5 Flows in Turbines and Pumps

Fluid machinery (add or subtract energy from the fluid) can generally be classified into: roto-
dynamic and positive displacement machines. Examples of machines that add energy to the
fluids are pumps, fans and compressors, while machines that extract energy from fluid are
turbines.
In roto-dynamic machines, there is a free passage of fluid between the inlet and outlet of the
machine without any intermittent sealing taking place. All roto-dynamic machines have a
rotating part called a runner, impeller or rotor.
In positive displacement machines, fluid is drawn or forced into a finite space bounded by
mechanical parts and is then sealed in it by some mechanical means. The fluid is then forced
out or allowed to flow out from the space and the cycle is repeated.
In this section we are going to look at the fluid flow in roto-dynamic machines and the
relationships between the rate of fluid flow and the difference in total head across the
impeller.

5.1 Types of Roto-dynamic Machines

The direction of fluid flow in relation to the plane of impeller rotation distinguishes different
classes of roto-dynamic machines. This include:

1. Axial flow machines - The flow is perpendicular to the impeller, i.e. the flow is along its
axis of rotation.

2. Centrifugal/ radial - The fluid approaches the impeller axially but it turns at the
machine inlet so that the flow through the impeller is in the plane of the impeller
rotation.
3. Mixed flow machines - The flow is partly axial and partly radial.

5.2 One-Dimensional Theory

The real flow through an impeller is three-dimensional, i.e the velocity of the fluid is a
function of three positional coordinates. The velocity distribution, therefore is very complex
and depend upon the number of blades, their shapes and thickness and the width of the
impeller.
The one dimensional theory simplify the problem by making the following assumptions:

1. The blades are infinitely thin and the pressure difference across them is replaced by
imaginary body forces acting on the fluid and producing torque.

2. The number of blades is infinitely large, so that the variation of velocity across blade
passages is reduced and tends to zero (axisymmetrical flow), i.e.

3. There is no variation of velocity in the meridional plane, i.e across the width of the
impeller. Thus,

The result of these assumptions is that the flow velocity is a function of radius alone, i.e v =
f(r).
5.2.1 Euler’s Turbine Equation

This is the general expression for the energy transfer between the impeller and the fluid
based on the one-dimensional theory.
Consider a centrifugal impeller rotating with constant angular velocity ω, as shown below;
At inlet, the fluid moving with an absolute velocity v1 enters the impeller through a
cylindrical surface of radius r1 and may make an angle α1 with the tangent at that radius.
At outlet, the fluid leaves the impeller through a cylindrical surface of radius r2, absolute
velocity v2 and may make an angle α2 with the tangent at that radius.

From Newton’s second law applied to angular motion,

Torque = Rate of change of angular momentum =ṁvw2r2 - mvw1r1 = ṁ (vw2r2 - vw1r1)

Where ṁvw1r1 and ṁvw2r2 are the angular momentum entering and leaving the impeller per
second, respectively.
The work done in unit time is given by:

Work done per second, Et = torque × angular velocity = ṁ (vw2r2 − vw1r1) ω.

But u1 = ωr1 and u2 = ωr2. Hence on substitution,

Work done per second, Et = ṁ (u2vw2 − u1vw1).

The unit is joules per second or watts.

The specific energy (energy per unit mass) is
 Es = (u2vw2 − u1vw1),

and the Euler’s head E is given by

E = (1/g)(u2vw2 − u1vw1).

But vw1 = v1 cosα1 and vw2 = v2 cosα2, so that

E = (1/g)(u2v2 cosα2 − u1v1 cosα1).

Using cosine rule,

.
Similarly,

.
Substituting these expressions, then

,
or

,
where A is the increase of kinetic energy of the fluid in the impeller, B is the energy used in
setting the fluid in circular motion about the impeller axis (forced vortex) and C is the regain
of static head due to a reduction of relative velocity in the fluid passing through the impeller.
5.2.2 Application of Euler’s Equation on a Centrifugal Pump/Fan Impeller

Consider a centrifugal pump/fan impeller, as shown below;

Since the flow at inlet and outlet is through cylindrical surfaces and the velocity components
normal to them are vf1 and vf2, the continuity equation applied to inlet and outlet is
m = ρ1πr1b1vf1 = ρ2πr2b2vf2,

and for incompressible flow,

πr1b1vf1 = πr2b2vf2.

At inlet the following assumptions are made:

1. The absolute velocity is radial. Therefore, v1 = vf1 and vw1 = 0.

2. The blade angle at inlet β1 is such that the blade meets the relative velocity tangentially.
This assumption is known as ’no shock’ condition.

At outlet the following assumptions are made:

1. The fluid leaves the impeller with a relative velocity tangential to the blade at outlet.
Thus, . Thus from the velocity triangle at outlet,

so that
 vw2 = u2 − vf2 cotβ2.

Therefore applying these assumption in the Euler’s equation

E = (u2/g)(u2 − vf2 cotβ2). (79)
The total amount of energy transferred by the impeller is, thus

Et = ṁgE= ṁu2(u2 − vf2 cotβ2). (80)

5.2.3 Application of Euler’s Equation on an Axial Flow Machine

Consider an axial flow machine, as shown below;

The changes in velocity from inlet to outlet take place at the same radius
and, hence

u1 = u2 = u = ωr.

Since the flow area is the same at inlet and outlet,

vf1 = vf2 = vf.

It is obtained from
.

The following assumptions are made with regard to velocity triangles:

1. There is no prewhirl at inlet and, hence, α1 = 900, vw1 = 0, and v1 = vf.

2. The blade is set at an angle such that it meets the relative fluid velocity tangentially.

3. At the outlet, the relative velocity leaves the blade tangentially.

Thus from the velocity triangle at outlet,

which, on substitution into the Euler’s equation, gives

. (81)

This equation applies to any particular radius r and is not necessarily constant over the range
from R1 to R2. However, the blade can be twisted so that the increase in u with radius is
counterbalanced by an equal decrease in and, hence the equation is constant
throughout.
Exercise 1
1. An axial flow fan has a hub diameter of 1.50 m and a tip diameter of 2.0 m. It rotates
at 18 rad s-1 and, when handling 5.0 m3 s-1 of air, develops a theoretical head
equivalent to 17 mm of water. Determine the blade outlet and inlet angles at the hub
and at the tip. Assume that the velocity of flow is independent of radius and that
 the energy transfer per unit length of blade (δr) is constant. Take the density of air as
1.2 kg m-3 and the density of water as 103 kg m-3.
2. Water is pumped at the rate of 1400 gpm through a centrifugal pump operating at a speed
of 1750 rpm. The impeller has a uniform blade length, b, of 2 in. with r1 = 1.9 in. and r2 =
7.0 in., and the exit blade angle is β =23º. Assume ideal flow conditions and that the
tangential velocity component, Vθ1, of the water entering the blade is zero (α 1=90 º).
Determine,
(a) The tangential velocity component, Vθ2, at the exit,
(b) The ideal head rise, ha, and
(c) The power, Wshaft, transferred to the fluid. Discuss the difference between ideal and actual
head rise. Is the power, Wshaft, ideal or actual? Explain.

5.3 Isolated Blade and Cascade Considerations

In these approaches, the number of blades is considered to be finite. For this method we
define:
1. Pitch - The distance between the adjacent blades, s.
2. Blade solidity, σ - The ratio of the blade chord c to the pitch. It is the measure of the
closeness of blades.

If the blades are close to one another, the flow between them may be treated as conduits.
Whereas if the blades are very far apart, they must be treated as bodies in external flows.

5.3.1 Isolated Blade Considerations

In this case, the assumption is that the blades are very far apart, i.e s → ∞ and σ → 0.
In section 3.6.1, it was shown that lift is dependent on circulation. From Eqs (119) and
(120),

. (82)
Consider the circulation around a single blade as shown below;
 (83)
But,
ID
,and vds = vw2s2.
C

Therefore, the circulation around a blade, Γb = ΓABCD is given by

Γb = vw2s2 − vw1s1. (84)

Now, consider circulation around two blades, as shown below:

 (85)
But,

, and ,
so that,

Γ = ΓACDF = Γb + Γb = 2Γb. (86)

And for number of blade, say z;

Γ = zΓb = z(vw2s2 − vw1s1), (87)

but zs1 = 2πr1 and zs2 = 2πr2, so that

(88)
Γ = 2π(vw2r2 − vw1r1).

However, Euler’s Equation is

E = (ω/g)(vw2r2 − vw1r1). (89)

Comparing Eqs (88) and (89), we obtain

. (90)
or

. (91)
This equation may be used in conjunction with Kutta-Joukowsky’s Eq. (82).
5.3.2 Cascade Considerations

In this case, the assumption is that the blades are very close, i.e. the solidity σ is significant.
The geometrically identical blades are arranged at the same distance from one another and
positioned in the same way with respect to the direction of flow to form a cascade.
A straight cascade (applied in an axial flow impeller) is where the blades are arranged along
a straight line. While circular cascade (applied in a centrifugal impeller) is where the blades
are arranged around the circumference.
Cascade can also be classified according to the way they operate as follows:
1. Impulse Cascade - when velocities upstream and downstream of a cascade are the
same in magnitude, so that the change in momentum is due to change in direction.
From Bernoulli’s equation there will be no pressure difference between upstream and
downstream side of the cascade.

2. Reaction Cascade - The pressure difference exists due to absolute velocities upstream
and downstream not being the same.

Straight Cascade
Consider a stationary straight cascade of height Z, as shown below:
Let the upstream fluid velocity v1 making an angle α1 with the line of the cascade be deflected
so that the downstream velocity v2 making an angle α2. The deflection is

ε = α2 − α1.

The fluid velocities v1 and v2 are resolved into components parallel and normal to the cascade,

vt and vn, respectively. Applying Bernoulli’s equation, the pressure difference is given by

. (92)

Applying continuity, the mass flow through the cascade is

m˙ = sZρ1vn1 = sZρ2vn2.

It implies that for an incompressible flow (density is constant)

vn1 = vn2 = vn.

Thus, the change in velocity is entirely due to change of tangential velocity component, i.e

, and ,
.
Therefore, Eq. (92), reduces to

, (93)
where vt = (1/2)(vt1 +vt2) is the mean tangential velocity. The force acting on a single blade of
the cascade in the direction perpendicular to it is

Fn = sZ(p1 − p2) = sZρvt(vt2 − vt1) = ρZvtΓb.

The rate of change of momentum across the cascade is again due to a change in vt and,
therefore, gives rise to a force in the direction of cascade, Ft, i.e

Ft = m˙ (vt2 − vt1) = sZρvn(vt2 − vt1) = ρZvnΓb.

The resultant force on the blade is

and it act at an angle β given by

(94)
But vt1 = vn cotα1 and vt2 = vn cotα2. Therefore,

,
which on substituting into Eq. (94), result in

(95)
β is equal to β∞, defined as the mean direction of flow and obtained by superposition of the
inlet and the outlet velocity triangles, as shown below:
The force F being perpendicular to the mean direction of flow is the lift on the blade.
Exercise 2

The impeller of a centrifugal pump has a diameter of 0.1 m and axial width at outlet
of 15mm. There are 16 blades swept backwards and inclined at 25° to the tangent to
the periphery (Figure below). The flow rate through the impeller is 8.5m3 h-1 when it
rotates at 750 rev min-1. Calculate the head developed by the pump when handling
water and assuming (a) one-dimensional ideal flow theory, (b) allowing for the relative
eddy between the blades.

5.4 Energy Losses

There are two main source of losses in hydraulic machine:

1. The velocities in the blade passages and at the impeller outlet are not uniform owing
to the presence of blade and the real flow being three dimensional. This results in a
diminished velocity of whirl component and, hence, reduces Euler’s head.

2. There are losses of energy due to friction, separation and wakes associated with the
development of boundary layers.