EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

6 Boundary Layer Theory

Boundary layer is a thin viscous region between the solid body and fluid (or it is a region where
the velocity increases rapidly from zero and approaches the velocity of the main stream). This
arises from ”no slip condition” at the solid boundary, i.e, zero relative velocity between fluid
and wall. The fluid velocity ought to resume its normal value at a very short distance from
the wall. This result in a large velocity gradient in this region and hence friction plays a
significant role. For the vast region of flow field away from the body, the velocity gradients
are relatively small, and frictions plays virtually no role. This natural division of the flow
into regions; one where friction is much more important than the other, was recognized by
the famous German fluid dynamist Ludwig Prandtl in 1904.

6.1 Boundary Layer Properties

Consider the viscous flow over a flat plate as shown below:

The viscous effects are contained within a thin layer adjacent to the surface, the thickness
is exaggerated for clarity. In the diagram, vw = 0 is the flow velocity at the surface which is
zero (no slip condition), Tw is the wall temperature (the temperature of the fluid immediately
at the surface is equal to temperature of surface), δ is the velocity boundary-layer thickness,
and δT is the thermal boundary-layer thickness.
δ is defined as the distance above the wall where u = 0.99ue . Here ue is velocity at the outer
edge of the boundary layer. For the flow over a flat plate ue = v∞ . For a body of general
shape, ue is the velocity obtained from an inviscid flow solution evaluated at the body surface.

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

δT is defined as the distance above the wall where T = 0.99Te . Here Te is temperature at the
outer edge of the thermal boundary layer. For the flow over a flat plate Te = T∞ . For a body
of general shape, Te is obtained from an inviscid flow solution evaluated at the body surface.
At any x station, the variation of u between y = 0 and y = δ, i.e, u = u(y) is defined as the
velocity profile within the boundary layer. This profile is different for different x stations.
Similarly, the flow temperature will change above the wall, ranging from T = Tw at y = 0 to
T = 0.99Te at y = δT . At any given x station, the variation of T between y = 0 and y = δT ,
i.e, T = T (y) is called temperature profile within the boundary layer.
The relative thickness of δ and δT depend on the Prandtl number, Pr. Various research have
shown, that if P r = 1, then δ = δT ; if P r > 1, then δT < δ; if P r < 1, then δT > δ.
For air at standard conditions, P r = 0.71, hence the thermal boundary layer is thicker than
the velocity boundary layer, as shown in the above diagram.
The consequent of velocity gradient at the wall is the generation of shear stress at the wall,
i.e  
∂u
τw = µ , (99)
∂y w
 
∂u
where ∂y
is velocity gradient at y = 0 (at the wall).
w
Similarly, the temperature gradient at the wall generate heat transfer at the wall,
 
∂T
qw = −k , (100)
∂y w
 
where ∂T ∂y
is the temperature gradient at y = 0 (at wall).
w

Definitions

1. Displacement thickness, δ ∗
Consider point y1 above the boundary layer as shown below

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

The actual mass flow (per unit depth) across the vertical line connecting y = 0 and
y = y1 , mB is Z y1
mB = ρudy (101)
0

If there were no boundary layer, so that the speed would be ue everywhere, then the
mass flow, mideal , would be Z y1
mideal = ρe ue dy (102)
0

The difference between the two, will bring a ”missing mass flow”, i.e given as

Missing mass flow = ρe ue δ ∗ (103)

Missing mass flow = mideal − mB

Therefore, Z y1
∗
ρe u e δ = (ρe ue − ρu)dy (104)
0

Z y1  
∗ ρu
⇒δ = 1− dy δ ≤ y1 → ∞
0 ρe u e

2. Momentum thickness , θ
Consider the same diagram for analysis of displacement thickness.
The momentum flow across a small segment dy, MB is given by

MB = udm = ρu2 dy (105)

The same elemental mass, outside the boundary layer has a momentum, M ideal given
by
Mideal = ue dm = ρuue dy (106)

The total decrement in momentum flow across the vertical line from y = 0 to y = y1
result in a missing momentum given as
Missing momentum = ρe u2e θ, i.e
Z y1
ρe u2e θ = (ρuue − ρu2 )dy (107)
0
Z y1  
ρu u
⇒θ= 1− dy δ ≤ y1 → ∞
0 ρe u e ue

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

3. Energy thickness, δ E
Exercise: show that 2 !
Z y1 
E ρu u
δ = 1− dy (108)
0 ρe u e ue

6.2 Laminar Boundary Layer

The flow in a boundary layer can be laminar or turbulent. As far as boundary layer is
concerned, the transition from laminar to turbulent occurs at Reynold numbers above 105
based on mean fluid velocity and distance measured from the entry to the duct. In this
section we shall consider properties of the laminar boundary layer.

6.2.1 Equation of Motion of Fluid in a Laminar Boundary Layer

For simplicity, we shall consider two-dimensional flow along a plane portion of the surface.
This plane is taken as xz-plane, with x-axis in the direction of flow. The velocity distribution
is independent of z, and velocity has no z-component. We also assume that the flow is steady.
The exact Navier-Stokes equations and continuity equations are then
 2
∂ vx ∂ 2 vx

∂vx ∂vx 1 ∂p
vx + vy =− +ν + , (109)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂x2 ∂y 2
 2
∂ vy ∂ 2 vy

∂vy ∂vy 1 ∂p
vx + vy =− +ν + , (110)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂y ∂x2 ∂y 2
∂vx ∂vy
+ = 0. (111)
∂x ∂y
Here vx and vy denotes the velocity components in x and y directions, respectively, p is the
pressure and ν is the kinematic viscosity.
Since the boundary layer is very thin, it is clear that the flow in it takes place mainly parallel
to the surface, i.e, the velocity component vy is small compared to vx .
The velocity varies rapidly along y-axis, an appreciable change in it occurring at distances of
the order of the thickness δ of the boundary layer. Along x-axis, the velocity varies slowly, an
appreciable change in it occurring only over at distances of the order of length l characteristic
to the problem (the dimension of the body). Hence y-derivatives of the velocity are large
in comparison to x-derivatives. Therefore, ∂ 2 vx /∂x2 may be neglected in comparison with

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

∂ 2 vx /∂y 2 . Also comparing Eqs. 109 and 110, it can be seen that derivative ∂p/∂y is small in
comparison with ∂p/∂x, i.e it can be assume that ∂p/∂y = 0. This implies that pressure is
a function of x only, i.e p(x) and instead of writing ∂p/∂x, it is written as a total derivative
dp(x)/dx. This derivative can be be expressed in terms of velocity of the main stream U (x).
Since we have potential flow outside the boundary layer, Bernoulli’s Equation, p + (1/2)ρU 2
= constant, hold, whence (1/ρ)dp/dx = −U dU/dx.
Thus we obtain the equations of motion in the laminar boundary layer in the form of Prandtl’s
Equation:
∂ 2 vx
 
∂vx ∂vx 1 ∂p dU
vx + vy −ν =− =U , (112)
∂x ∂y ∂y 2 ρ ∂x dx
∂vx ∂vy
+ = 0. (113)
∂x ∂y

6.2.2 Flow Over a Flat Plate (The Blasius solution)

Consider the incompressible, two-dimensional flow over a flat plate at 00 angle of attack as
shown below:

For such flow density is constant, µ is constant and dp/dx = 0 (because the inviscid flow
over a flat plate at 00 angle of attack yields a constant pressure over the surface). Energy
equation is not needed to calculate the velocity field for an incompressible flow.
Hence the boundary layer equations, reduces to

∂ 2 vx
 
∂vx ∂vx
vx + vy −ν =0 (114)
∂x ∂y ∂y 2

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

∂vx ∂vy
+ = 0. (115)
∂x ∂y
The independent variables (x,y) are transformed to (ξ, η), where

yp √
ξ = x, η= Rex , and ψ(x, y) = νxU f (η) (116)
x

and u = ∂ψ/∂y and v = −∂ψ/∂x (stream function definitions). A similarity solution can be
obtained as
2f 000 + f f 00 = 0 (117)

The wall shear stress, τw is generally expressed in terms of nondimensional local skin friction
coefficient, cf as
τw
cf = (118)
(1/2)ρU 2
which can be shown to be
0.664
cf = √ (119)
Rex
where Rex is the local Reynolds number. The total drag force on the top surface of entire
plate is the integrated contribution of τw (x) from x = 0 to x = c. Letting Cf denote the skin
friction drag coefficient, we obtain
Z c
1
Cf = cf dx, (120)
c 0

which can be shown to be

1.328
Cf = √ (121)
Rec
where Rec is the Reynolds number based on the total plate length c.
It can also be shown that for laminar flow, the boundary thickness δ is given by

δ
= 5.48Re−0.5 (122)
x

6.3 Turbulent Boundary Layer

−1/5
Cf = 0.074Rel (123)

It can also be shown that for turbulent flow, the boundary thickness δ is given by

δ = 0.37xRe−1/5
x (124)

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EMG 2307 Fluid Mechanics III Lecture Notes JKUAT

Example

1. Air at 30o C flows over a flat plate at a free stream velocity of 5 m/s. Determine the
boundary layer thickness at distance 0.2 m. Also determine the skin friction coefficients, both
local and average at these locations. The propery values for air at 30o C are; ρ = 1.165kg/m3 ,
v = 16 × 10−6 m2 /s and µ = 18.63 × 10−6 kg/ms
2. Water flows at a velocity of 1.2 m/s over a flat plate 1.2 m long. Determine the
boundary layer thickness. Take v = 1.006 × 10−6m2/s

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