoijənt diksēnt díkontu
74
Deikō ‘show’. Active voice. Perfect, pluperfect and future.
Indicative
doika dóikom(i) dikjḗm doiksēm -----
doikta dóikes(i) dikjḗs doiksēs doikdhi
doike dóiket(i) dikjḗt doiksēt doiktu
dóikowos(i)/
dikwé dikīwes dóiksēwes -----
dóikowes
dóiketas/
Perfect dikadhum dikītom dóiksētom diktanu
dóiketom
dóiketes/
dikate dikītām dóiksētām diktenu
dóiketām
dóikomos(i)/
dikmé dikīmes dóiksēmes -----
dóikomes
diksté dóikete dikīte dóiksēte diksté
dikḗr dóikont(i) dikī́ nt doiksēnt dikn̥ tú
doikm̥ doiksām dóikissēm
doiks doiksās dóikissēs
doikt doiksāt dóikissēt
dikwés dóiksāwes dóikissēwes
Pluperfect diktóm dóiksātom dóikissētom
diktā́ m dóiksātām dóikissētām
dikmés dóiksāmes dóikissēmes
dikté dóiksāte dóikissēte
dikn̥ t doiksānt dóikissēnt
déiks(j)õ/
deiks(j)ō deiks(j)om déiks(j)oijəm -----
deiks(j)ōm
déiks(j)esi deiks(j)es déiks(j)ēs(i) deiks(j)ois déiketōd
déiks(j)eti deiks(j)et déiks(j)ēt(i) deiks(j)oit déike(tu)tōd
déiks(j)ōwos(i)/
déiks(j)owos(i) déiks(j)owes déiks(j)oiwes -----
déiks(j)ōwes
déiks(j)ētas/
Future déiks(j)etas déiks(j)etas déiks(j)oitom déiketanutōd
déiks(j)ētom
déiks(j)ētes/
déiks(j)etes deiks(j)otes déiks(j)oitām déiketenutod
déiks(j)ētām
déiks(j)ōmos(i)/
déiks(j)omos(i) déiks(j)omes déiks(j)oimes -----
déiks(j)ōmes
déiks(j)ete déiks(j)ete déiks(j)ēte déiks(j)oite déiketetōd
déiks(j)onti deiks(j)ont déiks(j)ōnt(i) déiks(j)oijənt déikon(tu)tōd
75
Deikā̌i ‘show oneself’. Middle voice. Present and aorist.
Indicative
deikā̌i deikā deikõi/ déikōma déikoija déiksēma -----
déikesoi déikeso déikēso(i) déikoiso déiksēso déikeswo
déiketoi déiketo déikēto(i) déikoito déiksēto déiketotu
déikowesdha déikowedha déikōwe(s)dha déikoiwedha déiksēwedha -----
deikei deikei deikēi déikoiji deiksēi deikei
Present
deikei deikei deikēi déikoiji deiksēi deikei
déikomesdha déikomedha déikōme(s)dha déikoimedha déiksēmedha -----

déikesdhwe déikedhwe déikē(s)dhwe déikoidhwe déiksēdhwe déikesdhwe
déikontoi déikonto déikōnto(i) déikoijənto déiksēnto déikontotu
dikā́ /
díkāma dikõi/ díkōma díkoija díksēma -----
dikoma
dikeso/
díkāso díkēso(i) díkoiso díksēso díkeswo
diketa
diketo díkāto díkēto(i) díkoito díksēto díketotu
dikówedha díkāwedha díkōwe(s)dha díkoiwedha díksēwedha -----
dikéi dikāi dikēi díkoiji diksēi dikei

Aorist
dikéi dikāi dikēi díkoiji diksēi dikei
dikómedha díkāmedha díkōme(s)dha díkoimedha díksēmedha -----
dikedhwe díkādhwe díkēdhwe díkoidhwe díksēdhwe díkesdhwe
dikonto díkānto díkōnto(i) díkoijənto díksēnto díkontotu
76
Deikā̌i ‘show oneself’. Middle voice. Perfect, pluperfect and future.
Indicative
dikai dóikoma(i) dikīja dóiksēma -----
diktai dóikeso(i) dikīso dóiksēso doikswo
dikei dóiketo(i) dikīto dóiksēto dóiktotu
dikwedhai dóikowe(s)dha dikī́ wedha dóiksēwedha -----
dikaia doikei dikīji dóiksēi dikí
Perfect
dikaia doikei dikīji dóiksēi dikí
dikmedhai dóikome(s)dha dikī́ medha dóiksēmedha -----
dikstéi dóike(s)dhwe dikīdhwe dóiksēdhwe dikdhwé
dikēri/ dikēro dóikonto(i) dikīnto dóiksēnto díkn̥ totu
doikma dóiksāma dóikissēma
doikso doiksāso dóikissēso
doikto doiksāto dóikissēto
dikwedha dóiksāwedha dóikissēwedha
Pluperfect dikí doiksāi dóikissēi
dikí doiksāi dóikissēi
dikmedha dóiksāmedha dóikissēmedha
dikdhwé dóiksādhwe dóikissēdhwe
dikn̥ to dóiksānto dóikissēnto
deiks(j)ā̌i deiks(j)om deiks(j)õi/ -ōma déiks(j)oija -----
déiks(j)esoi deiks(j)es déiks(j)ēso(i) déiks(j)oiso déikeswotōd
déiks(j)etoi deiks(j)et déiks(j)ēto(i) déiks(j)oito déiketotutōd
déiks(j)owesdha déiks(j)owes déiks(j)ōwe(s)dha déiks(j)oiwedha -----
deiks(j)ei déiks(j)ei déiks(j)ēi déiks(j)oiji déikeitōd

Future deiks(j)ei deiks(j)ei déiks(j)ēi déiks(j)oiji déikeitōd
déiks(j)omesdha déiks(j)omes déiks(j)ōme(s)dha déiks(j)oimedha -----
déiks(j)esdhwe déiks(j)ete déiks(j)ē(s)dhwe déiks(j)oidhwe déikesdhwetōd
déiks(j)ontoi deiks(j)ont déiks(j)ōnto(i) déiks(j)oijənto déikontotutōd
77
Deikōr ‘be shown’. Passive voice. Present and aorist.
Indicative
deikōr deikār deikõr déikoir deiksēr -----
déikesor/ déikesor/ déikoisor/ déiksēsor/
déikēsor/ déikētar déikesoru
déiketar déiketar déikoitar déiksētar
déiketor déiketor déikētor déikoitor déiksētor déiketoru
déikowor(i) déikower déikōwor(i)/ -wer déikoiwer déiksēwer -----
deiketr̥ deiketr̥ deikētr̥ deikoitr̥ deiksētr̥ déiketru
Present
deiketr̥ deiketr̥ deikētr̥ deikoitr̥ deiksētr̥ déiketru
déikomor(i) déikomer déikōmor(i)/ -mer déikoimer déiksēmer -----
déikēdhwori/ -
déikedhwori déikedhwer déikoidhwer déiksēdhwer déikedhworu
dhwer
déikontor(i) déikontor déikōntor(i) déikoijəntor déiksēntor déikontoru

dikṓr/ díkār/ dikõr/ diktós díkoir/ diktós diksēr/ diktós
-----
diktós esmi diktós esm̥ ésom(i) sjēm essēm
díksēsor/
dikesor/ díkāsor/ díkoisor/
díkēsor/ díkētar/ díksētar/ díkesoru/
diketar/ díkātar/ díkoitar/ diktós
diktós éses(i) dóiksētar/ diktós esdhi
diktós essi diktós es sjēs
diktós essēs
diketor/ díkātor/ díkētor/ diktós díkoitor/ diktós díksētor/ diktós díketoru/
diktós esti diktós est éset(i) sjēt essēt diktós estu
dikower/ díkōwor(i)/ -wer/
díkāwer/ díkoiwer/ díksēwer/
diktṓu diktṓu ésowos/ - -----
diktṓu swes diktṓu sīwes diktṓu éssēwes
swos(i) wes
diketr̥ / dikātr̥ / dikētr̥ / diktṓu dikoitr̥ / diktṓu diksētr̥ / diktṓu díketru/
Aorist diktṓu stas diktṓu stom ésetas/ -tom sītom éssētom diktṓu stanu
diketr̥ / dikātr̥ / dikētr̥ / diktṓu dikoitr̥ / diktṓu diksētr̥ / diktṓu díketru/
diktṓu stes diktṓu stām ésetes/ -tām sītām éssētām diktṓu stenu
dikomer/ díkōmor(i)/ -mer/
díkāmer/ díkoimer/ diktṓs díksēmer/
diktṓs diktṓs ésomos(i)/ -----
diktṓs smes sīmes diktṓs éssēmes
smos(i) -mes
díkēdhwori/ -
dikedhwer/ díkādhwer/ díkoidhwer/ díksēdhwer/ díkedhworu/
dhwer/ diktṓs
diktṓs ste diktṓs ste diktṓs sīte diktṓs éssēte diktṓs ste
ésete
dikontor/
díkāntor/ díkōntor(i)/ díkoijəntor/ díksēntor/ díkontoru/
diktṓs sonti/
diktṓs sent diktṓs ésont(i) diktṓs sīnt diktṓs essēnt diktṓs sentu
diktṓs senti
78
Deikōr ‘be shown’. Passive voice. Perfect and pluperfect.
Indicative
dikar/ diknós doikōr/ doikār/ dikījar/ dóiksēr/ diknós
-----
esmi diknós ésom(i) diknós sjēm essēm
dóikesor/ dikīsor/ dóiksēsor/
diktar/ diknós dóiksoru/ diknós
dóiketar/ dikītar/ dóiksētar/
essi esdhi
diknós éses(i) diknós sjēs diknós essēs
dikor/ diknós dóiketor/ dikītor/ dóiksētor/ dóiktoru/ diknós
esti diknós éset(i) diknós sjēt diknós essēt estu
dóikowor(i)/ - dóiksēwer/
dikwár/ diknṓu dikīwer/
wer/ diknṓu diknṓu -----
swos(i) diknṓu sīwes
ésowos/ -wes éssēwes
dikaiar/ diknṓu dóiketr̥ / diknṓu dikījetr̥ / dóiksētr̥ / diktrú/ diknṓu
Perfect stas ésetas/ -tom diknṓu sītom diknṓu éssētom stanu
dikījetr̥ /
dikaiar/ diknṓu dóiketr̥ / diknṓu dóiksētr̥ / diktrú/ diknṓu
diknṓu
stes ésetes/ -tām diknṓu éssētām stenu
sītām
dóikomor(i)/ -
dikmár/ diknṓs dikīmer/ dóiksēmer/
mer/ diknṓs -----
smos(i) diknṓs sīmes diknṓs éssēmes
ésomos(i)/ -mes
dóikedhwor(i)/
dikdhwár/ dikīdhwer/ dóiksēdhwer/ dikdhworu/
-dhwer/ diknṓs
diknṓs ste diknṓs sīte diknṓs éssēte diknṓs ste
ésete
dikn̥ tar /
dóikontor(i)-/ dikīntor/ dóiksēntor/ dikn̥ toru/ diknṓs
diknṓs sonti/
diknṓs ésont(i) diknṓs sīnt diknṓs essēnt sentu
diknṓs senti
doikar/ diknós dóiksār/ diknós dóikissēr/
bhūm bhuwām diknós bhūsēm
doiksor/ doiksāsor/ dóikissēsor/
doiktar/ diknós dóiksātar/ dóikissētar/
bhūs diknós bhuwās diknós bhūsēs
doiktor/ diknós doiksātor/ Dóikissētor/

bhūt diknós bhuwāt diknós bhūsēt
dóiksāwer/
dikwér/ diknṓu dóikissēwer/
diknṓu
bhūwes diknós bhūsēt
bhúwāwes
dóiksātr̥ / dóikissētr̥ /
Pluperfect diktr̥ / diknṓu
diknṓu diknṓu
bhūtom
bhúwātom bhū́ sētom
dóiksātr̥ / dóikissētr̥ /
diktr̥ / diknṓu
diknṓu diknṓu
bhūtām
bhúwātām bhū́ sētām
dóiksāmer/ dóikissēmer/
dikmér/ diknṓs
diknṓs diknṓs
bhūmes
bhúwāmes bhū́ sēmes
dikdhwér/ dóiksādhwer/ dóikissēdhwer/
diknṓs bhūte diknṓs bhúwāte diknṓs bhū́ sēte
dikn̥ tor/ diknṓs dóiksāntor/ dóikissēntor/
bhūnt diknṓs bhuwānt diknṓs bhūsēnt
79
Deikōr ‘be shown’. Passive voice. Future.
Indicative
deiks(j)ōr deiks(j)om deiks(j)õr deiks(j)oir -----
déiks(j)esor/ déiks(j)ēsor/ déiks(j)oisor/

deiks(j)es déikesorutōd
déiks(j)etar déiks(j)ētar déiks(j)oitar
déiks(j)etor deiks(j)et déiks(j)ētor déiks(j)oitor déiketorutōd

déiks(j)ōwor(i)/ -
déiks(j)owor(i) déiks(j)owes déiks(j)oiwer -----
wer
Future deiks(j)etr̥ deiks(j)ei deiks(j)ētr̥ deiks(j)oitr̥ déiketrutōd
deiks(j)etr̥ deiks(j)ei deiks(j)ētr̥ deiks(j)oitr̥ déiketrutōd
déiks(j)ōmor(i)/ -
déiks(j)omor(i) déiks(j)omes déiks(j)oimer -----
mer
déiks(j)ēdhwor(i)/
déiks(j)edhwor(i) déiks(j)edhwe déiks(j)oidhwer déikedhworutōd
-dhwer
déiks(j)ontor(i) deiks(j)ont déiks(j)ōntor(i) déiks(j)oijəntor déikontorutōd
80
Wíwermi ‘find’. Active voice. Present and aorist.

wíwermi wiwerm̥ wíwerom(i) wiwrīm wíwersēm -----
wíwersi wiwers wíweres(i) wiwrīs wíwersēs wíwerdhi
wíwerti wiwert wíweret(i) wiwrīt wíwersēt wíwertu
wiwr̥ wós(i) wiwr̥ wés wíwerowos(i) /-wes wiwrīwés wíwersēwes -----
Present wiwr̥ tás wiwr̥ tóm wíweretas/ -tom wiwrītóm wíwersētom wiwr̥ tanu
wiwr̥ tés wiwr̥ tā́ m wíweretes/ -tām wiwrītā́ m wíwersēntām wiwr̥ tenu
wiwr̥ mós(i) wiwr̥ més wíweromos(i) /-mes wiwrīmés wíwersēmes -----
wiwr̥ té wiwr̥ té wíwerete wiwrīté wíwersēte wiwr̥ té
wiwrn̥ ti wiwrent wíweront(i) wiwrīnt wíwersēnt wiwrn̥ tu
wewróm wewrām wewrõ /-ōm wewroijəm wewr̥ sēm -----
wewrés wewrās wéwrēs(i) wewrois wewr̥ sēs wewre
wewrét wewrāt wéwrēt(i) wewroit wewr̥ sēt wéwretu
wewrowes wéwrāwes wéwrōwos(i) /-wes wéwroiwes wéwr̥ sēwes -----
wewretom wéwrātom wéwrētas/ -tom wéwroitom wéwr̥ sētom wéwretanu

Aorist
wewretām wéwrātām wéwrētes/ -tām wewroitām wewr̥ sētām wéwretenu
wewromes wéwrāmes wéwrōmos(i) /-mes wéwroimes wéwr̥ sēmes -----
wewrete wéwrāte wéwrēte wéwroite wéwr̥ sēte wéwrete
wewront wewrānt wéwrōnt(i) wewroijənt wewr̥ sēnt wéwrontu
81
Wíwermi ‘find’. Active voice. Perfect, pluperfect and future.

wéwora wéworom(i) wewr̥ jḗm wéworsēm -----
wéworta wéwores(i) wewr̥ jḗs wéworsēs wéwordhi
wéwore wéworet(i) wewr̥ jḗt wéworsēt wéwortu
wéworowos(i)/ -
wewr̥ wé wewrīwes wéworsēwes -----
wes
Perfect wewradhum wéworetas/ -tom wewrītom wéworsētom wewr̥ tanu
wewrate wéworetes/ -tām wewrītām wéworsētām wewr̥ tenu
wéworomos(i)/ -
wewr̥ mé wewrīmes wéworsēmes -----
mes
wewr̥ sté wéworete wewrīte wéworsēte wewr̥ sté
wewrḗr wéworont(i) wewrī́ nt wéworsēnt wewrn̥ tú
wéworm̥ wéworsām wéworissēm
wewors wéworsās wéworissēs
wewort wéworsāt wéworissēt
wewr̥ wés wéworsāwes wéworissēwes
Pluperfect wewr̥ tóm wéworsātom wéworissētom
wewr̥ tā́ m wéworsātām wéworissēnt
wewr̥ més wéworsāmes wéworissēmes
wewr̥ té wéworsāte wéworissēte
wewrn̥ t wéworsānt wéworissēnt
wers(j)õ/
wers(j)ō wers(j)om wérs(j)oijəm -----
wers(j)ōm
wérs(j)esi wers(j)es wérs(j)ēs(i) wers(j)ois wíwerdhitōd
wérs(j)eti wers(j)et wérs(j)ēt(i) wers(j)oit wíwertutōd
wérs(j)ōwos(i)/ -
wérs(j)owos(i) wérs(j)owes wérs(j)oiwes -----
wes
Future wérs(j)etas wérs(j)etom wérs(j)ētas/ -tom wérs(j)oitom wiwr̥ tánutōd
wérs(j)etes wers(j)ont wérs(j)ētes/ -tām wérs(j)oitām wiwr̥ ténutōd
wérs(j)ōmos(i)/ -
wérs(j)omos(i) wérs(j)omes wérs(j)oimes -----
mes
wérs(j)ete wérs(j)ete wérs(j)ēte wérs(j)oite wiwr̥ tetōd
wérs(j)onti wers(j)ont wérs(j)ōnt(i) wérs(j)oijənt wiwrn̥ tutōd
82
Wiwrai ‘find oneself’. Middle voice. Present and aorist.

wiwrai wiwra wíweroma(i) wíwrīja wíwersēma -----
wiwr̥ soi wiwr̥ so wíwereso(i) wíwrīso wíwersēso wíwr̥ swo
wiwr̥ toi wiwr̥ to wíwereto(i) wíwrīto wíwersēto wíwr̥ totu
wiwr̥ wesdha wiwr̥ wedha wíwerowe(s)dha wíwrīwedha wíwersēwedha -----
Present wiwr̥ í wiwr̥ í wíwerei wíwrīji wíwersēi wiwrí
wiwrí wiwrí wíwerei wíwrīji wíwersēi wiwrí
wiwr̥ mesdha wiwr̥ medha wíwerome(s)dha wíwrīmedha wíwersēmedha -----
wiwr̥ sdhwé wiwr̥ dhwé wíwere(s)dhwe wíwrīdhwe wíwersēdhwe wiwr̥ sdhwé
wiwrn̥ toi wíwrento wíweronto(i) wiwrīnto wíwersēnto wíwrn̥ totu
wewrā́ / wéwrõi/
wéwrāma wéwroija wéwr̥ sēma -----
wewroma wéwrōma
wewreso/
wéwrāso wéwrēso(i) wéwroiso wéwr̥ sēso wéwreswo
wewreta
wewreto wéwrāto wéwrēto(i) wéwroito wéwr̥ sēto wéwretotu
wewrówedha wéwrāwedha wéwrōwe(s)dha wéwroiwedha wéwr̥ sēwedha -----
wewréi wewrāi wewrēi wéwroiji wewr̥ sēi wewrei

Aorist
wewréi wewrāi wewrēi wéwroiji wewr̥ sēi wewrei
wewrómedha wéwrāmedha wéwrōme(s)dha wéwroimedha wéwr̥ sēmedha -----
wewredhwe wéwrādhwe wéwrēdhwe wéwroidhwe wéwr̥ sēdhwe wéwresdhwe
wewronto wéwrānto wéwrōnto(i) wéwroijənto wéwr̥ sēnto wéwrontotu
83
Wiwrai ‘find oneself’. Middle voice. Perfect, pluperfect and future.

wewrai wéworoma(i) wewrīja wéworsēma -----
wéwr̥ tai wéworeso(i) wewrīso wéworsēso wéworswo
wewrei wéworeto(i) wewrīto wéworsēto wéwortotu
wewr̥ wedhai wéworowe(s)dha wewrī́ wedha wéworsēwedha -----
wewraia wéworei wewrīje wéworsēi wewrí
Perfect wewraia wéworei wewrīje wéworsēi wewrí
wewr̥ medhai wéworome(s)dha wewrī́ medha wéworsēmedha -----
wewr̥ stéi wéwore(s)dhwe wewrīdhwe wéworsēdhwe wewr̥ dhwé

wewrēri/
wéworonto(i) wewrīnto wéworsēnto wéwrn̥ totu
wewrēro
wéworma wéworsāma wéworissēma
wéworso wéworsāso wéworissēso
wéworto wéworsāto wéworissēto
wewr̥ wedha wéworsāwedha wéworissēwedha
Plup. wewrí wéworsāi wéworissēi

wewrí wéworsāi wéworissēi
wewr̥ medha wéworsāmedha wéworissēmedha
wewr̥ dhwé wéworsādhwe wéworissēdhwe

wewrn̥ to wéworsānto wéworissēnto
wers(j)ā̌i wers(j)om wérs(j)ōma(i) wérs(j)oija -----
wérs(j)esoi wers(j)es wérs(j)ēso(i) wers(j)oiso wíwr̥ swotōd
wérs(j)etoi wers(j)et wérs(j)ēto(i) wers(j)oito wíwr̥ totutōd
wérs(j)owesdha wérs(j)owes wérs(j)ōwe(s)dha wérs(j)oiwedha -----
wérs(j)ei wérs(j)ete wérs(j)ēi wérs(j)oiji wiwritōd

Future
wérs(j)ei wers(j)ont wérs(j)ēi wérs(j)oiji wiwritōd
wérs(j)omesdha wérs(j)omes wérs(j)ōme(s)dha wérs(j)oimedha -----
wérs(j)esdhwe wérs(j)ete wérs(j)ē(s)dhwe wérs(j)oidhwe wíwr̥ sdhwetōd
wérs(j)ontoi wers(j)ont wérs(j)ōnto(i) wérs(j)oijənto wíwrn̥ totutōd
84
Wiwrar ‘be found’. Passive voice. Present and aorist.

wíwerōr/
wiwrar wiwrar wíwrīr wíwersēr -----
wíwerār
wiwr̥ sor/ wiwr̥ sor/ wíweresor/ wíwrīsor/ wíwersēsor/
wíwr̥ soru
wiwr̥ tar wiwr̥ tar wíweretar wíwrītar wíwersētar
wiwr̥ tor wiwr̥ tor wíweretor wíwrītor wíwersētor wíwr̥ toru
wíwerowor(i)/ -
wiwr̥ wór(i) wiwr̥ wér wíwrīwer wíwersēwer -----
wer
Present wiwrtr
̥ ̥ wiwrtr
̥ ̥ wíweretr̥ wíwrītr̥ wíwersētr̥ wiwr̥ tru
wiwrtr
̥ ̥ wiwrtr
̥ ̥ wíweretr̥ wíwrītr̥ wíwersētr̥ wiwr̥ tru
wíweromor(i)/ -
wiwr̥ mor(i) wiwr̥ mér wíwrīmer wíwersēmer -----
mer
wíweredhwori/ -
wiwr̥ dhwori wiwr̥ dhwér wíwrīdhwer wíwersēdhwer wíwr̥ dhworu
dhwer
wíwrn ̥ ̥ tor(i) wíwrentor wíwerontor(i) wíwrīntor wíwersēntor wíwrn
̥ ̥ toru
wewrṓr/ wéwrār/ wewrõr/ wr̥ tós wéwroir/ wr̥ tós wéwr̥ sēr/ wr̥ tós
-----
wr̥ tós esmi wr̥ tós esm̥ ésom(i) sjēm essēm
wéwr̥ sēsor/
wewresor/ wéwrāsor/ wéwrēsor/ wéwroisor/
wéwr̥ sētar/ wéwresoru/
wewretar/ wéwrātar/ wéwrētar/ wr̥ tós wéwroitar/
wéworsētar/ wr̥ tós esdhi
wr̥ tós essi wr̥ tós es éses(i) wr̥ tós sjēs
wr̥ tós essēs
wewretor/ wéwrātor/ wéwrētor/ wr̥ tós wéwroitor/ wéwr̥ sētor/ wéwretoru/
wr̥ tós esti wr̥ tós est éset(i) wr̥ tós sjēt wr̥ tós essēt wr̥ tós estu
wéwrōwor(i)/ -
wewrower/ wéwrāwer/ wéwroiwer/ wéwr̥ sēwer/
wer/ wr̥ tṓu -----
wr̥ tṓu swos(i) wr̥ tṓu swes wr̥ tṓu sīwes wr̥ tṓu éssēwes
ésowos/ -wes
wewretr̥ / wewrātr̥ / wéwrētr̥ / wr̥ tṓu wéwroitr̥ / wr̥ tṓu wewr̥ sētr̥ / wéwretru/ wr̥ tṓu
Aorist wr̥ tṓu stas wr̥ tṓu stom ésetas/ -tom sītom wr̥ tṓu éssētom stanu
wewretr̥ / wewrātr̥ / wéwrētr̥ / wr̥ tṓu wéwroitr̥ / wr̥ tṓu wewr̥ sētr̥ / wéwretru/ wr̥ tṓu
wr̥ tṓu stes wr̥ tṓu stām ésetes/ -tām sītām wr̥ tṓu éssētām stenu
wéwrōmor(i)/ -
wewromer/ wéwrāmer/ wéwroimer/ wéwr̥ sēmer/
mer/ wr̥ tṓs -----
wr̥ tṓs smos(i) wr̥ tṓs smes wr̥ tṓs sīmes wr̥ tṓs éssēmes
ésomos(i)/ -mes
wéwrēdhwori/ -
wewredhwer/ wéwrādhwer/ wéwroidhwer/ wéwr̥ sēdhwer/ wéwredhworu/
dhwer/ wr̥ tṓs
wr̥ tṓs ste wr̥ tṓs ste wr̥ tṓs sīte wr̥ tṓs éssēte wr̥ tṓs ste
ésete
wewrontor/
wéwrāntor/ wéwrōntor(i)/ wéwroijəntor/ wéwr̥ sēntor/ wéwrontoru/
wr̥ tṓs sonti/
wr̥ tṓs sent wr̥ tṓs ésont(i) wr̥ tṓs sīnt wr̥ tṓs essēnt wr̥ tṓs sentu
wr̥ tṓs senti
85
Wiwrar ‘be found’. Passive voice. Perfect and pluperfect.

wéworōr/
wewrar/ wewrījar/ wéworsēr/ wr̥ nós
wéworār/ wr̥ nós -----
wr̥ nós esmi wr̥ nós sjēm essēm
ésom(i)
wéworesor/ wewrīsor/ wéworsēsor/
wewr̥ tar/ wéworsoru/
wéworetar/ wewrītar/ wéworsētar/
wr̥ nós essi wr̥ nós esdhi
wr̥ nós éses(i) wr̥ nós sjēs wr̥ nós essēs
wewror/ wéworetor/ wewrītor/ wéworsētor/ wéwortoru/
wr̥ nós esti wr̥ nós éset(i) wr̥ nós sjēt wr̥ nós essēt wr̥ nós estu
wewr̥ wár/ wéworowor(i)/ -
wewrīwer/ wéworsēwer/
wr̥ nṓu wer/ wr̥ nṓu -----
wr̥ nṓu sīwes wr̥ nṓu éssēwes
swos(i) ésowos/ -wes
Perfect wewraiar/ wéworetr̥ / wr̥ nṓu wewrītr̥ / wéworsētr̥ / wewr̥ trú/
wr̥ nṓu stas ésetas/ -tom wr̥ nṓu sītom wr̥ nṓu éssētom wr̥ nṓu stanu
wewraiar/ wéworetr̥ / wr̥ nṓu wewrītr̥ / wéworsētr̥ / wewr̥ trú/
wr̥ nṓu stes ésetes/ -tām wr̥ nṓu sītām wr̥ nṓu éssētām wr̥ nṓu stenu
wewr̥ már/ wéworomor(i)/ -
wewrīmer/ wéworsēmer/
wr̥ nṓs mer/ wr̥ nṓs -----
wr̥ nṓs sīmes wr̥ nṓs éssēmes
smos(i) ésomos(i)/ -mes
wéworedhwor(i)/
wewr̥ dhwár/ wewrīdhwer/ wéworsēdhwer/ wewr̥ dhworu/
-dhwer/ wr̥ nṓs
wr̥ nṓs ste wr̥ nṓs sīte wr̥ nṓs éssēte wr̥ nṓs ste
ésete
wewrn ̥ ̥ tar /
wéworontor(i)-/ wewrīntor/ wéworsēntor/ wewrn̥ toru/
wr̥ nṓs senti/
wr̥ nṓs ésont(i) wr̥ nṓs sīnt wr̥ nṓs essēnt wr̥ nṓs sentu
wr̥ nṓs sonti
wéworar/ wéworsār/ wéworissēr/
wr̥ nós bhūm wr̥ nós bhuwām wr̥ nós bhūsēm
wéworsor/ wéworsāsor/ wéworissēsor/
wéwortar/ wéworsātar/ wéworissētar/
wr̥ nós bhūs wr̥ nós bhuwās wr̥ nós bhūsēs
wéwortor/ wéworsātor/ wéworissētor/
wr̥ nós bhūt wr̥ nós bhuwāt wr̥ nós bhūsēt
wewr̥ wér/ wéworsāwer/
wéworissēwer/
wr̥ nṓu wr̥ nṓu
wr̥ nṓu bhū́ sēwes
bhūwes bhúwāwes
wewrtr̥ ̥/ wéworsātr̥ /
wéworissētr̥ /
Plup. wr̥ nṓu bhū́ sētom
bhūtom bhúwātom
wewrtr̥ ̥/ wéworsātr̥ /
wéworissētr̥ /
wr̥ nṓu bhū́ sētām
bhūtām bhúwātām
wewr̥ mér/ wéworsāmer/
wéworissēmer/
wr̥ nṓs wr̥ nṓs
wr̥ nṓs bhū́ sēmes
bhūmes bhúwāmes
wéworsādhwer/
wewr̥ dhwér/ wéworissēdhwer/
wr̥ nṓs
wr̥ nṓs bhūte wr̥ nṓs bhū́ sēte
bhúwāte
wéworsāntor/
wewrn ̥ ̥ tor/ wéworissēntor/
wr̥ nṓs
wr̥ nṓs bhūnt wr̥ nṓs bhūsēnt
bhuwānt
86
Wiwrar ‘be found’. Passive voice. Future.

wíwers(j)ōr wíwers(j)om wíwers(j)õr wíwers(j)oir -----
wíwers(j)esor/ wíwers(j)ēsor/ wíwers(j)oisor/

wíwers(j)es wíwr̥ sorutōd
wíwers(j)etar wíwers(j)ētar wíwers(j)oitar
wíwers(j)etor wíwers(j)et wíwers(j)ētor wíwers(j)oitor wíwr̥ torutōd
wíwers(j)ōwor(i)/ -
wíwers(j)owor(i) wíwers(j)owes wíwers(j)oiwer -----
Future wer
wíwers(j)etr̥ wíwers(j)ei wíwers(j)ētr̥ wíwers(j)oitr̥ wíwr̥ trutōd
wíwers(j)etr̥ wíwers(j)ei wíwers(j)ētr̥ wíwers(j)oitr̥ wíwr̥ trutōd
wíwers(j)ōmor(i)/ -
wíwers(j)omor(i) wíwers(j)omes wíwers(j)oimer -----
mer
wíwers(j)ēdhwor(i)/
wíwers(j)edhwor(i) wíwers(j)edhwe wíwers(j)oidhwer wíwr̥ dhworutōd
-dhwer
wíwers(j)ontor(i) wíwers(j)ont wíwers(j)ōntor(i) wíwers(j)oijəntor wíwrn̥ torutōd
87
Gignō ‘beget’, regō ‘direct’, sōdejō ‘settle’, pr̥ nāmi ‘sell’, kupjō ‘demand’, dídōmi ‘give’.
First person active.
Indicative
gignō gignom gignõ /-ōm gígnoijəm gign̥ sēm gigne
regō regom regõ /-ōm régoijəm regsēm rege
sōdejō sōdejom sōdejõ /-ōm sōdéjoijəm sōdesēm sōdeje
Present
pr̥ nāmi pr̥ nām pr̥ nājom(i) pr̥ nəjēm pr̥ nāsēm pr̥ nādhi
kupjō kupjom kupjõ /ōm kúpjoijəm kupsēm kupje
dídōmi dídōm didõm(i) didwīm dídsēm dídōdhi/ dəsdhi
genóm genām génõ /-ōm génoijəm gensēm gené
regóm/rēgsm̥ regām rḗgsom(i) regīm regsḗm rég(se)si
sesedóm sesedām sésedõ /-ōm sésedoijəm sesedsēm sesedé

Aorist prām/pérəsm̥ prāwām pér(ə)som(i) perīm prāsēm prādhi
keupm̥ keupām kéupom(i) kéupoijəm keupsēm keupe
dōm dōwām dṓwom(i) dəjḗm dōsēm dōdhi
gégona gégonom(i) gegn̥ jḗm gégonsēm gegn̥ dhi
rēga rḗgom(i) regjḗm rēgsēm regdhi
sōdoja sōdójom(i) sōdojḗm sōdosēm sōdodhi

Perfect
pépora péporom(i) pepr̥ jḗm péporsēm pépr̥ dhi
koupa kóupom(i) kupjḗm koupsēm kupdhi
deda/dédōwa dédōwom(i) dedōjḗm dédōsēm dédədhi
gégonm̥ gégonsām gégonissēm

rēgm̥ rēgsām régissēm
sōdojm̥ sōdosām sōdójissēm
Pluperfect
péporm̥ péporsām péporissēm
koupm̥ koupsām kóupissēm
dedōm dédōsām dédōissēm
gens(j)ō géns(j)õ /-ōm génsoijəm gígnetōd
regs(j)ō régs(j)õ /-ōm régsoijəm régetōd
sōdes(j)ō sōdés(j)õ /-ōm sōdésoijəm sōdéjetōd
Future
pers(j)ō pérs(j)õ /-ōm persoijəm pr̥ nātōd
keups(j)ō kéups(j)õ /-ōm kéupsoijəm kúpjetōd
dōs(j)ō dōs(j)õ /-ōm dṓsoijəm dídōtōd
88
Newājō ‘renew’, lubhējō ‘like’, mímnāskō ‘remember’, esmi ‘be’, bhewmi ‘be, result to
be’, r̥ neumi ‘move’. First person active.
Indicative
newājō newājom newājõ /-ōm newā́ joijəm newāsēm newāje
lubhējō lubhējom lubhējõ /-ōm lubhḗjoijəm lubhēsēm lubhēje
mímnāskō mímnāskom mimnāskõ /-ōm mímnāskoijəm mímnāsksēm mímnāsketu
Present
esmi esm̥ ésomi sjēm essēm esdhi
bhewmi bhewom bhewõ /-ōm bhewīm bhewsēm bhewdhi
r̥ neumi r̥ neum r̥ néuwom(i) r̥ nujḗm r̥ neusēm r̥ neudhi
newājé/
newāsm
́ ̥ / newā́ som(i)/
newā́ bhuwām newā́ bhūjēm newā́ bhusēm newā́ (se)si/
newābhūm newā́ bhuwom(i)
newā́ bhūdhi
lubhējé/
lubhēsm
́ ̥ / lubhḗsom(i)/
lubhḗbhūjēm lubhḗbhūsēm lubhḗ(se)si/
lubhēbhūm lubhḗbhuwām lubhḗbhuwom(i)
lubhḗbhūdhi
Aorist
mimnāsm
́ ̥ mimnāsām mimnā́ som(i) mimnāsīm mimnāssēm mimnā́ (se)si
ēsm̥ ēsām ḗsom(i) ēsīm ēssēm sdhi
bhūm bhuwām bhúwom(i) bhūjḗm bhūsēm bhūdhi
orm̥ orām órom(i) orīm orsēm ordhi
newāja newā́ jom(i) newājḗm newāsēm newādhi
lubhēja lubhḗjom(i) lubhējḗm lubhēsēm lubhēdhi
mémona mémonom(i) memn̥ jḗm mémonsēm memn̥ dhi

Perfect
----- ----- ----- ----- -----
(bhé)bhowa (bhé)bhowom(i) bhébhūjḗm (bhé)bhowsēm bhébhūdhi
órōra órōrom(i) orr̥ jḗm órōrsēm orr̥ dhi
newājəm newāsām newā́ jissēm

lubhējəm lubhēsām lubhḗjissēm
mémonm̥ mémonsām mémonissēm
Pluperfect ----- ----- -----
(bhé)bhowəm (bhé)bhowsām (bhé)bhowissēm
órōrm̥ órōrsām órōrissēm

newās(j)ō newās(j)õ /-ōm newā́ s(jo)ijəm newā́ jetōd
lubhēs(j)ō lubhēs(j)õ /-ōm lubhḗs(j)oijəm lubhḗjetōd
mimnāsks(j)õ /- mímnāsks(j)oijə
mímnāsks(j)ō mímnāsketōd
Future ōm m
----- ----- ----- estōd
bhews(j)ō bhews(j)õ /-ōm bhéws(jo)ijəm bhewtōd
r̥ neus(j)ō r̥ neus(j)õ /-ōm r̥ néus(jo)ijəm r̥ neutōd
89
Gignā̌i ‘beget o.s.’, regā̌i ‘direct o.s.’, sōdejā̌i ‘settle o.s.’, pr̥ nəmai ‘sell o.s.’, kupjā̌i
‘demand o.s.’, dídōwai ‘give o.s.’. First person middle.
Indicative
gignā̌i gigā gígnõi /-ōma gígnoija gígn̥ sēma gígneswo
regā̌i regā régõi /-ōma régoija régsēma régeswo
sōdejā̌i sōdejā sōdéjõi /-ōma sōdéjoija sōdésēma sōdéjeswo
Present
pr̥ nəmai pr̥ nəma pr̥ nājoma(i) pr̥ nəjēma pr̥ nəsēma pr̥ nəswo
kupjā̌i kupjā kúpjõi /ōma kúpjoija kúpsēma kúpjeswo
dídōwai dídōwa didõi/ dídõma dídwīja dídsēma dídəswo
genā́ /
génāma génõi /-ōma génoija génsēma geneswo
genoma
regā́ /
regoma/
régāma rḗgsoma(i) régīja regsēma rég(se)swo
rēgsa/
regsma
sesedā́ /
sésedāma sésedõi /-ōma sésedoija sésedsēma sesedeswo
Aorist sesedoma
prāma
/pérəsa/ prā́ wāma pér(ə)som(i) pérīja prā́ sēma pr̥ swo
pérəsma
keupa/
kéupāma kéupoma(i) kéupoija kéupsēma kéupeswo
keupma
dōwa/
dṓwāma dṓwoma(i) dwīja dṓsēma dəswo
dōma
gegnai gégnoma(i) gegnīja gégn̥ sēma gegn̥ swo
regai régoma(i) regīja régsēma regswo

sōdojai sōdójoma(i) sōdojīja sōdósēma sōdoswo
Perfect
peprai péproma(i) peprīja pépr̥ sēma pépr̥ swo
kupai kúpoma(i) kupīja kúpsēma kupswo

dedwai dédwoma(i) dedwīja dédsēma dédəswo
gegn̥ ma gégn̥ sāma gégnissēma
regma régsāma régissēma
sōdoma sōdósāma sōdójissēma
Pluperfect
pepr̥ ma pépr̥ sāma péprissēma
kupma kúpsāma kúpissēma
dedma dédsāma dédwissēma
gens(j)ā̌i géns(j)õi /-ōma génsoija gígneswotōd
regs(j)ā̌i régs(j)õi /-ōma régsoija régeswotōd
sōdes(j)ā̌i sōdés(j)õi /-ōma sōdésoija sōdéjeswotōd
Future
pers(j)ā̌i pérs(j)õi /-ōma persoija pr̥ nəswotōd
keups(j)ā̌i kéups(j)õi /-ōma kéupsoija kúpjeswotōd
dōs(j)ā̌i dōs(j)õi /-ōma dṓsoija dídəswotōd
90
Newājā̌i ‘renew o.s.’, lubhējā̌i ‘like o.s.’, mímnāskā̌i ‘remember o.s.’, seqā̌i ‘follow’,
bhəmai ‘speak’, r̥ nuwai ‘move o.s.’. First person middle/ deponent.
Indicative
newājā̌i newājā newājõi /-ōma newā́ joija newā́ sēma newā́ jeswo
lubhējā̌i lubhējā lubhējõi /-ōma lubhḗjoija lubhḗsēma lubhḗjeswo
mímnāskā̌i mímnāskā mimnāskõi /-ōma mímnāskoija mímnā́ sksēma mímnāskeswo
seqā̌i seqā seqõi /-ōma séqoija séqsēma séqeswo
bhəmai bhəma bhā́ woma(i) bhīja bhā́ sēma bhəswo
r̥ nuwai r̥ nuwa r̥ neuwoma(i) r̥ nuwīja r̥ néusēma r̥ nuswo
newāsa/ newājeswo/
newā́ soma(i)/
newāsma/ newā́ bhuwāma newā́ bhwīja newā́ bhusēma newā́ (se)swo/
newā́ bhuwoma(i)
newā́ bhūma newā́ bhūswo
lubhējeswo/
lubhēsa/ lubhḗsoma(i)/
lubhḗbhwīja lubhḗ(se)swo/
lubhḗbhūma lubhḗbhuwāma lubhḗbhuwoma(i) lubhḗbhūsēma
lubhḗbhūswo
Aorist mimnā́ sa/
mimnā́ sāma mimnā́ soma(i) mimnā́ sīja mimnā́ ssēma mimnā́ (se)swo
mimnā́ sma
seqā́ / seqoma séqāma séqõi /-ōma séqoija séqsēma seqeswo
bhāma/ bhā́ wāma/ bhāwoma(i)/ bhāwīja/ bhətos bhā́ sēma/ bhəswo/ bhətos
bhətos esmi bhətos esm̥ bhətos ésom(i) sjēm bhətos essēm esdhi
ora/ orma orāma óroma(i) órīja órsēma r̥ swo
newājai newā́ joma(i) newājīja newā́ sēma newāswo
lubhējai lubhḗjoma(i) lubhējīja lubhḗsēma lubhēswo
memnai mémnoma(i) memnīja mémn̥ sēma memn̥ swo
Perfect sesqai sésqoma(i) sesqīja sésqsēma sesqswo
bhāwai/ bhā́ woma(i)/ bhāwiija/ bhā́ wisēma/ bhā́ wiswo/
bhənos esmi bhənos ésom(i) bhənos sjēm bhənos essēm bhənos esdhi
orərai órəroma(i) orərīja órāirsēma orr̥ swo
newāma newā́ sāma newā́ jissēma
lubhēma lubhḗsāma lubhḗjissēma
memn̥ ma mémn̥ sāma mémnissēma
Pluperfect sesqma sésqsāma sésqissēma
bhā́ wisāma/ bhā́ wissēma/
bhāwma/
bhənos bhənos
bhənos bhūm
bhuwām bhūsēm
orərma órərsāma órərissēma
newās(j)ā̌i newās(j)õi /-ōma newā́ s(jo)ija newā́ jeswotōd
lubhēs(j)ā̌i lubhēs(j)õi /-ōma lubhḗs(j)oija lubhḗjeswotōd
mimnāsks(j)õi /-
mímnāsks(j)ā̌i mímnāsks(j)oija mímnāskeswotōd
ōma
Future
seqs(j)ā̌i séqs(j)õi /-ōma séqsoija séqeswotōd
bhās(j)õi/
bhās(j)ā̌i bhā́ s(jo)ija bhəswotōd
bhā́ s(j)ōma
r̥ neus(j)ā̌i r̥ neus(j)õi /-ōma r̥ néus(jo)ija r̥ nuswotōd
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Wr̥tja Tenses
Énstānt Present
Prosodā́ qertis Accion in progress
Tūbhwərdja gleubhō I am peeling potatoes
Oisons dréwonti setins smalons iwe They are treating those visitors like an
animals.
Nū edsi You are now eating
Aposkroibhos énstāntijosjo bhéwonī Description of a present reality
Mātḗr menjā tsaim lúbhjeti My mother likes tea
Doukna óncōlm̥ jāmi nē bhrū́ gjontoi Trains don’t use coal anymore
Danū polis wéidhetor The city is divided by the river
Gnṓmejom (prótonwom) Gnomic (protelative)
Sujet sei, troplōs, slibesn̥t When it rains, the sidewalks get slippery
Wodr̥ pibom, aw woinom so I drink water, he, however, drinks wine
Oljons drewont setins smalons iwe They use to treat all visitors like animals
Áiwesi eds You are always eating
Kōnā́tijom (kōnātā́ qertis) Conative (attempted action)
Jom wíjona leinont, en kr̥stājont While they try to avoid vices, they rush into
prótija opposite ones
Wī qekmr̥ dhidhn̥ ti They are organizing a show
Domum pr̥nām I have my house on sale
Meugont They try to cheat
Méugonti They are trying to cheat
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Jéktijom bhūlói (Wéidmenjom) Narrative in the past (Historic)
Wl̥ dhḗdikjām widlós, tām lubhḗsketi When he sees the princess, he falls in love
with her
Olnom Plan (= indicative future)
Ausrom bardhapukom dhídhēmos Tomorrow we are doing a barbecue
Drūtós udwortos (doljã)

Sure result (with a particle)
Alchonjom tod sénqeti (nūnoi)
This bank is sinking (at present)
Kom alchonjom sénqeti (=sénqēti)
This bank sinks (=will sink)
Prāi n̥ kneumi wesprei ékosmi
I’m arriving this evening
(Prāi) nē prestim n̥ kneumi wesprei
ékosmi I’m not arriving on time this evening
Iterāiwom
Iterative
Dochei qāqei edqod skreibhō
Everyday I write a bit
Upodətā́ dhētis
Fact transmitted by tradition
Platōn wíweqti…
Plato says…
Rōmām ghēti Petros 42 AP
Peter arrives in Rome in 42 AD
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N̥roki Aorist
Ártija, dáititos wílūta géismona Concrete, temporally diluted events
Wódmejom Narrative
Enoiqe, regm̥ kekluwoses, ərijonto, And they, having heard the king, set
wele ita, stḗr qom austroi dr̥kónt out; and lo, the star, which they saw
(dédr̥kn̥t/dédr̥ksānt), isí prāi sodét, dom (had seen/had been seeing) in the east,
ānokwós stāt(o) epi dhḗljosjo stānoi went before them, till it came and stood
(epi jodhei dhēljos ḗsāto). over where the young child was. (Matt.
2.9).
Mḗqesjom, qr̥tibhū́mejom Instantaneous / dramatic
Pro ordhesnom tewei dekā́ I accept your proposal
Apo nijóm ta wr̥dha I take back my words
Dhabheso? =dhédhabhta(i)? Are you surprised?
Qori gelās? Why did you laugh? Why do you laugh?
Bhwítijom Inchoative/ fientive (single and iterative

variants)
Dhghómones təkēsn̥t upokrojēd prāi The people became silent before the show
AOR. EFF. II (SIGM.)
Bhwitṓs səmos ghostum rōmom We started to have lunch during the break
momdom
Jom pródoikots bhwíjāto ghostum, When the actor started to talk, people would
dhghómones təkēsānt AOR. PROT. SIGM. became silent
Áiwesi bhwíjāmedha (bhwitā́jāmedha) We always started to have lunch during the

ghostum rōmom momdom break
Kómstāntijom(óinokā qertis) Constantive (single act)
Dhghómones təkēbhūnt upokrojom The people kept silent during the play
momdom AOR. EFF. I
Ghosomes rōmom momdom AOR. EFF. I We had lunch during the break
Qtwr̥dekmatnjom londhei solwoi During four decades, he reigned in all the

rēgēbhūt AOR. EFF. I. land
Sm̥ sonchos n̥ tlā́nijos bhūt The concert was unbearable
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Pertrāiwom Durative (single and iterative variants)
Jom kaputpródoikots qr̥tibhūmom When the main actor came on stage for the
prāwnim molét AOR.EFF., dhghómones first time, people were silent
təkēbhwānt AOR. PROT. I
Pəróstətos jom rōmom momdom en When the boss came in during the break, we
ludhét AOR. EFF., ghósāmes AOR PROT. were having lunch
Daiteī́ énesāi, Aléksanros londhei At that time Alexander reigned in all the
solwoi rēgēbhwāt AOR. PROT. I land
Upokrojāntjoi qāqei dhghómones áiwesi At the end of each play, people were always
təkējānt AOR. PROT. II silent
Ghósāmes (estā́jāmes) rōmom We always had lunch during the break

momdom
AOR. PROT.
Culminative
Kólmenjom
When I ended my studies, I began to work
Studja jom tīm, drātim enterlóndhejoi in an international company
ərijā́ dherbhmei
They were persuaded by him
Ī plākājontor
Proverbial or gnomic
Ádōgjejom
As a flower in the fields, thus public esteem
Mághoisu bhlōtis iwe, ita dhchīt passes away.
ghōdhos
He who wounds by the sword, dies by the
n̥sī chenlós, n̥sī mr̥tós PART. AOR. sword.
Daitis bheugt, aiwom wesét Time flees, eternity remains. The grass
withers and the flower falls off
Pūpōs silēbhūnt jom altjoses bhənto Children keep quiet when adults talk
Prólegtijom Prolectic
Upo labhō jod wergom tewe dhḗjesi I assume you will do your work
(AOR. SUB.) / dhḗsēsi (FUT. SUB.)
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Tómkejom Resultative
Épiworjom upōptēmóm Moskówijāi The police has caught the suspect in

kōpe Moscow.
Sl̥wogonjom-Rētrospéktijom Universa-retrospective
Lidjām gnōwa 1960 apo I have known Lidia since 1960.
Udbhū́tijom Existential
Lugtētjāi bhūt Bhredos Fred has been to Paris.
Kn̥jóm bhūlóm/qr̥tibhū́mejom Recent past/dramatic (hot news)

(kl̥tonowostjes)
Mémr̥tai belopotis Mohammed Aidid General Mohammed Aidid has died in

Mogadishuwi áiwestū 61 atnōm. Mogadishu at age 61. (From an
(wálmolgēd) obituary)
Bhewsn̥ téi qertjei anabhornóm Related to a future action
Me pretēti an, ólōlai If he shall perceive me, I am ruined
Stāiwom enstānt Stative Present
Trija kakawatja wosḗr There are three chocolates left
Nē woida, nē mémona I don’t know, I don’t remember
Epikómsqr̥tom Pluperfect
Bhūloqertis perəmēd preiwijós onjād Past action relatively anterior to another

bhūloqertjes past action
Regtóm eitr̥ emt jodqid dhghmóskermn̥ He took the right way because he had
spokt (effective) looked at the map
He took the right way because he had been

Regtóm eitr̥ emt jodqid dhghmóskermn̥
looking at the map
spoksāt (protelative)
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Bhewsont Future
Chéltijom -seiktis Desiderative -intention
Prijesō-te yéwtibhi tewe I should like to thank you for your help
Prāi ánksjeti qām lodi n̥dhī bhuwet/ He wants to arrive before it will be too late
bhūjḗt FUT. IND. + AOR. SUB./ OPT.
Qid apómisdhom meghei dṓsesi? What reward will you give me?
Praidiktā́ qertis Predicted action
Wontlosā bhreugwents atnoi kosmei Andalusia is going to be rich in fruits this

bhéwseti year
Prāi ánksjeti qām lodi n̥dhī He will (certainly) arrive before it will be
FUT. ND. too late
éseti/bhéweti
PRES. SUB.
Nē mr̥ísesoi, mē bhibhjās You shall not die, don’t be afraid
FUT. ND. PREVENTIVE
Olnətā́ qertis Planned action

Ausrom bardhapukom dhḗsomos Tomorrow we are doing a barbecue
Təkēsō uprokrojēd prāi I will shut up before the play
Təkēbhwō uprokrojom momdom I will keep silent during the play
Gnomic
Gnṓmejom
Biaised mass media will never tell the truth
Wēra loksowṓs tūljowoghtōs neqom
wédsonti
Conjecture
Práidhōmos
Who is this? It may be the postman or the
Qis esti so? Dūtós bhéwseti milkman
glaktiqoloswe
Order (for future imperative)
Nidoikos (bhéwsontes pro éntagtijēd)
If something new happens, you will let me
Gígisetoi qid néwosjo an, mewom ana know
woidésesi PRES. SUB. + FUT. IND.
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Módesa Moods
Qérmenjom bhéwonom Objecive reality
Sújeti It is raining
Oktōu wl̥nawōbhei senti kanmās The spider has eight legs
Méinōpnijom Potential
Jod immō bhītjoi lábheti tosjo tod Whatever he takes in the battle is his own
Bhewnjā upódhētis Real condition
Londhom an pākm̥ ágeti, neqid bhīnóm If the country lives in peace, nothing is to be
feared
98
Ghorēiwom Hortatory
Éjomos alādhjom Let’s go for a walk

Wr̥tjṓmedha domum Let us return home
An qis ghr̥ dhnos esti, édeti If anyone is hungry, let him eat
Jos (qis) ghr̥ dhnos éseti, édeti (Anyone) who is hungry, let him eat
Wískoidwom Deliberative
Qid dhídhējom nū? What shall I do now?

Jāsdom emḗmosi an welis kei Shall we take the bus or rather stay here?
wesṓmosi?
Final
Sóikejom
I open the window so that you may breath
Apò louksām wr̥eumi, bhodis ātēsi better
Wērom weqōm, To say the truth,
Apowórejom Preventive
Mē smughēs! (=Mē smughsi) Don’t smoke!
Bhójejom Of fear
Bhíbheimij mē qid gégoiseto (PF.) I’m afraid something has happened

Bhíbheimi mē qid gíseto (AOR.) I’m afraid something will happen
Ambhigóisejom Of eventuality
Anti n̥kēti mēd, dəsdhi kersnātwei If he arrives before me, give him a dinner
Edqis weqēti ‘nē chelō’ Someone can say ’I don’t want’
Éksterom upóloghōi moghmn̥ Internal possibility for the subject
Ghl̥tō tō solwō, domum selēm With all this gold I can buy a house
Éksterom upóloghōi moghmn̥ External possibility for the subject
Upérmoimos yom pətḗjēti When the supermarket will be open, I will

(pətēbhweti), glakti qrīsō buy the milk
Térktijom Permissive
Tinājem woqēd-two prāi Let me finish before you speak
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Bhewsontwértowent With a future value
Neqid tons dhebhnéweti Nothing can harm them
Kn̥ sejō qod kmā́ jesi I think you will get tired
(=Tewom kmā́sontm̥ kn̥ sejō)
Wéltijom Volitive
Altjosbhis gálgaljēt Let her talk to her parents
Km̥ tom céjwēsi atnōm May you live one hundred years
Wélptijom Of expectation
Welpō qod cīwṓs solwōs n̥knéwenti/ I hope they are arriving/ they arrive safe
n̥kōnti (PRES. SUB./AOR. SUB.) and sound
(=ins ánksontn̥s/n̥klóns cīwṓns solwōns
welpō)
Welpō qod cīwṓs solwōs ā́ nokont I hope they have arrived safe and sound
(PF. SUB.)
(=ins ānokwósn̥s cīwṓns solwōns
welpō)
Temporal value of the subjunctive mood

in simple and subordinate sentences
Type of clause Present Aorist Perfect Future
resultative/ present
Simple sentence (modal) present past future
stative
Final imperfective, relative future perfective relative future ----- -----
posterior to the absolute

Anterior ----- ----- -----
future
Simultaneous ----- eventuality ----- -----
modal in the
anterior to the
Posterior ----- past/anterior to the -----
expected result
absolute future
perfective, eventual in
imperfective, eventual in the eventual result in the
Conditional and the future/perfective,
future/imperfective, irreal in ----- future/eventual repetition
concessive irreal in the future;
the future* in the future
universally eventual
Comparative expectative** ----- ----- -----

relative simultaneous relative anterior relative resultative
Causal relative posterior thematics
thematics thematics thematics
consequence in the past resultative
Consecutive consequence in the present consequence in the future
with perfect aspect consequence
Completive (disjunct- (potential) relative (potential) relative (potential) relative
(potential) relative future
reportative) simultaneous anterior resultative
Completive (disjunct-
imperfective relative future perfective relative future ----- -----
injunctive)
(potential) absolute
Completive (conjunct) (potential) absolute present (potential) absolute past (potential) relative future
result
* also expressed by the present precative 100

** also expressed by the aorist precative
Óptijom Optative
Wénesjom Cupitive
Prijós nos bhwíjoiso May you become our friend
Nosbhis wesoit May he stay with us
Jewijós sjēm I wish I were younger
Ghrewis ludhoim I wish I had come earlier
Wəlīmes jéwtibhi tewe prijetum We would like to thank you for your help
Prókn̥ stijom Recommendative
Tod weqois, kāré You should say this, my dear
Dídwīmes qid diwí diwí We should give something everyday
Endoikós Iussive
Qid upérterom wéworta an, selois If you’ve found something better, buy it
Qota spāmónteros sjēm? How could I be more attractive?
Swedhumenḗs dikā Polite command
Eksí ijḗs You may go out
Qota sentum bhodejois tewe? How could you improve your performance?
Tod an gisīto This could happen
Tod an gígisīto This could be happening
Reiwents sjēs (bhūjḗs), prijóterōs enoi If you were (became) rich, they would be
friendlier
Gerlós gaudhējoit tod klulós Charles would be happy if he heard that
Loksós Oblique
Sqet jod lodi ludhoint He said that they would arrive late
Elnom ad, kwones dhghómonjām nē According to him, dogs don’t understand

pewīnt dn̥ghwām human language
101
Nesrom kensos Modest statement
Tod nē seqoim/ sqoim (=tod nē I would not say that

seqsēm)
Protiwr̥tnóm Adversative
(Epi) kūmós éikoimes álchosjo, Even if we have a lot of money, we cannot

loubhom nē seltum móghomos buy love
Temporal value of the optative mood in

simple and subordinate sentences
Type of clause Present Aorist Perfect Future

Simple sentence resultative/ present
present past future
(modal) stative
Imperfective relative Perfective relative
Final ----- -----
future future
posterior in the
Anterior relative posterior* ----- -----
present*
Simultaneous ----- future absolute* ----- -----
Posterior relative anterior*
Conditional and Imperfective imaginary Perfective imaginary Resultative imaginary

-----
concessive potential potential potential
Comparative ----- irreal future relative** ----- -----

relative simultaneous relative anterior relative resultative relatve posterior
Causal obliquity/absolute obliquity/absolute past obliquity/absolute obliquity/absolute
present hypothesis hypothesis resultative hypothesis future hypothesis
Consecutive ----- ----- ----- -----
Completive (disjunct - (potential) relative (potential) relative (potential) relative (potential) relative
reportative) simultaneous anterior resultative future
Completive (disjunct - imperfective relative perfective relative

injunctive) future future
Completive (conjunct) ----- ----- ----- -----
102
Soikos Intention
Pr̥ket jod ad bhewsēt PRES. PREC. He asked to have the chance to be present
Skekidḗr jod sā im sāgisēt bhloigom They decided that she would look for him
pos PRES. PREC. after the film
Tod an gíssēto This could have happened
n̥bhéwoqā upódhētis stāmr̥ we Irreal condition or situation
Jewijós an bhewsēm, Weteljã kelusēm If I were younger, I would travel across

Italy
Gerlós gaudhēsēt tod klulós Charles would be happy if he could hear

that
Gerlós gaudhḗbhūsēt tod klulós Charles would have rejoiced if he could

AOR. PREC. have heard that
Nesrom kensos Modest statement
Seqsēm I am to say
Sqsēm I was to say/ I would have said
Sóqissēm I would have been saying
103
Temporal value of the precative mood

in simple and subordinate sentences
Type of clause Present Aorist Perfect
Simple sentence (modal) present /future ----- -----
relative future in irreal/

Final ----- -----
intentional clauses
Anterior ----- expected anteriority -----
Simultaneous ----- ----- -----
Posterior ----- expected posteriority -----
Conditional and irreality in the present/irreality
irreality in the past resultative irreality
concessive in the future*
simultaneous and irreal simultaneous and irreal irreal , relative, resultative
Comparative
comparison in the present comparison in the past comparison
absolute resultative
Causal absolute present hypthesis** absolute past hypothesis**
hypothesis**
consequence in the past with
Consecutive ----- -----
imperfect aspect
Completive (disjunct -
(potential) relative future ----- -----
reportative)
Completive (disjunct -
relative future relative past -----
injunctive)
Completive (conjunct) ----- future in the past -----
*also expressed by the present/ aorist subjunctive

** also expressed by the optative
Nidoikós Of order
Wese kei Remain here

Skreibhtu (=skreibhtōd) meghei Write to me
Wétātijom Prohibition
Mē pibe (=mē pijēs AOR. SUB.) Don’t drink
Mē tātu (=mē tātōd) Don’t steal
Protistóupejom Concessive
Ismōi seqe. Neqid épsesi Tell him. You won’t get anything
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Bhrūgtjes/wəlēntjom Usages/valency
Bhéutijā Natural
Bheudhō I am awake, I pay attention
Eimi I go
Kanō I sing
Stāiwā Stative
Bhudhējō I am an invigilator
Stn̥tējō I am delayed
Tepējō I am warm
Kéntijā Inceptive
Bhudhjai I wake up, I get conscious
Potijai I acquire
Mr̥ ijai I die
Bhudhskō I get more and more awake
Wijēskō I wither
Krēskō I grow
Swēdhskō I get used
Éntonwā Intensive
Mélmolmi (mélmoljō) I crush once and again

Dérdormi (dérdorjō) I split once and again
Chénchonmi (chénchonjō) I strike once and again
Probhoudhos: kárkarjō, gólgoljō, sm̥lijá éikonti Caveat: kárkarjō ‘announce’, gálgaljō ‘talk’ have
propésmona, aljā́ nē swe-per similar formations, but shouldn’t be considered as
éntonwa wərḗmona tādḗtina senti intensive verbs per so.
Bhustājō I usually wake up
Itājō I usually go
Bhoudhejō sūnúm I wake up / rouse my son
Sodejō I settle
Torpejō I rejoice
Loghejō plāmn I lay the book down
Ambhíqolom bhorom bhoréjeti He has/makes the servant carry the burden

= Ambhíqolō bhorom bhoréjeti (either double accusative/instrumental agent)
Wənskāiwā Desiderative
Bhíbhudhsō I wish to wake up
Dídsō I wish to give
Jíjebhsō I want to fuck
Jíjagsō I want to worship
105
Chapter B1: Form of the sentence
Bhānis The sentence
1.-Bhānipr̥ptus Form of the sentence
Sm̥ plobhānis The simple sentence
Piskim (egṓ) edmi (=edmi piskim) I am eating fish

OBJ. SUBJ. VERB
Deike tod ati Say that again
Ghawe me ati krāsi Call me tomorrow again
Antonjos jod sāgijāt wéwore, lewtim Anthony has found what he was looking
kā́denos for: the solution to the problem.
Apṓgnujā bhānis The negative sentence
Piskim nē edmi I am not eating fish

Qis me sqet nē dhewtum? Who said that I don’t run ?
Qis moi sqet mē dhewtum? Who told me not to run?
Bhíbheimi mē ludhēt
I fear that he is coming
Bhíbheimi nemē ludhēt
I fear that he will not come
Nē dr̥ kō qid/ neqid dr̥ kō I don’t see anything
Bhānidemtis Construction of phrases
Pərásteltis Juxtaposition (parataxis)
Cēma, woida, woika I came, I saw, I won
106
Pr̥ ktijā bhānis The interrogative sentence
Dhn̥ ghus Direct
Áitijā Partial
Qis esti so? Who is this?
Qis essi? /Qis tū? Who are you?
Qid esti tod? What is this?
Qim dr̥ kesí? / Whom do you see?
Qid dr̥ kesí? What do you see?
Qóterom dr̥ kesí? Whom of the two do you see?
Qóterod dr̥ kesí? Which of the two do you see?
Qesjo kod esti? Whose is this?
Qodhei tū? Qodhei essi? Where are you?
Qeti tū? Qeti essi? Where are you from?
Qō /qōi / qote eisi? Where are you going?
Qod donsonjom/olardinjom eis? What school/university do you go to?
Qota wəlḗjesi? How are you?
Qom léudhsesi? When are you coming?
Qid/qori mewom wélchesi? Why are you mocking me?
Qosmōi tod dhídhēsi? What do you do it for?
Qālis uponojós-two (esti)? How is your teacher?
Qā́ wəntosmi peri tod qríjetor? How much does it cost?
Qā́ wəntom bholtom eds? How much protein do you eat?
107
Qotjons éikesi prijons? How many friends do you have?
Qótjojos wétesbhes gnātós tū? How old are you?
Qām magnós esti kwōn-two? How big is your dog?
Qām dl̥ nghos esti stiplós-two? How long is your club?
Sl̥ wejā́ Total
Kremom (an) lúbhjesi? Do you like beer?
• Dā/ lubhjō/ dā, lubhjō • Yes, I like it

• Nē / nē lubhjō • No, I don’t like it
Qóterom welsi robhetum an rōtum/ Do you want to play or to rest?

qijētum?
Qóterom welsi robhetum uta rōtum/ Do you want to play or rather rest?
qijētum?
Qid mr̥ wos so uta swépeti? Is he dead or rather sleeping?
108
ndhn
̥ ̥ ghus Indirect
Áitijā Partial
Nē woida qis éseti so I don´t know who this is?
n̥ gnōsājō qis ésesi / qis tū I ignore who you are?
Okḗjeti qid tod éseti He wonders what is this?
Pr̥ kjetí qim dr̥ kēsí He is asking whom you are seeing
Pr̥ kjetí qid dr̥ kēsí He is asking what you are seeing
Pr̥ kjetí qóterom dr̥ kesí He is asking whom of the two you are
seeing
Pr̥ kjetí qóterod dr̥ kesí He is asking what of the two you are seeing
Gnōjḗt / woidoit qesjo kod (éseti) He would like to know whose this is
Gnōtum n̥ kējō qodhei tū / qodhei I need to know where you are

ésesi?
Weistum lubhobhudhējō qeti tū / qeti I’m curious to know where you are from
ésesi?
Weqe moi qō /qōi / qote éiesi Tell me where you are going
Kom əgje qod donsonjom/olardinjom Confirm what school/university you go to

eijes
Weqe moi qota wəlḗjēsi Tell me how you are you
Gnṓrejes egējō (tod ambhí) qom I don’t have the knowledge (of) when are
léudhsēsi you coming?
Bhətḗjeswo qid/qori mewom wélchēsi Confess why you are mocking me
Terdhi moi qosmōi tod dhídhēsi Explain to me what do you it for
Peri skreibhe qālis uponojós-two Describe how your teacher is

(éseti)
Drūdhēje qā́wəntosmi peri tod qríjētor Make sure how much it costs
Woideje me qā́wəntom bholtom edes Orientate me how much protein you eat
109
Winde qotjons éikēsi prijons Find out how many friends you have
Gnōtum wn̥ skō qótjojos wétesbhes I want to know how old you are
gnātós tū (ésesi)
Weistum mendhesnóm qām magnós It is interesting to know how big your dog
kwōn-two (éseti) is
Deike moi qām dl̥ nghos stiplós-two Show me how long your club is
éseti
Sl̥ wejā́ Total
Nē woida qóterom lúbhjēsi kremom I don’t know which of the two beers you
like
Nē woida qóterom kremom lúbhjēsi an I don’t know whether you like beer
110
Skrígtijā bhānis The exclamative sentence
Quām wənmā́ sā (esti)! How pretty she is!
Quām sū sénchesi! How well you are singing!
Qot(j)ons bhendhrons éikesi! How many friends you have!
Qo-i kl̥ tos dhochos! What a hot day!
Qo-i geldhós/ kiklós dhochos! What a cold day!
Qod məgnom ōs! What a big mouth!
Qota esti! How he eats!
Qā́ wəntom est! How much he eats!
Qā́ wəntom bharsjī est(i)! How much bread he eats!
Qām lodi cəmjesi! How late you come!
Qām ájeri cəmjesi! How early you come!
Qām dus smérdeti! How bad it smells!
Qālis dhrutṓr! What a trickster!
Qodhei robhéjonti! Where they are playing!
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Énbhətijā bhānis The emphatic sentence
Antinōmnē With a pronoun
Tod egṓ sqom This is me who said it
Tod eno ludhét It was he who came
Egṓ-pe dhēm I did it myself
Nojós onmōn ludhét me ghrōstewei The director came in person to greet me
Nei qid ghosónt They ate absolutely nothing
Eti egṓ ēchrós ēsm̥ Even I was drunk
Eti nē toi woidsānt Neither they did know it
Egṓ nē plakējō As for me, I don’t agree
Mene mene bhūt menr̥ tod It was my own idea
Nōmnē With a noun
Tod wodā́ m lubhjō It is water I like
Kanmn̥ ghi/ ka/ dā/ em/ smā kobom The song is really a success
(esti)
Ghi/ ka/ dā/ em/ smā kobom kanmn̥ Really a success (is) the song
ənawərēmnē ənawərēmn̥ strowōwe With an adverb or adverbial construction
Nū arti gháweti It is precisely now that he is ringing
Akmōn arti stornjāi/ arti meti kadét The stone fell just in the centre/ just in the
middle
Bhersi bhersi néwostis ghēt It was very quickly that the news arrived
Ita-i (itə-i) dhētéwijom It has to be done like this
Num-i skeude! Shoot right now!
Dmí-swo nikijonto They started quarrelling in my own house
Nei/ ghi nē regtēd mənjetí He is absolutely not right
112
Epikeimnē With an adjective
Pl̥ nim n̥ qisróm tod! This is completely absurd
Səpus, səpus bhūt edā́ Delicious, delicious was the food
Səpútəmā bhūt edā́ The food was very delicious
Ghi/ welmí səpus bhūt edā́ Really/ very delicious was the food
Nei/ ghi nē regtomənḗs so Absolutely not right-minded he
Skrígtijā Exclamative
Ō, Marke! Oh, Mark!
Wai ormōi prijōi! Woe to my poor friend!
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N̥dhigsnimobhrūgtjes Uses of the infinitives
Active Middle/Passive
deiktum / deikom
nom. deik(e)dhjom
Present /déikonom / deikmn̥
déikt(e)wos/ déikosjo/
(gen.) déik(e)dhjosjo
déikonosjo/ déikmenos
Aorist nom. deiktr̥ dikenādhjom
(gen.) deiktenos dikenā́dhjosjo
Perfect nom. deikwr̥
(gen.) deikwenos
Future nom. deikes déikesdhjom
(gen.) déikesos/ deiksenos déikesdhjosjo
Active Middle/Passive
gentum sōdetum gén(e)dhjom sōdedhjom
regtum pertum rég(e)dhjom perdhjom
Present
newātum keuptum newādhjom kéup(e)dhjom
lubhētum dōtum lubhēdhjom dōdhjom
gentr̥ sōdetr̥ genenādhjom sōdejenādhjom
regtr̥ pertr̥ regenādhjom perenādhjom
Aorist
newātr̥ keuptr̥ newājenādhjom keupenādhjom
lubhētr̥ dōtr̥ lubhējenādhjom dōwenādhjom
genwr̥ sōdewr̥
regwr̥ perwr̥
Perfect
newāwr̥ keupwr̥
lubhēwr̥ dōwr̥
genes sōdejes génesdhjom sōdéjesdhjom
reges pers régesdhjom persdhjom
Future
newājes keupes newāj́ esdhjom kéupesdhjom
lubhējes dōs lubhḗjesdhjom dōsdhjom
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Pr̥ ptútwejom smpl

̥ ̥ notjom Morphological complementarity
Qíqerjā woqs Medhjo-pətjomnī

woqs
To close wəreumi/wəreumi/ wertum, werdhjom
werjō
To set fire wərjō wr̥ tum wr̥ dhjom
To find (wí)wermi wíwertum wíwerdhjom
To name, to say werjō wərētum wərēdhjom
To respect wərējai ----- wərēdhjom
To be esmi bhewtum -----
To eat edmi ghostum ghosdhjom
To fill pl̥ nāmi peltum/ pl̥ nātum pl̥ nādhjom
To earn pelō peltum peldhjom
115
Apokəpnóm nōmn̥ iwe As an abstract noun
Tod lubhējom galmn̥ I like his (way of) talking
Prijejō tewom sm̥ daili(jenā́ )dhjobhi Thank you for participating (=for your
participation)
Prijejō tewom sm̥ dailíwenbhi Thank you for being participating
Prijejō tewom sm̥ dailijésdhjobhi Thank you for your future participation
Qis woide qóterom anne cjōtum waltr̥ Who knows whether to live is not to die,
esti, joqe waltr̥ cjōtum? and to die is not to live?
Neqid esjo ménonoi cholsewós There is nothing wrong in his (way of)
thinking
Dóljābhis With particles
Bheimnos smā stréudonēd He was quite afraid before fighting (=before

(=stréudeses) prāi bhūt the fight
Prowr̥ stiwōdos/swēdhuwōdos Expression of behaviour or habit
Koilū́ ednom dhəmeljom dl̥ nghãi To eat healthily is the base for a long life
ciwotãi esti
Ersājom dhghomjóm, wimnājom To err is human, to forgive divine

diwjóm
Ləskējō bhlētum I feel like to cry
Áddhēmenjā Appositional
Jāmi apostolom gnōwta n̥ seróm: You already know our mission: to prevent
éndhəktijāns apoworetum aigrotāns infectious diseases
Módesjā: wərēmn
́ ̥ su pos ‘chedhjō’, Modal: after the werbs ‘wish’, ‘choose’,
‘opjō’, ‘moghō’, ‘didkskō’, iqo. ‘must’, ‘be able’, ‘to know’, ‘to learn’, etc.
Skeltim-swo opét dhētum He chose to do his duty
Gnōwe qota (mota) korbhim dhētum He knows how to make a basket
Módesjā dhn̥ ghuqérmoni Modal with a direct object
Mewom wenét uponejər dōmn̥ He wanted me to give the lesson
116
Wərḗmənīs jota ‘mənjō’ awti ‘n̥ neumi’ With verbs like ‘to think’ or ‘to teach’
Tewom wērom wedmn̥ mənjō I think you are telling the truth
Mē ismōi piskim dəsdhi (dōdhi) - im Don’t give him fish; teach him how to fish
n̥ nudhi (endhi) piskātum
Séikmenā (sm̥ bhondhóm kómtagmn̥ ) Of purpose (agreeing clause)
Sm̥ drātores wejes bhéwsomos, We will be your cooperators, to protect the

ambhibhowom pālātewei environment
Welpont protiwoqom ghn̥ stum They were waiting to obtain an answer
Speude douknom labhtum Hurry to take the train
Yuwés me swestum kikloisi wédn̥ su You helped me get used to swim in cold
snātum waters (adjunct)
Séikmenos (n̥ sm̥ bhondhóm kómtagmn̥ ) Of purpose (not concertated clause)
Deike nosbhos gnōtewei (=ei Tell us, so that we may know

gígnōskōmos)
Stupom ismōi dédōta tewom You gave him a stick to beat you with
stoupémenei
Imós sweptum We go to sleep
Kéidomos prāmoghostum We go down for breakfast
Kéidōmos snātum Let’s go down to swim
Twenghesjā Of obligation
Trija éikomos alsenei ōsa We have three mouths to feed
Alchos so tebhei dōdhjōi This is the money we have to give you
Prijontn̥ s éikomos kómnedhuīs We have friendly relations to maintain with

bhenstjes bherghsenei our neighbours
Réktijā Of determination
Dhl̥ eghlā rokto apolewesdhjōi *The debt was established to be paid back
átnantjēd prāi before the end of the year
Kəptós koiludhjōi likḗst The prisoner was allowed to be healed
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Móghtijā káktijāqe Of capability and aptitude
Adelós tū dhghomōn estorjom tod You are the right person to manage this
médnewesei / mednusenei restaurant
Skrígtijā Exclamatory
Egō tewom ambhí dus bhādhjom? I am ill-speaking about you!?
Qid nom? Dhochom sedētum solwom What then? Shall I sit all the day in front of
smeustrom antí? the computer?
Génesjā Genitive
Djétew(o)s/ djetwos/ djétei(o)s/ It stopped moving

djetjos stāto
Em djetew(o)s/ djetwos/ djétei(o)s/ They stopped him moving

djetjos stānt
Esjo djetim/ djetum (=déjonom) stānt They stopped his moving (=movement)
Medhi wr̥ gtwos im bhāmnom wərónt In the middle of the work they found him
talking
Kómseqmenjā Consecutive
Neqis ita krepús esti tod tlāsenei Nobody is so strong so as to endure this
calamity
Koitujā́ Of manner
Neqid bhlētū léwesi You don’t solve anything by weeping
Néqid-terom With nothing
Neqid bheitum newō pəróstatō There is nothing to fear with the new boss
Pərastā́ Yuxtaposed
Adedhjom welīm sperstjeī dhéwtewei I would like to prepare myself to run in the
competition
Wn̥ skomós peutum əptum We want to achieve to understand this text
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Aitíkōpjobhrūgtjes Uses of the participles
Ambhítowā spekjēs aitíkōpjoprépesom General outlook of participial forms

Active voice Middle voice Passive voice
deikmos/dikmós, deikmā/dikmā́ ,
nom. deikonts, deikonts/déikontī, deikont déikomnos, déikomnā, déikomnom
deikmom/dikmóm
Present
(deikn̥ tós, deikn̥ tós/ deikn̥ tjā́ s/ deikn̥ tijós, (déikmosjo/dikmosjo, deikmās/dikmā́ s,
(gen.) (déikomnosjo, déikomnās, déikomnosjo)
deikn̥ tós) déikmosjo/dikmosjo)
nom. diklós, diklā́ , diklóm dikomnós, dikomnā́ , dikomnóm diktós, diktā́ , diktóm
Aorist
(gen.) (diklosjo, diklā́ s, diklosjo) (dikomnosjo, dikomnā́ s, dikomnosjo) (diktosjo, diktā́ s, diktosjo)
nom. dikwṓs, dikusjā/dikusī, dikwós dóikm̥ nos, dóikm̥ nā, dóikm̥ nom doiknós/diknós, doiknā́ /diknā́ , doiknóm/diknóm
Perfect (doiknosjo/diknosjo, doiknā́ s/diknā́ s,
(gen.) ( dikwesos, dikusjās/dikúsijos, dikwesos) (dóikm̥ nosjo, dóikm̥ nās, dóikm̥ nosjo)
doiknosjo/diknosjo)
nom. deiksonts, deiksonts/déiksontī, deiksont déiksomnos, déiksomnā, déiksomnom deiktéwijos, deiktéwijā, deiktéwijom
Future
(deiksn̥ tós, deiksn̥ tós /deiksn̥ tijós/ (déiksomnosjo, déiksomnās,
(gen.) (deiktéwijosjo, deiktéwijās, deiktéwijosjo)
deiksn̥ tjā́ s, deiksn̥ tós) déiksomnosjo)
Possibility deikmōn, deikmon déiknijos, déiknijā, déiknijom

participle (déikmonos) (déiknijosjo, déiknijās, déiknijosjo)
Propensive déikonqos, déikonqā, déikonqom déiktinos, déiktinā, déiktinom

participle (déikonqosjo, déikonqās, déikonqosjo) (déiktinosjo, déiktinās, déiktinosjo)
Active voice Middle voice Passive voice
gignonts sōdejonts gígnomnos sōdéjomnos gígnomos sōdéjomos
regonts pr̥ nānts régomnos pr̥ nāmnos régomos pr̥ nāmos

Present
newājonts kupjonts newā́ jomnos kúpjomnos newā́ jomos kúpjomos
lubhējonts didōnts lubhḗjomnos dídōmnos lubhḗjomos (dí)dōmos
genlós sesedlós genomnós sesedomnós gentós sōdətós
reglós perlós/ prālós regomnós prāmnós regtós pr̥ tos/ prātós

Aorist
newālós keuplós newāmnós keupm̥ nós newātós kuptós
lubhēlós dōlós lubhēmnós dōmnós lubhētós dətós
gegn̥ wṓs sōd(ə)wṓs gégonmnos sṓdomnos gennós sōdənós
regwṓs pepr̥ wṓs rēgm̥ nos pépormnos regnós pr̥ nos/ prānós
Perfect
newāwṓs kupwṓs newāmnos koupmnos newānós kupnós/ koupnós
lubhēwṓs ded(ə)wṓs lubhēmnos dédōmnos lubhēnós dənós/ dōnós
gensonts sōdesonts génsomnos sōdésomnos gentéwijos sōdetéwijos
regsonts personts régsomnos pérsomnos regtéwijos pertéwijos

Future
newāsonts keupsonts newā́ somnos kúpsomnos newātéwijos keuptéwijos
lubhēsonts dōsonts lubhḗsomnos dṓsomnos lubhētéwijos dōtéwijos
genmōn sōdemōn génnijos sōdénijos

Possibility regmōn permōn régnijos pérnijos
prospective
participle newāmōn keupmōn newā́ nijos kéupnijos
lubhēmōn dōmōn lubhḗnijos dṓnijos
gígnonqos sōdéjonqos géntinos sōdétinos
Propensive régonqos pr̥ nānqos régtinos pértinos

participle newā́ jonqos kúpjonqos newā́ tinos kéuptinos
lubhḗjonqos dídōnqos lubhḗtinos dṓtinos
119
Práidoikwā bheungtis Predicative function
Ln̥ gont eitr̥ An exhausting trip

Bhāmnā cows A talking cow
Kr̥ dītós pəróstətos An angry boss
Sméiromnos spokós An admiring spectator
Bhīmós upógalis A feared pirate
Ln̥ gn̥ tjós eitr̥ A more exhausting trip

Kr̥ dītóteros pəróstətos An angrier boss
Sméiromnoteros spokós A more admiring spectator
Bhīmóteros upógalis A more feared pirate
Ln̥ gn̥ tísəmom eitr̥ The most exhausting trip

Kr̥ dītósəmos pəróstətos The angriest boss
Sméiromnosəmos spokós The most admiring spectator
Bhīmósəmos upógalis The most feared pirate
Lngn̥ ̥ tistóm eitr̥ An extremely exhausting trip

Kr̥ dītótəmos pəróstətos An extremely angry boss
Sméiromnotəmos spokós An extremely admiring spectator
Bhīmótəmos upógalis An extremely feared pirate
Chedhjō, prōd légontn̥ s bheudhe Please, attend the people who are
reading/while they are reading
Mnātéwijos wīrós ékosmi trébheti The man who has to be remembered lives
stoighei in this street
Mnātéwijom widējō wīróm I see the man who has to be remembered
Mnātéwijō bhətós esmi wīrṓ I talked to the man who has to be

remembered
Upōrbhjom tod mnātéwijosjo wīrosjo This is the legacy of the man who has to be
remembered
Méusnijom tod This is confidential
120
Ádspektijos wertos Aspectual value
Enstantaitíkōpjom: Səmojā́ qertis Present participle: simultaneous action
So prójətins stéleti This one places the orders
Bhoungjō so opesā́ jetoi This one operates the appliance
So esti dāmoīs bhītor/ qītor This one is feared/ respected by his

colleagues
So esti prójətins stelonts This is the one who places the orders
Bhoungjō so opoesā́ jomnos esti This is the one who operates the appliance
So esti dāmoīs bhīmós/ qīmós This is the one who is feared/ respected by
his colleagues
So esti prójətins stelonts jom klopṓs This is the one who was placing the orders
wēdhājónt when the robbers broke in.
So esti prójətins stelonts jom klopṓs This is the one who is placing the orders
wēdhājónt now the robbers are breaking in.
So esti prójətins stelonts jom klopṓs This is the one who will be placing the
wēdhā́sonti orders when the robbers will break in.
Toi bhūnt joi mewom séqontes pijonm̥ These were the people who said I was a
dusmosimqe dhrúwonm̥ bhewtum drunkard and an ill-tempered rogue
121
Mḗlejom geismn̥ Momentaneous event

[21a] [23a] [21a] [23a]
[21e] [23e] [21e] [23e]
Bhādhjom didkskonts regs, wélotm̥ When the king was learning to speak, he
enim mədét met a certain oracle
Bhādhjom dídkskn̥ tos rēgos, welots When the king was learning to speak, a
enis ghordhjom ludhét (perəmós) certain oracle came to the palace (absolute)
Práisedos wíweqn̥ tos: “latom, súludhlōs When the president uttered: “good
oljoi, sm̥ sodos bhwísomnos”, egṓ kēlām morning, welcome all of you, the conference
en eim (perəmós) is going to begin” I was entering the room
(absolute)
Aiqotempos Identical temporal extension

[21c] [22c] [23c] [21c] [22c] [23c]
[21d] [22d] [23d] [21d] [22d] [23d]
Entrebhr̥ tr̥ gét mənjonts gherbhos He brushed the piece of furniture thinking
smitlām bhewtum that the scratch was just a stain
Bhādhjom dídkskonts regs putlonojóm When the king was learning to speak, he
ikét/ikāt/eiket had an instructor
Prijōi ‘wəlēje’sqet bhlēntī She said ‘goodbye’ to her friend weeping
praipódejā qertis Occasional action

[21b][22b][23b] [21b][22b][23b]
[21f] [23f] [21f] [23f]
Qid ēsewós didn̥ tsú bhéndhroisi, When friends give you something good, it
n̥ dékesnom mē emtum (perəmós) is uncomely not to take it (absolute)
Qid ēsewós dídōmoi bhéndhroīs, When something good is given by friends,

n̥ dékesnom mē emtum (perəmós) it is uncomely not to take it (absolute)
122
n̥ rokjaitíkōpjom: antimḗlejā qertis Aorist participle: anterior action
So esti prójətins stellós This is the one who placed/had placed/will

have placed the orders
Bhoungjō so opesāmnós esti This is the one who operated/had

operated/will have operated the appliance
So esti dāmoīs bhītós/ qītós This is the one who was/had been/will
have been feared/respected by his
colleagues
So esti prójətins stellós jom klopṓs This is the one who had placed/ had been
wēdhājónt placing the orders when the robbers broke
in
So esti prójətins stellós jom klopṓs This is the one who has placed/has been
wēdhājónt placing the orders now the robbers are
breaking in
So esti prójətins stellós jom klopṓs This is the one who will have placed/ will
wēdhā́sonti have been placing the orders when the
robbers will break in
Ud sestād stəlosjo, wī trins gheudont *When I stood up from the siesta, the three
qelispokoi muskātonn̥ s (perəmós) musketeers were on TV. (absolute)
Argúmona klulós esom, wewqét: And having heard their arguments, he

spoke:
Rudhróm trālós tuskjóm, Passing through the red desert you arrive to
widhuklopnim ghēs the willow valley
Penqe wolmonebhūlós wétesa, After governing for five years, he retired to

monwowostum splighét a monastery
Qr̥tibhū́mejom Dramatic
Upo pətḗr-mo ūdhū́ oqlós, upo mewom My father, suspecting at once, cursed me
wedét roundly
Awakrosnōs bhənuntor, ud pr̥ qom The fountain jets are illuminated, producing
swónmejom genlṓs praidoikom a colourful musical show
Sū ágesi mewom memenlós You do well in reminding me

Sū agés mewom memenlós You did well in reminding me
Sū ágsesi mewom memenlós You will do well in reminding me
Reidhēd enludhlós kudhét (=eneints He easily hid when he entered

kudhét)
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Komsqrtāitikōpjom tómkejā qertis: Perfect participle: resultative action
Kwōn, n̥ gnōtóm widwṓs, dus prōd The dog, when seeing an unknown person,
wr̥ tetói, upélosjo neqid qn̥ twṓs behaves badly, without having suffered any
trouble
Drūtóm eikō tewom tercos wiléwmonm̥ I’m sure you can dissolve the threat hanging
poleī-nos epistestəwós over our city
Ud sestād stestəwesos, wī trins *While I was up from the siesta, the three
gheudont qelispokoi muskātonn̥ s musketeers were on TV. (absolute)
(perəmós)
What was the reason for the arisen dispute?
Qótəmom r̥ usjās bhūt dḗrejos weismn̥ ?
How shall we solve the doubt raised by
Qota wī dāmō-two epistl̥ nóm léwōmos your colleague?
oknom?
124
Bhewsontaitíkōpjom: posmḗlejā qertis Future participle: posterior action
This is the one who was going to place/is

So esti prójətins stelsonts going to place/will be going to place the
orders
This is the one who was going to operate/

Bhoungjō so opesā́ somnos esti id going to operated/will be going to
operate the appliance
This is the one who was going /is going

So esti dāmoīs bheitéwijos/qeitéwijos /will be going to be feared/ respected by
his colleagues
So esti prójətins stelsonts jom klopṓs This is the one who was going to place the
wēdhājónt orders when the robbers broke in.
So esti prójətins stelsonts jom klopṓs This is the one is going to place the orders
wēdhājónt now the robbers are breaking in.
So esti prójətins stelsonts jom klopṓs This is the one who will be going to place
wēdhā́sonti the orders at the moment when the robbers
will break in.
Bhrēwã tr̥ qewastéwijom dhédhōje

dānum He made the river (to be) fordable with a
bridge
Karsonts sodét néwostim = Sodét
néwostjei kartéwijãi He went to announce the news =He went
for the news which was to be announced
125
Módesjos wertos Modal value
Mḗlejos Temporal
Ud medhi stānt obhi édn̥ tes They stood up in the middle of the lunch
Ud stānt (=stāwānt) obhi édn̥ tes They stood up (=kept standing up) during
the lunch
Mene dekm̥ (átnojos gnātós) sn̥ tos, When I was ten (years old), my parents
gentore meictum skidotām (perəmós) decided to move (absolute)
Domum médneuwn̥ tos pətrós, kūmós When my father administered the house,
dhedhḗr ópesom (perəmós) lots of works were executed (absolute)
Wéismenjos Causal
Kanónt jod wiklṓs (wikwóses) bhūnt They sang because they had won
Wiklṓs /wikwóses kanónt Since they had won, they sang
Wōns bhodjosn̥ s qeisonts, Considering that you are better,
Rṓdistṓs enoi pertisrowoi dhchinéi They were very happy because the leak had
(perəmós) disappeared (absolute)
Poleī solwāi erərusjāi Since all the city had been destroyed
(perəmós) (absolute)
Protistóupejos Concessive
Séwijom eikonts weghtlom, pedī́s Having your own wehicle, you want to go
éisesi? (there) on foot?
Skeltim-two nē prodhətṓ, twojo olnətā́ You don’t do your duty; however the things
aw bheughet (perəmós) you plan come off well (absolute)
n̥ widwṓs, kn̥ séjeti weistum Even without knowing, he states he knows
Loiqá wiwéqsontĩ (wiweqsuwĩ), nē Even though she wanted say the rest of the
tr̥ komes (perəmós) things, we did not allow him (absolute)
Even though she could have kept it, she

Ad moghlā́ dhertum, apo aw dédōje gave it back
Komwodhom newekn̥ tí, aw gisto Even though I did not want the conflict, it
(perəmós) happened (absolute)
126
Koitujós Of manner
Klépontes gherghrobhn̥ tesqe céiwonti They live stealing and scavenging
Bhendhroīs stutlóīs, uperi kom ludhónt With their friends supporting them, they
(perəmós) managed to get back on their feet (absolute)
Upódhētijos Conditional
Dikātum nē móghesi misdhóm nē You cannot command if you don’t pay the
lewonts salary
Deiwoi wenlói neqid moghet legs, If God wishes law cannot do anything, if
Deiwoi n̥ wenlói neqid moghet jotnos God does’t wish the effort cannot do
2 x PART. AOR. + PRES. PROT. (perəmós) anything (absolute)
Drālós udojom widḗsesi If you have worked, you will see the results
Qorjostānei qijēskn̥ tí (qojói, sāmeī), If the office is quiet, everything is OK

solwa sū (perəmós) (absolute)
Sóikejos Final
Dhētrī́ cēme ghesr̥ meghei dṓsontī The nanny has come to give me a hand with
dhēljṓ the baby
Apó ludhét dhúgterm̥ lewsonts He came to rescue her daughter
Nē nojós enskroibhons ghelsonts esti There is no director to sign the documents

(=nē nojós enskróibhobhos (=there is no director for the documents to
gheltéwijobhos esti) be signed)
127
Qr̥tr̥ nōmn̥ /Pətjomnonōmn̥ Agent/patient noun
tr̥ mejés: endings:

-tor-, -trī; -ó-, -ā-; -(o)t-, -(et)ī-/-(e)tjā- tor-, -trī; -ó-, ā́ -; (o)t-, -(et)ī-/-(e)tjā-; - ; -
; - ; -wo-, -wā-; -i- wo-, -wā-, -i-
Trebhmn̥ pínkontes kei sonti Here are these who paint the apartment
Piktores senti kei trébhmenos Here are the painters of the apartment
Spātrām bheronts klāwm̥ twoi dṓseti The one who carries the suitcase will give
wosjī you the key of the room
Spātrās bhr̥ tṓr klāwm̥ twoi dṓseti wosjī The carrier of the suitcase will give you the
key of the room
Spātrabhr̥ tṓr klāwm̥ twoi dṓseti wosjī The suitcase-carrier will give you the key
of the room
Spātrās bhorós klāwm̥ twoi dṓseti wosjī The carrier of the suitcase will give you the
key of the room
Spātrabhorós klāwm̥ twoi dṓseti wosjī The suitcase-carrier will give you the key
of the room
Pedī́s jəntbhós sloiweinām dōnt They gave cola to the ones who went on
foot
Peditbhós sloiweinām dōnt They gave cola to the pedestrians
Tod esti moimei cinānts pekr̥ This is the brand prevailing in the market
Moimocít tod pekr̥ This is the /an in-the-market-prevailing

brand
Bhewsontm̥ widwósm̥ opos esti pr̥ ktum It is necessary to ask the one who knows
the future
Bhewsn̥ tós wistorm̥ opos esti pr̥ ktum It is necessary to ask the knower of the
future
Bhéwsn̥ twidm̥ opos esti pr̥ ktum It is necessary to ask the future-knower
Pontim deikonts bhoungjom kom-ke The device indicating the way brought us
nos wodhe here
Póntidik bhoungjom kom-ke nos wodhe The way-indicating device brought us here
128
Tod esti Anglonim bhāmnā teutā It is an English-speaking nation
Anglobhāwā sā teutā It is a nation which speaks (in) English
Dhghómonn̥ s éksnijāi gnātóns We met people born in the exterior

mədomes
Eksnigonwons mədomes dhghómonn̥ s We met in-the-exterior-born people
Kēlā́ jomom tod qermn̥ This is a hidden activity
Kēlāiwom tod qermn̥ This is a liable-to-be hid (clandestine)

activity
Widelmos kluwējonts bhūt wīrós There was a man who was named Widelm
Widelmos kluwis/nṓmonē bhūt wīrós There was a man named/with the name
Widelm
Chori tod kremom This is bitter bier
129
Perəmá kómtagmona Absolute clauses
Sm̥ bhondhóm kómtagmn̥ Agreeing clause
Úksōr ludhlā́ bherr̥ adḗseti When her wife comes, she will prepare the
luggage
Dūdom medomnós somosódm̥ ismōi After having long meditated, I will lend
ghersō him (my) car
Joqe klulós, proti wewqét: And having heard, he answered:
Joqe apoweqonts, sqet: And answering, he thus spoke:
Joqe gāudhējonts ita bhəto: And rejoicing, he said:
Perəmóm stā́nejom: Absolute locative: circumstancial context

ambhistanokómleghmn̥
Aposn̥ tí pəróstətoi, urusodjosi drājer The boss being absent, one works more
comfortably
n̥ widwesi poteī, alchōrkjom emét Without (his) master knowing it, he took
the safe
Lukēskn̥ tí kémeloi (kémeni) ōighei He departed with dawning sky
Kā́ deni lewtiwn̥ tí, mr̥ neutum nē skelsēs If the problem has a solution, you should
(upódhētijos wertos) not worry (conditional value)
Bhōwijói deiwei, wergom téisomos With God’s help (in helping God), we´ll
finish the work
Póweros kleuti bhn̥ tí uponojói The boy listens with the teacher speaking
(=the boy lisens while the teacher speaks)
Neqī streptorjei, tenm̥ aw wesét Even though there was nobody in the
(protistóupejos wertos) discotheque, he stayed for a while
(concessional value)
Trisí djwsí procecəwussí/ kekn̥ dussí Three days having elapsed (temporal value)
(mḗlejos wertos)
130
Perəmóm dhétlejom: Absolute instrumental: resource context

moghtrokómleghmn̥
Twojo augtorē, qid dhēt maqos? What did the young lad do having you as
an instigator?
Bhewtī dukḗ, bhéugsomos We’ll succeed, having nature as a guide
Bhōwijṓ deiwō, wergom téisomos With God’s help, we´ll finish the work
Swonmoqolōs, jāzdō nilūnṓ, pedī́s The musicians, since the bus was out of
eitum skidónt (wéismenjos wertos) order, decided to go on foot (causal value)
Perəmóm gónejom: meelokómleghmn̥ Absolute genitive: temporal context
Promominésterosjo (sn̥ tos), en When he/she was a Primed Minister, he

swēruns dukét meitins introduced important changes
Rēgos pútlosjo, welots enis ghordhjom When the king was a small child, a certain
ludhét oracle came to the palace
Lukskn̥ tós kémelosjo (kémenos) He departed when the sky was dawning
ōighei
Mr̥ tosjo rēgos, orbhjom wl̥ dhēdiks After the king’s death, the prince inherited
deketo stolmom the throne
Úkseros ludhlā́ s, bherr̥ adḗsonti When her wife comes, they will prepare the
luggage
Dūdom mene medomnosjo, somosodm̥ After my long meditating, he will get the
med déksetoi car from me
Póweros kleuti bhn̥ tos uponojosjo The boy listens while the teacher speaks
Trijóm diwóm procecəwesom/ Three days having elapsed

kekn̥ dwesom
131
Sm̥ bhondhos Agreement
Type of agreement Gender Case Number Person
Adjective and
1 determinants with the X X X
noun
Apposition with the
2 (X) X (X)
noun
Relative with the
3 X X
antecedent
Predicate with its
4 (X) (X) X
subject
5 Attribute with the verb X X X (X)
Epikéimenos antinṓmenomqe nṓmonē Of the adjective and determinants with the

noun
Ko paulos krenghos This small ring

Enā wənmā́ elmos That beautiful elm
Téwijom argróm menr̥ Your brilliant idea
ēsú (tod) menr̥ (This is) a good idea
Wənmá kánmona leukṓm wā́tejom Beautiful songs of brilliant poets

(=Wənmokánmona leukowā́tejom=
leukowātiwənmokánmona)
Oiwā́s ptōtjes Particular cases
Akris dn̥ ghwā The tip of the tongue
Akreī dn̥ ghwāi (=dn̥ ghwākroi, At the tip of the tongue

dn̥ ghwabhr̥ steī́)
Medhjoi íteni In the middle of the way
Ékstəmoi pedostānei In the extreme position
Óltəmāi Rotsjāi/ dhubewí Rotsjāi In the farthest part of Russia
Akreī óresi/úpəmei óresi At the top of the mountain
Pérəmei samoi/ghéimeni In the extreme summer/winter period
132
Áddhēmenos nṓmonē Of the apposition with the noun
Aléksanros, makedonom regs, prōd Alexander, king of the Macedonians, made

dsām wedhét Dhōreyowēsum proti, war against Darius, king of the Perses
persãm regm̥
Paktā́m tewe mədóm, prijóm tom I met your fiancée, that lovely person
dhghómonm̥
Dānumoloi obhi ghosomes, soméi We had lunch at the river embankment, the
stānoi jod áljotom welomes same place we chose the other time
Wesúwijom setijomes, ceri deksinoisi We visited the Vesuvius, mount in the South
Apennīnoisu (=deksinotos Apennīnois) of the Apennines
133
Átibhr̥timosjo praisodṓ Of the relative with its antecedent
Polim gnōwa qād prōd cēmta I know the city (from which) you come from
Antonios, Markos Claudjosqe, qoi Anthony, Mark and Claude, who were the
juwísəmōs esānt (juwísəmōs esn̥ tes), youngest ones (being the youngest ones),
prīsmōs ghēnt arrived first (the first ones)
Néqoterō génonē With neuter gender
Ghōdhos opnāqe, qa wēswa wérjomos, Honour and wealth, which we call goods,
dusopná sonti are difficult to obtain
Nédsəmō témeni sm̥ bhondhos Agreement with the nearest element
Dsās, áinesa, edunās, qās dhoubnoi Wars, calamities and pains, which are in the
sont, ud nē skelsēnt bhewtum world, should not exist
Sn̥stum ad Ad sensum
Gherús aitis, qōs keiwinī́tibhi A small part who, was (were) interested in
méndheswontes ēsn̥ t, mluwónt politics, spoke during the conference
sm̥ sodomētrom (=qā keiwinī́tibhi
méndheswents ēst, mluwét...)
Enod n̥ widjom qos me rígjeti nē That stupid person who is tormenting me

lúbhjeti mewom does not like me
Spātī With attraction
Globhos, jā pl̥ táwijā wérjetor, chr̥ sketói The globe, which is called Earth, is getting
warmer
Témenom koisom adnṓmenjōm so énteri Of these adnominal elements between them

énonmīqe antinōmnē loubhis eti sənterṓ and with the personal pronoun, even without
nṓmonē the noun being present
Ekod chedhjō məgnom I want this big one
Mewom gerét swépontm̥ He woke me up who was sleeping (=when I

was sleeping)
Mewom dhrut astuwidlóm He misled me, (being myself) expert in

tricks
Trudsmóm esjãi tod putloīs oinãi It is difficult to her alone with the children
134
Néunjosjo upologhō Of the predicate with its subject
Rodjā bhlosḗjeti The rose is blooming

Prōd agroworgṓs wr̥ gónt The countryment went on working
Gheislṓs dhətṓs sonti They were made hostages
Sn̥stum ad Ad sensum
Kom məgnóm tūljom gerét A great multitude gathered together
Ud km̥ tóm dhghómonom erinṓs One hundred people have resulted injured
wewr̥ tḗr/wr̥ tnōs sonti
Km̥ tóm wīrṓm ludhét One hundred men came
Km̥ tóm wīrṓs ludhónt One hundred men came
Sml̥ ogwosm̥gnos Collective singular
Drewā́ bhreugn̥ s bhert (=bhern̥ t) Trees bear fruit
Putlā́ qidqomqe kreddhēt (=kréddhn̥ t) Children believe anything
Bhlōmōr dhwomōrqe oiwós kéreni Fauna and flora is special in that region
énosmi esti
Anadókosjo upologhō Of the attribute with the verb
Dhghomōn mr̥ tijos esti The human being is mortal
Cenā ləghlā́ ēst The lady was tired
Daitis bhódsəmā uponojā́ Iime is the best teacher
Kíkōnjā wesn̥ kārús (esti) The stork is the anouncer of the spring
Néqoterō génonē With neuter gender
Dl̥ ku dekesnómqe n̥ króm jewtum It is sweet and honourable to help the needy
Loubhos mr̥ tisqe nekopīná ludhónt Love and death come out of the blue
Ghouróm esti wl̥ qos stā́dhlobhos Terrible is a wolf for the stalls
Spātī With attraction
Tolētom, tagópolis, kléutrown̥ tī esti Toledo, the city of the Tajo, is rich in
So esti loktos mene = tod esti loktos legends
mene This is my fault
135
Chapter B2: Sentence combination
2.-Bhānism̥ bhendhmn̥ Sentence combination
Komjougos Coordination
Wedhmosjūtra Copulative clauses
sm̥dhētla
joqe, enim, atqe, qe, eti, etiqe, toqe
nekáiwotos….immō, epi,
nekáiwotos…..toqe/eti/plēis
Kómbhewontes qertjes (egēsmn̥

sm̥dhētlēd) Coexisting actions (lack of link)
Silējō, nē welmi bhādjom

I keep quiet; I don’t want to speak.
Smp̥ lēd chonēiwā qertis
Simply additive action
Petros domom demét joqe ghortom
Peter built a house and arranged a garden
r̥tujét
Simultaneity
Səmitis
The dog licked himself, waving his tail
Peri kwōn líghāto, pukom weiponts
Correlated/consecutive action
Kombhn̥dhnā́ /komseqomnā́ qertis
I arrived late and did not get acquainted
Lodi ghēwa enim ad nē bhoudhai with the first proposals
prāwōm ordhésmonom
Contrast
Prótinom
Today I’ll work and tomorrow I’ll rest
Edjḗw drāsō atqe ausrom ersō He laughs and I weep
Is gélāti atqe egṓ bhlēmi
Quick action
Peimis qertis
I woke up, stood up, got washed, ate
Bhustós esmi (groma), stāmqe ud, breakfast, combed myself and went to work.
lūtósqe, ghosómqe prām, pektósqe esmi
wergómqe sodóm.
Addition
Chonesmn̥
They are very close friends and even go for
Éntəmōs senti prijōs eti sm̥ stōs holidays together
usdhowōi itā́jonti
Overmuch state
Kómsātis Not only does he insult me, but he also
Nekáiwotos me péjeti immō ismi boasts about it
bhlédeti
136
Delmosjūtra Disyunctive clauses
sm̥dhētla
we, awti, (qóterom) an, uta (an),
loubhis
Sm̥ plom álterotwom Simple alternative
Prōd ənupopodnim wr̥ tetoí awti n̥ widús He either behaves improperly or is an

so ignorant
Awti təkḗjesi awti cícāsi Either you shut up or you go
(Qóterom) drā́jesi an ql̥skesí? Are you working or studying?
Solwom ad bhewtum n̥ kḗjesi dinom, You need to be present all the day, or, if you
awti, an opsús tū, āmrom ge are busy, at least during the morning
Jāsdō awti douknō éiesi You may go there either by bus or by train
Wesprei qelispektrom spekjō awti In the evening I watch TV or write letters

sontons skreibhō
Álterotwom+optis Alternative + election
Solwom ad bhewtum n̥ kḗjesi dinom, You need to be present all the day, or, if you
loubhis, an opsús tū, āmrom ge are busy, at least during the morning
Jāsdō loubhis douknō éiesi You may go there either by bus or by train
Álterotwom+optis+ambhóemtjom Alternative+ election + indiference
Jāsdō loubhis douknōwe éiesi You may go there either by bus or by train
Wesprei qelispektrom spekjō sontonswe In the evening I watch TV or write letters

skreibhō
Nosbhos māis meiwiswe dhḗnijom We have a more or less feasible proposal

ordhēsmn̥ (esti)
137
Protiwr̥tnosjūtra Adversative clauses
sm̥dhētla
mō, aw, alyā́ , tū, nū, tā…men,
dā….aw
Lēni prótinom Weak contrast
Alchom óikāmes, mō en eitum nosbhis We had money, but they did not allow us to
nē tr̥kónt go in.
Lélāgsāmes; putlā aw robhetum prōd We were tired, but the children wanted to
wéwelānt go on playing.
Strong contrast
Melom prótimn̥
No one can go in; however, if you have a lot
Neqis en eitum mógheti; aljā́ kūmós an
of money, you can convince the guardian
esti tebhei álchosjo, woróm bhoidhetum
móghesi
He did not know anything about music. All
Neqid swenwidjom ambhí woidāt. Nū
in all, he just started to play the piano.
klāwmn̥ swonetum arti bhwitós esti.
Tlādhētis
Balancing
Tā Ā́bhrikā wedr̥ n̥kḗjeti, men If Africa needs water, Australia suffers from
Austrálijā ploudons qn̥tjetí (=Ā́bhrikā floods (=Africa needs water whereas
wedr̥ n̥kḗjeti, atqe Australjā ploudons Australia suffers from floods)
qn̥tjetí)
Upóplētis Substitution
Domowergom-two teidhi qelispéktewos Finish your homework instead of watching
stānei (=qelispéktewes prōd) ! TV!
Médodiks, grājusetítejos stānei The doctor, instead of visiting the old lady,
(=grājusetítejes prōd), im medonjōi had her go to his office
ghonghést
138
Winomosjūtra Alternative/correlative/distributive
clauses
sm̥dhētla
nū….nū, swāiwe….swāi, tom…tom
álteros….. álteros; so….ene
Wédhmejosjo wertī With copulative value

Swāiwe robhéjesi swāi óqesi lowtum Whether you play or watch you have to pay
skélesi
Délmejosjo wertī With disyuntive value

Nū weitins srpjetí, nū owins péketi; Now he prunes the vines, now he shears the
áiwesi drā́jeti. sheep; he is always working.
Prótiwr̥tnejosjo wertī With adversative value

Álteros srīgējonts louksām kláudeti, This one feels cold and closes the window,
álteros kəlējonts apo wérjeti and the other one feels hot and opens it
Ekswōqosjūtra Explicative clauses
sm̥dhētla
tod esti, id esti, nṓmn̥tos, kritóm
Somowortja sonti sm̥dhētla All the conjunctions are equivalent
Kādr̥ lewtum skelō, tod esti newom I have to solve the problem, this is to find
wíwertum poqóm another cook
Bhā́joima twojo monwā́m weqtim, I’d like to talk to you about an outstanding
nṓmn̥tos misdhāugmn̥ mene. issue, namely my pay rise
139
Enbhorosjūtra Illative clauses
sm̥dhētla
enim, ita, itaqe, tom-ke, étenim
Perilós nē esmi dhōjoi kosmei enim I am not an expert in this matter, and cannot
protiwoqom tebhei dātum nē moghō give you an answer
Skombnṓs esānt, ita pr̥kont They were lost, so they asked for the tourist
ambhirṓjosjo qorjostānōi office
Ludhḗr oljoi; tom-ke bhwidhjom All (the people) have come, so, we can
móghomos begin
Nē strigā́st sūtum solwom djēwm̥, It has not stopped raining the whole day,
étenim nē regtḗd mənjesí and thus you are not right
Praiqinasjūtra
Causal clauses
sm̥dhētla
ar, ar ge, gar
Somowortja sonti sm̥dhētla All the conjunctions are equivalent
Tausnim en sodét, ar mātérm̥ nē gertum He came in silently, since he did not want to
welā́t wake his mother
Krdijām, gar lought I was angry, as he had lied
140
Upojougos Subordination
Kómplēsjūtra Completive clauses
Wijugná sjūtra Disjunct clauses

Qermn̥ sjūtra Object clauses With personal forms With participle With infinitive

N̥ dhibhorwa Reportative
bheidhō to trust IND./ SUB./ OPT. x x
bhledō to boast IND./ SUB./ OPT. x
kréddhēmi / ōmi to believe IND./ SUB./ OPT. x x
ml ̥gājō / neumi to announce / to proclaim IND./ SUB./ OPT. x x
peumi to understand IND./ SUB./ OPT. x x
IND./ SUB./ OPT./
pr̥kskō / pr̥kjō to ask
PREC.
qéqoita/ kn̥ sējō opinate IND./ SUB./ OPT. x x
tn̥ gējō/ awisdhijō to feel IND./ SUB./ OPT. x x
upo dídhēmi to suppose IND./ SUB./ OPT. x x
wī bhāti it seems IND. x x
wíweqmi, seqō to speak, to say IND./ OPT. x x
woida to know IND./ SUB./ OPT. x x

Enjogwa Injunctive
bhíbheimi to fear SUB./OPT
chedhjō to beg SUB./ OPT./ PREC. x
dikājō to order SUB./ OPT./ PREC. x
kōnājai to try SUB. x
leinō to avoid SUB./OPT
lubhējō/ lubhjō to like SUB. x x
mərējō to deserve SUB.
n̥ kējō to need SUB. x x
n̥ neumi to teach SUB. x
ōkinós esmi to be ready SUB. x
opos esti/ wergom esti it is necessary, il faut SUB. x x
prépeti to seem SUB. x x
prōd bheudhō to be careful SUB.
qīmājō to appreciate SUB. x x
skeidō to decide SUB./ OPT./ PREC. x
twenghō to compel SUB. x
welmi to wish SUB./ OPT./ PREC. x x
welpō to hope, to expect SUB. x x
wəreumi nī to ward off SUB./OPT
wétāmi to prohibit SUB./OPT
wn̥ skō to want SUB. x x
141
With personal forms With participle With infinitive

Sm̥ jugná sjūtra Conjunct clauses

Upologhosjūtra Subject clauses
adelóm (esti) jod to be adequate IND./ PREC. x x
aiskróm esmi to be clear IND./ PREC. x x
bhātis (esti) jod to be said that IND./ PREC. x x
dhabhóm esti to be surprising SUB./ PREC. x x
gígistoi to happen IND./ PREC. x x
jéwestom (esti) jod to be fair IND./ PREC. x x
kaunóm/aichlóm esti to be shameful IND./ PREC. x x
mendhesnóm esti to be interesting IND./ PREC. x x
móghnijom esti to be possible IND./ SUB./ PREC. x x
mr̥dhóm esti to be upsetting IND./ PREC. x x
mr̥neumi to worry IND./ PREC. x x
n̥ kēiwom esti to be necessary IND./ SUB./ PREC. x x
n̥ prijóm esti to be disgusting IND./ PREC. x x
pastos esmi/ drūtóm eikō to be sure IND./ PREC. x x
qid tod jod? how is it that? IND./ PREC. x x
smeirom esti to be wonderful IND./ PREC. x x
ud wr̥tai to result IND./ PREC. x x
wī bhāmi to seem IND./ PREC. x x
wiklutóm jod to be widely known that IND./ PREC. x x

Onja sjūtra Other clauses
to be due to the fact
apo tēd wédhetor IND./ SUB./ PREC. x
that
moghō to be able x
Plakējō/ sm̥ wids (kosmei)
to agree on the fact that IND./ SUB./ PREC. x
esmi/ səmorqós (kosmei) esmi
prōd wédheti to bring about IND./ SUB./ PREC. x
skelō to have to, must x
tēd kom stístāti to consist of IND./ PREC. x
tēd lémbetoi to depend on IND./ SUB./ PREC. x
142
Wijugná sjūtra Disjunct clauses
n̥ dhibhorwa sjūtra Reportative clauses
Wíweqmi, seqō To speak, to say
Bhūlokaputsjūtrom The main clause is in the past
Dhghjesi sqet jod mūsānjom práidiwi Yesterday he said that the museum had
pətēbhūt been open (was open) the day before
Dhghjesi sqet mūsānjom práidiwi Yesterday he said that the museum had
pətētr̥ been open the day before (infinitive clause)
Dhghjesi sqet mūsānjom práidiwi Yesterday he said that the museum had
pətēlóm been open the day before (participle clause)
Dhghjesi sqet jod mūsānjom pətḗjeti Yesterday he said that the museum was (is)
open
Dhghjesi sqet mūsānjom pətētum Yesterday he said that the museum was
open (infinitive clause)
Dhghjesi sqet mūsānjom pətējont Yesterday he said that the museum was
open (participle clause)
Dhghjesi sqet jod mūsānjom pósterei Yesterday he said that the museum would
diwí pətḗseti be open on the following day
Dhghjesi sqet mūsānjom pósterei diwí Yesterday he said that the museum would
pətējes be open on the following day (infinitive
clause)
Dhghjesi sqet mūsānjom pósterei diwí Yesterday he said that the museum would
pətēsont be open on the following day (participle
clause)
Dhghjesi sqet jod mūsānjom krāsi Yesterday he said that the museum will be
pətḗseti open today (tomorrow)
Dhghjesi sqet mūsānjom krāsi pətējes Yesterday he said that the museum will be
open today (infinitive clause)
Dhghjesi sqet mūsānjom krāsi pətēsont Yesterday he said that the museum will be
open today (participle clause)
Sqet sī jod egō esmi She said that it was her (*that it is I)
143
Enstantkaputsjūtrom The main clause is in the present
Edjḗw séqeti jod mūsānjom dhghjesi Today he says that the museum was open
pətēbhūt yesterday
Edjḗw séqeti mūsānjom dhghjesi pətētr̥ Today he says that the museum was open
yesterday (infinitive clause)
Edjḗw séqeti mūsānjom dhghjesi Today he says that the museum was open
pətēlóm yesterday (participle clause)
Edjḗw séqeti jod mūsānjom pətḗjeti Today he says that the museum is open
Edjḗw séqeti mūsānjom pətētum Today he says that the museum is open
(infinitive clause)
Edjḗw séqeti mūsānjom pətḗjont Today he says that the museum is open
(participle clause)
Edjḗw séqeti jod mūsānjom krāsi Today he says that the museum will be
pətḗseti open tomorrow
Edjḗw séqeti mūsānjom krāsi pətējes Today he says that the museum will be
open tomorrow (infinitive clause)
Edjḗw séqeti mūsānjom krāsi pətēsont Today he says that the museum will be
open tomorrow (participle clause)
144
Bhewsn̥tkaputsjūtrom The main clause is in the future
Usrom séqseti jod mūsānjom Tomorrow he will say that the museum was
praidhghjesi/dhghjesi pətēbhūt open yesterday / that the museum has been
open today
Usrom séqseti mūsānjom praidhghjesi/ Tomorrow he will say that the museum was
dhghjesi pətētr̥ open yesterday / that the museum has been
open today (infinitive clause)
Usrom séqseti mūsānjom Tomorrow he will say that the museum was
praidhghjesi/dhghjesi pətēlóm open yesterday / that the museum has been
open today (participle clause)
Usrom séqseti jod mūsānjom pətḗjeti Tomorrow he will say that the museum will
(mēlei kosmi) be open at that moment
Usrom séqseti mūsānjom pətētum Tomorrow he will say that the museum will
(mēlei kosmi) be open at that moment (infinitive clause)
Usrom séqseti mūsānjom pətējont Tomorrow he will say that the museum will
(mēlei kosmi) be open at that moment (participle clause)
Usrom séqseti jod mūsānjom krāsi Tomorrow he will say that the museum will
pətḗseti be open on the following day
Usrom séqseti mūsānjom krāsi pətējes Tomorrow he will say that the museum will
be open on the following day (infinitive
clause)
Usrom séqseti mūsānjom krāsi pətēsont Tomorrow he will say that the museum will
be open on the following day (participle
clause)
145
Wrtjosm
̥ ̥ sopos Coordination of tenses
Wéqeti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos esti He says that the way is long
(PRES. IND.)
=Wéqeti pontēm dl̥ nghom bhewtum
=Wéqeti pontēm dl̥ nghom ésntm
̥ ̥
Wéqeti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos sjēt According to him, the way is long
(PRES. OPT.)
Wéqeti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhewsēt He says that the way may be long
(PRES. PREC.)
Wéqeti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhéwseti

(FUT. IND.)
He says that the way will be long
Wéqeti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhewsoit According to him, the way will be long
(FUT. OPT.)
Wéqeti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhūt He says that the way was long
(AOR. IND.)
Wéqeti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhūjḗt According to him, the way was long
(AOR. OPT.)
Weqét jod pontēs dl̥ nghos esti He said that the way was long
Weqét jod pontēs dl̥ nghos sjēt According to him, the way was long
Weqét jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhewsēt He said that the way might be long
Weqét jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhéwseti He said that the way would be long
Weqét jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhewsoit According to him, the way would be long
Weqét jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhūt He said that the way had been long
Weqét jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhūjḗt According to him, the way had been long
Wéqseti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos esti He will say that the way will be long
Wéqseti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos sjēt According to him, the way will be long
Wéqseti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhewsēt He will say that the way may be long
Wéqseti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhéwseti He will say that the way will be long
Wéqseti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhewsoit According to him, the way will be long
Wéqseti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhūt He will say that the will have been long
Wéqseti jod pontēs dl̥ nghos bhūjḗt According to him, the will have been long
Óljoisu prāi dhghomn̥ su lenght qija im He declared unto him before all the people
tétēgt/ tétēgsēt (PLPF. IND./ PL. PREC.) for what cause she had touched him, and
enim qota udhū́ koilujeto/ koilujēto how she was healed immediately
(AOR. IND./ AOR. SUB.)
146
Bhledō To boast
(Tod ambhí) bhledont, jod awobhorons They boast about the fact that they do not
nē lewont/ lewōnt/ lewoint pay taxes
Sewom ambhí bhledont awobhorons *They boast about themselves not paying
nē léwontn̥ s taxes
Sewe ənawobhorolewtum ambhí *They boast about their own tax-not-paying

bhledont
Putla ambhí bhledont awobhorons *They boast about their children not paying
nē léwonta taxes
Ins ambhí bhledont awobhorons *They boast about their (children’s) not
nē léwonta paying taxes
Eisom ambhí ənawobhorolewtum *They boast about their (children’s) tax-

bhledont not-paying
(Tod ambhí) bhlédonti, jod awobhorons They boast about the fact that they are
nē léwonti/ léwōnti/ lewoint paying no taxes
(Tod ambhí) bhledont, jod awobhorons They boast about the fact that they did not
nē luwónt/ luwōnt/ luwoint pay taxes
(Tod ambhí) bhledont, jod awobhorons They boast about the fact that they will not
nē léwsonti/ léwsōnti/ lewsoint pay taxes
(Tod ambhí) bhl̥ dont/ bhl̥ dānt (AOR. They boasted about the fact that they
EFF./ AOR. PROT.), jod awobhorons nē did/would not pay taxes
lewont/ lewōnt/ lewoint
(Tod ambhí) bhl̥ dont/ bhl̥ dānt, jod They boasted about the fact that they paid
awobhorons nē léwonti/ léwōnti/ no taxes
lewoint
(Tod ambhí) bhl̥ dont/ bhl̥ dānt, jod They boasted about the fact that they had
awobhorons nē luwónt/ luwōnt/ luwoint paid no taxes
Sewom ambhí bhl̥ dont/ bhl̥ dānt *They boast about themselves not having
awobhorons nē lūlóns paid taxes
Sewe ənawobhorolewtr̥ ambhí bhl̥ dont/ *They boasted about their own previous tax-
bhl̥ dānt not-paying
147
(Tod ambhí) bhl̥ dont/ bhl̥ dānt, jod They boasted about the fact that they would
awobhorons nē léwsonti/ léwsōnti/ pay no taxes
lewsoint
Sewom ambhí bhl̥ dont/ bhl̥ dānt *They boast about themselves not being-to-
awobhorons nē léwsontn̥ s pay taxes
Sewe ənawobhorolewes ambhí *They boasted about their own future tax-
bhl̥ dont/ bhl̥ dānt not-paying
(Tod ambhí) bhlédsonti, jod They will boast about the fact that they will
awobhorons nē léwont(i)/ léwōnt(i)/ not pay taxes
lewoint
(Tod ambhí) bhlédsonti, jod They will boast about the fact that they
awobhorons nē luwónt/ luwōnt/ won’t have paid taxes
luwoint
(Tod ambhí) bhlédsonti, jod They will boast about the fact that they will
awobhorons nē léwsonti/ léwsōnti/ not pay taxes thereafter
lewsoint
148
Woida To know
Woida tewom cenām dhwertum *I know you to be unfaithful to your wife
Woida tewom cenām dhwérontm̥ *I know you being unfaithful to your wife
Woida jod cenām dhwéresi/ dhwḗrēsi/ I know that you are unfaithful to your wife
dhwerois
Woida tewom cenām dhwertṛ *I know you to have been unfaithful to

your wife
Woida tewom cenām dhrulóm *I know you having been unfaithful to your
wife
Woida jod cenām dhruwés/ dhruwēs/ I know that you have been unfaithful to your
dhruwois wife
Woida tewom cenām dhweres *I know you to be unfaithful to your wife

in the future
Woida tewom cenām dhréusontm̥ *I know you being unfaithful to your wife in
the future
Woida jod cenām dhreuses/ dhreusēs/ I know that you will be unfaithful to your
dhreusois wife
Woidm̥ tewom cenām dhwertum *I knew you to be unfaithful to your wife
Woidm̥ tewom cenām dhwérontm̥ *I knew you being unfaithful to your wife
Woidm̥ jod cenām dhwéresi/ dhwḗrēsi/ I knew that you were unfaithful to your wife
dhwerois
Woidm̥ tewom cenām dhwertṛ *I knew you to have been unfaithful to

your wife
Woidm̥ tewom cenām dhrulóm
*I knew you having been unfaithful to your
wife
Woidm̥ jod cenām dhruwés/ dhruwēs/
dhruwois I knew that you had been unfaithful to your
wife
Weidsō cenām twojo dhruwenādhjom/
dhrutā́m/ jod cenā́ twojo dhruwetor/ I will know that your wife will have been
dhrúwētor/ dhrúwoitor cheated on by you
149
Pr̥ kskō To ask
Pr̥ ksketí qid dhídhēsi/ dhidhẽsi/ He asks what you are doing
dhidhīs (PRES. IND./ SUB. OPT.)
Pr̥ ksketí qid dhḗsesi/ dhḗsēsi / dhēsois He asks what you will do
Pr̥ ksketí qid dhēs/ dhẽs / dhəjēs He asks what you did
Pr̥ ksketí qid dhédhēta/ dhedhẽsi / He asks what you have been doing
dhedhējḗs
Pr̥ ksketí qid dhidhīs an He asks what you would do
Pr̥ ket qid dhídhēsi/ dhídhēsi/ dhidhīs He asked what you were doing
Pr̥ ket qid dhḗsesi/ dhḗsēsi / dhēsois He asked what you would do in the future
Pr̥ ket qid dhēs/ dhẽs / dhəjēs He asked what you had done
Pr̥ ket qid dhidhīs an He asked what you would do
Prékseti qid dhídhēsi/ dhídhēsi/ He will ask what you will be doing
dhidhīs
Prékseti qid dhḗsesi/ dhḗsēsi / dhēsois He will ask what you will do thereafter
Prékseti qid dhēs/ dhẽs / dhəjēs He will ask what you will have done
Prékseti qid dhidhīs an He will ask what you would do
Pr̥ ksketí qóterom an dhídhēsi/ He asks whether you are doing (it)
dhidhẽsi/ dhidhīs
150
Qéqoita (kn̥ sejō) To think, to deem
Qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō jod stāmr̥ tod cīwō/ I think that I am living this situation
cīwōm/ cī́woijəm (PRES. IND./ SUB./ OPT.)
Qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom jod stāmr̥ tod cīwō/ I thought that I was living this situation
cīwōm/ cī́woijəm
Qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō jod stāmr̥ tod I will think that I will be living this
cīwō/ cīwōm/ cī́woijəm situation
Mewom qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō stāmr̥ tod I think I am living this situation
cjōtum (ACT. PRES. INF.)
Mewom qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom stāmr̥ tod I thought I was living this situation
cjōtum
Mewom qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō I will think I will be living this situation
stāmr̥ tod cjōtum
Mewom qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō stāmr̥ tod I think myself living this situation
cīwontm
́ ̥ (ACT. PRES. PART.)
Mewom qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom stāmr̥ tod I thought myself living this situation
cī́wontm̥
Mewom qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō I will think myself living this situation
stāmr̥ tod cīwontm
́ ̥
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cjōdhjom qéqoita/ I think this situation is being lived by me
kn̥ sejō (PASS. PRES. INF.)
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cjōdhjom qéqoitm̥ / I thought this situation is being lived by me
kn̥ sejom
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cjōdhjom qeqitwṓs I will think this situation is being lived by
bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō me
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cīmóm qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō *I think this situation being lived by me
(PASS. PRES. PART.)
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cīmóm qéqoitm̥ / *I thought this situation being lived by me
kn̥ sejom
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cīmóm qeqitwṓs *I will think this situation being lived by me
bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō
151
Qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō jod stāmr̥ jāmi tod I think that I’ve already lived this situation
cīwóm/ cīwṓm/ cīwoijəm (AOR. IND./
SUB./ OPT.)
Qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom jod stāmr̥ jāmi tod I thought that I had already lived this
cīwóm/ cīwṓm/ cīwoijəm situation
Qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō jāmi jod I will think that I will already have lived
stāmr̥ tod cīwóm/ cīwṓm/ cīwoijəm this situation
Mewom qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō jāmi stāmr̥ tod I think I’ve already lived this situation
cjōtr̥ (ACT. AOR. INF.)
Mewom qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom jāmi stāmr̥ I thought I had already lived this situation
tod cjōtr̥
Mewom qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō jāmi I will think I will already have lived this
stāmr̥ tod cjōtr̥ situation
Mewom qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō stāmr̥ tod jāmi I think myself having lived this situation
cīlóm (ACT. AOR. PART.)
Mewom qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom stāmr̥ tod I thought myself having lived this situation
jāmi cīlóm
Mewom qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō I will think myself having lived this
stāmr̥ tod jāmi cīlóm situation
Stāmr̥ tod mojo jāmi cīwenādhjom I think this situation has been lived by me
qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō (PASS. AOR. INF.)
Stāmr̥ tod mojo jāmi cīwenādhjom I thought this situation has been lived by
qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom me
Stāmr̥ tod mojo jāmi cīwenādhjom I will think this situation has been lived by
qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō me
Stāmr̥ jāmi tod mojo cīwtóm qéqoita/ *I think this situation having been lived by
kn̥ sejō (PASS. AOR. PART.) me
Stāmr̥ jāmi tod mojo cīwtóm qéqoitm̥ / *I thought this situation having been lived
kn̥ sejom by me
Stāmr̥ jāmi tod mojo cīwtóm qeqitwṓs *I will think this situation having been
bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō lived by me
152
Qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō jod stāmr̥ tod cícīwa/ I think that I’ve been living this situation
cícīwom/ cícījēm (PF. IND./ SUB./ OPT.)
Qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom jod stāmr̥ tod I thought that I had been living this
cícīwa/ cícīwom/ cícījēm situation
Qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō jod stāmr̥ tod I will think that I will have been living this
cícīwa/ cícīwom/ cícījēm situation
Mewom qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō stāmr̥ tod I think I’ve been living this situation
cjōwr̥ (PF. INF.)
Mewom qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom stāmr̥ tod I thought I had been living this situation
cjōwr̥
Mewom qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō I will think I will have been living this
stāmr̥ tod cjōwr̥ situation
Mewom qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō stāmr̥ tod I think myself having been living this
cicīwósm̥ (ACT. PF. PART.) situation
Mewom qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom stāmr̥ tod I thought myself having been living this
cicīwósm̥ situation
Mewom qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō I will think myself having been living this
stāmr̥ tod cicīwósm̥ situation
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cjōwr̥ qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō I think this situation having been lived by
(PF. INF.) me
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cjōwr̥ qéqoitm̥ / I thought this situation having been lived
kn̥ sejom by me
I will think this situation having been lived

Stāmr̥ tod mojo cjōwr̥ qeqitwṓs by me
bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō
*I think this situation having been lived by

Stāmr̥ tod mojo cīwnóm qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō me
(PASS. PF. PART.)
*I thought this situation having been lived
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cīwnóm qéqoitm̥ / by me
kn̥ sejom
*I will think this situation having been
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cīwnóm qeqitwṓs lived by me
bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō
153
Qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō jod stāmr̥ tod cīwsō/ I think that I will live this situation
cīwsōm/ cī́wsoijəm (FUT. IND./ SUB./
OPT.)
I thought that I would live this situation
Qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom jod stāmr̥ tod cīwsō/
cīwsōm/ cī́wsoijəm
I will think that I will live this situation
Qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō jod stāmr̥ tod
cīwsō/ cīwsōm/ cī́wsoijəm
I think I will live this situation

Mewom qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō stāmr̥ tod
cīwes (ACT. FUT. INF.)
I thought I would live this situation
Mewom qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom stāmr̥ tod
cīwes
I will think I will live this situation
Mewom qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō
stāmr̥ tod cīwes
I think myself living this situation (in the
Mewom qéqoita/ kn̥ sejō stāmr̥ tod
future)
cī́sontm̥ (ACT. FUT. PART.)
I thought myself living this situation (in the
Mewom qéqoitm̥ / kn̥ sejom stāmr̥ tod
future)
cī́sontm̥
I will think myself living this situation
Mewom qeqitwṓs bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō
thereafter
stāmr̥ tod cī́sontm̥
I think this situation will be lived by me

Stāmr̥ tod mojo cī́wesdhjom qéqoita/
kn̥ sejō (PASS. FUT. INF.)
I thought this situation will be lived by me
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cī́wesdhjom qéqoitm̥ /
kn̥ sejom
I will think this situation will be lived by me
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cī́wesdhjom qeqitwṓs
bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō
*I think this situation being lived by me (in

Stāmr̥ tod mojo cītéwijom qéqoita/
the future)
kn̥ sejō (PASS. FUT. PART.)
*I thought this situation being lived by me
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cītéwijom qéqoitm̥ /
(in the future)
kn̥ sejom
*I will think this situation being lived by me
Stāmr̥ tod mojo cītéwijom qeqitwṓs
(in the future)
bhewsō/ kn̥ sesō
154
Kn̥ sejō/ dhōmejō/ qeisō jod Petros I consider that Peter is guilty for promoting
woināwents esti/ éseti/ sjēt (PRES. IND./ strife
SUB./ OPT.) ertim káktewos
Kn̥ sejō/ dhōmejō/ qeisō Petrom I consider Peter guilty for promoting strife
woināwentm̥ ertim káktewos
(bhewtum)
Kn̥ sejō/ dhōmejō/ qeisō Petrom *I consider Peter guilty promoting strife
woināwentm̥ ertim káknuwontm̥
Kn̥ sejō/ dhōmejō/ qeisō Petrom I consider Peter guilty because he promotes
woināwentm̥ (esn̥ tm̥ ) jod/ qod ertim strife
kákneuti
Tn̥ gējō/ awisdhijō To feel
Pl̥ táwijos chrētim/ chrēstim We feel the warming of the Earth

tn̥ gḗjomos/ awisdhíjomos
Pl̥ tawīchrētim / Pl̥ tawīchrēstim We feel the Earth warming

Chrskontm
̥ ̥ / chrḗjontm̥ pl̥ táwijām We feel the warming Earth
Chrētum / chrēstum pl̥ táwijām *We feel the Earth to warm

Tn̥ gḗjomos/ awisdhíjomos jod pl̥ tawī We feel that the Earth is warming
chr̥ sketí/ chr̥ skēti/ chr̥ skoit
chrḗjeti/ chrḗjēti/ chrḗjoit
Cherwr̥ tn̥ gḗjomos/ awisdhíjomos We feel the Earth having warmed

pl̥ táwijām
Chechrusjām pl̥ táwijām tn̥ gḗjomos/ We feel the having-warmed Earth

awisdhíjomos
Tn̥ gḗjomos/ awisdhíjomos jod pl̥ tawī We feel that the Earth has been warming
chéchore/ chéchoreti/ chéchoroit
Chrēs tn̥ gḗjomos/ awisdhíjomos *We feel the Earth being to warm
pl̥ táwijām
Chrḗs(s)ontm̥ pl̥ táwijām tn̥ gḗjomos/ We feel the being-to-warm Earth

awisdhíjomos
Tn̥ gḗjomos/ awisdhíjomos jod pl̥ tawī We feel that the Earth will be warming
chrḗs(s)eti/ chrḗs(s)ēti/ chrēs(s)soit
155
Wī bhāti It seems
Wī bhāti moi jod sújeti It seems to me that it is raining
Wī bhāti moi seutum It seems to me that it is raining
Wī bhāti moi jod súsowe It seems to me that it has rained
Wī bhāti moi seuwr̥ It seems to me that it has rained
Wī bhāti moi jod súseti It seems to me that it will rain
Wī bhāti moi seus It seems to me that it will rain
Wī bhāti moi jod sújēti It seems to me that it may be raining
Wī bhāt moi jod sújeti It seemed to me that it was raining
Wī bhāti moi seutum It seemed to me that it was raining
Wī bhāt moi jod súsowe It seemed to me that it had rained
Wī bhāt moi seuwr̥ It seemed to me that it had rained
Wī bhāt moi jod súseti It seemed to me that it would rain
Wī bhāt moi seus It seemed to me that it would rain
Wī bhāt moi jod sújēti It seemed to me that it might be raining
Wī bhāt moi jod súsoweti It seemed to me that it might have been

raining
Wī bhā́seti moi jod sújeti It will seem to me that it will rain
Wī bhā́seti moi seutum It will seem to me that it will rain
Wī bhā́seti moi jod súsowe It will seem to me that it will have rained
Wī bhā́seti moi seuwr̥ It will seem to me that it will have rained
Wī bhā́seti moi jod súseti It will seem to me that it will rain thereafter
Wī bhā́seti moi seus It will seem to me that it will rain

thereafter
156
Wī bhāti moi leughōn He seems to me a liar
Wī bhāti moi jod leughōn esti He seems to me that he is a liar
Wī bhāti moi (is) leughōn bhewtum He seems to me to be a liar
Wī bhāti moi (im) leughonm̥ bhewtum He seems to me to be a liar
Wī bhāti moi Prijotanantim It seems to me that Ferdinand is winning

seghtum (INF. PRES.)/
seghontm̥ (PART. PRES.)/
seghontm̥ bhewtum (PART. PRES +
bhewtum)/
Wī bhāti moi Prijotanantim It seems to me that Ferdinand won

segtr̥ (INF. AOR.)/
seghlóm (PART. AOR.)/
seghlóm bhewtum (PART. AOR +
bhewtum)/
seghontm̥ bhewtr̥ (PART. PRES + bhewtr̥ )
It seems to me that Ferdinand will win

Wī bhāti moi Prijotanantim
seghes (INF. FUT.)/
seghsontm̥ (PART. FUT.)/
seghsontm̥ bhewtum (PART. FUT +
bhewtum)/
seghontm̥ bhewes (PART. PRES + bhewes)
Ferdinand gives me the impression that he

Wī Priotanantis moi bhāti seghsonts/
will win
jod séghseti
Ferdinand gived me the impression that he
Wī Priotanantis moi bhāt seghsonts/
would win
jod séghseti
Ferdinand will give me the impression that
Wī Priotanantis moi bhā́seti seghsonts/
he will thereafter
jod séghseti
157
Enjougwa sjūtra Injunctive clauses
Chedhjō To beg
Komqiqerjosjūtrom Perfective clause
Im chedhóm me leides/ léidesei/ I begged him to allow me to play the

leidesenei snētlomn̥ swonejom hapsichord
Im chedhóm jod me lidēt/ lidoit I begged him that he would allow me to

snētlomn̥ swonejom AOR. SUB./ OPT. play the hapsichord
Im chedhóm jod me leidsēt I begged him that he would allow me to

snētlomn̥ swonejom PRES. PREC. play the hapsichord
Im chedhō me leides/ léidesei/ I am begging him to allow me to play the

Im chedhō jod me lidēt/ lidoit I am begging him that he allow me to play

snētlomn̥ swonejom AOR. SUB./ OPT the hapsichord
Im chedhō jod me leidsēt I am begging him that he allow me to play

snētlomn̥ swonejom PRES. PREC the hapsichord
Im chedhsō me leides/ léidesei/ I will beg him to allow me to play the

Im chedhsō jod me lidēt/ lidoit I will beg him that he allow me to play the
snētlomn̥ swonejom AOR. SUB./ OPT harpsichord
Im chedhsō jod me leidsēt I will beg him that he allow me to play the
snētlomn̥ swonejom PRES. PREC. hapsichord
N̥ komqiqerjosjūtrom Imperfective clause
Chedhónt me rounām bherghtum They begged me to keep the secret
Chedhónt me jod rounām bherghōm/ *They begged me that I keep the secret
bherghoim/ bherghsēm PRES. SUB./ PRES. OPT./ PRES. PREC.
Chédhjonti me jod rounām bherghōm/ *They beg me that I keep the secret
PRES. SUB./ PRES. OPT./ PRES. PREC.
bherghoim/ bherghsēm
Chédhsonti me jod rounām bherghōm/ *They will beg me that I keep the secret
bherghoim/ bherghsēm PRES. SUB./ PRES. OPT./ PRES. PREC.
Chédhsonti me rounām bherghtum *They will beg me to keep the secret

PRES. SUB./ PRES. OPT./ PRES. PREC.
158
Dikājō To order
Me dikājét skeustum He ordered me to shoot
Moi dikājét skeudos *He ordered to me the shoot
Moi dikājét jod skeudsēm PRES. PREC. He ordered to me that I should shoot
Moi dikājét jod skudēm/ skudoim He ordered to me that I should shoot

AOR SUB./ OPT.
Me dikā́jeti skeustum He is ordering me to shoot
Moi dikā́jeti skeudos *He is ordering to me the shoot
Moi dikā́jeti jod skeudsēm PRES. PREC. He is ordering to me that I should shoot
Moi dikā́jeti jod skudēm/ skudoim He is ordering to me that I should shoot

AOR SUB./ OPT.
Me dikā́seti skeustum He will order me to shoot

Moi dikā́seti skeudos *He will order to me the shoot
Moi dikā́seti jod skeudsēm PRES. PREC. He will order to me that I should shoot
Moi dikā́seti jod skudēm/ skudoim He will order to me that I should shoot
AOR SUB./ OPT.
Komqiqerjosjūtrom
Imperfective clause
Me dikājét silētum
He ordered me to be quiet
Moi dikājét silēsmn̥
*He ordered to me silence
Moi dikājét jod silēsēm PRES. PREC.
He ordered to me that I should be quiet
Moi dikājét jod silējōm/ silējoim
PRES. SUB./ OPT.
He ordered to me that I should be quiet
159
Me dikā́jeti silētum He is ordering me to be quiet
Moi dikā́jeti silēsmn̥ *He is ordering to me the be quiet
Moi dikā́jeti jod silēsēm PRES. PREC. He is ordering to me that I should be quiet
Moi dikā́jeti jod silējōm/ silējoim He is ordering to me that I should be quiet

PRES. SUB./ OPT.
Me dikā́seti silētum He will order me to be quiet
Moi dikā́seti silēsmn̥ *He will order to me the be quiet
Moi dikā́seti jod silēsēm PRES. PREC He will order to me that I should be quiet
Moi dikā́seti jod silējōm/ silējoim He will order to me that I should be quiet
PRES. SUB./ OPT
160
Wn̥ skō To wish
Wn̥ skō tewom apo eitum *I wish you to go
Wn̥ skō tewom apo jontm̥ *I wish you going
Wn̥ skō jod apo sódēsi I wish that you go
Wenóm tewom apo eitum *I wished you to go
Wenóm tewom apo jontm̥ *I wished you going
Wenóm jod apo sódēsi (AOR. SUB.) I wished that you went
Wensō tewom apo eitum *I’ll wish you to go
Wensō tewom apo jontm̥ *I’ll wish you going
Wensō jod apo sódēsi I’ll wish that you go
Wn̥ skō tewom mojo ad westum *I wish you to stay with me
Wn̥ skō tewom mojo adwésontm̥ *I wish you staying with me
Wn̥ skō tewom qod/jod mojo ad wésēsi I wish that you stay with me
(PRES. SUB.)
Wenóm tewom mojo ad westum *I wished you to stay with me
Wenóm tewom mojo adwesontm̥ *I wished you staying with me
Wenóm tewom mojo ad wésēsi I wished that you stayed with me
Wensō tewom mojo adwesontm̥ *I’ll wish you to stay with me
Wensō tewom mojo adwesontm̥ *I’ll wish you staying with me
Wensō tewom mojo ad wésēsi I’ll wish that you stay with me
161
Welmi (PRES. IND.), welīm (PRES. To want, to choose, to prefer

OPT.), wəljēm (AOR. OPT.), welsēm
(PRES. PREC.), wl̥ sēm (AOR. PREC.)
Welmi sweptum I want to sleep
Welīm/ wəljēm sweptr̥ I would like to have slept
Welīm jod sūnús dn̥ ghūwidjom I’d like that my son, having studied
gheln̥ dhlós dn̥ ghūwíds genēt/ genoit linguistics, becomes a linguist
Welīm sūnúm dn̥ ghūwidjom ghlenstum *I’d like my son to study linguistics and to
joqe dn̥ ghūwídm̥ gendhjom (2 x INF. become a linguist
PRES.)
Welīm sūnúm dn̥ ghūwidjom *I’d like my son studying linguistics and
ghlendhontm̥ joqe dn̥ ghūwídm̥ becoming a linguist
gignontm̥
Welīm jod sūnús dn̥ ghūwidjom I’d like that my son studies (IMPERF.)
ghlendhēt/ ghlendhoit (PRES. SUB./ linguistics and becomes a linguist (PERF.)
OPT.) joqe dn̥ ghūwíds genēt/ genoit
(AOR. SUB./ OPT.)
Welīm jod sūnús dn̥ ghūwidjom I’d like that my son would be studying
ghléndhēti (PRES. SUB..) dn̥ ghūwíds (IMPERF.) linguistics to become a linguist
gendhjōi (PERF.)
Welīm sūnúm dn̥ ghūwidjom ghlenstr̥ *I’d like my son to have studied linguistics
joqe dn̥ ghūwídm̥ genenādhjom and to have become a linguist
Welīm sūnúm dn̥ ghūwidjom *I’d like my son having studied linguistics
gheln̥ dhlóm (AOR. PART.) joqe and having become a linguist
dn̥ ghūwídm̥ gegn̥ wósm̥ (PERF. PART.)
Welīm jod sūnús dn̥ ghūwidjom I’d like that my son would have studied
gheln̥ dhsēt (AOR. PREC.) joqe linguistics and would have become a
dn̥ ghūwíds gensēt (AOR. PREC.) linguist
Wl̥ sēm jod sūnús dn̥ ghūwidjom I would have liked that my son would have
ghéln̥ dhissēt (PLPF. PREC.) joqe studied linguistics and would have become
dn̥ ghūwíds génissēt (PLPF. PREC.) a linguist
162
n̥ kējō To need
n̥ kējō sweptum/ swepes (INF. PRES./ I need to sleep to do the tomorrow exam
INF. FUT.) ausrótenōi dhḗtinōi skownōi
n̥ kējō/ n̥ kējoim sweptr̥ edjḗwtenōi I need/ I would need to sleep to do the

dhḗtinōi skownōi today exam
n̥ kējō te sm̥ tā́gosjo dostélona qreitum/ I need you to buy the ingredients of the
qreis recipe
n̥ kējō te sm̥ tā́gosjo dostélona qrināntm̥ / *I need you buying the ingredients of the
qreisontm̥ (PART. PRES./ PART. FUT.) recipe
n̥ kējō te sm̥ tā́gosjo dostélona qreitr̥ *I need you to have bought the ingredients
of the recipe
n̥ kējō te sm̥ tā́gosjo dostélona qrīlóm *I need you having bought the ingredients
of the recipe
n̥ kējō jod sm̥ tāgodostélona qrī́jesi (AOR. I need that you buy the ingredients of the
SUB.) recipe
n̥ kējō jod sm̥ tāgodostélona qéqrojes I need that you have bought the ingredients
(PF. SUB.) of the recipe
n̥ kējām jod sm̥ tāgodostélona qéqrojes I needed that you would have bought the
(PF. SUB.)
ingredients of the recipe
I need the ingredients of the recipe to be

Twojo n̥ kējō sm̥ tā́gosjo dostélona
bought by you
qreidhjom/ qreisdhjom
*I need the ingredients of the recipe being
Twojo n̥ kējō sm̥ tā́gosjo dostélona
bought by you
qrīmá/ qreitéwija (PART. PRES./ PART.
FUT.)
*I need you the ingredients of the recipe to
Twojo n̥ kējō sm̥ tā́gosjo dostélona have been bought by you
qrijenādjom (PASS. AOR. INF.)
*I need you the ingredients of the recipe
Twojo n̥ kējō sm̥ tāgodostélona qrītá having been bought by you
Twojo n̥ kējō jod sm̥ tā́gosjo dostélona I need that the ingredients of the recipe are
qrī́jontor (AOR. SUB.) bought by you
163
Twojo n̥ kējō jod sm̥ tāgodostélona I need that the ingredients of the recipe have
qéqrījontor (PF. SUB.) been bought by you
Twojo n̥ kējām jod sm̥ tāgodostélona I needed that the ingredients of the recipe
qéqrījontor (PF. SUB.) would have been bought by you
Ətmógolā srīgos n̥ kḗjeti sneightewei The atmosphere needs cold to snow
Ətmógolā srīgētum n̥ kḗjeti The atmosphere needs to be cold to snow

sneightewei
Ətmógolãi srīgos sneightewei n̥ kēiwom Cold is necessary for the atmosphere to

snow
Ətmógolãi srīgētus sneightewei *To be cold is Necessary for the atmosphere

n̥ kēiwos to snow
*To snow it is necessary the atmosphere

Sneightewei n̥ kēiwā srīgējonts being cold
ətmógolā
To snow it is necessary that the
Sneightewei n̥ kēiwom jod ətmógolā atmosphere be cold
srīgḗjēti PRES. SUB.
Mūriká mātewei sā́weljom (sāwl̥ ) The grapes need sun to ripen

n̥ kḗjonti
Mūriká mā́ jonta sā́weljom n̥ kḗjonti The ripening grapes need sun
Mūriká mātewei sulnētum n̥ kḗjonti *The grapes need to be sunny to ripen
Mātewei mūrikobhós n̥ kēiwos sā́weljos The sun is necessary for the grapes to ripen
Mātewei mūrikobhós n̥ kēiwos sulnētus *To ripen it is necessary for the grapes the
being sunny
Mājn̥ tbhós mūrikobhós n̥ kēiwos *For the ripening grapes the being sunny
sulnētus is necessary
Mājn̥ tbhós mūrikobhós n̥ kēiwom jod For the ripening grapes it is necessary that
sulnḗjēti PRES. SUB. it be sunny
164
Māwenei mūrikobhós n̥ kēiwom *To have been ripening, for the grapes the
sulnēwr̥ having-been-sunny is necessary
Meməwusbhós mūrikobhós n̥ kēiwom *For the having-been-ripening grapes the

sulnēwr̥ having-been-sunny is necessary
Meməwusbhós mūrikobhós n̥ kēiwom *For the having-been-ripening grapes it is

jod sulnḗbhowet PERF. SUB necessary that it have been sunny
Sḗmona gembhtewei wr̥ stām n̥ kḗjonti The seeds need rain to germinate
Sḗmona gémbhsonta wr̥ stām n̥ kḗjonti *The being-to-germinate seeds need rain
Sḗmona gembhtewei seuwr̥ n̥ kḗjonti *The seeds need to have been raining to
germinate
Gembhn̥ tbhós sēmn̥ bhos n̥ kēiwom For the germinating seeds to have been
seuwr̥ raining is necessary
Gembhtewei sēmn̥ bhos n̥ kēiwom seuwr̥ *To have been raining is necessary for the
seeds to germinate
Gembhtewei sēmn̥ bhos n̥ kēiwom jod To germinate it is necessary for the seeds
súsowet PERF. SUB. that it has been raining
165
Opos esti/ wergom esti It is necessary, il faut
Ghrāsmn̥ ámstinom/ amstéwijom (esti) The lawn needs mowing
Opos esti ghrāsmn̥ amstum (ACC.) It is necessary to mow the lawn
Opos esti ghrāsmn̥ amstewes (ABL.) It is necessary to mow the lawn
Tebhei opos esti ghrāsmn̥ amstum/ It is necessary for you to the lawn
amstewes
Opos esti jod ghrāsmn̥ mēsēs (AOR. It is necessary that you mow the lawn
SUB.)
Opos esti jod ghrāsmn̥ twojo mḗsētor It is necessary that the lawn be mown by
(AOR. SUB.) you
Opos ted esti ghrāsmn̥ ámsn̥ tes *There is need of you mowing the lawn
Opos ted esti ghrāsmn̥ amstewei There is need of you to mow the lawn
Ghortos obhidhorom/ obhidhoresmn̥ The garden needs maintenance

n̥ kḗjeti
Opos esti ghortom obhidhoretum It is necessary to maintain the garden

(ACC.)
Opos esti ghortom obhidhoretewes

(ABL.)
It is necessary to maintain the garden
Tebhei opos esti ghortom It is necessary for you to maintain the

obhidhoretum / obhidhoretewes garden
Opos esti jod ghortom obhidhorejēs It is necessary that you maintain the garden
(PRES. SUB.)
Opos esti jod ghortos twojo It is necessary that the garden be

obhidhoréjētor (PRES. SUB.) maintained by you
Opos ted esti ghorthom *There is need of you maintaining the

obhidhoréjəntes garden
Opos ted esti ghortōi obhidhoretéwijōi There is need of you to maintain the
garden
166
Bhíbheimi To be afraid
Bhibheim/bhejām mē ludhēt AOR. SUB. I was afraid that he would come
Bhibheim/bhejām jod ludhēt I was afraid that he would not come
Bhibheim/bhejām nemē / mē nē ludhēt I am afraid that he would not come
Bhibheim/bhejām mē ludhoit AOR. OPT. I was afraid that he would come
Bhibheim/bhejām jod ludhoit I was afraid that he would not come
Bhibheim/bhejām nemē / mē nē I am afraid that he would not come

ludhoit
Bhíbheimi mē ludhēt I am afraid that he will come
Bhíbheimi jod ludhēt I am afraid that he will not come
Bhíbheimi nemē / mē nē ludhēt I am afraid that he will not come
Bhíbheimi mē ludhoit I am afraid that he will come
Bhíbheimi jod ludhoit I am afraid that he will not come
Bhíbheimi nemē / mē nē ludhoit I am afraid that he will not come
Bheisō mē ludhēt I will be afraid that he will come
Bheisō jod ludhēt I will be afraid that he will not come
Bheisō nemē / mē nē ludhēt I will be afraid that he will not come
Bheisō mē ludhoit I will be afraid that he will come
Bheisō jod ludhoit I will be afraid that he will not come
Bheisō nemē / mē nē ludhoit I will be afraid that he will not come
167
Prōd bheudhō To be careful
Prōd bheudhe jod lugjām linēs Be careful to avoid the gap

AOR. SUB.
Prōd bheudhe mē lodi n̥kēs Be careful not to arrive late

AOR. SUB.
Kōnājai To try
Kōnā́jetoi pútlomos bhódsəmom aitum He tries to provide his children with the
uponojom (INF.) best education
Kōnā́bhūtoi pútlomos bhódsəmom He tried to provide his children with the
aitum uponojom best education
Kōnā́setoi pútlomos bhódsəmom aitum He will try to provide his children with the
uponojom best education
Kōnā́jetoi jod (swojā́) putlā́ bhódsəmom He tries that his children have the best
éikōnti uponojom (PRES. SUB.) education
Kōnā́bhūtoi jod (swojā́) putlā́ He tried that his children have the best
bhódsəmom éikōnti uponojom education
Kōnā́setoi jod (swojā́) putlā́ He will try that his children have the best
bhódsəmom éikōnti uponojom education
Kōnā́jetoi jod (swojā́) putlā́ bhódsəmom He tries that his children may have the best
eikoint uponojom (PRES. OPT.) education
Kōnā́bhūtoi jod (swojā́) putlā́ He tried that his children may have the best
bhódsəmom eikoint uponojom education
Kōnā́setoi jod (swojā́) putlā́ He will try that his children may have the
bhódsəmom eikoint uponojom best education
Kōnā́jetoi (swojā́) putlā́ bhódsəmom He tries that his children have the best
eiktum uponojom (INF.) education
Kōnā́bhūtoi (swojā́) putlā́ bhódsəmom He tried that his children have the best
eiktum uponojom education
Kōnā́setoi (swojā́) putlā́ bhódsəmom He will try that his children have the best
ektum uponojom education
168
Lubhējō /lubhjō I like
Lubhjō jod sū prōd wr̥ tēsói *I like that you behave well
Lubhjō tewom sū prōd wr̥ sdhjom *I like you to behave well
Lubhjō tewom sū prówr̥ tomnom *I like you behaving well
Lubhjō jod sū prōd wértesoi *I like that you behaved well

Lubhjō tewom sū prōd wertenādhjom *I like you to have behaved well
Lubhjō tewom sū prowertomnóm *I like you having behaved well
Lubhjō jod sū prōd wértsēsoi *I like that you will behave well
Lubhjō tewom sū prōd wértesdhjom *I like you to be behaving well
Lubhjō tewom sū prowértsomnom *I like you will be behaving well
Leubhsō jod sū prōd wr̥ tēsói *I will like that you behave well
Leubhsō tewom sū prōd wr̥ sdhjom *I will like you to behave well
Leubhsō tewom sū prówr̥ tomnom *I will like you behaving well
Qīmājō To appreciate
Qīmā́jomos jod upóstāna-nos prokéjēsi We appreciate that you request our

services
Qīmā́jomos tewom upóstāna-nos We appreciate your requesting our services

proketum
Qīmā́jomos tewom upóstāna-nos *We appreciate you requesting our services

prokéjontm̥
Qīmā́jomos jod upóstāna-nos peprekēsi We appreciate that you requested our

services
Qīmā́jomos tewom upóstāna-nos We appreciate your having requested our

proketr̥ services
Qīmā́jomos tewom upóstāna-nos *We appreciate you having requested our

prokelóm services
Qīmājomes jod upóstāna-nos peprekēsi We appreciated that you had requested our
services
Qīmājomes tewom upóstāna-nos We appreciated your having requested our

proketr̥ services
Qīmājomes tewom upóstāna-nos *We appreciated you having requested our

prokelóm services
169
Sm̥ jugná sjūtra Conjunct clauses
Upologhosjūtra Subject clauses
Apsrowokleutis me welmí lousujét The hearing of the water streaming

relaxed me a lot
Apsrowokleutus/ apsrowokleumn̥ me To hear the water streaming relaxed me a

welmí lousujét AOR. IND. lot
Apsrowom kleuwn̥ ts welmí lousujoma I relaxed a lot when hearing the water
streaming
Apsrowos qom kluwóm (=mojo The water streaming which I heard

klumós) welmí me lousujét (=heard by me) relaxed me a lot
Apsrowokleutus/ apsrowokleumn̥ me To hear the water streaming relaxes me a lot

welmí lousújeti PRES. IND.
Apsrowom kleuwn̥ ts welmí lousujai I relax a lot when hearing the water
streaming
Apsrowos qom kleumi (=mojo The water streaming which I hear (=heard
klumós) welmí me lousújeti by me) relaxes me a lot
Apsrowokleuwr̥ me welmí lousújeti To have heard the water streaming

relaxes me a lot
Apsrowom kluwṓs welmí lousujai Having heard the water streaming I relax a
lot
Apsrowos qom kékluwa (=mojo The water streaming which I have heard
klunós) welmí me lousújeti (=having been heard by me) relaxes me a
lot
Apsrowokleutus/ apsrowokleumn̥ me To hear the water streaming will relax me

welmí lousúseti FUT. IND. a lot
Apsrowom kleuwn̥ ts welmí loususāi I will relax a lot when hearing the water
streaming
Apsrowos qom kleusō (=mojo klumós) The water streaming which I wil hear
welmí me lousúseti (=heard by me) will relax me a lot
170
Wī bhāmi To seem
Wī noqterinós eksojos/ noqterinā́ Your going out at night seems dangerous to

éksitis/ noqterinós ékseitus/ noqterinóm me
ékseimn̥ tewe meghei pḗrowent bhāti
Wī noqtí moi eksí jonts dhr̥ sus bhāsi *You who go out by night seem bold to me
Jod noqtí eksí éjesi wī meghei It seems dangerous to me that you go out
pḗrowent bhāti PRES. SUB. by night
Wī noqterinóm eksostr̥ tewe meghei Your having gone out at night seems
pḗrowent bhāti dangerous to me
Wī noqtí moi eksí sodlós dhr̥ sus bhāsi *You who went out by night seem bold to
me
Jod noqtí eksí sodēs wī meghei It seems dangerous to me that you went out
pḗrowent bhāti AOR. SUB. by night
Wī noqterinóm ekséis tewe meghei Your future going out at night seems
pḗrowent bhāti dangerous to me
Wī noqtí moi eksí eisonts dhr̥ sus bhāsi *You who will go out by night seem bold to
me
Jod noqtí eksí éisēsi wī meghei It seems dangerous to me that you will go
pḗrowent bhāti FUT. SUB. out by night
Wī noqterinós eksojos/ noqterinā́ Your going out at night seemed dangerous

éksitis/ noqterinós ékseitus/ noqterinóm to me
ékseimn̥ tewe meghei pḗrowent bhāt
Wī noqtí moi eksí jonts dhr̥ sus bhās *You who went out by night seemed bold
to me
Jod noqtí eksí sodēs wī meghei It seemed dangerous to me that you went
pḗrowent bhāt AOR. SUB. out by night
171
Wī noqterinóm eksostr̥ tewe meghei Your having gone out at night seemed
pḗrowent bhāt AOR. INF. dangerous to me
Wī noqtí moi eksí sodlós dhr̥ sus bhās *You who had gone out by night seemed
bold to me
Jod noqtí eksí ijojes wī meghei It seemed dangerous to me that you had
pḗrowent bhāt PLPF. SUB. gone out by night
Wī noqterinóm ekséis tewe meghei Your future going out at night seemed
pḗrowent bhāt FUT. INF. dangerous to me
Wī noqtí moi eksí eisonts dhr̥ sus bhās *You who would go out by night seemed
bold to me
Jod noqtí eksí eisonts bhūsēs wī It seemed dangerous to me that you would
meghei pḗrowent bhāt AOR. PREC. go out by night thereafter
COMP.
Wī noqterinós eksojos/ noqterinā́ Your going out at night will seem

éksitis/ noqterinós ékseitus/ noqterinóm dangerous to me
ékseimn̥ tewe meghei pḗrowent bhā́seti
Wī noqtí moi eksí jonts dhr̥ sus bhā́seti *You who will go out by will seem bold to
me
Jod noqtí eksí éisēsi wī meghei It will seem dangerous to me that you will
pḗrowent bhā́seti FUT. SUB. go out by night thereafter
Wī Prijotanantis seghonts bhāti moi The fact that Ferdinand is winning

sprowós (winning Ferdinand) seems exciting to me
Wī Prijotanéntejos seghos meghei Ferdinand’s victory seems exciting to me

sprowóm bhāti
172
Mr̥ neumi To worry
Esjo ekspótosjo nē sr̥ kitus me mert The fact that he was not fixing the
AOR. IND. breakdown worried me
Is, ekspotom nē sr̥ kijonts, me mert *He, not fixing the breakdown, worried me
Jod ekspotom nē sr̥ kijet me mert That (=because) he was not fixing the
PRES. PROT. breakdown worried me
Esjo ekspótosjo nē sr̥ kiwr̥ me mert The fact that he had not fixed the
breakdown worried me
Is, ekspotom nē sr̥ kiwṓs, me mert *He, not having fixed the breakdown,
worried me
Jod ekspotom nē sr̥ kijət me mert That (=because) he had not fixed the
PERF. IND.
The fact that he would not fix the

Esjo ekspótosjo nē sr̥ kijes me mert
*He, not being to fix the breakdown,

Is, ekspotom nē sr̥ kisonts, me mert
worried me
That (=because) he would not fix the

Jod ekspotom nē sr̥ kíbhūsēt me mert
AOR. PREC.
Esjo ekspótosjo nē sr̥ kitus me mr̥ neuti The fact that he does not fix the
breakdown worries me
Is, ekspotom nē sr̥ kijonts, me mr̥ neuti He, not fixing the breakdown, worries me
Jod ekspotom nē sr̥ kíjeti me mr̥ neuti That (=because) he does not fix (=is not
PRES. EFF. fixing) the breakdown worries me
173
Esjo ekspótosjo nē srkiwr

̥ ̥ me mr̥ neuti The fact that he has not fixed the
breakdown worries me
Is, ekspotom nē sr̥ kiwṓs, me mr̥ neuti He, not having fixed the breakdown,
worries me
Jod ekspotom nē sr̥ kije me mr̥ neuti That (=because) he has not fixed the
PERF. IND. breakdown worries me
Esjo ekspótosjo nē sr̥ kijes me mr̥ neuti The fact that he will not fix the breakdown
worries me
Is, ekspotom nē sr̥ kisonts, me mr̥ neuti *He, not being to fix the breakdown,
worries me
Jod ekspotom nē sr̥ kíseti me mr̥ neuti That (=because) he will not fix the
FUT. IND. breakdown worries me
The fact that he will not be fixing the

Esjo ekspótosjo nē sr̥ kitus me mérseti breakdown will worry me
He, not fixing the breakdown, will worry

Is, ekspotom nē sr̥ kijonts, me mérseti me
That (=because) he will not be fixing the

Jod ekspotom nē sr̥ kíseti me mérseti breakdown will worry me
FUT. IND.
The fact that he won’t have fixed the

Esjo ekspótosjo nē srkiwr
̥ ̥ me mérseti
breakdown will worry me
He, not having fixed the breakdown, will

Is, ekspotom nē sr̥ kiwṓs, me mérseti
worry me
Jod ekspotom nē sr̥ kiwṓs bhéwseti me
That (=because) he won’t have fixed the
mérseti FUT. PERF. IND.
breakdown will worry me
The fact that he will not be fixing the

Esjo ekspótosjo nē sr̥ kijes me mérseti
breakdown thereafter will worry me
*He, not being to fix the breakdown, will

Is, ekspotom nē sr̥ kisonts, me mérseti
worry me
That (=because) he will not fix the

Jod ekspotom nē sr̥ kisonts bhéwseti
breakdown thereafter will worry me
me mérseti
174
Aiskróm esti It is clear
Aiskróm ēst/bhwāt jod tewom kā spekāt It was clear that she was looking at you
Aiskrós kāsjās tewom spektus It (was) clear her looking at you

(ēst/bhwāt)
Aiskrā́ kāsjās tewom spektis It (was) clear her looking at you
(ēst/bhwāt)
Aiskróm kāsjās tewom spekmn̥ It (was) clear her looking at you
(ēst/bhwāt)
Aiskrā́ tewom spékontī ēst/bhwāt *She was a clear looker at you
Aiskróm ēst/bhwāt jod tewom kā It was clear that she would be looking at
speksḗt AOR. PREC. you
Aiskrā́ tewom spéksontī ēst/bhwāt *She was a clear future-looker at you
Aiskróm ēst/bhwāt jod tewom kā It was clear that she had been looking at
spoksāt PLPF. PROT. you
Aiskrā́ tewom spekusī ēst/bhwāt *She was a clear having-been-looker at you
Aiskróm esti jod tewom kā spékjeti It is clear that she is looking at you
Aiskrós kāsjās tewom spektus (esti) It (is) clear her looking at you
Aiskrā́ kāsjās tewom spektis (esti) It (is) clear her looking at you
Aiskróm kāsjās tewom spekmn̥ (esti) It (is) clear her looking at you
Aiskrā́ tewom spékontī esti *She is a clear looker at you
Aiskróm esti jod tewom kā spekāt It is clear that she was looking at you
Aiskróm esti jod tewom kā spékseti It is clear that she will look / will be
looking at you
Aiskróm bhéwseti jod tewom kā

spékseti It will be clear that she will look / will be
looking at you
Aiskróm bhéwseti jod tewom kā
spekusī bhéwseti It will be clear that she will have looked/
will have been looking at you
Aiskrós kāsjās tewom spektus
(bhéwseti) It (will be) clear her looking at you
Aiskrā́ kāsjās tewom spektis (bhéwseti) It (will be) clear her looking at you
Aiskróm kāsjās tewom spekmn̥
(bhéwseti) It (will be) clear her looking at you
175
Smeirom esti/smeirom tod It is wonderful
Smeirom bhūt/smeirom tod jod weghjā It was wonderful that the road was being
sr̥ kíjātor AOR. PROT. repaired
Smeirom (bhūt) weghjās sr̥ kidhjom *It was wonderful the being repaired of the
road (infinitive clause)
Smeirom/smeirā (bhūt) weghjā *It was wonderful the being-repaired road

sr̥ kíjomā (participle clause)
Smeirom bhūt/smeirom tod jod weghjā It was wonderful that the road had been
sr̥ kíjətor/ sr̥ kinā́ (bhé)bhowe PLPF. E. repaired/ *had been being repaired
sr̥ kísātor/ sr̥ kinā́ bhuwāt PLPF. PROT.
Smeirom (bhūt) weghjās sr̥ kiwr̥ *It was wonderful the having been
repaired of the road (infinitive clause)
Smeirom/smeirā (bhūt) weghjā sr̥ kinā́ *It was wonderful the having-been
repaired road (participle clause)
Smeirom esti/smeirom tod jod weghjā It is wonderful that the road is being
sr̥ kíjetor PRES. EFF. repaired
Smeirom (esti) weghjās sr̥ kidhjom *It is wonderful the being repaired of the
road (infinitive clause)
Smeirom/smeirā (esti) weghjā sr̥ kíjomā *It is wonderful the being-repaired road
(participle clause)
Smeirom esti/smeirom tod jod weghjā It is wonderful that the road has been
sr̥ kijer/ sr̥ kinā́ esti PF. IND. repaired
Smeirom (esti) weghjās srkiwr

̥ ̥ *It is wonderful the having been repaired
of the road (infinitive clause)
Smeirom/smeirā (esti) weghjā sr̥ kinā́ *It is wonderful the having-been-repaired

road (participle clause)
Smeirom bhéwseti/smeirom tod jod It will be wonderful that the road will be
weghjā sr̥ kísetor FUT. IND. repaired
Smeirom (bhéwseti) weghjās *It will be wonderful the being repaired of

sr̥ kidhjom the road (infinitive clause)
Smeirom/smeirā (bhéwseti) weghjā *It will be wonderful the being-repaired

sr̥ kíjomā road (participle clause)
176
Dhabhóm esti It is surprising
Dhabhóm bhūt/dhabhóm tod jod It was surprising that the car was (might
woghnom nkr
̥ ̥ tóm bhúweti AOR. SUB. be) intact
Dhabhós (bhūt) woghnonkr̥ tobhowos *It was surprising the intact condition of
the car (nominal clause)
Dhabhóm (bhūt) woghnom nkr

̥ ̥ tóm *It was surprising the being-intact of the
(esn̥ t) car (participle clause)
Dhabhóm bhūt/dhabhóm tod jod It was surprising that the car had been
woghnom nkr
̥ ̥ tóm bhówissēt PLPF. (might have been) intact
PREC.
*It was surprising the having-been-intact
Dhabhóm (bhūt) woghnonkrtobheuwr
̥ ̥ of the car (infinitive clause)
Dhabhóm (bhūt) woghnom nkr

̥ ̥ tóm *It was surprising the having-been-intact
Dhabhóm esti jod woghnom nkr

̥ ̥ tóm It is surprising that the car is (may be)
éseti PRES. SUB. intact
Dhabhós (esti) woghnonkr̥ tobhowos *It is surprising the intact condition of the
car (nominal clause)
Dhabhóm (esti) woghnom nkr

̥ ̥ tóm *It is surprising the being-intact of the car
(esn̥ t) (participle clause)
Dhabhóm esti/dhabhóm tod jod It is surprising that the car has been (may
woghnom nkr
̥ ̥ tóm bhowet PF. SUB. have been) intact
Dhabhóm (esti) woghnonkr̥ tobheuwr̥ *It is surprising the having-been-intact of

the car (infinitive clause)
Dhabhóm (esti) woghnom nkr

̥ ̥ tóm *It is surprising the having-been-intact car
bhebhuwós (participle clause)
Dhabhóm bhéwseti/dhabhóm tod jod It will be surprising that the car will be
woghnom nkr
̥ ̥ tóm bhéwsēti FUT. SUB. intact
Dhabhós bhéwseti *It will be surprising the intact condition

woghnonkr̥ tobhowos of the car (nominal clause)
Dhabhóm bhéwseti woghnom nkr

̥ ̥ tóm *It will be surprising the being-intact of the
177
Ud wr̥ tai To result
Ud wr̥ teto jod pūrés dōm nē It resulted that the house was not insured
stipēbhwāt against fire
Ud wr̥ teto pūrés dōm nē stipētum The house resulted not to be insured
against fire
Ud wr̥ teto pūrés dōm nē stipējonts The house resulted not insured against fire
Ud wr̥ tetói jod pūrés dōm nē stipḗjeti It results that the house is not insured
against fire
Ud wr̥ tetói pūrés dōm nē stipētum The house results not to be insured against
fire
Ud wr̥ tetói pūrés dōm nē stipējonts The house results not insured against fire
Ud wr̥ tsetói jod pūrés dōm nē stipḗseti It will result that the house will not be
insured against fire
Ud wr̥ tsetói pūrés dōm nē stipētum The house will result not to be insured
against fire
Ud wr̥ tsetói pūrés dōm nē stipējonts The house will result not insured against
fire
Gígistoi It happens
Gisto jod akmōn upo tétleto It happened that the stone had been
removed
Akmōn gisto upo tlāwr̥ The stone happened to have been removed
Akmōn upotlānós gisto *The stone happened removed
Gígistoi jod akmōn upo tetler It happens that the stone has been removed
Akmōn gígistoi upo tlāwr̥ The stone happens to have been removed
Akmōn upotlānós gígistoi *The stone happens removed
178
Géisetoi jod akmōn upo tlānós It happens that the stone will have been
bhéwseti removed
Akmōn géisetoi upo tlāwr̥ The stone will happen to have been
removed
Akmōn upotlānós géisetoi *The stone will happen removed
Onja sjūtra Other clauses
Skelō Must, have to
Pelu mojo wérgosjo agrowikí kosmi Much work has to be done by me in this
dhētéwijom: arwom qelstum skelō, farm: I have to furrow the land, to fashion
kaplons tekstum, awigsnām amstum, the tools, to reap the oat, to thresh the
grānóm werstum, dheighlām peistum, grain, to crush, press and knead the dough
prestum debhtumqe
Moghō Can
Móghesi chedhjō moi wədn̥ krauqjom Can you please pass me the jug of water?
poti dōtum?
Apo tēd wédhetor To be due to the fact
Apo tēd wédhontor esjās dusjā́s Her bad marks are due to the fact that she
kénstejes, jod kom nē séghetoi neqe neither gets concentrated, pays attention, is
prōd bhéudheti, kowéjeti, méndhetoi perceptive, feels interest nor devotes herself
neqe epi stístāti
Apo tēd wedhontor esjās dusjā́s Her bad marks were due to the fact that she
kénstejes, jod kom nē séghāto neqe pro would neither get concentrated, pay
bhudhāt, kowébhuwāt, mn̥ dhāto neqe attention, be perceptive, feel interest nor
epi stāwāt devote herself
Apo tēd wedhontor esjās dusjā́s Her bad marks were due to the fact that she
kénstejes, jod kom nē sóghsāto neqe had neither got concentrated, payed
prōd bhoudhsāt, kowébhowsāt, attention, been perceptive, felt interest nor
móndhsāto neqe epi stéstowsāt devoted herself
Apo tēd wédhsontor esjās dusjā́s Her bad marks will be due to the fact that
kénstejes, jod kom nē soghei neqe prōd she has neither got concentrated, payed
bhoudhe, kowébhowe, mondhei neqe attention, been perceptive, felt interest nor
epi stéstowe devoted herself
Apo tēd wédhsontor esjās dusjā́s Her bad marks will be due to the fact that
kénstejes, jod kom nē soghnā́ neqe prōd she will have neither got concentrated,
bhudhusī, kowebhowusī, mn̥ dhnā́ neqe payed attention, been perceptive, felt
epi stestəwusī (bhéwseti) interest nor devoted herself
179
ənábhōrosjūtra Relative clauses
n̥swebhodhja éndoikwa Dependent defining (specificative)
Wīrós so qos anchins trins domoi éiketi This is the man who has three snakes at
home
Cenā sā qām móndhochei widóm This is the woman I saw on Monday
Qām nokteu n̥komes polim déiristā The city we arrived in by night was
bhūt (=polis qām nokteu n̥komes splendid (atraction of the antecedent)
déiristā bhūt: praisodospātis )
Wīróm medóm qesjo sūnús jekonjoi I met the man, whose son is in hospital
esti
Putlō galóm qosmōi dwirotlām dédōwa I talked with the child to whom I gave the
bike
Ati stelpe delr̥, qosmi troikta Revise the calculation in which you got
wrong
Prāi maqām tebhei stelō, qã eksi itājō I’ll introduce you to the girl I’m going out
with
Plāmn̥ tod qosmēd gnōnom ghōda This is the book I got the information from
Rūnājā́m n̥ kējō qā tr̥ qe mn̥ néwetoi I need a secretary which can translate
Neqid esti qod me croughḗjēti There is nothing that can make me sad
n̥swebhodhja witóreja Dependent descriptive (explicative)
Dhghjesi tm̥klom ghosóm, (edlom) qod Yesterday I ate curdled milk, (food) which
meghei wesprom atibhīt solwom repeated on me during the whole evening
Marijām sāgíjomos, qām ambhí dūdēd We are looking for Mary, about whom we
neqid widmé don’t know anything since long ago
Nokteu Mr̥ goselwām n̥ komes polim, qā We arrived by night in Brussels city, which
déiristā bhūt was splendid
Dōdhi-moi tod, qō tewom jewtum Give me that, with which I will be able to
moghsō help you
Dsām bhwitṓs Klutowoikom proti sonti, They started war against Ludovic, king of
qesjo rēgos dūtjos ludhét whom a messenger came
Prāi sesedét empiwídjejom komnom, He chaired the meeting about entomology,

qosmi dhōjoi suwids esti subject in which he is an expert
180
Newom imós widhunjom, qosmi We are going to the new park, in which
(qodhei) nū qontlos esti (where) there is now a festival
Pelu n̥kējet tlā́tjosjo, qād apólūtim He needs a lot of patience, which he

egējet absolutely lacks
Enterwoidos Karolã ikét, qesãi dūdom He had an interview with Carol, for whom
worge he has long been working
Prejr̥ leloubhóm pólejos énesās, qesāi I was delighted by the charm of that city, in
wosa tisr̥ns séptm̥tims which (where) I spent (remained) three
weeks
Swebhodhja éndoikwa Independent defining (specificative)
Ud jos ájeri stāt tosmōi deiwos dōt God gives to this who wakes up early (It is
the early bird that catches the worm)
Jom deiwōs lubhjont júwenis məríjeto The one whom the gods love dies young
Tebhei dāsō solwa ja n̥kḗjēsi I’ll give you all you need
Tosjo bhibhje ja wewqēs I’m afraid of what you may say
Jons nē werānt toibhos stēlām regsānt For any whom they did not find, they
raised a stele
Suwoljām prijejoim toisom joibhis I’d like to thank the good will of those with
olnom bhwitum moghō whom I can start the project
Mē trikḗs jodhei (josmi) prīsnim Don’t get wrong where you had difficulties
dusqorōs tebhei bhūnt before (=don’t make the same mistake)
Dōdhi-moi (tod) jō tewom jewtum Give me that with which I will be able to
moghsō help you
181
Jos (qis) pəróstətom nē klusoit mm̥ bhoitor

Módesjos wertos Modal value
Sóikejos Final
Wəlos stānom dikét, qosmi klīlísōnto The leader indicated the place where (in
which) they should camp (=so that they
would camp)
Neqis n̥ sme jos jéwēti (esti) (There is) nobody to help us (=who may
help us)
Wéismenjos (káiwotos deiktisjū́troisu) Causal (only in indicative clauses)
Prōd ənuktḗd wr̥ tesói, jos/ qos neqid You behave strangely, since you don’t give
n̥ sméi dídōsi us anything
Apóm eksloitrom tāsom obhistóm qod The drainpipe of these waters, being
ēst, auloworgos apo wḗwore obstructed, the plumber unblocked it
Kómseqmenjos Consecutive
Qis so dhwolnóteros, jos nē wekti Who is so crazy, that does not want to be
prijos-two bhewtum? your friend?
Upódhētijos Conditional
Ja nē woida, apo nē deikō weistum If (what) I don’t know, I don’t pretend I

know it
Ja tr̥ pijá sonti, nē dhḗsomos If it (what) is ugly, we won’t do it
Tebhei sqom mḗ n̥ wənmá (=ja I told you not to do (it if it) what is not
n̥ wənmá sonti) dhētum beautiful
Pətēwoqórejos ənábhōros Open class relation
Jos (qis) lówonjom eitum n̥ kḗjēti, nū (Anyone) who needs to to go to the toilet
éjeti should do it now
Jos (qis) domuwergom nē dhédhōjet, (Anyone) who hasn’t done the homework
edjḗw dḗmtijom éikseti gnṓmenjom will have a negative mark today
Jos (qis) domuwergom edjḗw dhidhẽt (Anyone) who does the homework today
(dhedhəwṓs sjēti), usrom dhḗmenjom will have a positive mark tomorrow
éikseti gnṓmenjom
(Anyone) who does not obey the boss will
Jos (qis) pəróstətom nē kléusēti be punished
mémbhsetor
182
(Anyone) who would not obey the boss (Anyone) who desires to come after me, let
would be punished him deny himself and take up his cross and
Jos (qis) mewom pos cemtum chélēti, follow me
apo sewom-pe əgjētói, kreukm̥
ghəbhjētí enim me séqētoi
An qis mewom pos cemtum chéleti, apo If any one desires to come after me, let him
sewom-pe əgjētói, kreukm̥ ghəbhjētí deny himself and take up his cross and
enim me séqētoi follow me
An qis mewom pos cemtum chélēti, apo If any one ever desires to come after me, let
sewom-pe əgjētói, kreukm̥ ghəbhjētí him deny himself and take up his cross and
enim me séqētoi follow me
Jos (qis) ousins kléumenei éikēti, (Anyone) who has ears to hear, let him hear
kléwēti
An qis ousins kléumenei éiketi, kléwēti If anyone has ears to hear, let him hear
183
Ambhistānosjūtra Circumstancial clauses
Soikowōdos The expression of finality

sm̥dhētla
ei, dō, ad
Somós upologhos promei upojukteiqe The same subject in principal and in

sjū́troisu subordinate clauses
Wodhlom sola Angljām kelutewei I bought a guide to travel to England
Wodhlom sola Angljām kélunqos I bought a guide intending to go to England
Wodhlom sola Angljām kelutjei I bought a guide for the trip to England
Wodhlom sola ad Angljām kelutim I bought a guide for the trip to England
Wodhlom sola Angljākelutim ad I bought a guide for the trip to England
Wodhlom sola Angljākelutisoikōi I bought a guide for the sake of the trip to
England
Wodhlom sola Angljākelutijoqōi I bought a guide with a view to travel to

England
Wodhlom sola Angljām setitewei I bought a guide to visit England
Wodhlom sola Angljãi setitéwijãi *I bought a guide for England to be visited
Wodhlom sola Angljām ad setíjotinām *I bought a guide for England to be visited
Wodhlom sola Angljãs ad setitim I bought a guide for the visit of England
Wodhlom sola Angljāsetitim ad I bought a guide for the visit of England
Wodhlom sola Angljāsetitisoikōi I bought a guide for the sake of visiting

England
Wodhlom sola Angljāsetitijoqōi I bought a guide with a view to visit

England
184
Éjomos sweptum Let´s go to sleep
Paulom (udwiklóm) protiwérumn̥ A small (upcoming) setback may block the

olnom énteri klawstum solwod entire project
mógheti
Paulom (udwiklóm) protiwérumn̥ enim A small (upcoming) setback and the entire
olnom énteri solwod kláwdetor project is blocked
Kom paulom (udwiklóm) ā́noke A small (upcoming) setback is enough to

protiwérumn̥ olnom énteri klawstewei block the entire project
solwod
Ōkinós esmi qid wógosjo euktum I am ready to practise some sport to get
kerktejei/ kerktewei slimmer
Ōkinós esmi qid wógosjo euktewi/ I am ready to the practice of some sport to
eukteī́ kerktejei/ kerktewei get slimmer
Mājósn̥ s jotnons dhēnt spordhām They made big efforts to win the match
wiktewei
Kritṓu upologhōu kaputsjūtrei Different subjects in principal and in

upjougosjūtreiqe subordinate clause
Mājósn̥ s jotnons dhēnt spordhãi *They made big efforts for the match to be
wiktéwijãi won
Dūtjom sesentóm tebhei udojowōdōi *I sent a messenger for the account of the
Dūtjom sesentóm tebhei udojī wōdōi result to you
Dūtjom sesentóm tebhei udojī west(e)jei
Dūtjom sesentóm tebhei udojom I sent a messenger to tell you the result
westewei
185
Dūtjom sesentóm tebhei udojom ad *I sent a messenger for the result to be told
wédotinom to you
Dūtjom sesentóm tebhei udojōi *I sent a messenger for the result to be told
westéwijōi to you
Dūtjom sesentóm ei udojom tebhei I sent a messenger so that he could tell you
wedḗt (AOR SUB.) the result
Dūtjom sesentóm ei udojom tebhei I sent a messenger so that he would tell you
wedīt (AOR. OPT.) the result
Dūtjom sesentóm qos udojom tebhei I sent a messenger who could tell you the
wedḗt (AOR SUB.) result
Dūtjom sesentóm qos udojom tebhei I sent a messenger who would tell you the
wedīt (AOR. OPT.) result
Dūtjom sesentóm udojom tebhei *I sent a messenger telling you the result
wedontm̥
Koisā́jonti mē qis skombet PF. SUB. They take care that no one has got lost
Koisā́jonti mē qis skomboit They take care that no one may have got
lost
Koisā́jonti mē qim skembwenei They take care that no one has got lost
Koisā́jonti mē qis skm̥ bēt They take care that no one will get lost
Koisā́jonti mē qis skm̥ boit They take care that no one may get lost
Koisā́jonti mē qim skembesei They take care that no one will get lost
Koisā́sonti mē qis skm̥ bnós bhéwsēti They will take care that no one will have
got lost
Koisā́sonti mē qim skembwenei They will take care that no one will have
got lost
Qid dhidhīmés, ei stístāsēt mēqe What could we do, so that it kept standing
piptsēt? and did not fall?
Qid dhəjīmés, ei stístāsēt mēqe What could we have done, so that it had
piptsēt? kept standing and had not fallen?
186
Bhewdhi swedhumenḗs ke-éterosom *Be polite, for the others’ appreciation to

qīmãi twe ad you
Bhewdhi swedhumenḗs ei ke-éteroi twe Be polite, so that the others appreciate

qīmā́ jōnti/ qīmā́ joijənt PRES. SUB./ you
OPT.
Bhewdhi swedhumenḗs ke-éteroīs Be polite to be appreciated by the others

qīmādhjōi
Koisā́jonti mē ghosr̥ ménkēti They take care that no food is lacking
Koisā́jonti mē ghosr̥ menkoit They take care that no food may be lacking
Koisā́jonti mē ghosr̥ menktewei They take care that no food is lacking
Koisā́jonti mē ghosr̥ ménksēti They take care that no food will be lacking
Koisā́jonti mē ghosr̥ menksoit They take care that no food may be lacking
in the future
Koisā́jonti mē ghosr̥ menkesei They take care that no food will be lacking
Kóisābhūnt (koisāsn̥ t) mē ghosr̥ They took care that no food was lacking
ménkēti
Kóisābhūnt (koisāsn̥ t) mē ghosr̥ They took care that no food might be

menkoit lacking
Kóisābhūnt (koisāsn̥ t) mē ghosr̥ They took care that no food was lacking
menktewei
Koisā́sonti mē ghosr̥ ménkēti They will take care that no food will be
lacking
Koisā́sonti mē ghosr̥ menkoit They will take care that no food may be
lacking
Koisā́sonti mē ghosr̥ menktewei They will take care that no food will be
lacking
Koisā́sonti mē ghosr̥ ménksēti They will take care that no food will be
lacking thereafter
187
Stānowōdos The expression of place
sm̥dhētla
jo(n)dhēd; jodhei; jōi, jō, jote
Proitistānom Place of departure
Eksí nāwes pluwónt jondhēd prāwnim The ships set sail from the place where
ānkn̥ t they had first arrived
Stānom qodhei qertis gígistoi Place where the action takes place
Urúsodejes qísāmes jodhei en We felt pretty comfortable where we had

klīlī́medha camped
Soikos
Destination
Einqos jote prōd kseutrom
stānetéwijom He has to go where they can fix his shaver
Módesjom prótinom Modal contrast
Woghejō twe jote chélesi I take you where you want
Woghejō twe jote chélēsi I take you where you may want
Woghejō twe jote chelois I take you where you may ever want
188
Mēlowōdos The expression of temporality
Relative Action limit not m arked Action limit marked Mixed composition
location of the Absolute location Singular action Iterative action Singular action Iterative action Singular Iterative
principal of the action action action
sentence
Anterior Past [11a] [11b] [11c] [11d]
Present/atemporal [12a] [12b] [12c] [12d]
Future [13a] [13b] [13c] [13d]
Simultaneous Past [21a] [21b] [21c] [21d] [21e] [21f]
Present/atemporal ----- [22b] [22c] [22d] ----- -----
Future [23a] [23b] [23c] [23d] [23e] [23f]
Posterior Past [31a] [31b] [31c] [31d]
Present/atemporal [32a] [32b] [32c] [32d]
Future [33a] [33b] [33c] [33d]
189
Antimēlowōdos The expression of anteriority
sm̥dhētla
anti qām, prāi qām, pərosei, próteri,
préiwijosi, preitjom, prótəmom,
dom, dōqod, adqod, adnēqod
dōnēqod, étiqe, prīsnim
11a Bhéwōqā dhētis 11a Actual fact

Prāi kr̥pjons eksí owóm qām en I took off my shoes before I entered
sodóm AOR. EFF. + AOR EFF. Before (my) going inside I took off
Énsostjes prāi kr̥pjons eksí my shoes
owóm
Intention/Indication of preparation
With a view to going in, I took off
Seiktis/Adesmn̥diktis
my shoes
Éneisonts kr̥pjons eksí owóm
I told her the truth before she got
angry
Prāi wēra tesãi wedóm qām
kr̥dītā́ bhūjḗt In anticipation of the fight, a treaty
Prāi sm̥dhēmn̥ pagtóm esti qām was struck
strudoint In anticipation of the fight, a treaty
Prāi sm̥dhēmn̥ págsēto qām would be struck
strudoint AOR. PREC. + AOR. OPT.
12a Actual fact
12a Bhéwōqā dhētis I’ve taken off my shoes before
Prāi kr̥pjons eksí ōwa qām en entering
ijoja PF. IND. + PF. IND
Before (my) going inside I’ve taken
Énsostjes prāi kr̥pjons eksí ōwa off my shoes
I am taking off my shoes before

Prāi kr̥pjons eksí owō qām en entering
eimi PRES. EFF.+ PRES. EFF.
Before (my) going inside I am
Énsostjes prāi kr̥pjons eksí owō taking off my shoes
Seiktis/Adesmn̥diktis With a view to going in, I’ve taken
Éneisonts kr̥pjons eksi ōwa off my shoes
Prāi wēra tesãi wōda qām I’ve told her the truth so that she
kr̥dītā́ bhūjḗt/sjēt PF. IND. + may not get/be angry
AOR./PR. OPT.
With a view to going in, am taking
Éneisonts kr̥pjons eksi ewō off my shoes
Prāi wēra tesãi wedō qām I am telling her the truth so that she
kr̥ dītā́ bhūjḗt PRES. EFF. + AOR. may not get angry
OPT.
190

Prāi kr̥pjons eksí owsō qām en I will take off my shoes before
sódōmi FUT. IND. + AOR. SUB. entering
Énsostjes prāi kr̥pjons eksí Before (my) going inside I will take
owsō off my shoes
Prāi seqe tod qām eksí sodēs Say this before you go out
PRES. IMP. + AOR. SUB.
Seiktis/Adesmn̥diktis With a view to going in, I will take
Éneisonts kr̥pjons eksi owsō off my shoes
Prāi wēra tesãi wedsō qām I will tell her the truth before she
kr̥dītā́ bhūjḗt FUT. IND. + AOR. gets angry
OPT.
Nē Rōmājōm swēdhus esti upo qim It is not the custom of the Romans to hand
dōtum prāi qām loknós dr̥kã en dr̥kām over anyone before the accused has (met)
lókontn̥s eikoit joqe énklēmn̥ kepoit the accusers face to face and has taken an
wertrōi loktesmn̥ proti dhētéwijōi opportunity to make a defense against the
PRES. IND.+ PRES. OPT.+AOR. OPT charge
191
11b Bhéwōqā dhētis 11b Actual fact

Prāi áiwesi pro ghawāt qām He would always phone before
ludhāt AOR. PROT. coming
Prāi áiwesi pro ghawāt cemtjes He would always phone before (his)
coming
Seiktis/Adesmn̥diktis Intention/Indication of preparation

Leudhsonts prāi áiwesi pro He would always phone before with
ghawāt PART. FUT.+AOR. PROT. a view to coming
Prāi áiwesi lughānt qām They would always lie before giving
alchom apo dəjent AOR. PROT. + back the money
AOR. OPT.
12b Actual fact
12b Bhéwōqā dhētis
Prāi áiwesi pro ghawet qām He always phones before coming
cemjet PRES. PROT.
Prāi áiwesi pro ghawet cemtjes He always phones before (his)

coming
Prāi dhūlā tercet quām nedhet The tempest threatens before it rises

Leudhsonts prāi áiwesi pro He always phones before with a
ghawet. view to coming
Prāi áiwesi leughont qām They always lie before giving back
alchom apo dəjent PRES. PROT.+ the money
AOR. OPT.
13b Bhéwōqā dhētis 13b Actual fact

Prāi áiwesi pro cháwseti qām He will always phone before
ludhēt FUT. IND..+ AOR. SUB. coming
Prāi áiwesi pro cháwseti He will always phone before his

cemtjes coming (=13a)

Leudhsonts prāi áiwesi pro He will always phone before with a
cháwseti view to coming (=13a)
Prāi áiwesi léughsonti qām They will always lie before giving
alchom apo dəjent FUT. IND..+ back the money
AOR. OPT.
192
11c Bhéwōqā dhētis 11c Actual fact

Swpomes/swpāmes adqod We kept sleeping until we heard the
stropom kleumes noise
AOR. EFF./PROT.+AOR. EFF
Skroibht/skróibhsāto adqod wī It remained written until they

tod lijónt PLPF. EFF./PROT.+AOR. deleted it
EFF.
He did not announce the victory
Seghos nē prāi karét qām polim until he reached the city
ept AOR. EFF.+AOR. EFF.
Seiktis/Adesmn̥diktis
Swpāmes adqod stropom
We kept sleeping until we would
kléwīmes (=dō stropoklūtim)
AOR. PROT.+ AOR. OPT.
hear any noise
Skróibhsāto adqod wī tod
lijoint (=dō wilojom) It remained written until they could
Seghom prāi nē karsēt qām delete it (=until deletion)
polim epoit AOR. PREC. + AOR.
OPT. He would not announce the victory
(=əptā́m dō polim, eptim dō until he would reach the city
pólejos, dō polīptím)
12c Bhéwōqā dhētis 12c Actual fact

Tlóqomedha adqod eksí We are talking until we run out of
kréddhēmn̥ ausijōmes credit
PRES. EFF. + AOR. SUB.
Skroibhei adqod wī tod lijōnt It remains written until they delete it
PF. IND. + AOR. SUB.

Tlóqomedha adqod eksí We are talking until we may run out
kréddhēmn̥ ausijoimes of credit
PRES. EFF. + AOR. OPT.
Skroibhei adqod wī tod lijoint It remains written until they may
PF. IND. + AOR. OPT.
delete it
13c Bhéwōqā dhētis
13c Actual fact
Swépsomos adqod stropom
We’ll be sleeping until we hear the
kléuwomes noise
FUT. IND. + AOR. SUB.
Skribhtóm bhéwseti adqod It will remain written until they will

wī tod lijōnt delete it
Trejes procecəwoses bhéwsonti Three months will elapse

mḗnoses adqod eksí wēra until/before they discover the truth
weront
FUT. PF. IND. + AOR. SUB.
193

Swépsomos adqod stropom We’ll be sleeping until we might
kléwīmes hear the noise
Skribhtóm bhéwseti adqod It will remain written until they can

wī tod lijoint delete it
Trejes procecəwoses bhéwsonti Three months will elapse

mḗnoses adqod eksí wēra until/before they might discover
werjént the truth
11d Bhéwōqā dhētis 11d Actual fact

Leumn̥ əneu kelujāmes adqod We would travel without paying
mm̥bhomes until we got punished
AOR. PROT. + AOR. EFF.
Leumn̥ əneu kelujāmes n̥seróm We would travel without paying

dō mombhom until our punishement

Leumn̥ əneu kelújāmes adqod We travelled without paying until
mm̥bhoimes we could get punished
AOR. PROT. + AOR. OPT.

Leumn̥ əneu nitjēd kelújomes We usually travel without paying
adqod mémbhomes until we get punished
PRES. PROT. + PRES. PROT.

Leumn̥ əneu kelújomes adqod We are travelling without paying
m mm̥bhoimes until we get punished
PRES. PROT. + AOR. OPT.

Leumn̥ əneu kelúsomes adqod We will travel without paying until
mm̥bhēmes we get punished
FUT. + AOR. SUB.

Leumn̥ əneu kelúsomes adqod We will travel without paying until
mm̥bhoimes we (may) get punished
FUT. + AOR. OPT.
194
Səmitiwōdos The expression of simultaneity
sm̥dhētla
seijod, qidei, jāwn̥ ts
səm, səmitū, jom, dom, mom, -
mētrom
21a Pródoikots jom petet, stenmn̥ 21a When the actor fell down, the
qesnim str̥pet orchestra rumbled plaintively
*The actor falling down, the

Pródoiketi piptn̥ tí, stenmn̥
orthestra rumbled plaintevely
qesnim str̥pet
(En) pródoiketos potoi, stenmn̥ With the actor’s downfall the

qesnim str̥pet orchestra rumbled plaintively
Ksuróm jom eksí dhr̥ ghét, When he took out the knife, I got
tresoma scared
Ksuróm eksí dhraghn̥ tí When taking out the knife (having
(dhr̥ ghlō), tresoma taken out), I got scared
Ksuróm en (esjo) dhraghtewi In (his) taking out the knife, I got
tresoma scared
22a [ménketi] 22a [uacat]
Pródoikots jom pétseti, stenmn̥ When the actor falls down, the
qesnim strépseti 2x FUT. IND. orchestra will rumble plaintively
(En) pródoiketos potoi, stenmn̥ With the actor’s downfall the

qesnim strépseti orchestra will rumble plaintively
Apo jom éisesi, dhworim When you go, close the door
klawde
Apo jonts dhworim klawde When going, close the door
En apo itewi/ (en) apo ojoi When going, close the door
dhworim klawde

Sedos jom dr̥kōm, sedsō When I see a seat, I will sit down
AOR. SUB. + FUT. IND.
When I happen to see a seat, I will
Sedos jom dr̥koijəm, sedsō sit down
AOR. OPT. + FUT. IND.
195
21b Stoighom jom trām (=stoighom 21b When crossing a street (=everytime
sei trām, áiwesi déksterō-laiwō I crossed a street), I always looked
spekām right and left
Stoighom en tertewi áiwesi *In the crossing a street, I always

déksterō-laiwō spekām looked right and left
Stoighom trānts (teronts), As I crossed a street, I always

áiwesi déksterō-laiwō spekām looked right and left
Bhlōtom dr̥kāt sei, menāt wesr̥ When he saw a flower, he would

jāmi bhewtum (kolisposmḗlejā) think it was already spring (quasipost.)
Bhlōtom dr̥klós, menāt wesr̥ Having seen a flower, he would

jāmi bhewtum (posmḗlejā) think it was already spring
(posterior)
Bhlōtom en dr̥ktewi/ en *In seing a flower, he would think it
dr̥kteni, menāt wesr̥ jāmi was already spring
bhewtum
When we passed through the cloud
Nébhesē perti jom imés we were afraid
bhíbhīmes
When we passed through the cloud
Nébhesē perti jontes bhíbhīmes we were afraid
Nébhesē perti en itewi *In passing through the cloud, we

bhíbhīmes were afraid
22b Stoighom terom sei, (áiwesi) 22b Everytime I cross a street, I look
déksterō-laiwō spekjom right and left
Stoighom jom terō, áiwesi When crossing a street, I always look

déksterō-laiwō spekjō right and left
Stoighom trānts (teronts), As I cross a street, I always look

áiwesi déksterō-laiwō spekjō right and left
Stoighom en tertewi áiwesi *In the crossing a street, I always

déksterō-laiwō spekjō look right and left
Séikena ta en upo seqdhjoi, In pursuing these objectives, the

Einos séqomna sénseti qérmona, Union shall carry out the following
qelnubhūmn̥ qérmona sm̥ pl̥ nānts activities, complementing the
activities carried out in the Member
23b Stoighom jom tersō, áiwesi States
déksterō-laiwō speksō
Stoighom en tertewi áiwesi 23b When I will cross a street, I will
déksterō-laiwō speksō always look right and left
*In the crossing a street, I will
always look right and left
196
21c Demtṓr drājāt joqe səmitū 21c The bricklayer worked and whistled
swisdāt at the same time
Demtṓr swisdāt dom drājāt The bricklayer whistled while he

Drājonts demtṓr swisdāt worked
The bricklayer whistled while
Drātim jāwn̥ts (drāteī́) demtṓr working
swisdāt The bricklayer whistled during the
work (at work).
Drātimētrom demtṓr swisdāt
*The bricklayer whistled in the
Neqom gr̥nos mədet jāwn̥ts meantime of work
deuks n̥serós cecsāt
AOR. EFF. + PLPF. PROT. Never did the council meet while our
leader was away
22c Demtṓr swéisdeti joqe səmitū
drā́jeti 22c The bricklayer works and whistles at
the same time
Demtṓr swéisdeti dom drā́ jeti
The bricklayer whistles while he
Drājonts demtṓr swéisdeti works
The bricklayer whistles while
Drātim jāwn̥ts demtṓr swísdeti working
The bricklayer whistles during the
work
*Drātimētrom demtṓr swísdeti
*The bricklayer whistles in the
meantime he works
Nū altjṓs esmi, nē meghei pelu
esti daitjos Now I am an adult, I don’t have
much time
Qidei skównoisi nuwətṓs
səmes, Weteljām usdhowōi Now we have passed our exams, we
bhūmós are on holidays in Italy. (quasiposterior)
23c Demtṓr swéisdseti drā́ seti dom 23c The bricklayer will whistle while (he
will be) working
Drājonts demtṓr swéisdseti The bricklayer will whistle while

working
21d Demtṓr swisdāt áiwesi dom 21d The bricklayer would always
drājāt whisle while working
22d Demtṓr swéisdeti áiwesi dom 22d The bricklayer always whisles
drā́ jeti while working
23d Demtṓr swéisdseti áiwesi dom 23d The bricklayer will always
drā́ seti whistle while working
197
21e Jāwn̥ts wī qid dhēs labhānt, 21e While they were debating what to
néwostis molét do, the news came up
Jāwn̥ts wī qid dhēs lábhontes While they were people debating

esānt, néwostis molét what to do, the news came up
Wī qid dhēs lábhontom (gen. While debating what to do, the news
abs.), néwostis molét came up
Jāwn̥ts wī qid dhēs lábhātor, While what to do was being

néwostis molét discussed, the news came up
Jāwn̥ts wī qid dhēs labhmom While what to do was object of

ēsāt, néwostis molét discussion, the news came up
Wī qid dhēs lábhmosjo (gen. What to do being object of

abs.), néwostis molét discussion, the news came up
Qid dhēs en wī labhtewi/ *In the debate what to do, the news
labhdhjoi néwostis molét came up
Jom putlom ēsām, meghei When I was a child, I had a lot of

daitjos teusmn̥ esāt enim skidóm time and decided to learn music
swenmn̥ dídəktum
Qidei (=praipodei jom) When (=on the occasion of) we

skównoisi nuwətṓs ésāmes, passed all our exams, we went on
Weteljām usdhowōi sodomes holiday to Italy (quasiposterior)
22e [ménketi] 22e [uacat]
23e Bhéwōqā dhētis 23e Actual fact

Jāwn̥ts wī qid dhēs lábhsonti, While they will be debating what to
néwostis mólseti do, the news will come up
Qidei skównoisi nuwətṓs Having passed all our exams, we

bhéwsomes, Weteljām will go on holiday to Italy
usdhowōi éisomos/léitsomos. (quasiposterior)
(kolisposmḗlejā)
Jom senos bhewsō, meghei When I am old I will have a lot of

time and will decide what to do with
daitjos teusmn̥ bhéwseti enim
it
skeidsō qid tābhi dhēs
198
Kolisposmḗlejā Quasiposterior
Apo léudhsesi, bhā́somedha You’ll come back, we’ll speak
Apo jom léudhsesi, When you come back, we’ll speak

bhā́somedhai
Apo tewe ludhlosjo, Having you come back, we´ll speak

bhā́ somedhai

Jom senos bhuwom (an When I am old (if I can), I will
moghōm), skeidsō qid dáitibhi decide what to do with my time
dhēs AOR. SUB.+FT. IND.
When I am old (if I ever have the
Jom senos bhūjḗm (praipodom chance), I will decide what to do
an eiksēm), skeidsō qid dáitibhi with my time
dhēs AOR. OPT.+FT. IND.
21f Jāwn̥ts wī qid dhēs labhānt, 21f While they were debating what to
áiwesi néwostis molāt (moltājāt) do, the news would always come up
Qid dhēs en wī labhtewi áiwesi *In the debating what to do, the
néwostis molāt (moltājāt) news would always come up
22f [ménketi] 22f [uacat]
23f Jāwn̥ts wī qid dhēs lábhsonti 23f While they will be debating what to
(labhtā́sonti), áiwesi néwostis do, the news will always come up
mólseti (moltā́seti) FUT. (ITER.)
Qid dhēs en wī labhtewi áiwesi *In the debating what to do, the
néwostis mólseti (moltā́seti) news will always come up
FUT. (ITER.)
199
Posmēlowōdos The expression of posteriority

sm̥dhētla
pos, posti, posnim, jom epi, ápori,
metá, jn̥ tos, apoqod, ítāpo, ita tom,
jom epi
Pos kr̥pjons tr̥góm qām dānum I wiped my shoes after crossing the
teróm AOR. EFF.+ AOR. EFF. river
Kr̥pjons tr̥góm dānewos pos I wiped my shoes after the crossing

tertim of the river
I wiped my shoes after ther river-

Kr̥pjons tr̥góm dānutr̥tim
crossing
/dānutorom pos
Having crossed the river, I wiped
Dānum tetr̥ wṓs/ tetərusjā
my shoes
kr̥pjons tr̥góm
I wiped my shoes as soon as I
Kr̥pjons tr̥góm jom epi dānum
crossed the river
teróm/ jom epi dānum tetr̥ wṓs/ (quasisimultaneous)
tetərusjā
I wiped my shoes just after the
Kr̥pjons tr̥góm epi dānutr̥tim pos river-crossing
Pos Mónākom teksḗnt qām They would flee to Monaco after
kusdhom kl̥pont stealing the treasure (and they did
steal the treasure)
Pos Mónākom teksḗnt qām
kusdhom kl̥point AOR. PREC.+ They would flee to Monaco after
AOR. OPT. stealing the treasure (but
everything was just a plan)
Mónākom teksḗnt kúsdhosjo
pos klopom/kusdhom pos
They would flee to Monaco after the
kl̥ptóm/ kusdhoklopom pos
theft of the treasure
Pos Mónākom tekwōnt qām
They may have fled to Monaco after
kusdhom kl̥pont AOR. SUB.+ stealing the treasure (the theft is a
AOR. EFF.
fact)
Pos Mónākom tekwōnt qām
They may have fled to Monaco after
kusdhom kl̥point AOR. SUB.+
AOR. OPT. stealing the treasure (everything is
Pos Mónākom tekwoint qām a conjecture)
kusdhom kl̥point AOR. OPT.+
AOR. OPT. Let’s hope they have fled to Monaco
after stealing the treasure
200
Pos kr̥pjons torga qām dānum I’ve wiped my shoes after crossing
tora PF. IND.+PF. IND. the river
Kr̥pjons torga dānutr̥tim I’ve wiped my shoes after the river-

/dānutorom pos/dānewos crossing/the crossing of the river
tertim
Having crossed the river, I’ve wiped
Dānum tetr̥ wṓs/ tetərusjā my shoes
kr̥pjons torga PF. PRT.+ PF/ IND.
I’ve wiped my shoes as soon as I
Kr̥pjons torga jom epi dānum have crossed the river
tora/ jom epi dānum tetr̥ wṓs/ (quasisimultaneous)
tetərusjā
Pos kr̥pjons tergō qām dānum I am wiping my shoes after crossing

tora PRES. IND.+ PF. IND. the river
Kr̥pjons tergō dānutr̥tim I am wiping my shoes after the

/dānutorom pos/dānewos river-crossing/the crossing of the
tertim river
Dānum tetr̥ wṓs/ tetərusjā Having crossed the river, I am

kr̥pjons tergō PF. PRT+PRES. IND. wiping my shoes
I am wiping my shoes just after

Kr̥pjons tergō jom epi dānum
crossing the river
tora/ jom epi dānum tetr̥ wṓs/
(quasisimultaneous)
tetərusjā
Domus məgjṓs prépeti

The house looks bigger after they
ápori werga dhédhōra
have done works
Domus məgjṓs prépeti
The house looks bigger after the
wergodhēmn̥ pos
execution of the works
Pertidemnā́ domus məgjṓs
The house looks bigger once it has
prépeti PF. PART. +PRES. IND.
been refurbished
Pos Mónākom tekwōnti qām They may be fleeing to Monaco
kusdhom kl̥point after stealing the treasure
Mónākom tekwōnti They may be fleeing to Monaco
kusdhoklopom pos/kúsdhosjo after the theft of the treasure
pos klopom/kusdhom pos
kl̥ptóm
201
Pos kr̥pjons tergsō qām dānum I will wipe my shoes after crossing
torom FUT. IND. + PF. SUB. the river
Kr̥pjons tergsō dānutr̥tim I will wipe my shoes after the river-

/dānutorom pos/dānewos crossing/the crossing of the river
tertim
Dānum tetr̥ wṓs/ tetərusjā Having crossed the river, I will

kr̥pjons tergsō wipe my shoes
Kr̥pjons tergsō jom epi dānum I will wipe my shoes as soon as I

torom/ jom epi dānum tetr̥ wṓs/ have crossed the river
tetərusjā (quasisimultaneous)
Pos Mónākom téksonti qām

kusdhom kl̥point FUT. IND. They will flee to Monaco after
+AOR. OPT. stealing the treasure
Mónākom téksonti
kusdhoklopom pos/kúsdhosjo They will flee to Monaco after
pos klopom/kusdhom pos stealing the treasure
kl̥ptóm
Pos Mónākom téksōnt(i) qām They may flee to Monaco after

kusdhom kl̥point stealing the treasure
Mónākom téksōnt(i)
kusdhoklopom pos/kúsdhosjo They may flee to Monaco after the
pos klopom/kusdhom pos theft of the treasure
kl̥ptóm
202
31b Áiwesi pos skeidāt qām 31b He always decided after both parts
(ambhāu) aitje wewqātām/ had spoken
wṓqsātām
AOR. PROT. + AOR./PLPF PROT.
Áiwesi skeidāt (ambhāus) aitjus He always decided after both parts

wewqlóus/woqwesus had spoken
AOR. PROT. + PART. AOR./PF.
Áiwesi pos skeidāt (ambhāus)

He always decided after the speech
aitjus wōqom/weqtim pos
of both parts
Áiwesi skeidāt
He always decided after the
ambhāitiwōqom/ambhāitiweqt
bilateral speech
im pos
Áiwesi pos skeidāt jom epi

He always decided just after both
(ambhāu) aitje wewqātām/
parts had spoken
wṓqsātām
Áiwesi skeidāt epi

He always decided just after the
ambhāitiwōqom/ambhāitiweqt
speech of both parts
im pos / (ambhāus) aitjus
wōqom/weqtim pos
32b Áiwesi pos skeidet qām

32b He always decides after both parts
(ambhāu) aitje wíweqtām
PRES. PROT.. + PRES. PROT. have spoken
Áiwesi skeidet (ambhāus) He always decides after both parts

aitjus wewqlóus/woqwesus have spoken
Áiwesi skeidet
ambhāitiwōqom/ambhāitiweqt He always decides after the speech
im pos / (ambhāus) aitjus pos of both parts
wōqom/weqtim
Áiwesi pos skeidet jom epi He always decides just after both
(ambhāu) aitje wíweqtām parts have spoken
203
33b Áiwesi pos skéidseti qām 33b He will always decide after both
(ambhāu) aitje wewqōtām parts will have spoken
FUT. IND. + AOR. SUB.
Áiwesi skéidseti (ambhāus) He will always decide after both

aitjus weqlóus/woqwesus parts have spoken
Áiwesi skéidseti He will always decide after the
ambhāitiwōqom/ambhāitiweqt speech of both parts
im pos / (ambhāus) aitjus pos
wōqom/weqtim
He will always decide just after
Áiwesi pos skéidseti jom epi both parts had spoken
(ambhāu) aitje wewqōtām
204
31c Ghebhlā mene pisdōjāt ápori 31c My head ached since I woke up
bheudhm̥
Ghebhlā mene pisdōjāt My head ached since my awakening

bheustjes apo
Móijn̥to ápori prāwnim They (had) changed since they first

mədont met
32c Ghebhlā ápoqod bhoudha 32c My head aches since I woke up

pisdḗjeti
Mijḗr (mijērai) ápori prāwnim They have changed since they first
mədont met
Mijḗr (mijērai) ápori dhēljōs They have changed since they were
esānt babies
Tríqr̥ twos gr̥ nos mədet ápoqod The council has met three times
deuks n̥serós cece AOR.+ PF. since our leader departed
Neqom gr̥nos mədet ápoqod Never has the council met since our
deuks n̥serós cece AOR. +AOR. leader departed
Gr̥nokēlā kéklawstai ápoqod The meeting room is closed since

deuks n̥serós cece PF. + PF. our leader departed
33c Bhéwōqā dhētis

Ghebhlā mene pisdḗseti ápori 33c Actual fact
bhoudhom FUT. IND. +SUB. PF. My head will ache since I wake up
Moimnās bhéwsonti ápori

prāwnim mədont They will have changed since they
FUT. PF. IND.+ AOR. SUB. first met
Méisontoi/mijusjās bhéwsonti They will change/will have changed

ápori prāwnim mədōnt since they first meet
FUT./FUT. PF IND. +AOR. SUB.
Nē drātum skélsomos ápori We won’t have to work from the

klutjom túghoimes time we may hit the lottery
205
31d Sólwoqom nikānt ápori 31d They quarrelled all the time since
prāwnim mədont AOR. SUB. they first met
Sólwoqom nikānt prāwēd ápo They quarrelled all the time since
modnēd their first meeting
32d Sólwoqom níkjonti ápori 32d They are quarreling/have been

prāwnim mədont quarreling all the time since they
first met
33d Sólwoqom néíksonti ápori
prāwnim mədōnt 33d They will quarrel once and againg
since they fist meet
206
Upódhētiwōdos The expression of condition
sm̥dhētla mō an
an, s(w)ei, jod ei tom-ke
Bhéwoqā upódhētis Real condition (Indicative-effective)
Udbhūwḗr deiwṓs an, ēséwes senti If gods exist, they are good
PERF. IND. + PRES. IND.
Woista an, chedhō seqe If you know it, please say it

PERF. IND. + PRES. IMP.
Kaudjā an esti, (tom-ke) esjãi bhāghewi If it is Claudia, she has a mole on her left
esti mélnomos laiwói arm
PRES. IND. + PRES. IND.
Ainos dhédhēja an (=woināwents esmi If I have commited a crime (=if I am

an), membhtéwijos esmi guilty), I shall be punished
PERF. IND./PRES. IND.+ PRES. IND./FUT.
IND.
If they persecuted me, they will also

Upo mewom an seqonto, upo yusmé
persecute you
toqe séqsonto AOR. IND. + FUT. IND.
If he called you stupid he was wrong

Te n̥ widrim kəlést, tom-ke ersā́ st
AOR. IND. + AOR. IND.
Probhoudhos: Ánglijā opwents bhūmr̥ , Attention: If England is a rich nation,

Namibjā ita nē (Səmodhēiwom) Namibia not so much (Comparative)
207
Enstn̥tqm̥dōqídqejā upódhētis Incidental condition in the present

(Indicative-protelative)
Gourom premes an, skanstos cm̥ sket If you press the button, the lift comes
PRES. IND. (PROT.) + PRES. IND.
n̥dhi edm̥ sei, ghebhlā edunāt Everytime I eat too much, my head aches
PRES. PROT. + PRES. PROT.
Ghawes mewom sei, kōnāja tewom Whenever you call me, I try to help you
jewtum
PRES. PROT. + PRES. PROT
Incidental condition in the past (Indicative-

Bhūloqmd̥ ōqídqejā upódhētis protelative)
Ghawānt nōs sei, ins kōnā́jāmedha Whenever they called us, we tried to help
jewtum them
AOR. PROT. + AOR. PROT.
If he promised something, he would not lie

Spepondāt qid (an), nē lughāt
Incidental condition in the future (Future

Bhewsontqm̥dōqídqejā upódhētis subjunctive)
Gháwsēsi sei, kōnāsāi tewom jewtum Whenever you call me, I will try to help
FUT. SUB. FUT. IND.
you
208
Ambhígoisā upódhētis Eventual condition (Subjunctive)
N̥ komqiqerjosjūtra Imperfective clauses
En éseti an, wéidseti If he happens to be inside, he will know it
Ēsús bhéwsēsi (an), dōnom tebhei dōsō If you are good, I will give you a present
FUT. SUB. FUT. IND.
Təkējēt (an), dr̥ misāi If he keeps silent, I will fall asleep

PRES . SUB. + FUT. IND.
Komqiqerjosjūtra Perfective clauses

Ludhēt (an), weqsō qid dhētéwijom Should he come, I will tell him what to do
(éseti)
AOR. SUB. FUT. IND. ÆPRES. SUB.
Posti ghwet (an), enã galsō

AOR. SUB. FUT. IND.
If she calls later, I will talk with her
Mr̥tis pelset an, nē qis mr̥tum welt

AOR. SUB. AOR. IND. When death approaches, no one wants to
die
Komnom skékidet jod worgós qis an The board decided that should any employee
plējosn̥s epet qoksúns awti déikmenjom win more clients or have an exemplary
eikēt pronojom, apo misdhḗsēto performance, they would be rewarded
AOR. SUB. + PRES. SUB. + PRES. PREC.
Təkēset (an), apo n̥ sme nē jḗsonti If he shuts up, they will not expel us
AOR. SUB. + FUT. IND.
209
Ménstrejā méinōpnijā upódhētis Imaginary potential condition (Optative)
N̥ komqiqerjosjūtra Imperfective clauses
Prijóm éikojəm (an) –enim eikēmi-, If I had a friend -and I may have it-, I
ghoilos sjēm would be happy
PRES. OPT. + PRES. OPT.
Reiwents sjēm (an), ónjota cejwoim If I were rich, I would live otherwise
PRES. OPT. + PRES. OPT.
If you had time, you should help
Daitim eikois, jewois (Prókn̥ stijom) (Recommendative)
Təkējoit (an), dr̥ míjoija If he kept silent, I would fall asleep
Komqiqerjosjūtra Perfective clauses
Reiwents bhūjḗm, nūtenóm linqoim If I became rich, I would leave my present
wergom enim ónjota cejwoim job and live otherwise
AOR. OPT. + PRES. OPT. + PRES. OPT.
Nūtenóm liqoim wergom ónjota If I left my present job I would live

cejwoim otherwise
Təkḗbhūjēt, apo n̥ sme nē jijīnt If he shut up, they would not expel us
AOR. OPT. I + PRES. OPT.
Təkēsīt, apo n̥ sme nē jijīnt If he had shup up, they would not expel us
AOR. OPT. II + PRES. OPT.
210
Énsn̥tos n̥bhéwoqā upódhētis Irreal condition of present (Precative)
Prijóm eiksēm (an) –atqe nē eikēmi- If I had a friend -but I can’t have it-, I
ghoilos bhewsēm 2 x PRES. PREC. would be happy
Bhūlosjo n̥bhéwoqā upódhētis Irreal of past (Precative)
Alchom noudsēm solwom, nū nē If I had spent all the money, now I could
PERF. PREC. not go on holidays
moghsēm usdhowōi eitum
PRES. PREC
Meghei leiktim píplāksēs (an), nē If you had advised me to leave, I would not
mn̥ sēm AOR. PREC. + AOR. PREC. have stayed.
Alchom nóudissēm solwom, tom-ke nē If I had spent all the money, then I could
moghsḗm usdhowōi eitum not have gone on holidays
PLPF. PREC. + AOR. PREC
If he had kept silent, they would not have

Təkḗbhūsēt, apo n̥ sme nē jēsēnt expelled us
AOR. PREC. + AOR. PREC.
Irreal of future (Subjunctive/ precative)

Bhewsn̥tn̥bhéwoqā
If he were married by that time, he would

Sm̥ jugnós tom an eset, bhéwonom nē
not believe the reality
kréddhējet
PRES. SUB. + PRES. SUB.
Sm̥ jugnós tom an bhewsēt, bhéwonom If he were married by that time, he would
nē kréddhējet not believe the reality
PRES. PREC. + PRES. SUB.
Rēd ciwotām (an) ludhēt, bhéwonom If he came back to life, he would not
nē kréddhējet believe the reality
AOR. SUB. + PRES. SUB.
Rēd ciwotām (an) cemsēt, bhéwonom If he came back to life, he would not
nē kréddhēsēt believe the reality
PRES. PREC.+ PRES. PREC.
211
Səmostātíwōdos The expression of comparison
sm̥dhētla
jota, jotei, s(w)ei, swāi, tām….qām,
məgis, plēis, plējós, meiwis, minos,
jāwn̥ tom…tāwn̥ tom
Somotā́ Equality
Kánmona-swo kánonti jota esom They sing their songs as they feel their
awisdhíjonti wéqesa lyrics
Tā́wn̥ tod bherois kléwesos māwn

́ ̥ tod Take as much glory as peace you leave to us
pākos n̥ smei loiqta
(Ita) bhāto jota sei duspodom woidsēt He spoke as if he had seen the accident
AOR. EFF. + PF. PREC.
(Ita) bhā́wāto jota sei He was speaking /used to speak as if he

pedgugjospordhām widēsēt were seeing the football match
AOR. PROT. + PRES. PREC.
(Ita) bhā́wāto jota sei He was speaking /used to speak as if he

pedgugjospordhām widoit were going to see the football match
AOR. PROT. + AOR. OPT.
(Ita) bhātoi jota sei duspodom woidsēt He is speaking as if he had seen the
PRES. EFF. + PF. PREC. accident
(Ita) bhātoi jota sei pedgugjospordhām He is speaking as if he were seeing the
widēsēt football match
PRES. EFF. + PRES. PREC.
He is speaking as if he were going to see

(Ita) bhātoi jota sei pedgugjospordhām
the football match
widoit/widējēt AOR. PROT. + AOR.
OPT./PRES. SUB.
Arti jota prowṓs (wodrokṓs) djejont Just like frogs move by jumping and
dhr̥ neutū, dhr̥ neutū, ita putla menja jumping, the same way my children move
(djejont)
Tod dhḗsomos jota wn̥ skesí We’ll do it as you want
Tod dhḗsomos jota wn̥ skēs/ wn̥ skois We’ll do it as you may want it
212
n̥ somotā́ Inequality
Bhodjṓs apoworetus qām upoqeltus It is better to prevent than to treat
Prāi stístāti apoworetus upoqéltewes It is more worth preventing than treating
Apoworetis upoqéltewes bhodjṓs Prevention is better than treatment
Prosodos Progression
Meiwis ghosāt, minos kn̥ krewos eikāt The less she ate, the less appetite she had
(=meiwis kn̥ kōjāt)
Məgis welō bhrātros-two dr̥ kām, məgis The more I see your brother’s face, the
gélāmi more I laugh
Jāwn̥ tom jāwn̥ tom te spekjō, tāwn̥ tom The more I look at you, the more I fall in
tāwn̥ tom lubhēsmi love
213
Weismn̥wōdos The expression of cause
sm̥dhētla
jod, qod, jod qid, ar, ar ge, qija,
ghina, josmēd
Bhéwoqos Real
Nāws sonqe; jegibhr̥ ghom proti stoupt The ship sank; she had hit an iceberg
Nāws sonqe qā-i jegibhr̥ ghom proti The ship sank which (=because she) had
stoupt hit an iceberg
Nāws sonqe jodqid jegibhr̥ ghom proti The ship sank because she had hit an
stoupt iceberg
Nāws sonqe jegibhr̥ ghom proti stuplā́ The ship sank having hit an iceberg
(kolimḗlejom sjūtrom) PF. IND. + PART. AOR. (quasitemporal clause)
Nāws jegibhr̥ ghoprotistuptū sonqe The ship sank because of the fact of
colliding against an iceberg
Nāws jegibhr̥ ghoprotistuptī sonqe The ship sank because of a collision against
an iceberg
Nāws jegibhr̥ ghoprotistuptewós/ The ship sank on account of a collision

jegibhr̥ ghoprotistuptejós rōdhí sonqe against an iceberg
Nāws jegibhr̥ ghoprotistuptiwoisō The ship sank due to the collision against
sonqe an iceberg
Bhloigos nē dom tōje; dhghómones The film has not finished yet; all the people
oljoi en senti are inside
Bhloigos nē dom tōje; ghina The film has not finished yet; indeed all the
dhghómones oljoi en senti people are inside
Bhloigos nē dom tōje, jod (=qija) The film has not finished yet, since all the
dhghómones oljoi en senti people are inside
Bhloigos nē dom tōje dhghómones oljoi The film has not finished yet, all the people
énesn̥ tes (kolimḗlejom sjūtrom) being inside (quasitemporal clause)
214
Elwom adḗjonti wosjom; dhēljos cm̥ jēti They are preparing the pink room; a baby is
coming
Elwom adḗjonti wosjom, ar ge dhēljos They are preparing the pink room because a
cm̥ jēti (=komjougosjūtrom) baby is coming (=coordinative clause)
Elwom adḗjonti wosjom, jod dhēljos They are preparing the pink room because a
cm̥ jēti baby is coming
Elwom adḗjonti wosjom dhēljō They are preparing the pink room, a baby
cémonqō (pérəmom sjūtrom) being coming (absolute clause)
Elwom adḗjonti wosjom dhēljōcm̥ tū They are preparing the pink room because
of the fact of the baby’s arrival
Elwom adḗjonti wosjom dhēljōcm̥ tī They are preparing the pink room because
of the baby’s arrival
Elwom adḗjonti wosjom They are preparing the pink room due to the
dhēljōcm̥ tiwoisō baby’s arrival
Bhendrom ormodhḗt sī; im məríjomnom He pitied her friend; she saw him dying
widét
Bhendrom ormodhḗt sī jod/ qod im He pitied her friend, because she saw him
məríjomnom widét dying
Bhendrom ormodhḗt sī qom im He pitied her friend, whom (=because) she

məríjomnom widét saw him dying
Bhendhrom məríjontm̥ widlā́ , im As (=when, because) she saw her friend

ormodhḗt dying, she pitied him
Bhendhrom məríjomnom weidn̥ ts, im As (=when, because) she was seing her
ormodhḗt friend dying, she pitied him
215
Aljodhōmōnabhṛnós Referred as someone else’s opinion
Apójēnos esti wergēd jod/ qod He’s been expelled from work (as they
adkl̥ nobhos n̥ prijós sjēt/bhūjoit said/allegedly) because he was not friendly
to the clients
Twōkr̥ tḗs jod/ qod júwn̥ tām Socrates was arraigned on the ground
kr̥ nəjēt loketor that he was corrupting the youth
Twōkr̥ tḗs jod/ qod júwn̥ tām Socrates was arraigned on the ground
keroit loketor that he (had) corrupted the youth
Twōkr̥ tḗs prowrētosjo juwn̥ tākrjosjo Socrates was arraigned on account of

rōdhí loketor alleged corruption of the youth
Áiwesi prijótəmōs ismei bhuwānt jod/ They were always very kind to him because
qod pērēd ins nosojoit he had delivered them from danger
Áiwesi prijótəmōs ismei sont jod/ qod They are always very kind to him because
pērēd ins bhéwsn̥ ti nosesoit he is supposed to deliver them from danger
in the future
216
Proqórejos Thematic
Gāudhējō jod wəlḗjesi I am happy you are fine
Gāudhējō jod wəlḗjēsi I am happy you are probably fine
Gāudhēbhūm jod wəlḗjesi I was happy you were fine
Gāudhējō jod wəlēbhūs I am happy you were fine
Gāudhēbhūm jod wəlḗjēsi I was happy you were probably fine
Gāudhējō jod wəlḗbhuwes I am happy you were probably fine
Gāudhēsō jod wəlḗjesi I will be happy that you will be fine
Gāudhējō jod wəlḗsesi I am happy you will be fine
Gāudhēsō jod wəlḗjēsi I will be happy that you will probably be

fine
Gāudhējō jod wəlḗsēsi I am happy you will probably be fine
Tod esti jod swr̥ ghōmes This is something we had to be careful

about
Tod esti jod swérghōmosi This is something we have to be careful

about
Tod esti jod swérghsōmosi This is something we’ll have to be careful

about
217
Epistā́mejos (koliskomjougosjūtra) Epistemic (quasicoordinative clauses)
Josmēd somosodē cm̥ jesi, ad moi Since you are coming by car, bring the
wogheje koināns cradle to me
(Josmēd) n̥ knāmis nē moghāt steightum (Since) legless it could not walk
Nē moghāt steightum, josmēd knāmāns It could not walk, since it had no legs (=as it
nē eikt (=ar knāmāns nē eikt) had no legs
n̥ dhistóutejos Assertive
Oqowidnim Ludhjā donsonjom cēme, Of course Lydia has come to school, since
qidpe im edjḗw woida I’ve seen her today
Upomónejos (óptijō /próknejō) Hypothetical (with optative/precative)
Epi tewom nē dhedhōmóm jod/ qod I did not critize you because I hated or
odwṓs bhūsēm r̥ sonébhūsēmwe, nū jod/ envied you, but because I loved you
qod lubhóm
2 X AOR. PREC + AOR. IND.
Epi tewom nē dhōmésm̥ jod/ qod I did not critize you because I hated or
odwṓs bhūjḗm r̥ sonébhūjēmwe, nū jod/ envied you, but because I loved you
qod lubhóm
2 X AOR. OPT. + AOR. IND.
Epi tewom nē dhōmejō jod/ qod ōdsēm I don’t criticize you because I hate or envy
r̥ sonesēmwe, nū jod/ qod lubhjō you, but because I love you
2 X PRES. PREC. + PRES. IND.
Epi tewom nē dhōmejō jod/qod ōdoim

I don’t criticize you because I hate or envy
r̥ sonejoimwe, nū jod/ qod lubhjō
2 X PRES. OPT. + PRES. IND.
you, but because I love you
Epi tewom nē dhōmesō jod/qod odwṓs

bhewsoim r̥ sonesoimwe, nū jod/ qod I won’t criticize you because I will hate or
leubhsō envy you, but because I will ove you
2 X FUT. OPT. + FUT. IND.
218
Sqermn̥wōdos/kómseqmn̥wōdos The expression of effect/ consecution
sm̥dhētla
tori, ita, itaqe, tom, tom-ke, jotosqe,
tā́ wn̥ tos, ute, ita…jod, ita..jota,
tām..qām, tām…jod, ítətom
Bhūlā́ qertis Past action
Akrēd dhuwāt wentos, kólsomom med The wind blew strongly; it pulled off my
repet (áddhēmn̥ ) scarf (apposition)
Akrēd dhuwāt wentos, tom-ke The wind blew strongly, and so pulled off
kólsomom med repet (enbhorokomjougos) my scarf (illative coordination)
Akrēd dhuwāt wentos, (enim) tori The wind blew strongly, (and) therefore
kólsomom med repet pulled off my scarf
Ita akrēd dhuwāt wentos, jod kólsomom The wind blew so strongly, that it pulled off
med repēt AOR. PROT. IND. + AOR. SUB. my scarf
(Ita) akrēd dhuwāt wentos ute med *(So) strongly blew the wind as to pull off
kólsomom reptewei AOR. INF. my scarf
Tām akrēd dhuwāt wentos qām *The wind blew so strongly as (being able
kólsomom med reponts AOR. PART. to) pull off my scarf
Akrēd dhuwāt wentos kólsomom med The wind blew strongly pulling off my scarf
reponts AOR. PART.
Tām apo ēsm̥ dew, jod im nē dr̥ ksēm I was so far that I could not see him
AOR. EFF. + AOR. PREC.
Tām apo ēsm̥ dew, jod im nē dr̥ kōm I was so far that I did not see him
AOR. EFF. + AOR. SUB.
Tām apo ēsm̥ dew, jod im nē dr̥ ksonts I was so far that I would not see him
bhūsēm thereafter
AOR. EFF. + AOR. PREC. COMP.
219
Enstānts qertis Present action
Kūmóm éikomos wérgosjo, qorjostānei We have a lot of work; are staying in the
séptəmantjoisi wésomosi office during the weekends
Kūmóm éikomos wérgosjo, tom-ke We have a lot of work, and so we are

qorjostānei séptəmantjoisi wésomosi staying in the office during the weekends
Kūmóm éikomos wérgosjo, (enim) tori We have a lot of work, (and) therefore we
qorjostānei séptəmantjoisi wésomosi are staying in the office during the weekends
Tāwn
́ ̥ tod éikomos wergom (wérgosjo), We have so much work that we are staying
jod qorjostānei séptəmantjoisi in the office during the weekends
wésōmosi PRES. IND. + PRES. SUB.
Tāwn
́ ̥ tod éikomos wergom (wérgosjo) We have so much work so as to stay in the
ute qorjostānej séptəmantjoisi westewei office during the weekends
Tāwn
́ ̥ tod éikomos wergom jotosqe We have so much work that we are staying
qorjostānej séptəmantjoisi wésontes in the office during the weekends
Tām apo esmi dew, jod im nē I am so far that I haven’t seen him
dédorkom
PRES. EFF. + PERF. SUB.
Tām apo esmi dew, jod im nē dr̥ kjōmi I am so far that I don’t (cannot) see him
PRES. EFF. + PRES. SUB.
Tām apo esmi dew, jod im nē

I am so far that I will not see him
dr̥ ksōm(i)
PRES. EFF. + FUT. SUB.
220
Bhewsonts qertis Future action
Douknom stn̥ tḗjeti, per modnom The train is delayed, I will miss the meeting
oighejōm (oighesō)
Douknom stn̥ tḗjeti, tom-ke per The train is delayed, and so I will miss the
modnom oighejōm (oighesō) meeting
Douknom stn̥ tḗjeti, (enim) tori per The train is delayed, (and) therefore I will
modnom oighejōm (oighesō) miss the meeting
Ita douknom stn̥ tḗjeti, jod per modnom The train is so delayed, that I will miss the
oighejōm PERF. IND. + PRES. SUB. meeting
Ita douknom stn̥ tḗjeti, jota egō *The train is delayed, so as to miss the
modnom oighéjesei ACT. FUT. INF. meeting
Ita douknom stn̥ tḗjeti, jota per mojo *The train is delayed, so as the meeting to
modnom oighéjesdhjōi PASS. FUT. INF. be missed by me
(Tām) douknom stn̥ tḗjeti, jotosqe per The train is (so) delayed, being myself
mojo modnom oighésontē ABS. INSTR.+ missing the meeting
D.OBJ.
Ita douknom stn̥ tējet, jod per modnom The train was delayed, so that he would
oighesonts bhūsēt PRES. PROT. + AOR. miss the meeting
PREC. COMP.
Tām apo bhewsō dew, jod im nē I will be so far that I won’t see him
dr̥ ksōmi
FUT. IND. + FUT. SUB.
221
Protistoupowōdos The expression of concession
sm̥dhētla
eti, eti s(w)ei, eti an, epi, qita, nū,
qidimmōqe, qāmqām
Dhḗtijos protistoupos Factual concession
Bhūlā́ qertis Past accion
Bhāloukjom roudhom bhūt, stoighom The light was red; he crossed the street
terét AOR. IND. + AOR. IND.
Bhāloukjom roudhom bhūt. Nū The light was red; however he crossed the
stoighom terét (protiwr̥tnokomjougos) street ( adversative coordination)
Eti sei bhāloukjom roudhom bhūt, Even though the light was red, he crossed
stoighom terét the street
Eti (sei) bhāloukjō roudhō ésn̥ tē, Even the light being red, he crossed the
stoighom terét PART. PRES. + AOR. IND. street
Epi/eti bhāloukjō roudhō, stoighom Even with the red light, he crossed the
terét street
Énstānts qertis Present action
Eti sei bhāloukjom roudhom esti, Even though the light is red, he is crossing
stoighom téreti PRES. IND.+PRES. IND. the street
Eti (sei) bhāloukjō roudhō ésn̥ tē, Even the light being red, he is crossing the
stoighom téreti PART. PRES.+ PRES. IND. street
Wēra wédonti, eti (sei) kauná They tell the truth, even (if) shameful
Wēra wédonti, eti kauná ésn̥ta They tell the truth, even being shameful
Wēra wédonti, eti sei kauná sonti They thell the truth, even if it is shameful
Bhewsonts qertis Future action
Eti sei bhāloukjom roudhom bhéwseti, Even though the light will be red, he will
stoighom térseti FUT. IND. +FUT. IND cross the street
Eti (sei) bhāloukjō roudhō ésn̥ tē, Even the light being red, he will cross the
stoighom térseti PART. PRES. + FUT. street
IND.
222
Upódhētijos protistoupos Conditional concession
Eti sei bhāloukjom roudhom bhūsēt, Even if the light had been red, he would
stoighom tersḗt have crossed the street
Eti (sei) bhāloukjō roudhō ésn̥ tē, Even the light being red, he would have
stoighom tersḗt crossed the street
PART. PRES. + AOR. PREC.
Eti sei bhāloukjom roudhom bhewsēt, Even if the light were red, he would (now)
stoighom tersēt cross the street
PRES. PREC. + PRES. PREC.
Eti (sei) bhāloukjō roudhō ésn̥ tē,

Even the light being red, he would (now)
stoighom tersēt
PART. PRES. + PRES. PREC.
cross the street
Eti sei bhāloukjom roudhom bhewēt,

stoighom terēt Even if the light may be red, he would cross
PRES. SUB. + PRES. SUB. the street
Eti (sei) bhāloukjō roudhō ésn̥ tē,

stoighom terēt Even the light being red, he would cross the
PART. PRES. + PRES. SUB. street
Eti sei prōd preksēt, wī im nē Even if he had apologized, I would not

mnā́ bhūsēm have forgiven him
Even having apologized, I would not have
Eti (sei) propreklṓ, wī im nē forgiven him
mnā́ bhūsēm PART. AOR. + AOR. PREC.
Even if he apologizes, I will not forgive
Eti sei prōd prekēt, wī im nē mnā́ jōmi him
AOR. SUB. + PRES. SUB.
Even having apologized, I will not forgive
Eti (sei) propreklṓ, wī im nē mnā́ jōmi him
PART. AOR. + PRES. SUB.
Even if he would apologize, I would not

Eti sei prōd pr̥ ksēt, wī im nē mnāsēm
PRES. PREC. + PRES. PREC. forgive him
Eti (sei) propreklṓ, wī im nē mnāsēm Even having apologized, I would not

PART. AOR. + PRES. PREC. forgive him
Eti sei prōd prekoit, wī im nē mnājoim Even if he may apologize, I would not
AOR. OPT. + PRES. OPT. forgive him
Eti (sei) propreklṓ, wī im nē mnājoim Even having apologized, I wouldl not

PART. AOR. + PRES. OPT. forgive him
223
Skándslājos protistoupos Scalar concession
Epi méneswos (esn̥ ts), nē bhéughseti However clever he may be, he won’t
succeed
Méneswos esn̥ ts, nē bhéughseti Clever as he is/may be, he won’t succeed
Qāmqām ghlendhōm PRES. SUB., nē No matter how much I study, I don’t

kom n̥ kjō kod dídəktum uponejər succeed in learning this lesson
Dn̥ suqólosjo skreibhmn, epi prójotnim A scholar’s writing, though written

skrībhnóm, áiwesi n̥ légnijom carefully, is always illegible
Wítn̥stijos protistoupos Extensional concession
Qidimmōqe gíssēto, dūdōi tewom Whatever may have happened, I shall love
stergsō you for ever
Qidimmōqe gistóm, dūdōi tewom *Whatever happened, I shall love you for
stergsō ever
Qidimmōqe gísēto AOR. SUB., dūdōi Whatever may happen, I shall love you for
tewom stergsō ever
Qidimmōqe geistéwijom, dūdōi tewom *Whatever to happen, I shall love you for
stergsō ever
Apṓgnujos protistoupos Negative concession
Ita dhēt, (tū) nē tosmōi proktor He did so, (however) he had not been
(protiwr̥tnokomjougos) asked for that (adversative coordination)
He did so, without having been asked for
Ita dhēt, pr̥ ktim əneu tosmōi that
Ita dhēt tosmōi ənpr̥ knós *He did so unasked for that
Ambhimojós protistoupos Alternative concession
Qita álchodətijom edqom épomos/ Whether we get/ get thereafter any

épsōmos AOR./ FUT SUB. stoutom newe, financial support or not, we will go ahead
prōd olnō-nos éisomos with our project
Álchodətijom edqom eplṓs/ épsontes *Getting any financial support or not, we

stoutom newe, prōd olnō-nos éisomos will go ahead with our project
Strongwos protistoupos Restrictive concession
Neqid ənástətjei wédhn̥ tos épitəmēd Nothing that leads to revolt can be
pḗrowent bhewtum mógheti –eti sei definitively dangerous − even if revolt may
ənástətis dhghomenmōsm̥ wī krātēt distort the character of the people.
224
Koituwōdos The expression of manner
Púslēkes dhr̥ neutū djejont Fleas move by jumping
Púslēkes dhr̥ neuwn̥ tes djejont Fleas move jumping
Púslēkes dhrōtī djejont Fleas move with the jumping
Púslēkes dhōrō djejont Fleas move with the jump
Púslēkes dhōromoghtrō/ Fleas move by means of the jump/jumping

dhrōtimoghtrō djejont
-tū (-twē) demtis -tū (-twē) construction
Piskim ghostū jekom bhérghesi By eating fish you keep your brain healthy
kerəsrom
One learns by teaching
n̥ neutū didksker
On constantly remembering, one’s grief
Stəróteni mímnātū, ati séwijom áugeti grows anew
croughnos
Suswedhesregdhlāns n̥ dhighrəstū He got his post by transgressing rules of

wergopedom ghōde ethics
Deiwom gnōtū sl̥ wopākowidhchijos By knowing God there is a falling off of all
bhéweti; oləlnoisu qéntessu, fetters; when the sufferings are destroyed,
gnātimrtjewidhchijos bhéweti. Ismi there is a cessation of birth and death. By
mestī, tritjos esti stātus; kr̥ peswileuteī́ , meditating on him, there is the third state;
olardijaudhis, oinei wn̥ skā kómpl̥ nā on the dissolution of the body, universal
lordship; being alone, his desire is fulfilled
Apo n̥ streptū sodét She went without making any noise
225
Atikōpjodemtis Participial construction
Piskim edn̥ ts jekom bhérghesi kerəsrom By eating fish you keep your brain healthy
n̥ neunts didksker The one who teaches learns
Stəróteni mímnāskn̥ tos, ati séwijom On constantly remembering, one’s grief

áugeti croughnos (perəmā́) grows anew (absolute)
Stəróteni mímnāskonts, ati séwijom The one who constantly remembers, makes
augéjeti croughnos one’s grief grows anew
Suswedhesregdhlāns ndhighr
̥ ̥ dlós He got his post by transgressing rules of
wergopedom ghōde ethics
Piktamorignasúweqtum upódətijos Blessing the adorned girl is the traditional

wedhmn̥ koitús (esti) way of marriage
Morignasúweqtum morignām Blessing the girl after adorning the girl is

pikusjās upódətijos wedhmn̥ koitús the traditional way of marriage (absolute)
(esti) (perəmā́)
Apo n̥ streponts sodét She went without making any noise
Koliskómseqmenjos Quasiconsecutive
Qāqōi ghostipotjei wórsotrom bhūt, For every guest there was an umbrella the
qesjo wornos qā́qosjo ghóstipotjos colour of which went with the colour eacb
kr̥ pjobhjom plakēbhwāt guest’s shoes
Qāqōi ghostipotjei wórsotrom bhūt, ita For every guest there was an umbrella so
jod qāqoworsotrowornos qā́qosjo that the colour of eacb umbrella went with
ghóstipotjos kr̥ pjobhjom plakēbhwāt the colour eacb guest’s shoes
Qāqōi ghostipotjei wornoi kr̥ pjobhjom For every guest there was an umbrella going
plakēntm̥ wórsotrom bhūt with eacb guest’s shoes in the colour
226
3.-Ambhítowos wistolos módesom, General pattern of tenses, moods and their

wr̥ tjōm esomqe kómseqmenos sequence
Mood Modal connotations

Indicative mood Reality, universality or assertiveness
Subjunctive mood Capacity, eventuality or potentiality
Optative mood Potentiality, wish or recommendation
Precative mood Potentiality, intention or irreality
Imperative mood Order
Infinitives/ participles -----
Indicative mood: Reality, universality or assertiveness

Aspect Temporal perspective
In simple sentence/ in
principal clause/ in In rest of subordinate
temporal, causal or clauses
consecutive subordinate*
Imperfective. action in Reproduction of an ongoing
Present effective
progress action Relatively
Imperfective or simultaneous action
Present protelative Universal
durative
Absolute: universal action
Aorist effective Perfective.
Absolute: action vanished in
the past
Absolute: past action recalled Relatively past action
in the present (dramatic)
Imperfective or
Aorist protelative Absolute: single action with a
repetitive
duration in the past
(constantive)
Resultative, Past action caming over to the Relatively resultative
Perfect
consequent, stative present action
Imperfective and Future singular or durative
Future Relatively future action
perfective action
227
Chapter B3: General pattern of moods, tenses and their sequence
Subjunctive mood: Capacity, eventuality or potentiality

In simple In subordinate
In subordinate
sentence/ in clause In subordinate
clause
principal (temporal, final, clause (reportative
(conditional and
clause/ in consecutive, or type)
concessive type)
causal clause* injunctive type)
Relatively
Possible or
Present Imperfective. simulataneous
eventual
Relative future transmitted action
Future eventual
eventual
Relatively past
Aorist Perfective. Past potential
transmitted action
Resultative, Resultative Relative
Resultative Relatively resultative
Perfect consequent, potential/ resultative
potential/ eventual transmitted action
stative eventual potential/ eventual
Imperfective Future potential/ Future potential/ Relative future Relatively future
Future
and perfective eventual eventual potential/ eventual transmitted action
Optative mood: Potentiality, wish or recommendation

In simple In subordinate In subordinate
sentence/ in clause clause In subordinate
principal (conditional (temporal, final, clause (reportative
clause/ in and concessive consecutive, or type)
causal clause* type) injunctive type)
Relatively
Potential,
simultaneous
Present Imperfective. recommendative
potential transmitted
or desiderative Imaginary
Relative potential action
potential
Past potential, Relatively past
Aorist Perfective. recommendative potential transmitted
or desiderative action
Resultative, Relative Relatively resultative

Resultative potential,
Perfect consequent, resultative potential transmitted
recommendative or desiderative
stative potential action
Relatively future
Imperfective Future potential, recommendative Relative future
Future potential transmitted
and perfective or desiderative potential
action
228
Precative mood: Potentiality, intention or irreality

In subordinate clause In subordinate clause
principal clause/ in causal,
(final, portative and (conditional-concessive
temporal or consecutive
temporal type) and injunctive type)
subordinate clause*
Intentional future of the
Relative intentional
Present Imperfective. present. Recommendative Irreal present/ irreal future
future
proposal. Potential event.
Relative intentional
Irreal past Irreal past
Aorist Perfective. future of the past
Intentional future of the past Relative irreal past Intentional future of the past
Resultative,
Relative resultative
Perfect consequent, Resultative irreal Resultative irreal
irreal
stative
Imperative mood: Order or concession

principal clause
Present effective Action to be realised Present or future order
Aorist effective Perfective. Presen, past or future order
Resultative,
Perfect Resultative order
consequent, stative
Imperfective and
Future Future or universal order
perfective
*In these subordinate constructions, the perfect in the subordinate clause has a correlation with the
principal clause and viceversa. This perfect may thus adopt past (pluperfect) o future (perfect
future) forms, either in principal or in subordinate clause, following rules of sequence of tenses.
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Chapter B3: General pattern of moods, tenses and their sequence
Déikmona Examples
Kmāmi jod nē swéswōdha I get tired because I am not used to it
Kmām jod nē swéswōdhm̥ I got tired because I was not used to it
Kmāsō jod nē sweswdhwṓs bhewsō I will get tired because I will not be used to
it
Tām kékoma jod nē lubhējōm I am so tired that I am not liking it
Tām kékomm̥ jod nē lubhējōm I was so tired that I was not liking it
Tām kekməwṓs bhewsō jod nē I will be so tired that I will not be liking it
lubhēsōm
Léloubha jod im gnōwa I have a liking for him because I know him
Léloubhm̥ jod im gnōwm̥ I had a liking for him because I knew him
Lelubhwṓs bhewsō jod im gnōwṓs I will have a liking for him because I will
bhewsō know him
Pos léloubha qām im gnōwa I have a liking for him after having known
him
Pos lubhēsm
́ ̥ qām im gnōwm̥ I got a liking for him after having known
him
Pos lelubhwṓs bhewsō qām im gnōwṓs I will have a liking for him after having
bhewsō known him
Pos leubhsō qām im gnōwṓs bhewsō I will get a liking for him after having
known him
Prāi léloubha qām im gnōwa I have a liking for him before having
known him
Pos léloubhm̥ qām im gnōwm̥ I had a liking for him before having known
him
Prāi lelubhwṓs bhewsō qām im gnōwṓs I will have a liking for him before having
bhewsō known him
230
4.-Kómseqtis módesom Sequence of moods
Óiwoisu ptṓtisu, ud modesspātis In some particular cases, modal attraction

bhéweti may take place:
Jom sōlis bhúweti, dhéghomm̥ tepēti When there is sun, may it warm the earth
AOR. SUB (=Jom sōlis bhuweti,
dhéghomm̥ tepóit/ tēpsīt AOR. OPT)
Qota oinonts tn̥ gējois jodhei mātḗr-two How could you feel lonely where your
sjēt? (=jodhei mātḗr-two esti?) mother is?
231
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Fernando López-Menchero Díez

Ópitjī eurōpā́ iosjo kṓnātijā kómtagtis

A tentative syntax of Modern Indoeuropean

Version 1. March 2013

Tosjo enskroibhī meinom nē newī sindhueuropājosjo kómtagtjos pl̥ nowr̥ gnā́

We definitely wish to encourage further research on indoeuropean syntax, so that this

Udbholowédheta Pronunciation guide

A.-Bhāniqestjes Parts of the sentence

1.-Sentmn̥ ptōtjesqe The substantive and cases 7

2-Epikeimn̥ The adjective 20

4.-Antinṓmona (proroká uporokáqe) Pronouns and determinants 39

6.-Ənawərēmn̥ The adverb 58

7.-Wərēmn̥ The verb 69

Ambhítowā spekjēs wr̥tjōm General outlook of tenses and moods

Bhrūgtjes/ wəlēntjom Usages/ valency

B.-Bhānis The sentence

1.-Bhānipr̥ptus Form of the sentence 106

Sm̥ plobhānis The simple sentence

2.-Bhānism̥bhendhmn̥ Sentence combination 136

Wedhmosjūtra Copulative clauses

Kómplēsjūtra Completive clauses

Soikowōdos The expression of finality

3.-Ambhítowos wistolos módesom, General pattern of moods, tenses and their

4.-Kómseqtis módesom Sequence of moods 231

References Ənábhorās 232

A.-Bhāniqestjes Parts of the sentence

1.-Sentmn̥ ptōtjesqe The substantive and the cases

Marijā séncheti Mary is singing

Swesōr mene māmjā esti My sister is nurse

Smaurós kéideti dānus The river goes down turbid

Maqā cenā genét The girl became a woman

Susanna, cəmje kom-ke Susana, come here

O, qoleu, snētrīprija… Oh distaff, friend of them who spin…

Qote wólneswn̥t (=wólneswents) Whither are you fleeing, full of wounds?

N̥widlé! You, ignorant!

Dhn̥ghuqermenjā Of direct object

Nāwn̥s dr̥kō I see some ships

Tewom adwésontm̥ modnei chelō I want you present at the meeting

Komnopráisedm̥ em nōmnājónt They appointed him chairman of the board

Ins “n̥ káputins” werjont/nōmnājont They name(d) them “the headless”

Dhwolnom te kn̥ sejō I think you are a fool

Glēkim tewom qeisō I consider you (to be) intelligent

Regm̥ tewom dhēsō/ wortesō I’ll make you a king

Dhochōu stighomes We walked during two days

Upológhosoikejā Of destination of the subject

Rōmām eiti He goes to Rome

Lugtētjām n̥knunti They arrive to Paris

Nebhos skandét It went up to the sky

Dóljakómoqesardijā Of point of view relating a particle

Platnām qelónt ambhí They circulated around the square

Swéljonejā: genesbhenstijā Of kinship: Family relation

Dúghterm̥ lubhējō dā́ mosjo-two I am in love with your mate’s daughter

Pətros domus The father’s house

Deiwōm weqtjes The things of the gods

Órenom némētom (=orn̥ némētom) The sanctuary of the eagles

Cows Martéinosjo esti The cow is Martin’s

Swónatās Mózartjos Mozart’s sonates

Aitis sólwosjo Part of a whole

Domõs dhworis pətḗjeti The door of the house is open

Dhūlās pērom (dhūlapērom) The danger of the storm

Kūmós álchosjo A lot of money

Pówerōm déktewi mendhos The children’s interest in learning

Súwoljā dhghómenom The people’s goodwill