FLUID MECHANICS 2019

2. Fluid Statics
2.1 Pressure
FLUID  Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.

MECHANICS
Units:
SI: pascal (Pa or N/m2), bar, atm, kgf/cm2
English: psi, psf
CHAPTER 2 Conversion:
REVIEW GUIDE 1 bar = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101.325 kPa
= 14.696 psi
1 kgf/cm2 = 98.07 kPa
 If dA represents an elemental part of the total area A, and dF is the elemental force
Contents: acting on it, the intensity of the pressure is,
Fluid Statics ..……….....................................…..1
dF
Measurement of Pressure ...................…..1 p and F  p  dA [1]
dA
Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces..…..5
 If p is uniformly distributed over the entire area A, then
Hydrostatic Force on Curve Surfaces..….6
F
Applications of Hydrostatics forces….….7 p and F  pA [2]
A
2.1.1 Pressure at a point

Fig. 2.1 Forces on an arbitrary wedge-shaped element of fluid

Note: Assumption of zero shearing stresses will still be valid as long as the fluid element
Reviewer: Engr. Jejomar U. Duque
moves as a rigid body; that is, there is no relative motion between adjacent elements.
 As δx, δy, and δz approaches zero, the equations of motions become,
p y  ps and p z  ps
First Pascal’s Law (Blaise Pascal)
The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent of direction as
long as there are no shearing stresses present.

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2.1.2 Pressure Changes Associated with Elevation Changes
 For fluid at rest, the pressure variation along z axis is:
dp
  (known as Hydrostatic differential equation) [3]
dz
Where: γ = unit weight
 The total pressure difference:
p   dp    dz [4]

Second Pascal’s Law

Fig. 2.3 Pressure difference on incompressible fluids

2.1.2.1 Compressible fluid
 The pressure variation along z axis
dp gp
 [6]
dz RT
 The pressure relationship:
p2 g z2 dz
ln   [7]
Fig. 2.2 Pressure on different shapes and levels p1 R z1 T
 The Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the
 At constant temperature, the pressure relationship:
container. It changes with the vertical distance, but remains constant in other
 g  z2  z1  
directions. Therefore, the pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane  
p2  p1e 
RT0 
in a given fluid. [8]
 A consequence of the pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal
Where: T0 = constant temperature
direction is that the pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount. 2.1.3 Pressure head
From equation [5], the pressure difference between two points can be specified by the
2.1.2.1 Incompressible fluid distance h. In this case h is called the pressure head and is interpreted as the height of a
A fluid with constant density is called an incompressible fluid. column of fluid of specific weight required to give a pressure difference p1 – p2.
Considering points 1 and 2 in the figure, the pressure difference between those p1  p2
h [9]
points is given as, 
p  p2  p1    dz or p  p2  p1  z then,
2.1.3 Pressure Measurement
p2  p1   h or p2  p1   h or,
 The atmospheric pressure is the weight exerted by the overhead atmosphere on a
p1  p2   h [5] unit area of surface.
 Incompressible fluid at rest the pressure varies linearly with depth. The pressure  Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure is
must increase with depth to “hold up” the fluid above it. positive for pressures above atmospheric pressure, and negative for pressures
below it.
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pA

Pressure
Gage
Standard atmospheric pressure
Local atmospheric pressure
Negative
Absolute Pressure

suction Gage Pressure

vacuum
Local pB
barometer
reading Absolute Pressure

Absolute zero (complete vacuum)

Fig. 2.4 Absolute, Gage, and Atmospheric Pressure
The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Most pressure-
measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so Fig. 2.5 Barometers
they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric  Manometers are devices that employ liquid columns for determining differences in
pressure. This difference is the gage pressure. Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressure. It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences.
pressures are related to each other by
Pabs  Patm  Pgage and Pabs  Patm  Pvacuum [10]
Standard atmospheric pressure:
Patm = 1 atm
= 1 torr
= 101.325 kPa
= 14.696 psi
= 760 mm Hg (29.92 in Hg)
= 2116 psf
2.1.3 Pressure Measurement Devices
 Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure. The most
common types are the mercury barometer and aneroid barometer as shown in
Fig 2.5. A mercury barometer is made by inverting a mercury-filled tube in a
container of mercury. The mercury barometer is analyzed by applying the Fig. 2.6 U-tube manometer
hydrostatic equation:  The simplest type of manometer consists of a vertical tube, open at the top, and
patm   Hg h [11] attached to the container in which the pressure is desired, as illustrated in Fig. 2.7
is called piezometer.
By measuring h, local atmospheric pressure can be determined using Eq.[11].

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References
Fluid Mechanics, V. L. Streeter, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., USA, 3rd Edition
Fluid Mechanics, F. M. White, McGraw-Hill, USA, 5th Edition
Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, Y. A. Cengel, J. M. Cimbala,
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., USA, 3rd Edition, 2014
Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, F. M. White, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA, 7th
Edition, 2013
Hydraulics, B. R. Munson, et al, University of Southern Queensland, Queensland,
2013
Simplified Fluid Mechanics, R. A. Dela Fuente, et al, Merriam & Webster
Bookstore Inc., Manila, 2013
Fig. 2.7 Piezometer Tube
 Although manometers are widely used, they are not well suited for measuring
very high pressures or pressures that are changing rapidly with time. The most
familiar device used for this kind of pressures is the Bourdon pressure gage as
shown in Fig. 2.8.

Fig. 2.8 Bourdon gage

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2.2 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces Differential Force:
dF  pdA   hdA
Patm
Resultant Force:
FR   dF    hdA
h
Where: sin   (constant) and γ = constant unit weight of fluid
y
FR   sin   ydA [1]

h h Where: Ay   ydA and A = area of the plane surface [2]

FR   sin  yA [3]

FR   hA [4]

FR  pcg A [5]
Patm +γh Where: pcg = Pressure at the center of gravity of the plane surface
γh
Fig. 2.9 Pressure Distribution Eccentricity of the resultant force from cg:
2.2.1 Method A I gx
e [6]
Ay
𝜃 Where: yp = y + e = location of the cp along the inclined direction
Igx = centroidal moment of inertia about the x-axis
𝑦̅= location of the cg along the inclined direction
h
ℎ̅ 𝑦 PLANE SURFACE GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES
𝑦̅
̅𝑝
𝑦 1. Rectangle 2. Circle
𝑦 𝑦
dF

FR

dA
e h 𝑥 𝑥
d
cg
cp

b r
𝜋𝑑 2
A = bh 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 =
Fig. 2.10 Force on Inclined Surface 4
𝑏ℎ3 ℎ𝑏3 𝜋𝑟4 𝜋𝑑4
Where: cg = center of gravity of the plane surface 𝐼𝑔𝑥 = 𝐼𝑔𝑦 = 𝐼𝑔𝑥 = 𝐼𝑔𝑦 = =
cp = center of pressure in the plane surface 12 12 4 64

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3. Triangle 4. Ellipse
𝑦 𝑦
b

2/3h b
h 𝑥
𝑥
1/3h

a
b
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑎𝑏
𝑏ℎ
A= 2
ℎ𝑏3 𝑎𝑏3
h
𝑏ℎ3
𝐼𝑔𝑥 = 𝐼𝑔𝑦 = 𝐼𝑔𝑥 = 𝜋
36 36 4
γh
5. Semi-Circle 6. Semi-Ellipse
𝑦 𝑦 Pressure prism

1
𝑥 b
̅
𝑦
𝑥 Vol.of Pressure Prism   h  bh [7]
̅
𝑦 2

r a 2.3 Hydrostatic Force on Curve Surfaces

4𝑟 4𝑏
𝑦̅ = ̅=
𝑦
3𝜋 3𝜋
𝜋𝑟 2 𝜋𝑎𝑏
𝐴= 𝐴= Horizontal projection
2 2 of the curve surface ̅
ℎ
𝐼𝑔𝑥 = 0.11𝑟4 𝐼𝑔𝑥 = 0.11𝑎𝑏3 A B
a

2.2.1 Method B (Pressure Prism Method)

“The resultant hydrostatic force is equal to the volume of the pressure prism in b Vertical projection of
the plane surface.” the curve surface cg

Note: Pressure prism is the 3D shape of the pressure distribution in the plane Av
surface. Curve
surface

C
Fig. 2.11 Force on Curves Surface

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2.4 Applications of Hydrostatic Forces
Fy
2.4.1 Dams
A B B
x1
x2
x3
W1
FH Fx
W

FV
FR
W2
C D

Upstream face
C
h1 FV2 FR2
FR1
Fig. 2.12 FBD of the enclosed liquid block h2
Rx
FH2
2.3.1 Horizontal Component of the Resultant (FH) h1 /3
“The horizontal component of the resultant hydrostatic force acting on the curve 60° h2 /3
surface is equal to the hydrostatic force acting on the vertical projection of the heel toe
curve surface.” A B

FH   hAv [8] γh2

Where: Av = area of the vertical projection of the curve surface

γh1 x4
2.3.2 Vertical Component of the Resultant (FV) Ry
U
“The vertical component of the resultant hydrostatic force acting on the curve
surface is equal to the weight of the real or imaginary fluid directly above the Fig. 2.13 Forces on a typical dam
curve surface.” ELEMENTS
Convention: If the fluid is above the curve surface the direction of the Fv is going 1. Hydrostatic Forces
downward. Whereas, if the fluid is below the curve surface the direction of F v is FR1   h1 A1 [11]
going upward.
FH 2   h2 A2
FV   V [9]
[12]

Where: V = volume of the real or imaginary fluid above the curve surface FV 2   VBCD [13]

2.3.3 Resultant Hydrostatic Force (FR) 2. Hydrostatic Uplift (U)

– reduces the stability of the dam against sliding and against overturning
FR  FH 2  FV 2 [10] 1 1
U   h1 BL   h2 BL [14]
2 2
Where: B = width at the base of the dam
L = length of the dam perpendicular to the paper (or assume a 1 m strip)

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3. Vertical (Normal) Reaction – resultant of the vertical forces (Ry) 8. Factor of Safety against sliding
Ry  W1  W2  FV 2  U - Eccentricity of the Ry from the centerline at the base
[15]
4. Righting (Stabilizing) Moment (RM) Rx
- Moment that maintains the stability of the dam (about the toe)
h 
RM  W1 x1  W2 x2  FV 2 x3  FH 2  2  [16]
3
f
5. Overturning Moment (OM)
- Moment that reduces the stability of the dam (about the toe)
h 
RM  FR1  1   Ux4 [17]
3 Ry
6. Eccentricity (e) Fig. 2.15 Factor of Safety against sliding
- Eccentricity of the Ry from the centerline at the base Where: Rx = resultant of the horizontal forces
CL f = frictional force at the base
μ = coefficient of friction

f  Ry
B/2 FS s   [21]
Rx Rx
toe 9. Foundation Pressure
OM Case 1: Ry is within the middle thirds (e < B/6)
RM
CL
e 𝒙

Ry B/3 B/3 B/3

(a) B/6
Fig. 2.14 Eccentricity
toe
Assume the dam is not rigidly connected at the surface at the bottom.
M toe  0 fmin
Ry x  OM  RM e
fmax
Ry Ry
RM  OM
x [18] CL
Ry
B
B
e x [19]
2 1m
e
(b) fmax
7. Factor of Safety Against Overturning fmin
RM
FSo  [20]
OM
Fig. 2.16 Foundation Pressure for Case 1

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Axial Plus Bending:
M  Ry e Case 2: Ry is in the thirds points (e > B/6)
P Mc CL
f  
A I
Mc 6M
Where: b=1m ; d=B;  2 (rectangular section) B/3 B/3 B/3
I bd (a) B/6
Ry 6 Ry e fmin
toe
f   2
B(1 m) (1 m) B
Cracked may develop
Ry  6e  (tensile stress) e fmax
f  1  
B 1 m   B [22]
Ry
Use: (+) → for maximum foundation pressure CL
(-) → for minimum foundation pressure
Case 2: Ry is in the thirds points (e = B/6)
B/3 B/3 B/3
CL (b) B/6
toe
B/3 B/3 B/3
(a) B/6
e fmax
toe
Ry
̅
𝒙
e fmax
𝟑𝒙̅
Ry
Ry Fig. 2.17 Foundation Pressure for Case 3
CL
Volume of Pressure Prism:
1
Ry  f max  3x  (1m)
B
2
1m
e 2 Ry
(b) fmax f max 
3 x 1 m  [23]

Fig. 2.16 Foundation Pressure for Case 2

Volume of Pressure Prism:
1
Ry  f max B (1m)
2
2 Ry
f max 
B 1 m  [22]

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2.4.2 Buoyancy Considering that pressure at the bottom surface of the object is larger than at the top
- comes from a Latin word “buoy” which means “float” surface
Archimedes Principle: Fv 2  Fv1
“The buoyant force acting on an object is equal to the weight of the displaced Note: Buoyant force is the net force acting on a submerged body.
fluid.” BF  Fv 2  Fv1
Where: Fv1   V1 and Fv 2   V2
Fv1 Thus: BF   V2  V1 
Let: Vs = V2 - V2 = volume of the object submerged in the fluid or volume of the
fluid displaced by the object
BF   Vs [24]
Note:
An object will float if the buoyant force is greater than or equal to the weight of the
object.

Fv2
(a)

Fv1
V1
V2

Fv2

(b)
Fig. 2.18 Buoyant force

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