rack-and-pinion gear, a) 8¢narge amplifier, a 2 W afnodulation system, or da 15.1 Rack-and-pinion gear The rack-and-pinion gear shown in fig rotational motion and vice-versa, TNs device itt gaat inthe dial-test indicator discussed in chapter 6 me pridge circuit ar motion into a.set of gears, is used Fig. 4.14 Rack-and-pinion gear 4.5.2 The charge converter The charge generated by a pi yerted into a voltage by a charge converter, usually refe ‘charge amplifier’. This uses a high-gain voltage amplifier arranged so that its input capacitance is very high. itor Cy and piezo-electric charge Consider the amplifier A, capaci : generator shown in fig. 4.15(a). Let C, be the effective input capacitance due to the crystal, cable, and amplifier and let Q be the charge generated by the piezo-electric transducer. iezo-electric crystal transducer may be con- red to as a Voltage Charge Qe kK J (a) Circuit (b) Block diagrom Fig. 4.15 The charge amplifierQ = charge in coutombs capacitance in farads where and Cy 1fA and C, are constants, ” KQ ' oportional 16 the ing i.e. the output voltage % is directly proportions Nn This may be represented by the block diagram shown in fig The main features of the charge amplifier are a) the very high input problem of charge b) the very high input capacitance, swamps the effect of the cal resistance, typically 10" ohms, whic akage from the piezo-electric crystal typically 1uF, which co ble capacitance (typically 10% 10 uF, Example 4.11 The following details are extracted from the s; of a charge amplifier: i Output voltage +10 volts Input impedance greater than 10'tohms. Output impedance 0.1kQ Frequency response d.c. to 150kHz Noise (r.m.s,) 2mV maximum [this is the apparent outpu' when the input signal is zero] Linearity error 0.1% Temperature drift +0.1mV/°C having a resistance of 10k, determine the reduction in vo to the loading effect. , b) What would be the effect of electrically connecting an o: across the input terminals in an attempt to view the input Assume the oscilloscope has an input impedance of 2MOQ.- ¢) When would the specified noise present a problem? d) oe is output voltage change if the surrounding temp a eo y + 15°C. Would this seriously affect the measurements: ic amplifier be used at an input signal frequeney of |S0kt a) Let unloaded voltage = V volts oS When loaded, 10k: output voltage = V 0 ui Bee Venom 7 X09iii) an ‘eduction = V(1 — 0.99) =0.01V isa 1% reduction in output vor age loscope input impedance + amplifier. The oscilloscope anutls the in Hiet with the input impedance ey eee impedance presented to the wen iHence the transducer charge rapid 9 ag pean with very low signal | ! Boise iENAl levels aha of ImV/C AS emperor change wi temperature, This is unlikely seriously tyatter the measurement accuracy. since the signal o Bi voles ean be several volts. titput voltage is likely but there would be a reduction in gain PUL IMPedance of th nce of 2MO would be Re amplifier, s0 the ansducer would be less thin y leaks away e) 45.3 Modulation techniques juced signal may be superimy 1 y be s posed on a high-freque waveform known as the carrier in such a way that the origin Gone be recovered and displayed. The carrier waveform is thus said to be modulated by ' the signal, and the process of signal recovery is referred to as dem : Several modulation techniques are available, among them being a) amplitude modulation (AM), where the amplitude of the carrier ts daned by the transduced signal; ie eens b) frequency or phase modulation (FM), where the instantaneous fre- ‘quency or phase of the carrier is varied by the signal. a) Ampliude-modulating systems In an amplitude-modulating, system, the physical quantity being measured is used to vary the amplitude of a high-frequency gnal. The resulting varying-amplitude high-frequency signal may then be ‘amplified by a simple inexpensive a.c. amplificr. Figure 4.16 shows an example of an amplitude-modulating, system. which is made up of the following i) a signal generator which provides & high-frequency carmersignsl wave, usually of sinusoidal form, for and uses this ) a transducer which senses the quantity being measured ar this Be ecaulatc thie carrier signal. A typical example emo nist ‘technique is an a.c.-excited resistance-bridge circuit rere ne Te “ance changes are converted into bridge OuLpUE eee er may ‘modulated high-frequency output vores from the 1 ‘then be amplified by red wave -a.c, amplifier which amplifies the modulates A bein Pra Har ifthe frequency of the physical a form. Itean be g measured 6768: Modulated ” aoa ‘Ampliter Bridge A | Demodutaror irene ~ Phys i ‘input High-frequency eatrior wavolorm Signal SS generator Fig. 4.16 An amplitude-modulating system varies between 0 and f, Hz and the carrier frequency is f. th information input frequency to the amplifier will be be (fs -fi)Hz and (fs +f.) Hz. A typical value for the carrier frequ would be 10kHz and the upper frequency of the measured qu: would be 20Hz: thus the information frequencies would lie ber 9980Hz and 10020 Hz Response of a.c. amplifier Mains noise Relative response (4B) Range of frequencies to be handled by the amplifier aes (ge F ye Frequency (H2) Range of input signal Fig. 4.17 Frequency response of an amplituce-modulating system The frequency response of a typical a.c. amplifier is shown 1" " 4.17, together with the signal spectrum and the noise due to induc signals from the electrical mains supply. Since the information fre quencies are within the flat part of the amplifier’s frequency respo"™. they will be amplified; but the noise, not being amplified, is reyec!** Following amplification, the original signal is recoverable by no iv) Beto jated ener ives a fsneea a parti as well wavet this m Fig. 4.1 b) Fre Ina fre is usec carrier fig. 4. the in induct freque ampli so the quenc the frJulator which recovers th Reform. The demodulator hye 28! signal rm, The demodulator has two pl the malate veing the 1a Me reator, When these two sinc" i tig TERE ial ea in phase, the deme Fvesapositive outputs when the BMezative. This phase-sensitive jonni Ae it amt particularly usetul device in meauremey well as the magnitude of the jn, ae MEN systen # yeform relationships shown inte geet 10 this modulating and demodulating pr 4.18 itlustrate the behaviour i ® ms Where the or be measured, Th Physical input we = HN Hite Modulated carrier Demodulated ‘signal Fig. 4.18 Waveforms in an AM system yy being measured b) Frequency-modulating systems Ina frequency-modulating system, the physical quanti is used to vary the instantaneous frequency of a vel carrier signal. An example of frequency-modulating 5 fig. 4.19. The transducer, usually a capaci the input signal which it converts into inductance L, These variations in C or L frequency of an electronic oscillator which Tit amplifier employing positive feedback to maintain 40 that oscillations occur, The frequency ohare ee quency discriminator which gives @ d-¢- output yoequency: the frequency deviation from a c 2 entre or referem n 69Frequency modulated wavatorm Out Fig. 4.19.4 frequency-modulating system With zero input physical quantity the discriminator is tuned to give , . output voltage. As the input quantity changes, the oscillator freq changes giving a variation in the output voltage. In practice, thy criminator is arranged to operate over the linear part of the character shown in fig, 4.20. An examination of this curve will show that the « will be positive for increasing frequency and negative for decres " frequency. The relationship between the waveforms of an FM syste : shown in fig. 4.21. De. voltage output Fig. 4.21 W Althoug! AM under sophisticat a Perey ein) 4.5.4 Brid Electrical tation. Alt we will co resistance | Fig. 4.20 Frequency-discriminator characteristic ona zero outp relationsh Comparison of AM and FM Any unwanted noise introduced into an AM system will normal) ans produce an unwanted variation in the amplitude of the signal out’ and) vic Since FM systems are insensitive to amplitude variations, such no™ signals which produce amplitude change will not appear at the FM output, In addition, since the AM system’s carrier frequency must 0 “ least ten times that of the quantity being measured in order to 8°" distortion effects, there is an upper frequency limit to the operation! measurement of an AM system hence Ww© Zer0 uency © dis. ally put vise FM tpn signal ~ ht NWA wait Me : WW NP Fig. 421 Waveform relationships in an FM system I-to-noise ratio than ‘Although the FM system gives a much be ‘AM under similar operating conditions, FM systems are usually more sophisticated and expensive than AM systems 45.4 Bridge circuits Electrical bridge circuits are used extensively in industrial instrumen tation, Although they may be used with resistors, capacitors: oF inductors we will confine our study to the analysis and application details of pure resistance bridges. a) Null-balance and deflection methods Consider the resistance Wheatstone-bridge circuit s zero output voltage, referred to as the ‘balanced con hown in fig. 4.22. For dition’, the following relationships exist. Mas = van ie. WR) = BR: and wc = we ie. i hence neFig. 4.22 A Wheatstone-bridge cireuit This condition for balance is used in ‘null-balance® bridges wh. resistor is variable and has an indicator dial calibrated in the appl, engineering units or variables such as strain or temperature » produce the resistance changes of the sensing clement. The scal bration of the output-voltage measuring device, possibly a met unimportant since it is used only as a null or zero-voltage indicat: The value of the calibrated resistor is adjusted to give zero voltage and the calibrated dial gives an indication of the resis changes required to balance the system. When the bridge is uscd s. its output voltage v, is used to give an indication of the resistance ch the bridge is then referred to as a deflection bridge since its output vol may be used to produce a deflection of the pointer on an electrical met b) Wheatstone-bridge circuit analysis Consider the Wheatstone bridge illustrated in fig. 4.22, made up © resistors and excited with a voltage V. The output voltage from the bri will change as the bridge becomes unbalanced. Inserting the follows: itions simplifies the analysis. Assume the bridge is initially balanced and let Ri =R:=Rs=R,=R ez ay then Yap = Van = > and Va= Vas — Yan = 0 Let R; change by an amount AR; to(R; + AR; )so that vas will chang’ R,+ AR, New value of Va ~ R 4 BR, + RiSa prt ® i ee ok nen 2R+aR “* ye = van Vav= V ( SReAR 1 2R+ AR” 3 __ AR aR+2aR*" wear ae and capacitances of the gauges Suffers from unwanted ‘noise’ signals Free trom noise caused by clectro- caused by electromagnetically induced magnetically induced signals. signals, thermoelectriceffects,and thermoelectric effects, and drift drift 74 5 pis incre preaeny” ae Bo ncy (17) output (v) 9 Whatis2 10 State th bridge arran aA sym bridge is ini the value 0 2 ifint values chat (R,— SR:) output vol 13 Expl modulaticpter 4 id lever comprises two ley nifying ratio nt Saivandite aa a spac gnmabire the length magnifying ratio of i ri ol A and. fever 4 eMCNE Bain of the ¢ oi Be difierences beeen gevagiret (aay cl dic. ample p Eapane, with a frequency-response praph Hun ein Eeyeage gain of an electronic arn . Gpeincrease in decibels. [15.56u] eet eet frequeney espn FESE ON 3 amplce yielded the fo ler ty incre: creased 6 time ney (Hz) 10 20 40 80 160 320 640. 1280 95 rep ; ) 1280 256) 5120 ao) 2 7 123 16 17 17818 18.1 172 10 wy the frequency-Tesponse graph of relative resp Dra fusing the voltage at 640 Pe yen ee in dB versu fe five effects of negative feedback when fipplied toa fi i An amplifier Tiss gait Bir eh Giecaback al tOrfsrat the out is fed back in anti-phase to the ir lidge vAetermmine: ta pa Shaw feedback. 119.96] input voltage, determine the 7 State three properties of an operational amplifier and discuss th implications of two of these properties. as § The summer amplifier shown in fi R, = 2kQ, Ry = 3kQ. j= #3V, 1 = —2V. Calculate the output voltage ¥. 9 Whatisacharge amplifier? State two features of such an amplifier {0 State the condition which must exist for “balance” in a ‘Wheatstone- bridge arrangement of resistors. 11 A symmetrical bridge circuit Is ex ed by 10V dic. Assuming th bridge is initially balanced, determine the output voltage of the brid the value of one resistor changes by 1°. [0.025] 12 If in the Wheatstone-bridge circui values change from the balance condition f the foll (R:-AR,), (Rz— AR;), (Rs + AR), determine the exp! output voltage in terms of the excitation Vo" ge and resis ae 13. Explain the differences between the famplitude- and treauens modulation techniques used in measurine systems 22 the resistor + AR), for the it shown in fig. 4. lowing: (R ression f tance values.Recording and display equipmey, - S.1 Introduction | pit i the last element in the measuring The recorder or display AT ravides the results of the measure, | aie Binet just as critical as that of ie correct transdu. select h iding a signal which wa: thf : i i _ after providing a sign hful rep si signal conditioner — aft Tt would be foolish to introduce errors by rig 5-1 A duction of the measurani : ecorder. : es between a recorder and a display unit is thar reconder produces apermanent record of the signal while the displa, Jock not. Examples of recorders are u.v. recorders, pen record plotters, and tape recorders. The speedometer in a car, the mercury |¢ tad scale ina thermometer, and the trace of a normal oscilloscope examples of displays. bi : Ina rapidly developing field, there exists a large range of sophistics recording equipment which uses microprocessors and semicondu memories to record transient signals. These, however, are beyond th scope of the book, and the remainder of this chapter will concentrate ox the more common types of recorder and display units. 5.2 Mechanical pointers It is possible to connect a pointer and scale toa number of transducing elements to obtain a display of the parameter being measured. Th. Bourdon-tube pressure gauge is one example, where the moveme the tube is transmitted through levers and gearing to the pointer on the Havee face. Another example is illustrated in fig. 5.1, which shows : Fig. 5.2 / femperature-measuring device which uses a bimetallic strip wound in rm of a helix. As the temperature rises, the coil unwinds (due to the different coefficients of expansion of the two metals) and the pois ee: imposed been obtanied ine eiett which i proportional to the measurand ti» Feat to provide a permanent Ne BORE matter to attach a light pen in or! poe speed would then give a plot of the sane Past the pen at a cons" asa example of this ype of reeerat rs variable against time. One comm ae illustrated in fig. 52. In this ease ehetne pressure-chart recorder which peace obtained dreriy home Me tbePowertodrivethe markingsysiem™ = eee ‘cording insiument. Iti relatively cet ate this is called a dite! Fort chart to be changed after one eee and robust but requires th MAING. tion, otherwise the two sur" ToQa Bimetaltic! helix Pimple temperatuire-measuring d Chart freuen “Trace pen pointe 'Bourdon tube Fig, 5.2 A pressure-chart recorder imposed traces could b i d tra e confused. At ical paper speed would be one ne in twenty-four hours. ater ler ie of direct-recor measure atmospheric pres aeons. p pressure and th ae of the inertia of the mechanical s ae icted to recording slowly changing i esponse times of several seconds are typical ay unit tins the remainder of this chapter. electrical reco “jersand display UT ; considered. These offer @ number of advantages Ove" mechanic n are the barograph h to onitor the th’s ding instrument e ‘seismograph to mi f this tYPe recorders eriods of stem, + long signals Overeater flexibility in handling a wide ne eer cg gney-FesPOMe characteristics. an ing-coll mechanism 53 The mori jiustrated in fig. 5.3 is known as the d’Arsony) ‘The mecha the sige ofa number of cleetrical recorders andj," ment end erthe O ofa few milliamperes flows in the coil and pres Acujectromagneti Held which tries to align itself with the field 4)" ent magnets. ‘The electromagnetic torque causes a rotatio ch isopposed by the torsion of the spiral springs. When th et ne electromagnetic torque are balanced, the rotation : lar deflection of the mechanism is produced. rman Pi whi torque al and an angul Scale Bearing ——_-Phosphor-bronze spiral spring _> Permanent magnet tron former Fig. 5.4 By using springs with linear torque characteristics and correctly shape! permanent magnets, it is possible to obtain a linear relationship betwee the coil current and the angular displacement of the pointer over 4 range 5.5 Ul of approximately 60°. The bi This mechanism is found in moving-coil ammeters, voltmeters, 4" 5 Cc multimeters and in display units in control panels. * mirro the m 5.4 Pen recorders . Move ‘The moving-coil mechanism is used in a number of commercially avail of the able pen recorders. By attaching a pen to the pointer and driving po"! altho past it at a constant speed, a permanent record is produced. Other tyP® than Of recorder use the same basic principle with variations such as 78 =th, he sylus which passes over heat-sensiy sty ge on a pointer which burns a tryce ween volta i paper: © into special cart tye Pahached to the Moving-coil mech, y amit on 10 ghtsensiive paper, Th © Type enh deficets ul ole Metal in the next section nis type will be dealt with ¢ of input signals can be recorded w ara’ E moving-coil multimeter can dani wor eers | A typical range of sendin. Snes vities is 10mm/V 4 age is that movements are rest 15%, due to the difficulties in converting the anguinr votre ing the angular rotation of {displacement across the chart. Th f 1 Use of chart paper wit jinter tO id lines fs common, but familiar shay t the ived 2 f aiedistorted. A knife-edge used with a broad stylus el e need for to appro? iustrated in fig. 5.4. turved grid lines but increases the non-linearity of th ximately +2% deviation for the + 15° movem nt Tt avin Kole < edge BF err coment of a recorder witha kife-edge and 2 broad 01 5.5 Ultra-violet recorders in fig Thebasic construction ofthe uttracviotet u.v.) recorder sown ing Frater Org coll galvanomelet SUS°% TT The ase of 5 sitive paper. The er he thus giving 3 mitror which deflects the light beam on to the St gular displ the mirror system increases the optical arm OR Bevement of the trace across the paper for a give" oe galvanometer mirror. Optic | arm le hs the pape Heise oyeraitiensih fromthe galvarome' u » than this. f 350 mm are rismuch less typicalceil _- Permanent 7 wore tg E =. {yg Om ; L_— Fined miors Miro be { = Sore ULV. light souree UW .tig Fig. 5.5 A diagrammatic representation of a u.v, recorder Adjusting slot _/Péivsting _——Colour-code bands Iasalating bus — ; Inner sieeve) suspension — j = Li i Bobbins ues f—ointue ff Lower ‘Suspension ‘Suspension pin. Fig. 5.7 Fig. 5.6 Construction of a u.v. galvonometer 80.ter construction is iMustrated emovable and int Hangeat able. | are > i in rows Of UP tO 25 galvanometer sock rive. the galvanometer mirror-and therefore determi ‘ol 6, 12, or 25 susie reater than [S00m/s, dey WHMEPESS, Jenection/paper width — 203mm sine speeds Sm/sto Imm/min, with Rae PP SOW high-pressure mercury vapour lam 0,002s, 0.015, 0.15, 1s, 10 Roesoure SOW Mi jine intervals : 1 manual, 0.55, 18, 2.5s, 10s, 20 Record duration everblY Fig. 5.7 Arrangement of a galvanome's! ®msi ty “2 Galvanometer se RO ar tines . £2 Catecensiivity is defined as the galvanometer spy unit current. Manufacturers often quote vate. Prete er those given by this definition r Typical values are 2a ).SmA/em) zgalvanometer 2cm/mA ( aoe galvanbsneter 0,043cem/mA (23mA/cm) The sensitivity values enable the current required for a pive, trace to be determined. Example 5.1. A 20Hz galvanometer is required to give a {y) width deflection of 200mm. Determine the current needed Deflection = 20cm Sensitivity = 2cm/mA 20em required current = = 106A em/ mA Table 5.1 shows the specifications of a range of galvanometers should be noted that the higher the natural frequency the lower the of galvanometer sensitivity. This is due to the fact that. in or increase the natural frequency, stiffer springs are used and thereio': more current is required to produce a given deflection, i.c. the sensiti is reduced. 5.5.3 Galvanometer dynamics Since the galvanometer possesses mass, damping, and spring stiffness is a second-order system with the standard step and frequency response dealt with in chapter 2. It was stated there that the optimum condition a second-order measuring system occurs when the damping ratio is). and with the u.y. galvanometer this is achieved in one of two ways. Low-frequency galvanometers use electromagnetic damping. 6 an induced current opposes the motion. In order to achieve the co amount of damping, a definite value of resistance must be connect: across the galyanometer terminals, This is called the damping resists’ Ry and is typically 2500. In some circuits R, may not be one sind! resistance but the equivalent resistance of a number of resistors. For higher-frequency galvanometers fluid damping is employe where the whole assembly is immersed in a silicone damping fluid to £1¢ the optimum condition. 5.5.4 Galvanometer-matching networks The functions of a matching network are ae a) to prevent the galvanometer taking excessive current, 82ze 00zz L oor ze 0001 9 z 09 os . oz 080 07 t oz ozr'0 1200 t tig zs0'0 €100 ( OF g ‘ 120'0 S000" sr 02 1 (winurxew $6) 8d) AW ayy yu/wo (suyo) Py (swyo) *y (ZH) %f dk (yu) awoaano sounysiso1 —-aoueysisar —-Aouanbody NUDE, Suidueq ssjswoursey eimen a suonvayisads isiauiouraped “an pads. 1's A198.alue of damping resistance e correct I source Joading the signa ng circuits shown im figs 5:8. Ry is the pat quired damping resistance, R, iy the “roe voltage. and A isthe galvo current to provide tN ¢) to.avol In the ma resistance: 1 is 80 id over! tance, Source | Matching network (a) A simple series (b)_ A series - parallel ma ‘matching network network. Fig. 5.8 Matching networks Circuit (a) shows a low-voltage source or a fluid-damped galvanom with a series connection through resistor R. Ry is the resistan from the galvanometer terminals and is therefore the series con of RandR,, ie. Ra=R+R, and galvocurrent é, = ——— F *RFRER, Circuit (b) is perhaps a more practical situation, where the voltage is too high for direct connection and some attenuati reduction in signal is required. If the series connection as in circult were used, the resistance would be too high to satisfy the da requirement. Reis placed across the galvanometer terminals and R parallel combination of Rand Ry + R., — RAR +R) Ra ee “RE (RiFR) Attenuation of the network is given by where R, || R, means the parallel combination of R» and R,, MS