5.

0 BEHAVIOUR OF REAL FLUIDS

5.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters, the basic equations of continuity, energy and momentum were
introduced and applied to fluid flow cases where the assumption of frictionless flow was made
(i.e. fluid being treated as ideal). This chapter introduces the concept of real fluid flow in which
viscosity will be accepted, leading to situations where frictional effects cannot be ignored.

Two cases are considered; Bounded flow and Flow around a solid body (External flow). In this
particular section, only „Bounded flow’, will be considered, where the fluid moves inside a pipe
or duct or in a channel so that it is guided by a boundary surrounding the fluid. Examples of
„External flow‟ include flow of wind around a house, or an object moving through a stationary or
moving fluid e.g. an aeroplane in flight, or a sailing ship.

Note: In all the above cases, there is a velocity gradient and, thus shear stresses in the fluid. In
order to maintain flow, the shear stress must be maintained and this can only be achieved by
additional force doing work on the fluid; in other words, there must be a continuous supply of
energy for the flow to exist.

This energy supplied, solely to maintain flow in a bounded system, is usually expressed per unit
weight of the fluid flowing and, thus is in units of fluid head (h).

Energy supplied per unit time (Force) x (Distance)/time

=
Weight of the fluid flowing (Specific weight) x (Discharge)

pa  s t pav pQ
=  
gQ gQ gQ
p
= h
g
This head (or energy) is considered as „lost‟ because it cannot be used for any other purpose than
to maintain flow, and hence is called „Head Loss’.

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5.2 Separation Losses in Pipe Flow
Whenever the uniform cross-section of the pipeline is interrupted by the inclusion of a pipe
fitting such as a valve, a bend, junction or flow measurement device, then pressure losses will
occur. These losses are referred to as 'Separation losses'.

Generally, the flow separates from the pipe walls as it passes through the obstructing pipe fitting,
resulting in the generation of eddies in the flow, with consequent pressure loss (Fig 5.1), for the
case of sudden enlargement.

Fig 5.1 Separation losses in sudden enlargement

Note: For small complex pipe networks such as those found in some chemical process plants, air
crafts fuel and hydraulic systems, and in ventilation systems, the total effect of separation losses
may be the predominant factor in the system pressure loss calculation, exceeding the
contributions of the pipe friction at the design flow rate. Conversely, in large pipe systems, such
as water distribution networks, the losses due to pipe fitting may be negligible compared with the
frictional losses and may often be ignored.

5.2.1 Losses in Sudden Expansion and Contraction

a. Sudden enlargement
Fig (5.2) illustrates a sudden enlargement of the pipeline flow.

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 Fig 5.2 Sudden enlargement

Considering a control volume ABCDEF, if p1 and p 2 are the pressures at sections 1 & 2
respectively, then;
From continuity of flow,
a 1 u 1  a 2 u 2 where u1 and u 2 are the respective mean velocities.

Applying the momentum equation between points 1 and 2,

i.e. (Resultant force in flow direction) = (Rate of change of momentum)


p1a 1  p' a 2  a 1   p 2 a 2  Q u 2  u1 
Where, Q  u 2 a 2 and p ' is the pressure acting on the annulus represented by AB and CD of the
cross-section area a 2  a 1  .

Note: Since the radial acceleration at entry to the larger-diameter duct at section ABCD is small,
then p'  p1 , giving

p1  p 2 a 2  Qu 2  u1 

= a 2 u 2 u 2  u 1 
 
 p1  p2   u 2 u 2  u 1 ……………………………………………..(6.10)

Now, applying Bernoulli‟s equation between points 1 and 2,

p1 u 1 2 p2 u 2 2
  z1    z 2  h ; where ‘h’ represents separation losses
g 2 g g 2 g

p  p2 u1  u 2
2 2
Simplifying give, h 1  ………………………………..(6.11)
g 2g

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Combining equations (6.10) and (6.11), gives

 u 2  u1  u12  u 2 2
h   u 2  

 g  2g

=
1
u  1
2
 2u 2 u1  u 2
2
 =
u 1  u2 
2

2g 2g
Thus, the loss due to sudden enlargement is given by;

h
u 1  u2 
2

…………………………………………………..(6.12)
2g
From the continuity equation,
2 2
u1
2
 a  u2
2
 a2 
h 1  1  =   1 …………………………(6.13)
2g  a2  2g  a1 
The above expression is sometimes referred to as „Borda-carnot‟ relationship, and is usually
within a few percent of the experimental results for the separation loss incurred by sudden
enlargement in coaxial pipelines.

Note: The losses into the reservoir may be obtained by considering equation (6.13). As A2  
(i.e. the reservoir is large), so u 2  0 .
2
u1
Therefore, h  ; i.e. the kinetic energy of the approaching flow
2g

b. Sudden Contraction

Fig 5.3 Sudden

contraction

It is not possible to apply the momentum equation between sections 1 and 2 for the above Figure
owing to the uncertain pressure distribution across the face ABCD. However, experiments have

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shown that pressure losses occur as a result of eddies formed as flow area expands from the vena
contracta up to the full cross-section of the downstream pipe.

If the area of the vena contracta is „ Ac ‟, then the expression for sudden enlargement may be
applied between the vena contracta and section 2
2 2
u2
2
 A2  2
u2  1 
Giving, h   1 =   1 …………………..…..(6.14)
2g  Ac  2g  Cc 

Where „ C c ’ is the coefficient of contraction for the junction based on the smaller-pipe entry
diameter BC.
In general, expression (6.14) may be written in the form:
2
 1 
2
u2
hK ; where K    1 is known as „loss coefficient’
2g  Cc 
The table below shows some experimental values of „ C c ‟ and the corresponding values of „K‟
obtained with sharp pipe edges.

Table 5.1: Loss coefficients for sudden contraction

A2
A1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0
Cc 0.61 0.632 0.673 0.73 1.0
K 0.41 0.34 0.24 0.14 0

Questions

1. A pipe of 0.09m2 area is suddenly enlarged to an area of 0.36m2. The discharge through the
pipe is 0.27m3/sec, and the pressure at the smaller pipe is 83.3kN/m2. Determine the
following:
i. the head loss due to change of section
ii. pressure at the larger part of the pipe
2. The diameter of a pipe is suddenly reduced from 15cm to 10cm, with a corresponding change
in pressure from 1.2bar to 1bar. Assuming a coefficient of contraction to be 0.62, find the
discharge through the pipeline in litres/sec.

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5.2.2 Losses in Pipe fittings, Bends and Pipe entry
2
u
Losses in pipe fittings are usually expressed in the form, h  K ; where „K‟ is the fitting loss
2g
coefficient. It is a non-dimensional constant whose value is obtained experimentally for any pipe
fitting. Table 6.2 shows some typical values.
Note: The major advantage of expressing losses due to separation in the above form is that it can
easily be incorporated into the steady flow energy equation.

Table 5.2: Head loss coefficients for a range of pipe fittings

Fitting Loss coefficient K

900 elbow 0.9
450 elbow 0.4
Return bend 2.2
Large-radius 900 bend 0.6
Tee junction 1.8
Sharp pipe entry 0.5
Sharp pipe exit 0.5
Gate valve (open to 75% shut) 0.25  25
Globe valve 10

A Globe valve is used for regulating flow in a pipeline and consists of a movable disk-type
element and a stationary ring seat in a generally spherical body

Figure 5.4: Globe valve

A Gate Valve, or Sluice Valve, as it is sometimes known, opens by lifting a round or rectangular
gate/wedge out of the path of the fluid

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Figure 5.5 Gate valve
Figure 5.6 illustrates the flow in a pipe bend, demonstrating the area of flow separation which
results in the loss coefficients for bends listed in Table 6.2. As the bend becomes sharper, so the
areas of separation become extensive and the loss coefficient increases.

Fig 5.6 Separation at pipe bends

Losses at entry to a pipe from a reservoir are a special case of sudden contraction, in which the
velocity in the reservoir is considered to be zero. Owing to the fact that the fluid enters the pipe
from all directions, a vena contracta is formed downstream of the pipe inlet and, consequently,
the loss is associated with enlargement from the vena contracta to the full-bore pipe.

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Figure 5.7 Pipe entry losses
Note: considering the above illustration for pipe entry losses, it can be seen that the sharper the
entry Conner, the smaller is the vena contracta, and, hence, the greater the flow separation and
the higher the value of K

5.3 Incompressible, Steady and Uniform Turbulent Flow in Circular Cross-Section Pipes
The head loss in turbulent flow in a closed section pipe is given by the Darcy equation
4 f  l v2
hf  
d 2g
From the equation, all other parameters are measurable apart from the friction factor „f‟. Thus the
following are noted:
1. h f  l;
2. hf  v2;
3. hf  1 d ;
4. h f depends on the surface roughness of the pipe walls;
5 h f depends on the fluid density and viscosity;
6 h f is independent of pressure.

Thus, the value of „f’ which depends on the above factors listed, must be selected to determine
the correct value of „ h f ‟. Expressed in a form suitable for dimensional analysis, implies that

f   v, d ,  ,  , k  …………………………………………….(6.15)

where „k‟ is a measure of the size of wall roughness

In general, the rough pipe case, dimensional analysis yields an expression

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 f  2 vd  , k d 
Or in terms of Reynolds Number, f  2 Re , k d 

Hence „f‟ is a function of „Re‟ and „k/d’. This relationship has been found experimentally for
turbulent flow conditions, and the values of „f‟ have been plotted on a chart for different values
of „Re‟ and „k/d’. This chart is known as the „Moody Chart’ (Fig 5.8).

Fig 5.8 Moody chart

This chart allows the calculation of „f‟ provided the values for „Re‟ and „k/d’ are known.
Laminar flow
When laminar flow is present, the friction factor may be computed analytically for both smooth
and rough walls as
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f  …………………………………………………….(6.16)
Re
Turbulent flow
For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, the equation for friction factor developed by „Blasius‟ is
given by

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 0.079
f  0.25 ………………………………….(6.17)
Re
Otherwise the Moody chart should always be used to determine the value of „f‟ given „Re‟ and
„k/d’. Colebrook expressed the information provided by the Moody chart for the turbulent regime
in form of an equation known as Colebrook-White equation, i.e.

1  2k 9.3 
 3.48  1.74 ln    ………………………………..(6.18)
f  d Re f 
Note: This equation is transcendental, and therefore iteration is always needed to calculate „f‟

5.4 Steady Incompressible Flow in Pipe and Duct Systems

The concepts of continuity of mass flow and energy are utilized in this chapter to develop the
study flow energy equation and to demonstrate its application to both pipe and duct flows
possessing a free surface.
The definition of frictional and separation losses introduced earlier will be included to allow the
determination of system losses and dependence of the flow in networks on the relative resistance
of the alternative flow paths available.
Network analysis fundamentally based on kirchoff‟s laws is applied system flow distribution.

General Approach
This section is concerned with the analysis of the steady flow of a liquid in closed or open
conduits.
A closed conduit; is a pipe or duct through which the fluid flows while completely filling the x-
section. Since the fluid has no free surface, it can be either a liquid or a gas, its pressure may be
above or below atmospheric pressure, and this pressure may vary from x-section to x-section
along its length.
An open conduit is a duct or open channel along which a liquid flows with the free surface. At all
points along its length, the pressure at the free surface will be the same, usually atmospheric. An
open conduit may be covered provided that it is not running full and the liquid retains a free
surface; a partly filled pipe would, for example, be treated as an open channel.
In either case as the fluid flows over a solid boundary, a clear stress will be developed at the
surface of contract and will oppose fluid motion. This is called frictional resistance of results in

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an energy transfer with in the systems, experienced as a “loss” measurable in a fluid flow by
changes in the fluid pressure or head.
In addition to these losses attributable to friction, separation losses due to the flow disruption at
changes in section, direction or around valves and other flow obstructions also contributes to the
overall energy transfers to be accounted for.

Consider Figure 5.9 showing energy changes in a flowing fluid.

Fig 5.9 Energy changes in a flowing fluid

Applying the energy equation yields the study flow energy elevation as. (I.e. between A and B)
p A  1 v A  gz A  p pump  p B  1 v B   gz B  1 ku 2
2 2
2 2 2
Defined in terms of pressure of for study flow in air duct systems
The losses due to friction and separation being represented as
1 ku 2 ; u= local flow velocity
2
K= Constant dependent upon the pipe conduit parameters i.e. length, diameter, pong less or
fitting type.
Expressed in energy per unit weight gives
2 2
vA vB 2
hA   z A  h pump  hB   z B  ku
2g 2g 2g

The head term being measured in meters of flowing fluid.

Thus if another fluid e.g. oil of different specific gravity flows, the pump characteristic must be
modified.
The continuity equation is given by

Volume per unit time = Volume per unit time

Entering a control volume at A leaving the control volume At B

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Analysis of all steady flow problems in pipes and channels is based on the application of these
equations (stead flow energy eqn.) and the continuity of volumetric flow equation applied
between suitable points in the system.

Losses of energy in pipelines

Losses of energy in a pipe are due to;
a) Shock from disturbance of the normal flow due to bends or sudden changes of section.
b) Frictional resistance to flow

Frictional resistance to flow

The pressure loss p or energy lost per unit volume due to friction may be expressed via the
Darcy equation below;

p  4 flv
2

2D
And for circular x-section conduit flowing full, in terms of head lost
2
h  4 flv
2 gD

For laminar flow , and hence depends only on flow velocity.

Shock losses
2
Separation (shock) losses may be expressed as pressure term k . 1 v 2 or head term k . v
2 2g
where v= velocity in the pipe
Where K depends on the type of fitting encountered

Example: Water discharges from a reservoir (Figure below) through a 100mm pipe 15m long of
rises to its highest point at B, 1.5m above the free surface of the reservoir, and discharges direct
to the atmosphere at C, 4m below the free surface at A. the length of pipe L1 from A to B is 5m
and the length of pipe L2 from B and C is 10m. Both the entrance and exit of the pipe are sharp
and the value of f=0.08.
Calculate the mean velocity of H2O leaving the pipe at C and at B, and the pressure in the pipe B.

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Solution

(a) To determine the velocity, we first apply the steady flow energy equation between point A on
the free surface and point C at the exit from the pipe, since the pressure and elevation at these
points are known;

Total energy per = Total energy per + Losses

Unit weight at A unit weight at C
2
Since the entrance to the pipe is sharp, there will be a loss of 0.5V (see section 10.8.2)
2g

4 f l1  l 2 v 2
The loss due to in the pipe =
2 gd
AC is from the Darcy formula.

There will be no loss of energy at exit because, although the pipe is sharp at exit, the water
emerges into the atmosphere without any change of x – section of the stream.

At both A and C the pressure is atmospheric so that PA =PC = zero gauge pressure. Also, if
the area of the free surface of the reservoir is large, the velocity at A is negligible.
Thus

v2
z A  zc    losses
2g


 v 2  0.5v 2 4 f l1  l 2 v 2
(a) giving z A  z c   
 2 g  2g 2 gd


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 v2  4 f l1  l 2  
z A  zc  1  0.5  
2g  d 

Putting z A  zc  4m, l1  5m, l2  10m, d  100mm and f= 0.08 gives

2
v  4 * 0.08 *15 
4 1  0.5  
2 * 9.81  0.1 
4 * 2 * 9.81
v2   1.585
49.5
v  1.26ms 1
(b) To find the gauge pressure PB at B, apply the steady flow energy eqn between A and B

p 2   2  2 2
 A  v A  z    p B  v B  z   0.5v  4 fl1 v
 g 2 g A
  g 2 g B
 2g 2 gd
   
Since A is atmospheric, PA = 0 (gauge) an if the reservoir is large VA= 0 so that

pB v2  4 fl1 
zA   zB  1  0.5  
g 2g  d 

v2  4 fl1 
p B  g z A  z B    1.5  
2 d 
Putting
z A  z B  1.5m, v  1.26ms 1 , f  0.08, l1  5m, d  100mm  0.1m,   103 kgm3
Gives
10 3 *1.26 2  4 * 0.08 * 5 
p B  10 3 * 9.81 1.5  1.5  
2  0.1 
 14.71*103  13.87 *103 Nm 2
 28.58 *103 Nm 3
p B  28.58KNm 3 below atmospheric pressure

5.4.1 Incompressible Flow through Pipes in Series

When pipes of different diameters are converted end-to-end to form a pipeline, so that the fluid
flows through each pipe in turn, the pipes are said to be in series. The total loss of energy, or

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pressure loss, over the whole pipeline will be the sum of the losses for each pipe together with
any separation losses such as might occur at the junctions, entrance or exit.

Fig 5.10 Pipes in series

The losses encountered are;
I) Loss at entrance to pipe AC. This is a separation loss and is given as
2
v
h1  K 1
2g

II) Friction loss in AC. Given by the Darcy formula, as loss of head in friction in

2
4 fl1 v1
AC  h f1 
2 gd1
III) Loss at change of section at C. there will be a separation loss at the sudden change of
section given as

Loss of head at Sudden enlargement, h2 

v1  v2 2
2g
IV) Friction loss in CB given by Darcy formula as loss of head in friction in CB,
2
4 fl 2 v 2
h f2 
2 gd 2
V) Loss of head at exit. Which is a separation loss given as

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 2
v
h3  2
2g

5.4.2 Incompressible Flow through Pipes in Parallel

When two reservoirs are connected by two or more pipes in parallel (refer to fig on next page),
the fluid can flow from one to the other by a number of alternative routes.
The difference of head h available to produce flow will be the same for each pipe. Thus each
pipe can be considered separately, entirely independent of any other pipes running in parallel.
For incompressible flow, the steady flow by each route and the total volume rate of flow will be
the sum of the volume rates of flow in each pipe.

Fig 5.11 Pipes in parallel

5.4.3 Incompressible flow through branching pipes, the three- reservoir problem
If the flow from the upper reservoir passes through a single pipe which then divides and the two
branch pipes lead to two separate reservoirs with different surface levels (refer to below),
sometimes it is difficult to decide the direction of flow in one of the pipes
However, if the hydraulic gradient lines are drawn as shown, flow will be from D to B if the
level of the hydraulic gradient at D is above the level of the free surface at B. If below the level
of B, then flow will be in the reverse direction i.e. from B to D.

Unfortunately, the hydraulic gradient cannot be drawn until the problem has been solved and so
pD
its value ( z D 
g ), at D cannot be determined initially.

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In many cases, the direction of flow is reasonably obvious, but if it is doubtful, e.g. in DB,
pD
imagine that this branch is closed and calculate the value of ( z D  ) when there is flow from
g
pD
A to C only. If ( z D  ) is greater than ZB for this condition, flow will initially be from D to B
g
when the branch DB is opened.
At point D, it follows from continuity of flow that
Q1  Q2  Q3

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