cies up to 60% of the undamped ,,, iy for a, range of frequen : : , he faquency fr nud the frequency responses the optimum vajy, Bie tn both the step 47410" ith 0,04 often quioted, and manufac! ae ies Oe that the correct amount of dam, >! a les betweer 0 TE un word ‘optim he weave signalssbut iaded here to indicate the best resin there are devices which are speci a ing not to follow varying signals butt, ,. te Mich overdamping SQ as f ’ itton ‘ Cena Tn these cases whigher value of € would be optimum, average values: In a frequency-response test on a second-order syste, at ‘dat a frequency of 216Hz, giving a maximum a, the values of { and a, for the system Example 2.8 resonance occurred at tude ratio of 1.36, Estimate Examination of fig. 2.13 indicates that = 0.4 givesan amplitude ray LA, g=04 fer? This resonance occurs at w/@, = 0.8 But w = 2nf 2 x 216Hz 1357 rad/s 1" “fo 08 __ 1357rad/s “eons Note: Resonance occurs at frequencies which are lower than the undamped natural frequency except in the one case where the damping is zero. Wn = 1696rad/s 2.3.4 Step-response specification Three terms are used to specify a system's step response — namely response time, rise time, and settling time — and these are defined as follows. Response time (¢,..) The time taken for the system output to rise from 0% to the first cross-over point of 100% of the final Steady-state value. Applicable only to underdamped systems. Rise time (f,) The time taken for the syste i : 90% of its final steady-state value, system Output to rise from 10% to eae (t) The time taken for the system output to reach and ee + certain percentage tolerance band of the final Steady-state luc. Typical values would be 2% and 5% settling times. qem pli oof Ourput thio $85 ] / 8% son t Fig. 2.14 Step response illustrating response, rise, and sett isc. and settling. times These parameters are illustrated in fig. 2.14, which st nse containing oscillations. In the fi : aswel ee s. In the figure, t, refers to the 5% settling time, his the time taken to reach and remain within the tolerance band of 95% to 105% of the final value. ° 2.4.5 Frequency-response specification There are numerous ways ‘of specifying the frequency responses of measuring systems, instruments, and control systems and this can lead to some confusion. A distinction can be made between devices which are designed to work over a range or band of frequencies ~ called a.c, devices and those which can respond to d.c., i.e. down to zero frequency, called dic. devices. a) A.C. devices For devices of this type, the gain or amplitud over a given frequency range, but at low or high frequencies the gain falls off, as illustrated in fig. 2.15. The tem ‘used to specify the trequeney range is bandwidth, which is equal to fi)Hz. ange of frequencies between which the gain oF onstant to within —3dB (this corresponds to 8 fe ratio is usually constant Bandwidth is the © amplitude ratlo is C0 30% reduction in gain). ‘Thus an a.c. amplifier on an oscilloscel of a bandwidth of 8Hz to 10MHz, which means tha! a ae the trace size fora constant-amplitude input wave will be 70% of ee Oy mid frequency. Say 1 kHz. Therefore at these frequencies the val ei from the oscilloscope sercen will be 30% lower than the actual values. za cal specification scope will have a tyPi ich tat SHz and 10MH2 —_1 frequeney response of an a,c, device Fig. 2.18 Typical b) D.C. devices im In this context, d.c. device does not mean a device which will r only to steady or d.c. signals but one which will respond to both | Gc signals. A typical irequency response for devices of this type fig. 2.16 and might apply, for example, to a pen record rating range may be expressed as the upper frequency gain or amplitude ratio falls outside a certain tolerance bani =3% is illustrated in fig. 2.16, but other common values are as mentioned in (a), or +1dB which is equivalent to + 10% (see ©). Amplitude ratio Angular (rev/mii Output Plot the equatio 3.6%)nd id n e of eOFporiites 8 volta Fe ws follows: Plifier 4 ducer 0.35 0hm/°C ei ipemtstone bridge 0.01 V/onyy, Nv 035en lifier gain 100V/\ ’ 7 en recorder (.1em/V , Bee ite pcre System sensitivity ppetatire change corre etiivty from equation 232 ii fassemrcs tia so sPoing to ‘recorder pen movem ‘ “A 0-100°C thermometer is found to hay = ave a Constant error of +(),2°C Calculate the percentage error a 9%: +0.4%; +0. oe dings of (a) 10°C, (bb) 50°C, and (c) ss +2. ‘A vibration-measuring system invol fransducer, a charge iiplifier. sad i wee 8 Bietrelertiig ee 05%, 1.0%, and «1.5% fare, em maximum possible system error and the obAbIe or ook eee mes 0%: =1-87°% | probable or root-sum-square Define the following terms applied to m ¥ coilty, (b) repeatability, (c) linearity, ieee Se § The following results were obtained from adc. tachogenerator test Angular velocity (rev/min) 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Output voltage (V) 0 9.1L ts 0. 23.3 29.9 39.0, 47.5 Plot the results and Pate) oy he rasheen trac eexaiivity trom equation 2.1 and (b) the linearity of the device. [0.1S7V/(rev/min); 3.6%] 36 State two reasons why the dynamic performance of instruments or ‘asuring systems is important. Determine the time constant 7 an Avhose dynamic performances are descril 4 d the static sensitivity of the systems ibed by the following differential equations: Gy do, ‘i Spo a) 30 G+ 30 = 1.5% 10 8, 2 for a thermocouple in a protective sheath, where 9 = output voltage in V and 6, = input temperature in°C. da, de for a restrictor/bellows system, and @, = input pressure in bars. By examination of the step respon fig. 2.7(b), estimate the 5% and 10% se +4.20, = 9.60; b) 14 cement in mm 2.29mm/bar] ler system shown In din terms of where 0, = bellows displa s [10s;5 * sor v/rc se of a first-ord stling times expresse 25line one 5%, rO- of ine Ise 1b- he on. lucer is a device whic! © which converts the quantity being measured int into |, mechanical, or — = electrical signal. The |. OF — more igs : commonly = electrical si version process that takes place is referred 3 7 een a Transducers are classi T ed the ae Scopicing to the transduction principle in- ar pe tgiauet tbe core ‘Thus a resistance transducer for i displacement is as a resistance di Pei teurcation camper ne prane telow, tose . force diaphragm, pressure flapper-nozzle, and so on. pransducer elements sh there are exceptions, most transducers consist of a sensing element and a conversion or control i lemer clement, - digger offig. 31. as shown in the two-block lie “Transducer Secondary {Conversion | Suh" caer signal a signal ammy | cmon [| can signal element or /—- measurand ‘Two-block-diagram representation of a typical transducer strain tubes and rings, Bourdon pond to changes in For example, diaphragms, bellows. to a dis- tubes, and cantilevers are sensing elements which res or force and convert these physical quantities inl . This displacement may then be used to change an electrical nce, of inductance. Such has voltage, resistance, capacita ‘of mechanical and electrical elements form electro Similar combinations can | transducing devices or transducers. a suchas thermal, photo (light). Se energy inputs hermoelectric, photoelectric, electromagnetic. an rs respectively ansducer sensitivity 34 Melationship between the measurand and the transducer ial is usually obtained by calibration tests and is referred to, “transducer senstt ity Ky output-signal inerement jeasurand increment In practice, the transducer sensitivity is usually known, ang, , measuring the output signal, the input quantity is determined from, a output-signal amplitude ; = itp ‘The following example, in which a spring is used to transduce force iny displacement, illustrates the principle involved. Example 3.1 If the transducing spring shown in fig. 3.2 deflects 0.5, when subjected to a force of 10KN, find the input force for an ouipiy displacement of 0.075m. at, Fig. 3.2 Loaded spring of example 3.1 Sensitivity K = == 205m 1OKN input force required for 0.075m deflection — abe 3.5 Characteristics of an ideal c transducer a Wee exhibit the following charact a) Hig! rod transducer output waveform shape: distoraent measurand; i.e. there s| b) There should be minimum i i measured; i.e. the ee ca ansdlceris measurand in any way, 28a or must be capable of being placed exactly where it “e fers ee be * linear relationship between the measurand and the 2 Rises fr cane te anos iene we effects eal iS raion a a eee subjected to external The Frequency and ee sranseiveer SGU wale oegbies ots 146 Electrical transducers Electrical transducers exhibit many of the ideal i car cece hee ae k, remote indication or measurement. i oe tp Flectrical transducers can be divided into two distinct groups: a) Variable-control-parameter types, which include i) resistance, ii) capacitance, inductance, and iv) mutual-inductance types. These transducers all rely on an external excitation voltage for their operation. b) Self-generating types, which include i) electromagnetic, ii) thermoelectric, photoemissive, and ) piezo-electric types. These all themselves produce an output measurand input and their effects are reversible. For example, a piezo- electric transducer normally produces an output voltage in response to the deformation of a crystalline material; however, if an alternating voltage is applied across the material, the tran: reversible effect by deforming or vibrating at the freque alternating voltage. yoltage in response to the sducer exhibits the ncy of the 3.7 Resistance transducers ; re Resistance transducers may be divide? into two groups: 3$ follows: a) Those which experience a large resistance change, nets using potential-divider methods. Potentiometers are in this 8) es HP ire B b) Those which experience @ small resistance ade sain ous bridge-circuit methods. Examples of this 2FOUP tr ic meastring oi and resistance thermometers. The ae ae F techniques are discussed in chapter * 93.7.1 Potentiometers y A linear wire-wound potentiometer consists of a number of tur,, | resistance wire wound around a non-conducting former, together With wiping contact which travels over the bare Rep ian, constrution Prin ciples are shown in figs 3.3(a) and (b), which Indicate that the, displacement can be rotary, translational, oF com preion of both give a helical-type motion, The excitation voltage may be either ac. , dic., and the output voltage is proportional (o the input mation, provia., the measuring device has a resistance which is much greater than 4), potentiometer resistance. Resistance wire (a) Rotary (b) | Translational Fig. 3.3 Construction principles of resistance potentiometers Such potentiometers suffer from the linked problems of resolution and electrical noise. Resolution is defined as the smallest detect a n the cross-sectional aréa of the windings and the 1¢ Output voltage is thus a Series of steps as le wire to the next, as shown in fig. 3.4(a). a ited signals) may be generated by variation ‘chanical wear due to contact friction, and by ed from the sensing element. In addition, the in contact resistanc contact vibration t ; iy, z My g . z : a ‘Motion x, (m) (a) % From Fig. 3.4 Resolution effects and circuit diag ; 30.12cm _ py, POV Saag 0% ‘ , jometer P ; a) Loading «Poi ieee is loaded by placing across its termin When the po! resistance Ry, a - e ch measuring device ee has a loading effect on the potentiometer ang into im putlinput graph to depart from the linear relationship the 35) Fig. 3.5 Characteristic of a loaded potentiometer An analysis of the circuit in the loaded condition gives - dre Rf \] «a7 |B 2] which is far from linear, and the non-linearity increases as the ratio increases. Example 3.3 Calculate the error, at 50% full-scale travel of the wiper, ota Tesistance potentiometer when loaded with a meter havi resistance equal to twice the potentiometer resistance. Using equations 3.1 and 3,3, unloaded y, = e =0.5V Using equation 3.3, 1 loaded, = v[ —— 1 a [=rar=75) ‘0.44V ~0.5y ep, yen * 100% ty The Me =129 ny 2% angth ative sign, whieh 8 Sah he negative Sign. Which shoy Sho" ee ws that the reading is too low.) resistance strain gauges = strain gauges are 47 ance strain Baug funsducers white Resesistance iN response 10 mech nical lt exhibit w ehange'in et i agor unbonded variety al strain, They may be of the 1 onded strain gauges Mamadhesive, these gauges are t using an aoe 3! are bonded, or cemented, direc ; \sngqace ofthe bod or structure which iene csvimples of bonded gauges are ‘amined ») fine wire gauges cemented to a paper backing, tched grids of conducting foil on an epoxy-tesin backing ii) photo-e iG iii) a single semiconductor filament mounted on an epoxy-resin backing with copper or nickel leads. 8 As shown in chapter 8, resistance gauges can be made up as single elements to measure strain in one direction only, or a combination of Siements such as rosettes will permit simultaneous measurements in more than one direction. b) Unbonded strain gauges "i typical unbonded-strain-gauge arrangement is shown. in fig. 3.6, which shows fine resistance wires stretched around supports in such a way that the deflection of the cantilever spring system changes the tension in the R,/R, witesand thus alters the resistance of the wire. Such an arrangement may be found in commercially available force, load, or pressure transducers. of th ving ® wire ‘Support for wire Fig. 3.6 Unbonded strain gauge3.7.3 Resistance temperature transducers The materials for these can be divided into two main groups a) Metals such as platinum, copper, tungsten, and nickel which ext), small increases in resistance as the temperature risess He they hav, Positive temperature coefficient of resistane’: b) Semiconductors, such as thermistors whieh use oxides of Manganc cobalt, chromium, or nickel, ‘These exhibit large nom Hinear Fes!stan changes with temperature variation and normally have a negar temperature coefficient of resistance: a) Metal resistance temperature transducers These depend, for many practical purposes and within a nar temperature range, upon the relationship Ri = Rl +a(9, = )] where a = temperature coefficient of resistance in °C ' and Ry = resistance in ohms at the reference temperature 6) = ("« ‘The International Practical Temperature Scale is based on platinum resistance thermometer, which covers the temperature rar —259.35°C to 630.5°C. Typical characteristic curves for a platinum resistance thermometer ar shown in fig. 3.7. B (ohms) Resistance change AA (ohms) Temperature (°C) ‘Temperature (°C) Fig. 3.7 Characteristics of a platinum resistance thermometer Example 3.4 If the resistance of a plati y i latinum resistance th 1009 at 0°C, calculate the reenee sistance therm e at 60°C Ifa = 0.00305. lometer |s ; = 0.00392°C"1, Using equation 3.4, Ry = Roll + (8) = A) 34ne ge tre qhermistor (semiconductor, = Py eemistOrs are temperature. aowice tem Fear resistanice changes with (eng pave anegasive temperature coeftig 50 700 _ ; ‘Temperature (°C) Fig. 3.8 Characteristics of thermistors For small temperature increments the variation in resistance is reason- ably linear; but, if large temperature changes are experienced, special linearising techniques are used i the measuring circuits to produce a linear relationship of resistance against temperature. Thermistors are normally made in the form of semiconductor discs oF beads enclosed in glass envelopes or vitreous enamel. Since they can be made as small as [mm, quite rapid response times are possible. rve for the type-! thermistor ture measured when the meter 3.5 Use the characteristic cu shown in fig, 3.8 to determine the tempera in the circuit shown in fig. 3.9 reads half full scale. ‘Thermistor 5kQVv 1OV Total resistance R = = Te qy TA 20k = Ska 15k (neglecting meter resistan 20kO thermistor resistance hence, from the characteristic, temperature = 20°C 3.7.4 Photoconductive cells The photoconductive cell, fig. 3.10, uses a light-sensitive semicc material, The resistance between the metal electrodes decrea intensity of the light striking the semiconductor increa semiconductor materials used for photoconductive cells are sulphide, lead sulphide, and copper-doped germanium Semiconductor substrate —Metal electrodes Transparent | encapsulation Fig. 3.10 Photoconductive cell The useful range of frequencies is determi ; 0 letermined by the material us. Cadmium sulphide is mainly suitable for visible light, wher y sulphide has its peak response in the infra-red region ai At eas Kead most suitable for Uaietaildre Hetectionanatstneee tame cr easureme! When light strikes the cathode of the 3.11, electrons are given sufficient en positive anode attracts these electrons, through resistor Ri and resulting in an output voltage Photoelectrically generated voltage y, = oR where /, = photoelectric current (A) and photoelectric current J, = Kb ¢, = sensitivity (A/Im) ® = illumination inffut (lumen) where and 30Although the output voltage does aan h the output voltage does give good indicat contro! ses, WI e Mt nore often used fc * purposes, where the light striking the cathode Cee an be interrupted uptes 3.6 A photoemi < lissive cell is connectes resistor. If the cell has a sensitivity of OUa rerun oe illumination when the output voltage is 2V. oon Using equation 3.5, w= hR = KOR ilumination ® = ~~ = 5 ey KR 7 30% 10 Alm x5 x 100 ome 3.8 Capacitive transducers The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by 3.6 c= ae farads - where € = the permittivity of free space = 8.854 10°" Fim €, = relative permittivity of the material between the plates A = overlapping oF effective area between plates (m*) d = distance between plates (m) hus be made to vary by changing either permittivity e,, the effective area A, or the distance separating the d, Some examples of capacitive transducers are shown in fig. 3.1 The characteristic curves shown in fig. 3.13 indicate that vari area A and relative rmittivity €, give @ linear re! i and A or €,, but variations in spacing d give a linear relation ® a small range of spacings. Si the relative and plates ‘The capacitance can teee, (Goma — ‘Motion « aries eftectiv (a) Variable reo Materat of folate permit, gepeeaclaes | {@)_ Variable permittivity Constant A Variable d (b) Variable distance Fig. 3.12 Examples of capacitive transducers ‘Area A (m2) Or relative permittivity €, Fig. 3.13 Characteristics of capacitive transducers By differentiating equation 3.6, we can findt (oe €A 9 Ped. Thus the sensitivity is high for small values ofd. Unlike the potentiometer, the variable-distanc has an infinite resolution, making it most su increments of displacement or quantities produce a displacement 38ple 3.7 A parallel-plate air-space psigren of * 10. nthe disanes bo pat taive permittivity for air is 1 ance bet Censitivity of the device. Bie4 mm. If icement ising equation 3.6, ae Cc 08 gitferentiating, dc eA dd d 8.854 x 10°7F/m x 1.0006 * 6.4 * 10-m: @xi0%m) wpe =56.6 x 10°" F/m = —5.66nF/m The minussign indicates a reduction in the capacitance value for increasing d. 3.9 Inductive transducers The inductance of a coil wound around a magnetic circuit is given by NVA p= MBNA penrys | where ty = permeability of free space ~ 4x10 7H/m py = relative permeability N = number of turns on coil 1 = length of magnetic circuit (m) and A = cross-sectional area of magnetic circuit (m?) This can be rewritten as ne 39 s * where S is the magne! L= .e inductive circuit reluctance of ary by changing the 1 rariable-reluctance transducers tic reluctance of th ‘The inductance can thus be made to vi the inductive circuit. Some examples of vi bre chown in figs 3.14 (a) to ©). Atypical characterist * 3.15. tic curve for an inductive transducer jsshown infig- 3»Moveabis magnetic co (c) Fig. 3.14 Examples of variable-reluctance inductive transducers Fig. 3.15 Characteristic of inductive transducer Example 3.8 Determine the sensitivity of a sin; ducer for (a) variations in relative permeability length of magnetic circuit a) Differentiating equation 3.8 with respect to p,, 3 dL _ #iN?A dp, 40Yr rentiating equation 3.8 with respect to /, pif ) Bf as pot NTA a Mi iseieh for small values of !) techniques used with capacitive and inductive transducers j _C-excited bridges using differential capacitors or inductors. d) A.C. potentiometer circuits for dynamic measurements. <) DC circuits to give a voltage proportional to velocity for a capacitor 6) Pregueney-modulation methods, where the change of € oF L varies the frequency of an oscillating circuit, : Important features of capacitive and inductive transducers are as follows: i) Resolution infinite ii) Accuracy +0.1% of full scale is quoted iii) Displacement ranges 25x10 *mto 10% 10 *m iy) Rise time less than $0 1s possible Typical measurands are displacement, pressure, vibration, sound, and liquid level. 3,10 Linear variable-differential transformer (l.v.d.t.) ‘A typical differential transformer, as illustrated in ig. 3.16, has primary coil, two secondary coils, and a movable magnetic core. xinput __ Fig. 3.16 Details of an Lv.d.t. citation voltage Vp is applied to the primary A high-frequency © P wine Parte i transformer action, voltages Vay and Vo are ind coils. The amplitudes of these voltages are between the in the secondary s d dependent on the degree ‘of electromagnetic couplin; P condary coils and hence on the core displacementx. Since the secondary coils are connected in series opposition, the ‘dis- placement x ‘of the core which produces amincrease in Vy will produce a AL; lly the voltages V,, and V. ang decrease in V2, Ideally Vas sho corresponding with each other, so that at the central Position [30° out of phase Wt ever, the voltages generally are not exc,” Voltage H er pnase oltage eis a small null output voltage as lustra 4, 3.17(b)- Cty | led in §, Voltage vq (phase) + ¥, volts rms, * Core displacement x (m) i Null voltage Core displacement x (m vp (Phase) (a) (b) Fig. 3.17 Output characteristics of an I.v.d.t Some important characteristics and features of the I.v.d.t. arc « follows: a) infinite resolution; b) linearity better than 0.5%; c) excitation frequency 50 Hz to 20kHz; 4) null voltage less than 1% of full-scale output voltage; €) maximum displacement frequency 10% of the excitation frequency f) displacement ranges available from 2 x 10 “m to 0.5m; .) no wear of moving parts; : h) amplitude nose output, ie. the output voltage is a const: equency waveform with an i e dis See input. amplitude depending on the « Typical measurands are any quantities which can be transduced int’ disp al ©.8. pressure, acceleration, vibration, force, and ligt" 3.11 Piezo-electric transducers When a force is applied across the face i Jectrical charges 5 > faces of certain crystal material a Be Of opposite polarity appear on the faces duc to !* piezo-electric effect (*pi Plectrie teanedacace sPie20" comes from the Greek for “to press’). Pie?” Rochelle salt, synthetic ease to™ natural crystals such as quartz 2" i ae lithium sulphate, or polaris” se materials generate °"electromagnetic transducer the output voltage of the iS tiven | follows. 4 Bi) Fora coilwit h changing flux linkages, db Surput voltage vs = —N Gr where N= number of turns on coil ni s = rate at which flux changes (Wb/s) b) For the single conductor moving in a magnetic field, output voltage » = Blv where B = flux density (T) 1 = length of conductor (m) andy = velocity of conductor perpendicular to flux direction (m/s. Both relationships are used in commercially available . 4 jally available ve transducers, the construction principles of which are illustrated in i (a) to(c). : ee ainties3. Stationary coil Pole tip i Rotation 7 | —Petman oe inet on Fig. 3.19 Electromagnetic transducers Hh