2.

0 FLUID STATICS
2.1 Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatics is the study of pressures throughout a fluid at rest and the pressure forces on
finite surfaces. As the fluid is at rest, there are no shear stresses in it. Hence the pressure at a
point on a plane surface always acts normal to the surface, and all forces are independent of
viscosity.The pressure variation is due to only the weight of the fluid. As a result, the
controlling laws are relatively simple, and analysis is based on a straightforward application
of the mechanical principles of force and moment.

When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force at all points on the sides and bottom and
top of the container. The force per unit area is called pressure. If,
F = the force and
A = area on which the force acts;
𝐹
Then intensity of pressure, 𝑃 =
𝐴
For pressure changing from point to point, we consider the element of force ‘ F ’ normal to a
small area ‘ A ’ surrounding the point under consideration.
F
 Mean pressure =
A
F
In the limit, as A  0 , P  lim
A0 A

dF
Such that P  (N/m2) or bar
dA
F
F Fluid Fluid
Imaginary plane

Solid Fluid
R

(a)
(b)

Fig 2.1: Forces acting on a fluid at rest

If the boundary is curved, it can be considered to be composed of a series of chords on each

of which a force F1, F2, ……,Fn acts perpendicular to the surface at the section concerned.
Similarly, considering any plane drawn through a body of fluid at rest (Fig 2.1 (b)), the force
exerted by one portion of the fluid on the other acts at right angles to this plane.

1
Equilibrium
Considering an element of fluid defined by solid boundaries or imaginary planes,a free-body
diagram can be drawn for the element showing all forces acting on it. Since the fluid is at
rest, the element will be in equilibrium, and therefore;
 The algebraic sum of component forces acting in any direction must be zero
 The algebraic sum of moments about any point must be zero

Three possible conditions for equilibrium exist. They are defined based on the effect of
displacement from the equilibrium position.

Stable equilibrium: A small displacement from the equilibrium position generates a force
producing a righting moment, which tends to restore the fluid to its equilibrium position.

Unstable equilibrium: A small displacement produces an overturning moment, which tends

to displace the fluid further from its equilibrium position.

Neutral equilibrium: The fluid element remains at rest in any position it is displaced to.

2.2 Pascal’s Law for Pressure at a Point

Pascal’s law states that;the pressure intensity of fluid, when at rest, is the same in all
directions and acts normal to the surface at each point.

Proof that pressure acts equally in all directions

Consider a triangular prismatic element of fluid containing a point P.

Ps
dz

𝜃
ds

Px

dy

dx 𝜃
W
Py
Fig 2.2: pressure acting on a fluid at a point
Since the fluid element is at rest, all forces acting on it are perpendicular to the surfaces. In
addition, since the fluid is in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of forces in any direction is zero.
F=PxA

2
Summing forces in the x-direction,
Px (dy.dz) – Ps sin𝜃 (ds.dz) = 0
𝑑𝑦
Px (dy.dz) – Ps( 𝑑𝑠 ) (ds.dz) = 0
Px = Ps

Similarly, summing forces in the y-direction,

Py (dx.dz) – Pscos𝜃 (ds.dz) – Weight = 0
𝑑𝑥
Py (dx.dz) – Ps( 𝑑𝑠 ) (ds.dz) – specific weight x vol = 0

Py (dx.dz) – Ps (dx.dz) – 𝜌𝑔. 1⁄2(dx.dy)dz

Since we have a small element of fluid, dx, dy, dz are small, and therefore, their product is
very small and considered negligible.
This implies that Py = Ps
Thus Px = Py = Ps

2.3 Pressure Variation with Depth

Let ‘P’ be the pressure acting at the end ‘O’ of the fluid body shown (Fig 2.3) of constant
cross – sectional area ‘A’ and ‘ P  P ’ be the pressure at the other end ‘Q’. The axis of the
fluid is inclined at angle ‘  ’ to the vertical, the height of O above datum being Z and that of
Q being ‘ Z  Z ’

Fig2.3: Variation of pressure in a stationary fluid

The forces acting are:
 PA, at right angle on the face end ‘O’ along the axis

3
 ( P  P ) A, acting at ‘Q’ along the axis in the opposite direction
 mg, the weight of the fluid element acting vertically downward

Resolving forces along the axis OQ, we have

𝑃𝐴 − ( P  P ) 𝐴 − mg cos = 0

Substituting for 𝑚𝑔 = gAs and simplifying gives,

P
  g cos ………………………………………………….… (2.4)
s
z
But cos =
s
dP
Giving   g …………………………………………………. (2.5)
dz
Thus, the conditions of equilibrium under gravity are:
 The pressure at all points on a horizontal plane must be the same
 The density at all points on a horizontal plane must be the same
 The change of pressure with elevation is given by equation (2.5)
The actual pressure variation with elevation is then given by:
z2

dP    gdz or P2  P1    gdz ………………………………..(2.6)

z1

P1- P2 = 𝜌𝑔 (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )

OR
Consider a small vertical cylinder of fluid in equilibrium, where positive z is pointing
vertically upward. Suppose the origin z = 0 is set at the free surface of the fluid (Fig 2.4).

Fig2.4: Forces acting on a fluid

Then the pressure variation at a depth z = -h below the free surface is governed by

4
Therefore, the hydrostatic pressure increases linearly with depth at the rate of the specific
weight  ≡ ρgof the fluid.

2.4Variation of Pressure with Altitude in a Gas at Constant Temperature

P
For a perfect gas,  RT

P
And for isothermal conditions,   ……………………………………….(2.7)
RT
Substituting equation (2.7) into equation (2.5), gives
dP Pg
  g  
dz RT
P2
dP z2

Integrating, P
P1
= 
g
RT
dz
z1

 g
Simplifying gives,
P2
 exp Z 2  Z1 
P1  RT 

2.5Pressure and Head

When a vessel contains any liquid with a free surface, the liquid is subjected to pressure by
virtue of its own weight. Since the weight of the liquid increases with increase in depth, the
pressure also will increase with depth.

5
 dP
From equation (2.5) i.e.   g
dz
Integrating gives P   gz + Constant………………………………………….(2.8)
Patm

h Density = 

Fig 2.5: Pressure and head

But in a liquid, and considering any point in the liquid, pressure is measured downwards from
the free surface so that z  h . Also since the pressure at the free surface will normally be
atmospheric pressure Patm(i.e. Constant), then

Equation (2.8) becomes

P  gh  Patm ……………………………………………………………………. (2.9)
The pressure therefore increases linearly with depth, whatever the shape of any solid
boundaries.

Since the atmospheric pressure is taken as a datum or reference for pressure measurement,
then Patmis normally taken to be zero gauge pressure.

Equation (2.9) thus becomes

P  gh …………………………………. (2.10)
This can also be expressed in terms of Pressure Head for a fluid of constant density as
P
Head h  (meters)………………………………….. (2.11)
g
Very useful is the concept of pressure head that it is employed whether or not an actual free
surface exists above the point in question. For a liquid without free surface, for example in a
P
closed pipe, corresponds to the height above the pipe to which a free surface would rise
g
if a small vertical tube of sufficient length and open to atmosphere – known as a Piezometer
tube – were connected to the pipe (Fig.2.5)

6
 P
h
g

Horizontal datum
Fig2.6: Piezometer tube
Rewriting equation (2.8) and dividing by g , an equation can be written for the above
Piezometer tube as,
P
 z = Constant, i.e., the sum of the pressure head and the elevation above the
ρg
chosen horizontal datum plane is constant. This constant is known as Piezometric head and
corresponds to the height of the free surface above the datum plane. The quantity P  ρgz is
termed as Piezometric pressure.

2.6 The Measurement of Pressure

In practice, pressure is always measured by the determination of pressure difference.

Absolute pressure of a fluid: Pressure difference between the fluid in question and a vacuum.

Gauge pressure: Difference between pressure of the fluid concerned and the pressure of the
surrounding atmosphere. This is the difference normally recorded by pressure gauges.

If the pressure of the fluid is below that of the atmosphere, it is termed Vacuum or suction
pressure.

7
 Gauge Pressure

Atmospheric pressure

Vacuum = Negative gauge

Absolute pressure A
Pressure

Absolute pressure B

Absolute zero pressure line

Fig 2.7: Illustration of the pressure measurement terms

2.7Pressure Gauges
These are devices used for measuring pressure of a fluid.

2.7.1 The Barometer

This uses mercury as the test fluid, and the instrument is a pipe closed at the end (Fig.2.8). It
is mainly used to measure atmospheric pressure.

h A
B

Fig 2.8: Barometer

Pa  Pv  gh ; Pa is atmospheric pressure, since pressure at B = pressure at A (i.e. they are
at the same level). Pv is mercury vapour pressure which is always small compared to Pa
Pa
Thus, Pa  gh and h 
g
Pa 105 N / m 2
h 
 
g 13560kg / m 3 9.81N / kg 
= 0.752 m

2.7.2 Manometers
These are devices in which columns of a suitable liquid are used to measure differences in
pressure between two points neither of which is necessarily at atmospheric, or between a
certain point and the atmosphere.

8
 a. U-tube manometer
This can be used to measure pressure of a liquid or gas. The bottom of the U-tube (Fig.2.9) is
filled with amanometric liquid which is of greater density,  man, and is immiscible with the
fluid P (liquid or gas), of density  whose pressure is to be measured.

Liquid P,
density D

A Manometric liquid
Density =  man
h2
h1

B C

Fig 2.9: U - tube Manometer

If B is the level of the interface in the left-hand limb and C is the point at the same level in
the right hand limb, then

Pressure PB at B = Pressure PC at C
PA  gh1   man gh2  Patm
But Patm  Zero gauge pressure
Thus, PA   man gh2  gh1 ……………………………………………..........................(2.12)

A U-tube gauge can also be arranged to measure pressure difference between two points in a
pipeline (Fig. 2.10)

Fig 2.10: Measurement of pressure difference

Same principle: PC  PD

9
i.e., PA  ga  PB  g b  h   man gh

giving,

Pressure difference = PA  PB  g b  a  hg man    …………………...................(2.13)

b. Inverted U-tube manometer

The inverted U-tube is used to measure pressure differences in liquids. The top is filled with a
fluid, frequently air, which is less dense than that connected to the instrument (Fig.2.11).
Using a less dense manometric fluid in an inverted U – tube improves the sensitivity of the
manometer (i.e. enables it being used for measuring very small pressure differences).

Pressure at level X-X is the same

Left-hand limb, Pxx  PA  ga   man gh

Right-hand limb, Pxx  PB  g b  h

Equating gives,

PB  PA  g b  a  gh   man 

Fig 2.11: Inverted U - tube manometer

c. U-tube with enlarged ends

The sensitivity of the U-tube is increased by enlarging the ends (Fig.2.12). This is done for
purposes of measuring very small pressure differences.

Fig 2.12: Manometer with enlarged ends

10
Case I: P1  P2
Suppose the surface of separation between fluids 1 and 2 is at level X-X and that the height of
fluid 2 is h2. Then
For Right-hand limb, PXX   2 gh2

For left-hand limb, PXX  1 gh1

 2 h2
Equating gives, h1  …………………………………………………..(2.14)
1
Case II: P2  P1

The interface between fluids 1 and 2 moves down a distance ‘y’ to level Y-Y. The volume of
fluid 2 withdrawn from the R.H limb enlarged end is equal to ‘ ya ’. And the fall in level in
a
the R.H limb enlarged end = y
A
Volume of fluid 1 displaced in L.H limb to enlarged end = ya
a
The rise in the L.H limb enlarged end = y
A
 a
Now, for the R.H.L, PYY  P2   2 g  h2  y  y  ………………………(2.15)
 A
 a
For the L.H.L, PYY  P1  1 g  h1  y  y  ………………………………(2.16)
 A
Combining equations (2.14), (2.15) and (2.16) and simplifying, give,

  a  a 
P2  P1  gy  1 1     2 1   ……………………………… (2.17)
  A  A 
d. Inclined-tube manometer

Fig 2.13: Inclined - tube manometer

As shown above, the differential reading is proportional to the pressure difference. If the
pressure difference is very small, the reading may be too small to be measured with good

11
 accuracy. To increase the sensitivity of the differential reading, one leg of the manometer can
be inclined at an angle θ, and the differential reading is measured along the inclined tube.

By equating the pressures at two equal levels in both limbs, we get;

𝑃1 + ℎ1 𝜌1 𝑔 = 𝑃2 + ℎ2 𝜌2 𝑔 + 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝜌3 𝑔
⇒ 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = (ℎ2 𝜌2 − ℎ1 𝜌1 )𝑔 + 𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝜌3 𝑔

Questions

i. A manometer consists of two tubes A and B with vertical axes and uniform X-sectional
areas 500mm2 and 800mm2 respectively connected by a U-tube C of uniform X-sectional
area 70mm2. Tube A contains a liquid of relative density 0.8 and B contains another liquid
of relative density 0.9. The surface of separation of the two liquids is in the vertical side of
C connected to tube A. What additional pressure, applied to tube B would cause the
surface of separation to rise 60mm in tube C?

ii. A hydraulic ram 200mm in diameter and 1.2m long moves wholly within a concentric
cylinder 200.2mm in diameter, and the annular clearance is filled with oil of relative
density 0.85 and kinematic viscosity 400mm2/s. What is the viscous force resisting the
motion when the ram moves at 120mm/s?

Exercise
The space between two large flat and parallel walls 25mm apart is filled with a liquid of
absolute viscosity 0.7 Pas. Within this space a thin flat plate 250mm x 250mm is towed ata
velocity of 150mm/s at a distance of 6mm from one wall, the plate and its movement being
parallel to the walls. Assuming linear variation of velocity between the plate and the walls,
determine the force exerted by the liquid on the plate.

2.8Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Bodies

When pressure ‘p’ acts on a solid boundary or across any plane in the fluid, the force exerted
on each small element of area A is pA , and since the fluid is at rest, this force will act at
right angles to the boundary or plane at the point under consideration.

In the body of the fluid, the pressure may vary from point to point, and the forces on each
element of area will also vary. If the fluid pressure acts on or across a plane surface, all the
forces on the small elements will be parallel and can be represented by a single force, known

12
as the ‘Resultant force’, acting at right angles to the plane through a point called the ‘centre
of pressure’

Fig 2.14: Forces acting on a surface in a fluid

Resultant force = Sum of forces on all elements of area.
R  p1A1  p2A2  .......... .......... .....  pnAn =  pA
For a curved surface, the elementary forces will all act perpendicular to the surface at each
point and will therefore not be parallel. The resultant of the forces can be found by resolving
or by polygon of forces but will be less than  pA
2.8.1 Resultant force and centre of pressure on a surface immersed in a fluid
The position of the immersed surface can be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
Horizontal surface Free water surface (FWS)

(Fig 3.2) shows a horizontal surface

x
immersed in water. Let

x = depth of surface in meters

 = specific mass of water
 
Area = A
R  g x A = gAx
Since the pressure intensity at every
point on the surface will be the same Fig 2.15 Pressure on immersed
(being at same depth), then horizontal surface

Total force o f the liquid on the horizontal surface

R = (pressure intensity) x (Area of surface)

Thus, R  gAx (Newton)………………………………………(3.1)

Question
A rectangular surface 3m by 2m is placed horizontally at a depth of 4m below the free
surface of oil of specific gravity 0.8. Find the force exerted by the surface on oil.

13
Vertically drowned surface
In this case, depth is not constant and hence the pressure intensity along the surface of contact
between the liquid and the solid surface varies.

We thus assume a small vertical strip of thickness ‘dx’ and width ‘b’ at a depth ‘x’ from the
FWS, for which it can safely be assumed that pressure intensity remains constant.

Integrating along the whole length of the surface then gives the total force on the surface.
FWS
Total force
on strip = (Pressure) x (Area of strip)
= gxb  dx
x
x
dx
G
Total force on surface R =  gbxdx
R
= g  bdx  x

b  bdx  x = 1st moment of area about the FWS

Fig. 2.16Force on vertical surface = Ax

Thus, R  gAx ………………………………………………………….(3.2)

Question
A rectangular tank of size 5m x 3m has a partition wall parallel to 3m side. On one side of the
partition wall is filled on oil of specific gravity 0.8 up to the height 1.5m and on the other side
is liquid of specific gravity 0.9 up to the height of 3m. Calculate the total resultant force on
the partition wall.

Inclined Surface
If the surface is inclined at angle ‘  ’ to the FWS, the procedure for finding the resultant force
is the same like for a vertically drowned surface with the pressure intensity resolved normal
to the surface.

14
 
C FWS

A
x

b dx
B

x
G

Fig 2.17:Force on inclined surface

Taking a small horizontal strip of thickness ‘dx’ at a distance ‘x’ from point C, the point of
intersection of surface ‘AB’ with the free water surface, the pressure intensity at this small
strip normal to the surface is given by
p  g  x sin
Force on the strip = p x (Area of strip)

= g  x sin  bdx

Total force on the whole surface R  g  bdx  x sin 

= g sin   bdx  x

Now  b  dx  x = 1st moment of area of the surface about point C

Ax
=
sin 
 Ax 
Thus, R  g   sin  = gAx ……………………………………(3.3)

 sin  
The resultant force on one side of any plane submerged surface in a uniform fluid is therefore
equal to the pressure at the centroid of the surface times the area of the surface, independent
of the shape of the plane or the angle θ at which it is slanted.

Question
A rectangular plate of size 30cm by 15cm is immersed in water such that it makes an angle of
300C with the free water surface. The 15cm side is parallel to the water surface and is 1m
below it. Find the total force on the plate.

15
2.8.2 Centre of Pressure
Knowing that the pressure intensity of a liquid increases with depth, the pressure acting on a
vertically immersed surface will be greater over the lower portion of the surface. It therefore
follows that the resultant force will act at some point towards the lower edge of the surface.
This point at which the resultant force acts is known as ‘Centre of pressure’. The centre of
pressure will always be below the centre of gravity of the immersed surface.

Illustration
Consider a water wall having an opening as shown (Fig 2.18). The flow of water through the
opening is prevented by a gate AB which is suspended by a cord at point C.

C FWS
The water pressure will tend to swing the
A gate AB about the point C. If force ‘F’ is to
be applied to maintain the gate in
H position, it would be equal in magnitude
G and opposite in direction to the water
pressure acting on the gate.
F
There will only be one point of application
B of the force to keep the gate perfectly
closed. This point is known as ‘Centre of
pressure’
Fig 2.18:Centre of pressure

If ‘F’ were applied below this point, the gate would open outwards at the top and vice versa.

The position of centre of pressure can be found by taking moments of all the forces acting on
the gate about point C; where

Moment of force F Sum of all the moments of water

about point C = pressures on the gate AB about
FWS

Centre of pressure on a vertically immersed area

Consider a vertically immersed surface (Fig 2.19) with C as a point of application of the
resultant force; i.e. centre of pressure.

16
 FWS
H = depth of C.P below FWS
b x x = depth of centre of gravity
x
H I 0 = 2nd moment of area about FWS
dx
G Considering an elementary strip of
C width ‘b’ and thickness ‘dx’ at a
depth ‘x’ below the FWS,
Fig 2.19.Centre of pressure on a
vertically immersed surface Force on strip F = gx  bdx

Moment of force F on strip about FWS M s  gx  bdx  x = gx 2 b  dx

Total moment of force for the whole surface M T  g  bdx  x 2

 bdx  x = 2nd moment of area of the surface about the FWS

2
Now
= I0

Therefore, Total moment M T  gI 0 ………………………………………(3.4)

Also, Moment of resultant force R about the FWS = RH ……………….(3.5)

For equilibrium to be assured, Equation (3.4) and (3.5) must be equal

Thus, RH  gI 0
gI 0 gI 0 I
OR H    0 ………………………………(3.6)
R gAx Ax
2nd Moment of area
i.e. Depth of centre of pressure =
1st Moment of area

But from parallel axes theorem, I 0  I G  A x 2

Where
I G is the second moment of area of the surface about a horizontal axis through the centre of
gravity,
Equation (3.6) thus becomes,

H

I0  A x
2

=
IG
 x …………….(3.7)
Ax Ax
Note: It can clearly be noted from the above equation that the centre of pressure is always
I
below the centre of gravity by an amount G
Ax

17
Table 2.1: Geometrical properties of some common shapes

Surface Area C.G position IG

d d bd 3
G
bd x I0 
x 2 12

x d
1 2d bd 3
G bd x I0 
2 3 36
b

x
d  2 d  4
d x IG  d
G 4 2 64

 2 2 
d x d IG  d4
G x 8 3 457
d

Question
An isosceles triangular plate 3m wide by 4m deep has its base at the water surface and its top
4m below the centre of the base. Determine the force the water exerts on the plate and hence
locate the centre of pressure.

Centre of pressure on an inclined immersed surface

The location of centre of pressure for an area inclined to the water surface can be found by
taking moments about ‘C’, the point of intersection of the inclined area and the water surface.

18
 C FWS

A
x H

b dx
B

x
G
K
Fig 2.20.Centre of pressure on an
inclined surface

Considering an elementary horizontal strip of width ‘b’ and thickness ‘dx’ at a distance ‘x’
from point C, then

Pressure intensity on element (Normal to the surface) p  gx sin

Force on element =p x (Area of strip)

= gx sin  b  dx

Moment of this force about C = gx sin  b  dx  x

Total moment of all such forces about C = g sin   bdx  x 2

 bdx  x = 2nd moment of area of the surface about the FWS

2
Now
= I0

Therefore, Total moment M T  gI 0 sin …………………………………(3.8)

RH
Also, Moment of resultant force R about the FWS = ……………....(3.9)
sin 

For equilibrium to be assured, Equation (3.8) and (3.9) must be equal

RH
Thus,  gI 0 sin 
sin 

gI 0 sin 2  gI 0 sin 2  I 0 sin 2 

OR H   …………………………(3.10)
R gAx Ax

19
But from parallel axes theorem, I 0  I G 
Ax 2

sin 2 
Equation (3.10) thus becomes,



H  IG 

A x  sin 2 
2


 sin 2   Ax

OR
I sin 2 
H G  x ………………………………………………….(3.11)
Ax
Therefore in case of inclined surfaces, the centre of pressure is always below the centre of
I sin 2 
gravity by G
Ax

Question
A gate, made of rectangular plate of size 2m width and 3m deep is used to close an opening
made in the upstream face of a dam, which is inclined at 450 to the horizontal. The 2m side of
the plate is parallel to and is 4m from the water surface. The top part of the plate is hinged,
while its bottom edge is connected to a chain. If the plate weighs 4905 N then calculate the
normal force required to open the gate with the help of the chain.

2.8.3 Pressure Diagrams

The resultant force and centre of pressure can be found graphically for a wall and other
surfaces of constant vertical height for which it is convenient to calculate the horizontal force
per unit width.
Consider a vertical wall of a tank (Fig 2.21) containing a liquid. The pressure diagram is
plotted with pressure on the horizontal axis and depth on the vertical axis.

A
FWS
p  gy
y
2
H H
Liquid
3
Density R
 P
B C

Fig 2.21 Pressure diagram for a

gH
vertical wall

At the free surface ‘A’, the (gauge) pressure is zero. At depth ‘y’, p  gy . Since the
relationship between ‘p’ and ‘y’ is linear, it can be represented by the triangle ABC whose

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 area gives to scale the resultant force ‘R’ on unit width of the immersed surface perpendicular
to the plane of the diagram (in Newton per metre)

1 1
Area of pressure diagram = AB  BC = H  gH
2 2

Therefore,
1
Resultant force, gH 2 (per unit width)…………………..(3.12)
2
2
Note: ‘R’ acts through the centroid P of the pressure diagram, which is at a depth H from
3
‘A’
If the plane surface is inclined and submerged below the surface, the pressure diagram is
drawn perpendicular to the immersed surface (Fig 3.9) and will be a straight line extending
from p  0 at the free surface to p  gH at depth ‘H’.

Question
A vertical wall 5m long divides a storage tank. On one side of the wall is filled with oil of
specific gravity 0.9 to a depth of 2m, while on the other side is gasoline of specific gravity
0.8 up to the height of 4m. Calculate the total force on the wall and also find the position of
its centre of pressure.

2.8.4 Force on Curved Surfaces due to Hydrostatic Pressure

When a curved surface is immersed in a liquid, the total pressure due to liquid on the surface
and the position of C.P cannot be directly obtained by the methods explained in the previous
articles. The method adopted for the computation of the resultant force is by drawing the
force polygon for the forces causing equilibrium.

FWS

Liquid
Density  As the immersed surface does not
H extend to the FWS, the resultant
` force R is represented by the
P
quadrilateral shown instead of the
whole triangle, and acts through
the centroid ‘P’ of the quadrilateral.
p  gH R

Fig 2.22 Pressure diagram for

an inclined submerged surface

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Consider a curved surface AB (Fig 2.23). The resultant force and its point of application can
be obtained by considering the volume ABC of water which is in equilibrium under the
action of three forces, PH, PV, and R.

C FWS
A pv  w = Weight of water of volume
ABC acting through G, the
centre of gravity
G
F = Total reaction to water pressure
H
pH pH of surfaceAB
a  b
H R
3
F
pv
B
c d
Fig 2.23Hydrostatic force on curved surface
pv  w

PV = Total vertical force on AB

PH = total horizontal force on rectangular area CB, a projection of surface, AB
As these three forces maintain the volume ABC of water in equilibrium, they will meet at a
common point ‘a’ the point of intersection of ‘PH’ and ‘PV’. From the geometry of the figure,

The resultant force R  p H  pV

2 2

p 
Acting at angle   tan 1  V 
 pH 
Note:If the water pressure acts below the curved surface AB, the weight will be equal to the
weight of the imaginary volume of water above the surface up to the FWS.

Also horizontal component PH acts through the centre of pressure of the projection AB on a
vertical plane and vertical component PV acts vertically downwards through the centre of
gravity G of the fluid. All such forces must pass through the centre of curvature, a.

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