Fluid Statics (Lectures 7-9) : Lecture Notes On Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Sukumar Pati

Lecture
notes on Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Sukumar Pati

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Fluid Mechanics-I; Semester: III ; Session: August-December 2020
Course coordinator: Dr. Sukumar Pati
Email: sukumar@mech.nits.ac.in
Fluid Statics (Lectures 7–9)
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The forces acting on a fluid element are of surface forces and body forces. For a stationary
fluid, the only surface force acting is the pressure force manifested in the form of normal
compressive stress. Details of variation of pressure in a fluid and the measurement of
pressure are presented. Pascal’s law for pressure at a point is derived. This is followed by the
derivation of the pressure variation in a fluid at rest. Thereafter, fundamental principles of
different types of manometers for the measurement of pressure are presented in details.
Lastly, the fundamental equation of fluid statics is applied to find the pressure for
compressible (both for isothermal and nonisothermal) fluids.
2.2 FLUID PRESSURE AT A POINT

A fluid will exert a force normal to a solid boundary or any plane drawn through the fluid.
Consider a small area A in a stationary fluid. Let F is the force acting on the area A in the
normal direction. Mathematically, the pressure at a point in stationary fluid is
F
p  lim
A 0 A
If the force F is uniformly distributed over the area A, then the pressure at any point
is given by
F
p
A
In SI system, the unit of pressure is N/m2, also known as Pascal and is represented by
Pa. To express large magnitude, kPa and bar are used as a unit of pressure.
1kPa  1000Pa  1000N/m 2
1 bar  105 N/m 2
To express small pressure, mm of mercury (Hg) column, also called the torr in honour
of Torricelli, is used.
At sea level and 15C , the international standard atmosphere has been chosen as
1.01325 bar (=10.34 m of water =760 mm of mercury). Therefore
1 atm  10.34 m of water  760 mm of mercury
2.3 PASCAL’S LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT

Pascal’s law states that pressure (or intensity of pressure) at a point in a static fluid is equal
in magnitude in all directions. To demonstrate it, let a small wedge shaped fluid element in
static condition be considered. Let us assume that the width of the element perpendicular to
1
the plane of paper is unity and px , p y , and pz are the pressures acting on the three surfaces
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Silchar, Silchar, India

Lecture notes on Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Sukumar Pati

as shown in Fig. 2.1. Since at static condition, the tangential force exerted by the surrounding
fluid elements is zero, the forces acting on the fluid element are pressure forces on the
surfaces and the gravity forces distributed throughout its mass. Let us also assume that the
gravity forces are acting along negative y direction.
A
pz

dl
y dy

B C
x dx
py
z
Fig. 2.1 Static Equilibrium of a Fluid Element
Area of the faces AB, BC and CA are dy 1 , dx  1 and dl 1 respectively.

Pressure force acting on the face AB is then found to be
 px  Area of the faces AB  px  dy  1 .
Similarly, the pressure forces acting on the faces BC and CA are p y  dx 1 and pz  dl  1
respectively.
Volume of the fluid element is
1 1
  AB  BC   1=  dx  dy  1
2 2
Weight of the fluid element is then
 mass of element  acceleration due to gravity
 density of fluid  volume of element  g
1
   dx  dy  1 g
2
where  is the density of fluid and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Resolving the forces in x-direction, one can write
px  dy 1  pz   dl  1 sin   0
or, px dy  pz dl sin   0 ` (2.1)
From Fig. 2.1 (right angle triangle), we have
dy  dl sin 
Substituting dy  dl sin  on Eq.(2.1), we have
px dl sin   pz dl sin   0
or, px  pz (2.2)
Similar to the above, resolving the forces in y-direction, we have
1
p y  dx 1  pz   dl 1 cos     dx  dy  1 g  0
2
2
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1
or, p y dx  pz dl cos   dxdyg  0 (2.3)
2
From the geometry of Fig. 2.1 (right angle triangle), we have
dx  dl cos 
Substituting dx  dl cos  and dy  dl sin  on Eq.(2.3), we have
1
p y dl cos   pz dl cos   dl cos dl sin g  0
2
1
or, p y  pz  dl sin g  0
2
As dl0 (the fluid element shrinks to a point), we have
p y  pz (2.4)
Therefore, from Eqs (2.2) and (2.4), one can write px  p y  pz i.e., the pressure at a point in
a fluid at rest is same in all possible directions.
2.4 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST

Consider a differential fluid element at rest in rectangular Cartesian co-ordinate system as
shown in Fig. 2.2. The forces acting on the fluid element are of surface forces and body
forces. Considering gravity as the only body force, the body force acting on the fluid element
is g xyz , which is acting vertically downward through the centroid of the element.
Therefore, the body force acting along the y direction is g xyz
Since the fluid element is at rest, the shear stress acting on the element will be zero.
The only surface force is the pressure force. Let the pressure at the center of the element be p
. The surface forces acting on faces perpendicular to x-direction are shown in Fig. 2.2.
p x
The pressure at the left face (normal to x-axis) of the element is p 
x 2
p x
The pressure at the right face (normal to x-axis) of the element is p 
x 2
p x
The surface force exerted on the left and right faces are ( p  )yz and
x 2
p x
(p )yz , respectively.
x 2
B F
A
p x E p x
( p  ) y z ( p  ) y z
x 2 p y x 2
y G
C
D H
x z
x
z
3
Fig. 2.2 A rectangular fluid element at rest with surface forces in the x-direction
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Net forces acting on the element in the x direction is

p x p x p
 Fx  ( p  )yz  ( p  )yz   xyz
x 2 x 2 x
Similarly, net forces acting on the fluid element in the y and z direction can be expressed as
p
 Fy   xyz   g xyz
y
p
 Fz   xyz
z
From Newton’s second law, a force balance in the x ,y and z directions gives
 Fx  ma x  0
p
 xyz  0
x
Since the volume of the element ( xyz ) can not be equal to zero, we have
p
0 (2.5)
x
 Fy  ma y  0
p
 xyz   g xyz  0
y
p
or,   g (2.6)
y
 Fz  ma z  0
p
 xyz  0
z
p
or, 0 (2.7)
z
It implies that any two points at the same elevation in the same continuous mass of
fluid at rest have the same pressure. This is known as fundamental law of fluid statics (or
hydrostatic law). From Eqs (2.5) to (2.7), it can be concluded that the pressure p is a
function of y only. Therefore, Eq.(2.6) can be written as
dp
 g (2.8)
dy
Equation (2.8) relates the change of pressure to change of elevation and is applicable to both
compressible and incompressible fluids.
Note: Eq. (2.8) holds true with the following assumptions:

(i) Static fluid
(ii) Gravity is the only body force
(iii) The y axis is vertically upward.
For most problems involving liquids it is usual to assume that the density  is
constant, and the same assumption can also be made for a gas if pressure differences are very
small. For an incompressible fluid, the density  does not change with change in pressure p.
4
If the pressure at the reference level, y  y0 , is designated as p0, then the pressure, p,
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at location y is found by integrating Eq. (2.8) as



p y
 dp   gdy
p0 y0
Neglecting the variation of g with altitude y , we have

p  p0  g ( y  y0 )  g ( y0  y ) (2.9)
For liquids, it is convenient to take the origin of the co-ordinate system at the
reference level and to measure distances as positive downward from the reference level (Fig.
2.3). Then Eq. (2.9) can be written as
p  p0  g ( y0  y )  gh (2.10)
where, y0 –y=h
y
y0
h
Fig. 2.3
Equation (2.10) indicates that the pressure difference between two points in a static
fluid can be determined by measuring the elevation difference between the two points.
When h is measured from the free surface of the liquid as shown in Fig. 2.3, p0  0
and the pressure at any point becomes
p  gh (2.11)
where p is the pressure above atmospheric pressure ( also known as gauge pressure)..
Pressure is also expressed in terms of height of liquid column (also known as pressure head)
as
p
h (2.12)
g
2.5 ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM

PRESSURES
Pressure may be expressed with reference to any arbitrary datum. The usual data are absolute
zero and local atmospheric pressure. When a pressure is expressed as a difference between its
value and a complete vacuum, it is called an absolute pressure, whereas when it is expressed
as a difference between its value and the local atmospheric pressure, it is called a gauge
pressure. Similar to gauge pressure, when the pressure is below the atmospheric pressure and
is expressed with reference to local atmospheric pressure, it is called vacuum pressure (also
called negative gauge pressure). The relationship between the absolute pressure, gauge
pressure and vacuum pressure are shown in Fig. 2.4.
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Gauge pressure
Absolute
pressure
Vacuum Local atmospheric
pressure pressure
Absolute
pressure
Absolute zero
Fig. 2.4 Illustration of absolute, gauge and vacuum pressure readings

Mathematically, one can write (refer Fig. 2.5)
pabs  patm  pgauge (2.13)
pvac  patm  pabs (2.14)
2.6 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

The different types of devices commonly used for the measurement of pressure are of two
categories, namely
(a) Manometers
(b) Mechanical gauges.
Here, brief introductions of different types of manometers are presented.
2.6.1 Manometers
The relationship between pressure and the head (Eq. 2.12) is utilized for pressure
measurement in the manometer. Manometers are devices in which columns of a suitable
liquid are used to measure the difference in pressure between two points or between a certain
point and the atmosphere. Manometers are extensively used for the measurement of pressures
in various flow measuring devices (see Chapter 6 for details). The manometers are classified
as
(a) Simple Manometers
(b) Differential Manometer
Here, different types of manometers, with their principle and uses will be discussed.
2.6.2 Mechanical Gauges
Mechanical gauges are those devices which utilize the principle of deflection of an elastic
element under the action of applied pressure. The different types of mechanical pressure
6
gauges commonly used are bourdon tube pressure gages, diaphragm pressure gauge and
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dead-weight pressure gauge.


2.7 SIMPLE MANOMETERS

A simple manometer consists a glass or plastic tube having one end connected to the point
where the pressure is to be measured, while the other end is open to atmosphere. Some of the
commonly used simple manometers are prescribed below:
(i) Piezometer
(ii) U-tube Manometer
(iii) Single Column Manometer
2.7.1 Piezometer
The most elementary manometer is called as piezometer. A piezometer is essentially a glass
or plastic tube mounted vertically so that it is connected to the space within the container
(refer Fig. 2.5). Liquid rises in the tube until equilibrium is reached. The pressure is given by
the vertical distance from the meniscus (liquid surface) to the point where the pressure is to
be measured. It is expressed in units of length of liquid in the glass tube.
If the liquid is moving in the pipe or vessel, the bottom of the tube must be flush with
the inside of the vessel, otherwise the reading will be affected by the velocity of the fluid.
This instrument can only be used with liquids, and the height of the tube which can
conveniently be employed limits the maximum pressure that can be measured.
If the top of the tube is open to atmosphere, the pressure measured is gauge pressure.
From Fig.2.6, one can write
Pressure at A = Pressure due to column of liquid of height hA
p A  ghA
Similarly,
Pressure at B can be expressed in terms of height of liquid column as
pB  ghB
hA
A hB
B
Fig. 2.5 Piezometer

There are certain drawbacks of piezometer as follows:
(a) It measures only the positive gauge pressure (i.e., the pressure in the liquid is above
7
atmospheric pressure). The piezometer would not work for negative gauge pressures,
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because air would flow into the container through the tube


(b) The use of piezometer is also impractical for measuring large pressures, since for that
the vertical tube would need to be very long.
(c) If the working fluid is a gas, the usage of piezometer is not possible, because gases do
not have a free surface.
The above mentioned drawbacks of the piezometer can be overcome by employing
some modification of the tube and this modified tube is known as manometer.
2.7.2 U-tube Manometer

The most elementary manometer which is frequently used for the measurement of small
negative or larger gauge pressures is the U-tube manometer. The lower part of the U-tube
contains a liquid which is immiscible with the working fluid. This fluid is called the
manometric fluid. The choice of a manometric fluid is guided by the range of pressure to be
measured; higher the range heavier the fluid. The desirable properties of manometric fluid are
as follows:
(a) Fluid should have low vapour pressure.
(b) It should have a defined meniscus at the interface for good readability.
(c) It should have low surface tension to avoid capillary rise.
(d) The fluid should be immiscible with the working fluid.
Mercury has widely used as manometric fluid because of the following properties.
(a) It has low vapour pressure ( 0.17 N/m2 at 20C) and thus for all intents and purposes it
can be neglected in comparison with atmospheric pressure.
(b) It has high density
To demonstrate the principle of U-tube manometer to measure pressure, here we
consider two different cases, namely measurement of large gauge pressure and measurement
of negative gauge pressure separately.
Case 1 Measurement of large gauge pressure

For the measurement of large gauge pressure, one end of the U-tube is connected to the pipe
or the container whose pressure is to be measured and the other end of the tube is open to
atmosphere. The level of the manometric fluid on the limb which is connected to the pipe
(left limb as shown in Fig. 2.6)will fall and on the other limb (right ) it will rise.
For the left limb, pressure along the surface XY is
p X  pressure in the pipe
 pressure corresponding to height of ( x  h)of working fluid
 p1  w g ( x  h)
where p1 is the absolute pressure of the fluid in the pipe or the container and w is the density
of the working fluid.
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Fig. 2.6 U-tube manometer to measure gauge pressure

For the right limb, pressure along the surface XY is
pY  atmospheric pressure
 pressure corresponding to height of h of manometric fluid
 patm  m g h
where patm is the local atmospheric pressure and m is the density of the manometric fluid.
Applying the fundamental law of fluid statics, i.e., the pressures at two points along the
horizontal plane XY in the same continuous mass of fluid at rest is same, we get
p X  pY
or, p1  w g ( x  h)  patm  m g h
or, p1  patm  (m  w ) g h  m gx (2.15)
Note: When patm  0 , p1 will be the gauge pressure.
Case 2 Measurement of negative gauge pressure
When the manometer is used to measure negative gauge pressure as shown in Fig. 2.7, the
level of the manometric fluid will rise on the left limb ( connected to the pipe ) and on the
right limb( open to atmosphere) it will fall.
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Fig. 2.7 U-tube manometer to measure vacuum pressure


Let p1 be the pressure in the pipe.
p X  pressure in the pipe
 pressure corresponding to height of x of working fluid
 p1  w gx  m g h
pY  atmospheric pressure  patm
horizontal plane XY in the same continuous mass of fluid at rest is same, we have
p X  pY
or, p1  w gx  m g h  patm
or, patm  p1  w gx  m g h (2.16)
2.7.3 Single Column Manometer
The disadvantage of the simple U-tube manometer is that the movement of liquid in both the
limbs must be read. By making the diameter of one leg very large as compared with the other,
it is possible to make the movement in the large leg very small, so that it is only necessary to
read the movement of liquid in the narrow leg. This is known as single column manometer.
There are two types of single column manometer namely (a) vertical single column
manometer and (b) inclined single column manometer.
2.7.3.1 Vertical Single Column Manometer

A vertical single column manometer is shown in Fig. 2.8. Let MN be the level of the
manometric liquid when it is not connected to the pipe. When it is connected to the pipe
having pressure p1 ( p1  patm ), the manometric liquid will move downward in the larger
cross-section and will rise in the narrow tube (Fig. 2.8).
Let the difference in height between the two surfaces XY and MN is x. Then when pressure is
applied ( p1  patm ), the level in the right hand limb will rise a distance h vertically.

Volume of liquid transferred from left hand leg to right hand leg is V  d 2 h .
4
Fall in level of the left leg (having larger cross-section) will be

d 2 h 2
Volume transferred(V ) 4 d
x     h
Area of left hand leg(A)  2 D
D
4
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patm
p1
h Diameter d
Diameter D
h
M N
X Y
Manometric fluid
Fig. 2.8 Vertical single column manometer

.
The pressure difference, p1  patm , is represented by the height of the manometric liquid
corresponding to the new difference of level.
p X  pressure in the pipe  pressure corresponding
to  h  x  of working fluid
 p1  w g  h  x 
pY  atmospheric pressure
 patm  m g h
horizontal plane XY in the same continuous mass of fluid at rest is same, we get
p X  pY
or, p1  w g ( x  h)  patm  m g h
or, p1  patm  m g h  w g ( x  h)
 d  2 
or, p1  patm  m g h  w g   h  h  (2.17)
 D  
2 2
d d
If D  d then   is very small and can be neglected. Neglecting   , Eq. (2.17) yields
D D
to
p1  patm  m g h  w gh (2.18)
2.7.3.2 Inclined Single Column Manometer

If the pressure difference to be measured is small, the leg of the U tube may be inclined. The
movement of the meniscus along the inclined leg, read off on the scale, is considerable
greater than the change in level h (Fig. 2.9).
Pressure difference can be expressed as
11
p1  patm  m g s sin   w gh (2.19)

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The manometer can be made as sensitive as may be required by adjusting the angle of
inclination of leg and selecting a liquid with an appropriate value of density to give a scale
reading s of the desired size for a given pressure difference.
p1
h
Diameter D patm
S
M 
h N
X Y
Diameter d
Fig. 2.9 Inclined single column manometer
2.8 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS

To measure the pressure difference between two points, in the flow field, the manometer
which is frequently used, is called the differential manometer. Some of the commonly used
differential manometers are prescribed below:
(a) U-tube differential manometer
(b) Inverted U-tube differential manometer
(c) Micro-manometers
2.8.1 U-tube Differential Manometer

Differential U-tube manometer is very handy to measure the pressure difference between two
points in the flow field directly and is basically similar to the U-tube manometer discussed
above. What the open end was before is now connected to a different pressure p2 in the flow
field. Figure 2.10 shows a differential U-tube manometer connected between two points 1
and 2 in a pipe through which fluid is flowing. Since fluid is flowing from 1 to 2, the pressure
at point 1 will be higher than that of 2. Therefore, the level of the meniscus in the left limb
(connected to point 1) will fall down and that in the right limb will go up.
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.
Fig. 2.10 U-tube differential manometer
Let p1 and p2 be the pressures at point 1and 2 in the pipe respectively.
For the left limb, pressure along the horizontal surface XY is
p X  pressure at point 1 in the pipe
 pressure corresponding to height of  x  h  of working fluid
 p1  w g ( x  h)
For the right limb, pressure along the horizontal surface XY is
pY  pressure at point 2 in the pipe
 pressure corresponding to height of x of working fluid
 p2   w gx  m g h
Equating the pressure at the level XY (pressure at the same level in a continuous body of
static fluid is equal), one can write
p X  pY
or, p1   w g ( x  h)  p2  w gx  m g h
or, p1  p2  (m   w ) g h (2.20)
In forming the connection from a manometer to a pipe or vessel in which a fluid is
flowing, care must be taken to ensure that the connection is perpendicular to the wall and
flush internally. Any burr or protrusion on the inside of the wall will disturb the flow and
cause a local change in pressure so that the manometer reading will not be correct.
2.8.2 Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer

The inverted U-tube manometer is used for measuring pressure differences in liquids. The top
of the U-tube is filled with a fluid which has a density less than that of working fluid. For
inverted U - tube manometer the manometric fluid is usually air. Air can be admitted or
expelled through the tap on the top, in order to adjust the level of the liquid in the
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manometer.
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If the density of manometric fluid in the top of the tube is very close to that of working fluid
then the result will be a very sensitive giving a large value of h for a small pressure
difference. An inverted U-tube manometer is shown in Fig. 2.11.
Manometric fluid
X Y
h
1 2
Fig. 2.11 Inverted U-tube manometer

Let p1 and p2 be the pressures at point 1and 2 in the pipe respectively.
For the left limb, pressure along the horizontal surface XY is
p X  pressure at point 1 in the pipe
 pressure corresponding to height of  x  h  of working fluid
 p1  w g ( x  h)
For the right limb, pressure along the horizontal surface XY is
pY  pressure at point 2 in the pipe
 pressure corresponding to height of x of working fluid
 pressure corresponding to height of h of manometric fluid
 p2   w gx  m g h
Equating the pressures of both the limb along the horizontal plane XY, one can write
p X  pY
or, p1   w g ( x  h)  p2  w g x  m g h
or, p1  p2  (w  m ) g h (2.21)
A major disadvantage of the manometer is its slow response, which makes it

unsuitable for measuring fluctuating pressures. Even under comparatively static conditions,
slight fluctuations of pressure can make the liquid in the manometer oscillate, so that it is
difficult to get a precise reading of the levels of the liquid in the gauge. These oscillations can
be reduced by putting restrictions in the manometer connections. It is also essential that the
pipes connecting the manometer to the pipe or vessel containing the liquid under pressure
should be filled with this liquid and that there should be no air bubbles in the liquid.
2.8.3 Micro -manometers

14
The micro-manometers are used for measuring small difference of pressures in the order of
0.001 mm of mercury column. It utilizes two liquids which are immiscible with each other as
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shown in Fig. 2.12. Let m and  g be the density of the two manometric fluids ( m   g ).


The denser liquid will fill the bottom of the U-tube. Let A and a be the area of each
enlarged end and area of the tube respectively. Let us consider that the pressures at point
1and 2 in the pipe are p1 and p2 respectively.
Now, for the left limb, pressure along the plane XY is
p X  pressure at point 1  pressure corresponding to height
of ( y  x) of working fluid pressure corresponding
to height of ( x  h  x) of manometric fluid of density  g
 p1  w g ( y  x)   g g ( x  h  x)
For the right limb, pressure along the plane XY is
pY  pressure at point 2  pressure corresponding to height of ( y  x) of working fluid
 pressure corresponding to height of ( x  x) of manometric fluid of density  g 
pressure corresponding to height ofh of manometric fluid of density m
 p2   w g ( y  x)   g g ( x  x)  m g h
p1 p2
Working fluid
y
x Initial level of
x manometric fluid, g
Manometric fluid, g
Initial level of h
manometric fluid, m
X Y
Manometric fluid, m
Fig. 2.12 Micromanometer
Equating the pressures of both the limb along the horizontal plane XY, we have
p1   w g ( y  x)   g g ( x  h  x)  p2  w g ( y  x)
(2.22)
  g g ( x  x)  m g h
The volume of the manometric liquid of density g displaced in the enlarged section equals to
the displacement in the U-tube. Then,
h
Ax  a
15
2
a h
or, x 
Page
A 2


Substituting the value of x in Eq.(2.22), we have
a h a h a h a h
p1   w g ( y  )   g g ( x  h  )  p2  w g ( y  )  g g ( x  )  m g h or,
A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2
a a
p1  p2  w g h   g g (h  h)  m g h (2.23)
A A
If D  d then neglecting ( a A ), Eq. (2.23) yields to
p1  p2  m g h   g g h  (m   g ) g h (2.24)
If the densities of the two manometric fluids are close to each other, then for a small pressure
difference we can achieve a reasonable value of h .
2.9 Barometer
The barometer is a special manometer used for measuring atmospheric air pressure. Mercury
is used as manometric fluid. The tube is evacuated of all gas so that no atmospheric pressure
acts on the top of the mercury column. Because atmospheric pressure acts on the bottom of
the mercury, the height to which the mercury column is lifted represents atmospheric
pressure.
The pressure at A is given by
p A  pv   gh
where pv is the vapour pressure of mercury. From the fundamental law of fluid statics , the
pressures at two points A must be same as that at and B (Fig.2.13).
The local atmospheric pressure is expressed by the following equation
patm  pv   gh (2.25)
2
Since mercury has a low vapour pressure ( 0.17 N/m at 20C) it can be neglected in
comparison with atmospheric pressure for all intents and purposes.
Fig. 2.13 Barometer
2.10 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A COMPRESSIBLE FLUID

16
So far we have considered the variation of pressure for incompressible fluid for which density
variation with change in pressure is not significant and is neglected. Now, we will consider
Page


the case of pressure variation in a compressible fluid for which density varies with pressure.
Here, both isothermal and non-isothermal fluids will be considered separately.
2.10.1 Isothermal fluid
For an isothermal fluid from the characteristic equation of state ( p   RT ), one can write
p p0
 (2.26)
 0
where p0 and  0 are the pressure and density at some arbitrary reference level y  y0 .
0
Thus,  p
p0
From Eq.(2.8), we have
dp
  g
dy
Substituting the value of  in the above equation, we get
dp 
  0 pg
dy p0
dp 
or,   0 gdy
p p0
Integrating the above equation, we obtain
p
dp y 0
    gdy [ p  p0 at y  y0 ]
p0 p y0 p0
p  0 
or, ln    g ( y  y0 ) 
p0  p0 
  
or, p  p0 exp   0 g ( y  y0 )  (2.27)
 p0 
Equation (2.27) shows that the pressure decreases exponentially with the elevation (altitude)
for an isothermal fluid.
2.10.2 Non-isothermal fluid

Here we consider the cases for which the temperature of the fluid does not remain constant.
First we consider an adiabatic process and then another case for which the temperature
variation with elevation is prescribed.
2.10.2.1 Adiabatic Process

For an adiabatic process, the relation between pressure and density can be expressed as
p
 constant (2.28)
k
p p0
or,  (2.28a)
17
k 0k
where p0 and 0 are the pressure and density at some arbitrary reference level y  y0 and
Page
k is the ratio of specific heats.



p
k  0k
p0
1
 p k
or,   0   (2.28b)
 p0 
From Eq.(2.8), we have
dp
  g
dy
Substituting the value of  from Eq. (2.28b) in the above equation, we get
1
dp  p k
  0   g
dy  p0 

1
0
or, p dp  k
1
gdy
k
p 0
Integrating the above equation, we obtain
p 
1 y
0
 p k dp    1
gdy [ p  p0 at y  y0 ]
p0 y0
k
p0
p
  1 1   
y
 p k   0 
or,  1     1 gy 
   1  p k  y0
 k  p0  0
 
k  kk1 k 1
  0 
or,  p  p0     1 g ( y  y0 ) 
k
k 1    pk
 0 
 
k 1 k 1
k  1  0
or, p  p0 
k k
g ( y  y0 ) 
k  1 
 p0 
k
k
 k 1  k 1
  1 
g ( y  y0 ) 
k
or, p  p0 k  0
 k 1 
 p0k 
k
 k  1 0  k 1
or, p  p0 1  g ( y  y0 )  (2.29)
 k p0 
2.10.2.2 Prescribed temperature variation with elevation
From the characteristic equation of ideal gas, one can write

p   RT
18
where R is the characteristic gas constant.

Substituting the value of  in Eq. (2.8), we obtain
Page


dp p
  g   g (2.30)
dy RT
It has observed that upto a certain altitude temperature varies (decreases) linearly with
elevation. The temperature variation can be expressed as
T  T0   ( y  y0 ) (2.31)
where β is the temperature lapse rate ( negative), and T0 is the reference temperature at
y  y0 .
From Eqs (2.30) and (2.31), we have
dp p
 g
dy R[T0   ( y  y0 )]
dp g
or,  dy (2.32)
p R[T0   ( y  y0 )]
Integrating Eq. (2.32), we have
p
dp y g
  dy
p0 p y0 R[T0   ( y  y0 )]
p g T   ( y  y0 )
or, ln  ln 0
p0 R T0
g

p  T0   ( y  y0 )  R
or,   (2.33)
p0  T0 
g
p T 
or,  ( ) R (2.34)
p0 T0
Equation (2.33) or (2.34) shows that the pressure decreases with elevation and depends on
acceleration due to gravity, characteristic gas constant and the temperature lapse rate..
References:
1. S.K. Som, G. Biswas, S. Chakraborty: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics and Fluid
Machines: McGraw Hill(India).
2. S. Pati: A Textbook on Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines: McGarw-Hill
(India)
19
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Fluid Statics (Lectures 7-9) : Lecture Notes On Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Sukumar Pati

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Fluid Statics (Lectures 7-9) : Lecture Notes On Fluid Mechanics by Dr. Sukumar Pati

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Lecture

Fluid Statics (Lectures 7–9)

2.2 FLUID PRESSURE AT A POINT

2.3 PASCAL’S LAW FOR PRESSURE AT A POINT

Area of the faces AB, BC and CA are dy 1 , dx  1 and dl 1 respectively.

2.4 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST

Net forces acting on the element in the x direction is

Note: Eq. (2.8) holds true with the following assumptions:

at location y is found by integrating Eq. (2.8) as

Neglecting the variation of g with altitude y , we have

2.5 ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM

Fig. 2.4 Illustration of absolute, gauge and vacuum pressure readings

2.6 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

2.6.2 Mechanical Gauges

dead-weight pressure gauge.

2.7 SIMPLE MANOMETERS

Fig. 2.5 Piezometer

2.7.2 U-tube Manometer

Case 1 Measurement of large gauge pressure

Fig. 2.6 U-tube manometer to measure gauge pressure

Fig. 2.7 U-tube manometer to measure vacuum pressure

2.7.3.1 Vertical Single Column Manometer

Fig. 2.8 Vertical single column manometer

2.7.3.2 Inclined Single Column Manometer

p1  patm  m g s sin   w gh (2.19)

Fig. 2.9 Inclined single column manometer

2.8 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS

2.8.1 U-tube Differential Manometer

2.8.2 Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer

Fig. 2.11 Inverted U-tube manometer

A major disadvantage of the manometer is its slow response, which makes it

2.8.3 Micro -manometers

Fig. 2.12 Micromanometer

Fig. 2.13 Barometer

2.10 PRESSURE VARIATION IN A COMPRESSIBLE FLUID

2.10.1 Isothermal fluid

2.10.2 Non-isothermal fluid

2.10.2.1 Adiabatic Process

k is the ratio of specific heats.

2.10.2.2 Prescribed temperature variation with elevation

From the characteristic equation of ideal gas, one can write

where R is the characteristic gas constant.

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