FLUID DYNAMICS

PREPARED BY:
AAMINA RAJPUT
LECTURER CED
ENERGY OF A LIQUID IN MOTION
First law of thermodynamics: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
KINETIC ENERGY
A body of mass m when moving at a velocity v possesses a kinetic energy, K.E = ½ mv2.
1
𝐾.𝐸 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣2
2
Kinetic head = = = units (metres or ft)
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝛾 (𝑉𝑜𝑙) 2𝑔

in a flow of real fluid the velocities of different particles will usually not be the same, so
it is necessary to integrate all portions of the stream to obtain true value of kinetic
energy. It is convenient to express the true value in terms of mean velocity v and a
factor α. Hence,

𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐾. 𝐸 𝑣2
=𝛼
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 2𝑔
ENERGY OF A LIQUID IN MOTION
POTENTIAL ENERGY
The potential energy of a fluid particle depends on its elevation above any arbitrary
datum plane. We are usually interested only in differences of elevation, and therefore
the location of the datum plane is determined solely by considerations of convenience.
A fluid particle of weight W situated a distance z above datum possesses a potential
energy of Wz. Thus its potential energy per unit weight is z.
𝑃.𝐸 𝑚𝑔𝑧
Potential head = = =z
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑚𝑔
PRESSURE ENERGY Head is energy per unit weight.
It is energy possessed by a liquid particle due to
z + P/γ is static head or piezometric head
its pressure. If a liquid particle is under pressure
v2/2g velocity head
P, then pressure energy head is P/γ z + P/γ + v2/2g is total energy head given
𝑃 by pitot tube
Pressure head =
𝛾
 EQUATION OF MOTION
Newton’s second law of motion :
Fx = m.ax
In fluid flow following forces are
present
Fg, gravity force
Fp, pressure force
Fv, force due to viscosity
Ft, force due to turbulence
Fc, force due to compressibility
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x
if Fc is negligible,
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x
It is known as Reynold’s equation of motion
if Ft is negligible,
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x
It is called Navier-Stokes equation
If flow is assumed to be ideal i.e Fv is zero
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x
It is known as Euler’s equation of motion.
EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION
Consider a streamline in which flow is taking place in s-direction as shown.
Consider a cylindrical element of cross section dA and length ds. The forces acting
on the cylindrical element are:
1. Pressure force pdA in the direction of flow
𝜕𝑝
2. Pressure force (p + ds) dA opposite to
𝜕𝑠
direction of flow
3. Weight of element 𝜌𝑔𝑑𝐴𝑑𝑠

Let us consider that θ is the angle between the

direction of fluid flow and the line of action of
weight of the fluid element.
According to Newton’s second law of motion.
Net force over the fluid element in the direction of S = Mass of the fluid element x
acceleration in the direction S.
EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION

and then dividing the equation by 𝜌𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑠

Above equation is termed as Euler’s equation of motion.

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
The Bernoulli's equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation of motion

or in other words

which proves the Bernoulli's equation.

ASSUMPTIONS IN DERIVATION OF
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Euler’s equation of motion is based on the following assumptions as
mentioned here

1) The fluid is non-viscous. Frictional losses will be zero

2) The fluid is homogeneous and incompressible.
3) Fluid flow is steady, continuous and along the streamline.
4) Fluid flow velocity is uniform over the section.
5) Only gravity force and pressure force will be under consideration.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S
EQUATION

1. Venturimeter

2. Orifice meter

3. Pitot tube
VENTURIMETER
A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid flowing
through a pipe. It consists of three parts: A short converging part, throat and
diverging part.
Expression for rate of flow through venturimeter
d1 = diameter at inlet or section 1
p1 = pressure at section 1
v1 = velocity of fluid at section 1
Similarly,
d2, p2, v2 are corresponding values
for section 2
VENTURIMETER
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at sections (1) and (2)
p1 v12 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
As pipe is horizontal, hence z1 = z2
p1 v12 p2 v22 p1 −p2 v22 v12
+ = + or = -
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g 2g
p1 −p2
But = h, it is difference of pressure heads at sections (1) and (2)
ρg
v22 v12
h= -
2g 2g
Now applying continuity equation at section (1) and (2)
a2 v2
a1 v1 = a2 v2 or v1 =
a1
Substituting this value of v1
VENTURIMETER
a v
v22 ( 2 2 )2 v22 a22
a1
h = - = 1−
2g 2g 2g a21
a21
v22 = 2gh 2
a1 − a22
a21 a1
v2 = 2gh a21 −a22
= 2gh
a21 −a22
 Qact < Qtheo
a1 a2
Q = a2 v2 = 2gh • Losses are due to
a21 −a22 • Friction
a1 a2 • Turbulence
Qact = Cd * Qth = Cd * 2gh • Eddy currents
a21 −a22

Cd is co-efficient of discharge for venturimeter and its value is <1

VENTURIMENTER WITH A DIFFERENTIAL
U-TUBE MANOMETER
Case-1. let differential manometer contains a liquid which is heavier than
liquid flowing through pipe
Let
Sh = specific gravity of heavier liquid
So = specific gravity of liquid flowing
through pipe
x = difference of heavier liquid column
in U-tube

P1 – P2 = (γh - γO ) y

𝑆ℎ
then h = y −1
𝑆𝑂
If lighter manometric fluid is used then
𝑆𝑙
h=y 1 −
𝑆𝑂
VENTURIMENTER WITH A DIFFERENTIAL
U-TUBE MANOMETER
Case-2. Inclined venturimeter with differential U-tube manometer

P1 + γO z1 = P2 + γO (z2 – y) + γh y

(P1 – P2 )/ γO = (γh - γO ) y + z2 – z1

(P1/ γO + z1) – (P2 / γO + z2 ) = h

𝑆ℎ
Then h = y −1
𝑆𝑂

If lighter manometric fluid is used then

𝑆
h=y 1 − 𝑙
𝑆𝑂
ORIFICE METER OR ORIFICE PLATE
It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe. It is a
cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. It also works on the same principle as
that of venturimeter. It consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged
hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept
generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe, though it may vary from 0.4 to 0.8 times
the pipe diameter.

A differential manometer is connected at section (1),

which is at a distance of about 1.5 to 2 times the pipe
diameter upstream from the orifice plate, and at a
section (2), which is at a distance of about half the
diameter of orifice on the down stream side from
orifice plate.
ORIFICE METER OR ORIFICE PLATE
p1 v12 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
p1 p2 v22 v12
( + z1) – ( + z2) = -
ρg ρg 2g 2g
p1 p2
( + z1) – ( + z2) = h = differential head
ρg ρg
v22 v12
h= -
2g 2g
v2 = 2gh + v12

Now at section (2) is at vena contracta and a0 is area of orifice

𝑎2
Cc =
𝑎0
ORIFICE METER OR ORIFICE PLATE
By continuity equation
a1 v1 = a2 v2
a0 Cc
v1 = v2
a1

a0 Cc
v22 = 2gh + ( v2 )2
a1

a0 Cc 2 2gh
v22 (1- ( ) ) = 2gh ; v 22 =
a1 (1− (a0aCc)2 )
1

2gh
v2 =
(1− (a0aCc)2 )
1

Q = v2 a2 = v2 a0 Cc
ORIFICE METER OR ORIFICE PLATE
The above equation is simplified by using

𝑎𝑜 2
1−
𝑎1
Cd = Cc *
𝑎𝑜 2 2
1− 𝐶𝑐
𝑎1

Substituting value of Cc and rearranging we get final expression

2gh
Q = Cd ao a1
a21 −a20
PITOT TUBE
It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a
channel. It is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point
becomes zero, the pressure there is increased due to the conversion of kinetic
energy into pressure energy. In its simplest form, the pitot tube consists of a
glass tube, bent at right angle.
The lower end, which is bent through 90o is directed in the upstream direction.
The liquid rises up in the tube due to conversion of kinetic energy into pressure
energy. The velocity is determined by measuring rise of liquid in the tube.
Consider two points (1) and (2) at the same level in such a way that point (2) is
just as the inlet of pitot tube and point (1) is far away from the tube.
PITOT TUBE
Apply Bernoulli’s equation at points (1) and (2)
p1 v21 p v22
+ + z1 = 2 + + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
But z1 = z2 and v2 = 0
𝑝1
= pressure head at (1) = H
𝜌𝑔
𝑝2
= pressure head at (2) = H + h
𝜌𝑔
v21
H+ =H + h
2g
v1 = 2gh
vact = Cv * vth = Cv 2gh
Pitot tube along with a vertical
piezometer tube Pitot tube connected
with piezometer tube

Pitot static tube, which consists of two circular

concentric tubes one inside the other with some Pitot tube and vertical piezometer
annular space in between as shown. The outlet of tube connected with a differential
these tubes are connected to the differential U-tube manometer
manometer.
 HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
Piezometric head line or hydraulic
grade line (HGL) is a line drawn
through the tops of piezometric
columns.
Flow is assumed to be ideal, the
vertical distance from point A on the
stream tube to the level of piezometric
head at that point represent pressure
head in the flow at point A. the vertical
distance from the liquid level in
piezometer tube to that in pitot tube is
V2/2g. The horizontal line sketched
through pitot tube liquid levels is
known as energy line (EL). For the flow
of ideal fluid, the energy line is
horizontal since there is no head loss.
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
• Explanation for figure 4.7
A piezometer tube is erected at B, the liquid will rise in it to a height BB’ equal to the
pressure head existing at that point. If the end of the pipe at E were closed so that no
flow would take place, the height of this column would then be BM. The drop from M to
B’ when flow occurs is due to two factors, one of these being that a portion of the
pressure head has been converted into velocity head which the liquid has at B, and the
other that there has been a loss of head due to fluid friction between A and B.
The line drawn through summits of such an imaginary series of liquid columns is
called the hydraulic grade line. At C this distance is zero, thus indicating that the
absolute pressure within the pipe at that point is atmospheric. At D the pipe is above
the hydraulic grade line, indicating that there the pressure head is –DN (vacuum).
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
• Explanation to figure 4.9
The energy line (EL) and the hydraulic grade line (HGL) for flow through a converging-
diverging tube, plotted to scale from measurements. The EL indicates the total flow
energy (elevation plus pressure head plus velocity head) and thus the head
loss hL along the pipe. The EL must always drop in the direction of flow, unless energy
is added by a pump. Energy losses occur at entrance and discharge and due to friction
along the tube, but most occur due to turbulence in the expansion zone just after the
throat (section of minimum diameter). The HGL connects the water surfaces in the
series of piezometers, and represents what would be the free surface if one could exist
while maintaining the same conditions of flow; it indicates the pressure along the pipe.
The difference between the two lines indicates the varying velocity caused by the
varying diameter. The large pressure changes that occur in such converging-diverging
pipes provide a very convenient way to measure flow rates
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE AND ENERGY LINE
VORTEX FLOW
Vortex flow
It is defined as the flow of a fluid along a curved path or the
flow of a rotating mass of fluid.
1. Radial component of velocity is zero Vr = 0
2. The whole fluid mass rotates about an axis
3. Stream lines are curved

There are two types of vortex flow

1. Forced vortex flow
2. Free vortex flow
FORCED & FREE VORTEX - COMPARISON
Forced vortex flow (rotational flow)
A fluid may be made to rotate as a solid body
without relative motion theoretically between
particles, either by the rotation of a
containing vessel or by stirring the contained
fluid, so as to force it to rotate. Thus an
external torque is applied.
A common example is the rotation of liquid
within a centrifugal pump or of gas in a
centrifugal compressor.
Angular velocity is constant
Vθ/r = ω = constant
Free vortex flow (Irrotational flow)
In free vortex flow there is no expenditure of
energy whatever from an outside source and
the fluid rotates by virtue of some rotation
previously imparted to it or because of some
internal action.
Angular velocity is increasing and Vθ ∞ 1/r ;
Vθ*r = c
FORCED & FREE VORTEX - COMPARISON
FORCED & FREE VORTEX - COMPARISON
Forced vortex flow (rotational flow)
A common example is the rotation of liquid
within a centrifugal pump or of gas in a
centrifugal compressor.
Free vortex flow (Irrotational flow)
Some examples are a whirlpool in a river, the
rotary flow that often arises in a shallow vessel
when liquid flows out through a hole in the
bottom (as in often seen when water empties
from a bathtub) and the flow in a centrifugal
pump case just outside the impeller or that in a
turbine case as the water approaches the guide
vanes.
As no energy is imparted to the fluid, it flows that
neglecting friction, H is constant throughout; that
is
P/𝛾 + z + V2/2g = constant.
 FLOW IN A CURVED PATH
Consider an element of fluid moving in a horizontal plane with a
velocity V along a curved path of radius r. The mass of fluid element is
ρ dA dr. The centrifugal force acting in the away direction is mV2/r = ρ
dA dr V2/r. As the radius increases from r to r+dr, the pressure will
change from p to p+dp. Equating these two forces
dp = ρ V2/r dr
As dp/dr is positive, pressure increases with increase of radius.
The pressure variation in vertical plane is given as hydrostatic law i.e.
dp/dz = - ρg
The pressure p varies with respect to r and z
𝜕p 𝜕p
dp = dr + dz
𝜕r 𝜕z

dp = ρ v2/r dr – ρg dz
This is equation for variation of pressure of a rotating fluid in any
plane.
FORCED VORTEX FLOW
Equation of forced vortex flow
If the entire body of fluid rotates as a solid, then V varies directly with r; that is, V=rω,
where ω is the imposed angular velocity.
dp = ρω2r dr - ρg dz 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑁/60
Between any two radii r1 and r2, this integrates as
‫ ׬‬dp = ‫ ׬‬ρω2r dr - ‫ ׬‬ρg dz
ρω2 2 2
(p2 – p1) = (r2 - r1 ) - ρg (z2 – z1)
2
As v= rω
ρ
(p2 – p1) = (v22 - v12 ) - ρg (z2 – z1)
2
FORCED VORTEX FLOW
If the points 1 and 2 lie on the free surface of
liquid, then p1=p2 and hence above equation
becomes
1 2 2
(z2 – z1) = (v2 - v1 )
2g
If point 1 lies on axis of rotation then v1=0.
the above equation becomes
v22
z2 – z1 = z =
2g
Thus z varies with square of r. hence it is an
equation of parabola. This means the free
surface of liquid is a paraboloid.
FORCED VORTEX FLOW
Closed cylindrical vessels
If a cylindrical vessel is closed at the top, which contains some liquid, the shape of
paraboloid formed due to rotation of the vessel for different speed of rotations.
For closed vessel, radius and height of paraboloid is unknown. Thus to solve two
equations are used
ω2 2
z = r
2g
Volume of air before rotation = volume of closed vessel – volume of liquid in vessel
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑧
Volume of air after rotation = volume of paraboloid formed =
2
FREE VORTEX FLOW
Equation for free vortex flow
For free vortex, we have
v * r = constant = say c
v =c/r
Substituting the value of v in eq, we get
dp = ρ v2/r dr – ρg dz
= ρ c2/r3 dr – ρg dz

Consider two points 1 and 2 in the fluid having radius r1 and r2, from the central axis
respectively. The heights of the points from bottom of the vessel is z1 and z2.
FREE VORTEX FLOW
Integrating the above equation for points 1 and 2, we get
PROBLEM # 1
Water is flowing through a pipe of 5cm diameter under a pressure of 29.43N/cm2
(gauge) and with mean velocity 0f 2m/s. Find the total head of water at a cross-section
which is 5m above datum.

Solution:
35.204m
PROBLEM # 2
A pipe, through which water is flowing, is having diameters 20cm and 10cm at the
cross-sections 1 and 2 respectively. The velocity of water at section 1 is given 4m/s.
Find the velocity head and discharge at both sections.

Solution:
0.815m
13.047m
125.6litres/s
PROBLEM # 3
The water is flowing through a pipe having diameters 20cm and 10cm at sections 1
and 2 respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35litres/s. the section 1 is 6m
above datum and section 2 is 4m above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 39.24
N/cm2. find intensity of pressure at section 2.
Solution:
40.27 N/cm2
PROBLEM # 4
A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30cm and 15cm
respectively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential
manometer connected to the inlet and throat is 20cm of mercury. Determine rate of
flow. Take Cd 0.98
Solution:
125.756 N/cm2
PROBLEM # 5
A horizontal venturimeter with inlet and throat diameters 30cm and 15cm
respectively is used to measure the flow of water. The reading of differential
manometer connected to the inlet and throat is 20cm of mercury. Determine rate of
flow. Take Cd 0.98
Solution:
125.756 N/cm2
PROBLEM # 6
A 30cm x 15cm venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying water, flowing in a
upward direction. A differential manometer connected to the inlet and throat is 20cm
of mercury. Determine rate of flow. Take Cd 0.98
Solution:
125.756 N/cm2
PROBLEM # 6
A 30cm x 15cm venturimeter is inserted in a vertical pipe carrying water, flowing in a
upward direction. A differential manometer connected to the inlet and throat is 20cm
of mercury. Determine rate of flow. Take Cd 0.98
Solution:
125.756 N/cm2
PROBLEM # 7
Water flows in a wide open channel as shown. Two pitot tubes are connected to
a differential manometer containing a liquid (s=0.82). Find uA and uB.
 PROBLEM # 8
A pipeline with a pump leads to a nozzle as shown. Find the flow rate when pump
develops a head of 80 ft. Assume that the head loss in 6in dia pipe may be expressed as
hL = 5(v6)2/2g, while the head loss in the 4in dia pipe is hL = 12(v4)2/2g. Sketch the
energy line and hydraulic grade line, and find the pressure head at the suction side of
pump. Select the datum as the elevation of water surface in reservoir. Note from
continuity that
V6 = (3/6)2 V3 and V4 = (3/4)2 V3
PROBLEM # 9
Given two dimensional flow as shown. Determine the flow rate. Assume no head loss.
The hydraulic grade line is represented by the water surface in the region where the
streamlines are parallel. The energy line is a distance v2/2g above the water surface,
assuming α=1.0. if there is no head loss, the energy line is horizontal. Writing the
energy equation from section 1 to 2, we have
PROBLEM # 10
A vessel, cylindrical in shape and closed at the top and bottom, contains water upto a
height of 80cm. The diameter of the vessel is 20cm and length of vessel 120cm. The
vessel is rotated at a speed of 400r.p.m about its vertical axis. Find the height of
paraboloid formed.
PROBLEM # 11
In a free cylindrical vortex flow, at a point in the fluid at a radius of 200mm and a
height of 100mm, the velocity and pressure are 10m/s and 117.72 kN/m2 absolute.
Find the pressure at a radius of 400mm and at a height of 200mm. The fluid is air
having density equal to 1.24kg/m3