EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

5 Flows in Turbines and Pumps

Fluid machinery (add or subtract energy from the fluid) can generally be classified into:
rotodynamic and positive displacement machines. Examples of machines that add energy to
the fluids are pumps, fans and compressors, while machines that extract energy from fluid
are turbines.
In rotodynamic machines, there is a free passage of fluid between the inlet and outlet of
the machine without any intermittent sealing taking place. All rotodynamic machines have
a rotating part called a runner, impeller or rotor.
In positive displacement machines, fluid is drawn or forced into a finite space bounded
by mechanical parts and is then sealed in it by some mechanical means. The fluid is then
forced out or allowed to flow out from the space and the cycle is repeated.
In this section we are going to looked at the fluid flow in rotodynamic machines and
the relationships between the rate of fluid flow and the difference in total head across the
impeller.

5.1 Types of Rotodynamic Machines

The direction of fluid flow in relation to the plane of impeller rotation distinguishes different
classes of rotodynamic machines. This include:

1. Axial flow machines - The flow is perpendicular to the impeller, i.e the flow is along its
axis of rotation.

2. Centrifugal/ radial - The fluid approaches the impeller axially but it turns at the
machine inlet so that the flow through the impeller is in the plane of the impeller
rotation.

3. Mixed flow machines - The flow is partly axial and partly radial.

5.2 One-Dimensional Theory

The real flow through an impeller is three-dimensional, i.e the velocity of the fluid is a
function of three positional coordinates. The velocity distribution, therefore is very complex

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

and depend upon the number of blades, their shapes and thickness and the width of the
impeller.
The one dimensional theory simplify the problem by making the following assumptions:

1. The blades are infinitely thin and the pressure difference across them is replaced by
imaginary body forces acting on the fluid and producing torque.

2. The number of blades is infinitely large, so that the variation of velocity across blade
passages is reduced and tends to zero (axisymmetrical flow), i.e

∂v
= 0.
∂θ

3. There is no variation of velocity in the meridional plane, i.e across the width of the
impeller. Thus,
∂v
= 0.
∂z

The result of these assumptions is that the flow velocity is a function of radius alone, i.e
v = f (r).

5.2.1 Euler’s Turbine Equation

This is the general expression for the energy transfer between the impeller and the fluid based
on the one-dimensional theory.
Consider a centrifugal impeller rotating with constant angular velocity ω, as shown below;

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

At inlet, the fluid moving with an absolute velocity v1 enters the impeller through a
cylindrical surface of radius r1 and may make an angle α1 with the tangent at that radius.
At outlet, the fluid leaves the impeller through a cylindrical surface of radius r2 , absolute
velocity v2 and may make an angle α2 with the tangent at that radius.
From Newton’s second law applied to angular motion,

Torque = Rate of change of angular momentum = ṁvw2 r2 − ṁvw1 r1 = ṁ(vw2 r2 − vw1 r1 ),

where ṁvw1 r1 and ṁvw2 r2 are the angular momentum entering and leaving the impeller per
second, respectively.
The work done in unit time is given by:

Work done per second, Et = torque × angular velocity = ṁ(vw2 r2 − vw1 r1 )ω.

But u1 = ωr1 and u2 = ωr2 . Hence on substitution,

Work done per second, Et = ṁ(u2 vw2 − u1 vw1 ).

The unit is joules per second or watts.

The specific energy (energy per unit mass) is

Es = (u2 vw2 − u1 vw1 ),

and the Euler’s head E is given by

E = (1/g)(u2 vw2 − u1 vw1 ).

But vw1 = v1 cos α1 and vw2 = v2 cos α2 , so that

E = (1/g)(u2 v2 cos α2 − u1 v1 cos α1 ).

Using cosine rule,

2
vr1 = u21 + v12 − 2u1 v1 cos α1 ,
1
u1 v1 cos α1 = (u21 + v12 − vr1
2
).
2
Similarly,
1
u2 v2 cos α2 = (u22 + v22 − vr2
2
).
2
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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

Substituting these expressions, then

1
(u22 + v22 − vr2
2
) − (u21 + v12 − vr1
2


E =( ) ,
2g
or
v22 − v12 u22 − u21 vr1
2 2
− vr2
E = + + ,
2g 2g 2g
| {z } | {z } | {z }
A B C
where A is the increase of kinetic energy of the fluid in the impeller, B is the energy used
in setting the fluid in circular motion about the impeller axis (forced vortex) and C is the
regain of static head due to a reduction of relative velocity in the fluid passing through the
impeller.

5.2.2 Application of Euler’s Equation on a Centrifugal Pump/Fan Impeller

Consider a centrifugal pump/fan impeller, as shown below;

Since the flow at inlet and outlet is through cylindrical surfaces and the velocity compo-
nents normal to them are vf 1 and vf 2 , the continuity equation applied to inlet and outlet
is
m = ρ1 πr1 b1 vf 1 = ρ2 πr2 b2 vf 2 ,

and for incompressible flow,

πr1 b1 vf 1 = πr2 b2 vf 2 .

At inlet the following assumptions are made:

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

1. The absolute velocity is radial. Therefore, v1 = vf 1 and vw1 = 0.

2. The blade angle at inlet β1 is such that the blade meets the relative velocity tangentially.
This assumption is known as ’no shock’ condition.

At outlet the following assumptions are made:

1. The fluid leaves the impeller with a relative velocity tangential to the blade at outlet.
Thus, β20 = β2 . Thus from the velocity triangle at outlet,

u2 − vw2
cot β2 = ,
vf 2

so that
vw2 = u2 − vf 2 cot β2 .

Therefore applying these assumption in the Euler’s equation

E = (u2 /g)(u2 − vf 2 cot β2 ). (82)

The total amount of energy transferred by the impeller is, thus

Et = ṁgE = ṁu2 (u2 − vf 2 cot β2 ). (83)

5.2.3 Application of Euler’s Equation on an Axial Flow Machine

Consider an axial flow machine, as shown below;

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

The changes in velocity from inlet to outlet take place at the same radius and, hence

u1 = u2 = u = ωr.

Since the flow area is the same at inlet and outlet,

vf 1 = vf 2 = vf .

It is obtained from
m = ρvf π(R22 − R11 ).

The following assumptions are made with regard to velocity triangles:

1. There is no prewhirl at inlet and, hence, α1 = 900 , vw1 = 0, and v1 = vf .

2. The blade is set at an angle such that it meets the relative fluid velocity tangentially.

3. At the outlet, the relative velocity leaves the blade tangentially.

Thus from the velocity triangle at outlet,

vw2 = u − vf cot β20 ,

which, on substitution into the Euler’s equation, gives

E = (u/g)(u − vf cot β20 ). (84)

This equation applies to any particular radius r and is not necessarily constant over the
range from R1 to R2 . However, the blade can be twisted so that the increase in u with radius
is counterbalanced by an equal decrease in vf cot β20 and, hence the equation is constant
throughout.

5.3 Isolated Blade and Cascade Considerations

In these approaches, the number of blades is considered to be finite. For this method we
define:

1. Pitch - The distance between the adjacent blades s.

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

2. Blade solidity, σ - The ratio of the blade chord c to the pitch. It is the measure of the
closeness of blades.
c
σ =
s

If the blades are close to one another, the flow between them may be treated as conduits.
Whereas if the blades are very far apart, they must be treated as bodies in external flows.

5.3.1 Isolated Blade Considerations

In this case, the assumption is that the blades are very far apart, i.e s → ∞ and σ → 0.
In section 3.6.1, it was shown that lift is dependent on circulation. From Eqs (122) and
(123),
1
Γ = U∞ Acl . (85)
2
Consider the circulation around a single blade as shown below;

I I B I C I D I A
ΓABCD = vds = vds + vdl + vds + vdl. (86)
A B C D

But, I C I A I B I D
vdl = − vdl, vds = −vw1 s1 , and vds = vw2 s2 .
B D A C

Therefore, the circulation around a blade, Γb = ΓABCD is given by

Γb = vw2 s2 − vw1 s1 . (87)

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

Now, consider circulation around two blades, as shown below:

I I B I C I D I E I F I E
ΓACDF = vds = vds + vds + vdl + vds + vds + vdl. (88)
A B C D E F

But,
I D I A I B I F I C I E
vdl = − vdl, vds + vds = Γb , and vds + vds = Γb ,
C F A E B D

so that,
Γ = ΓACDF = Γb + Γb = 2Γb . (89)

And for number of blade, say z;

Γ = zΓb = z(vw2 s2 − vw1 s1 ), (90)

but zs1 = 2πr1 and zs2 = 2πr2 , so that

Γ = 2π(vw2 r2 − vw1 r1 ). (91)

However, Euler’s Equation is

E = (ω/g)(vw2 r2 − vw1 r1 ). (92)

Comparing Eqs (92) and (92), we obtain

Γ Eg
= . (93)
2π ω
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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

or
ωΓ ωzΓb
E = = . (94)
2πg 2πg
This equation may be used in conjunction with Kutta-Joukowsky’s Eq. (85).

5.3.2 Cascade Considerations

In this case, the assumption is that the blades are very close, i.e the solidity σ is significant.
The geometrically identical blades are arranged at the same distance from one another and
positioned in the same way with respect to the direction of flow to form a cascade.
A straight cascade (applied in an axial flow impeller) is where the blades are arranged
along a straight line. While circular cascade (applied in a centrifugal impeller) is where
the blades are arranged around the circumference.
Cascade can also be classified according to the way the operate as follows:

1. Impulse Cascade - when velocities upstream and downstream of a cascade are the
same in magnitude, so that the change in momentum is due to change in direction.
From Bernoulli’s equation there will be no pressure difference between upstream and
downstream side of the cascade.

2. Reaction Cascade - The pressure difference exists due to absolute velocities upstream
and downstream not being the same.

Straight Cascade
Consider a stationary straight cascade of height Z, as shown below:

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

Let the upstream fluid velocity v1 making an angle α1 with the line of the cascade be
deflected so that the downstream velocity v2 making an angle α2 . The deflection is

ε = α2 − α1 .

The fluid velocities v1 and v2 are resolved into components parallel and normal to the cascade,
vt and vn , respectively. Applying Bernoulli’s equation, the pressure difference is given by

1
p1 − p2 = ρ(v22 − v12 ). (95)
2

Applying continuity, the mass flow through the cascade is

ṁ = sZρ1 vn1 = sZρ2 vn2 .

It implies that for an incompressible flow (density is constant)

vn1 = vn2 = vn .

Thus, the change in velocity is entirely due to change of tangential velocity component, i.e

v22 = vt2
2
+ vn2 , and v12 = vt1
2
+ vn2 ,

⇒ v22 − v12 = vt2

2 2
− vt1 .

Therefore, Eq. (95), reduces to

1 2 2
p1 − p2 = ρ(vt2 − vt1 ) = ρvt (vt2 − vt1 ), (96)
2

where vt = (1/2)(vt1 + vt2 ) is the mean tangential velocity. The force acting on a single blade
of the cascade in the direction perpendicular to it is

Fn = sZ(p1 − p2 ) = sZρvt (vt2 − vt1 ) = ρZvt Γb .

The rate of change of momentum across the cascade is again due to a change in vt and,
therefore, gives rise to a force in the direction of cascade, Ft , i.e

Ft = ṁ(vt2 − vt1 ) = sZρvn (vt2 − vt1 ) = ρZvn Γb .

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

The resultant force on the blade is

q q
F = Ft + Fn = ρZΓb (vt2 + vn2 ),
2 2

and it act at an angle β given by

Fn ρZvt Γb vt
cot β = = = . (97)
Ft ρZvn Γb vn
But vt1 = vn cot α1 and vt2 = vn cot α2 . Therefore,
vn
vt = (cot α1 + cot α2 ) ,
2
which on substituting into Eq. (97), result in
1
cot β = (cot α1 + cot α2 ) . (98)
2
β is equal to β∞ , defined as the mean direction of flow and obtained by superposition of the
inlet and the outlet velocity triangles, as shown below:

The force F being perpendicular to the mean direction of flow is the lift on the blade.

5.4 Energy Losses

There are two main source of losses in hydraulic machine:

1. The velocities in the blade passages and at the impeller outlet are not uniform owing
to the presence of blade and the real flow being three dimensional. This results in a
diminished velocity of whirl component and, hence, reduces Euler’s head.

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

2. There are losses of energy due to friction, separation and wakes associated with the
development of boundary layers.

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