FLUID MACHINERY

LECTURE II
BASIC GOVERNING EQUATIONS OF
TURBOMACHINES

One Dimensional Theory of Turbomachinery

• The real flow through an impeller is three dimensional
• That is to say the velocity of the fluid is a function of
three positional coordinates, say, in the cylindrical
system, r, θ and z, as shown in Fig. below.
• Thus, there is a variation of velocity not only along the
radius but also across the blade passage in any plane
parallel to the impeller rotation
• Also, there is a variation of velocity in the meridional
plane, i.e. along the axis of the impeller.
• The velocity distribution is therefore, very complex and
dependent upon the number of blades, their shapes
and thicknesses, as well as on the width of the impeller
and its variation with radius.
2

1
A Centrifugal Impeller in Relation to Cylindrical
Coordinates

Basic Assumptions
The one-dimensional theory simplifies the problem very
considerably by making the following assumptions:
 The blades are infinitely thin and the pressure difference across
them is replaced by imaginary body forces acting on the fluid
and producing torque.
 The number of blades is infinitely large, so that the variation of
velocity across blade passages is reduced and tends to zero.
Thus, v
0

 There is no variation of velocity in the meridional plane, i.e.
across the width of the impeller. Thus,
v
0
z
 The flow through the impeller is frictionless
As a result of the above assumptions, the flow through, say, a
centrifugal impeller may be represented by a diagram shown in Fig.
below. 4

2
One-dimensional flow through a
centrifugal impeller

Basic Assumptions Contd.

• The above assumptions enable us to limit our analysis to changes
of conditions which occur between impeller inlet and impeller
outlet without reference to the space in between, where the real
transfer of energy takes place.
• This space is treated as a ‘black box’ having an input in the form of
an inlet velocity triangle and an output in the form of an outlet
velocity triangle.
• Such velocity triangles for a centrifugal impeller rotating with a
constant angular velocity ω are shown in Fig. above.
Analysis
• At inlet, the fluid moving with an absolute velocity v1 enters the
impeller through a cylindrical surface of radius r1 and may make an
angle α1 with the tangent at that radius.
• At outlet, the fluid leaves the impeller through a cylindrical surface
of radius r2, absolute velocity v2 inclined to the tangent at outlet by
the angle α2. 6

3
 Analysis Contd.
The velocity triangles shown in Fig. above are obtained as
follows.
 The inlet velocity triangle is constructed by first drawing the
vector representing the absolute velocity v1 at an angle α1.
 The tangential velocity of the impeller, u1 is then subtracted
from it vectorially in order to obtain vr1, the relative velocity
of the fluid with respect to the impeller blades at the radius
r 1.
 In this basic velocity triangle, the absolute velocity v1 is
resolved into two components:
 One in the radial direction, called velocity of flow vf1, and
 The perpendicular to it i.e in the tangential direction, vw1, sometimes
called velocity of whirl.
 These two components are useful in the analysis and,
therefore, they are always shown as part of the velocity
triangles. 7

Analysis Contd.
• From One-dimensional flow through a centrifugal impeller
coupled with Newton’s second law applied to angular motion,
• Torque = Rate of change of angular momentum
Now,
• Angular momentum = (Mass) x (Tangential velocity) x
(Radius).

4
Analysis Contd.

Analysis Contd.

10

5
 Analysis Contd.
• Equation (1.4) is known as Euler’s equation.
• From its mode of derivation it is apparent that Euler’s equation
applies to a pump (as derived) and to a turbine.
• In the case of a turbine, however, since

• E would be negative, indicating the reversed direction of energy

transfer.
• It is, therefore, common for a turbine to use the reversed order
of terms in the brackets to yield positive E.
• Since the units of E reduce to metres of the fluid handled, it is
often referred to as Euler’s head.
• It is useful to express Euler’s head in terms of the absolute fluid
velocities rather than their components.
• From the velocity triangles of Fig. above,
11

Analysis Contd.

12

6
 Analysis Contd.
In the above expression,
 The first term denotes the increase of the kinetic energy of
the fluid in the impeller.
 The second term represents the energy used in setting the
fluid in a circular motion about the impeller axis (forced
vortex).
 The third term is the regain of static head due to a
reduction of relative velocity in the fluid passing through
the impeller.

13

Application of Euler’s Equation to Centrifugal

and Axial Flow Machines
Centrifugal Flow Machine
• For centrifugal flow machine, the velocity triangles are as
shown in Fig. above.
• In addition, the following relationships hold.
• In general, u = ωr, it follows that the tangential blade
velocities at inlet and outlet are given by

14

7
Application of Euler’s Equation to
Centrifugal Flow Machines Contd.

15

Application of Euler’s Equation to Centrifugal

Flow Machines Contd.

16

8
Centrifugal Flow Machine
At inlet the usual assumptions are as follows:
• The absolute velocity is radial, v1  v f 1 and v w1  0
• v1 can be calculated (1.9) and   90
• This condition does not apply when there is a pre-whirl (vw1)
component present, perhaps due to inlet vanes or
unfavourable inlet conditions. In that case vf1 is calculated
from equation (1.9) and 1 can be determined only if v1 is
known.
• To minimize entry losses, the blade angle at the inlet is made
equal to (the angle between the relative velocity and the
tangential direction).
17

Centrifugal Flow Machine

Outlet Diagram
• It is assumed that the fluid leaves the impeller with a relative
velocity tangential to the blade at the outlet, i.e.  2   2
• vf2 can be calculated from equation (1.9). u 2   r2
• Draw vf2 vector. Draw the direction vr2 starting from the same
origin. Now draw u2 starting from the intersection with the
direction of vr2, then
cot  2  u 2  v w 2  v f 2
 Substituting these into Euler’s equation
v w 2  u 2  v f 2 cot  2

H
u2
g

u 2  v f 2 cot  2 
• The total amount of energy transferred to the impeller is

E t  WH  m& gH  m& u 2 u 2  v f 2 cot  2  18

9
 Axial Flow Machine
• An axial flow machine, is as shown in Fig. below.
• In the axial flow machine the flow is axial, the changes from inlet to
outlet take place at the same radius.
• The flow is axial, so that changes from inlet to outlet take place at
the same radius and hence

19

Axial Flow Machine Contd.

The following assumptions are made with regard to the velocity
triangles:
• There is no pre-whirl at inlet and, hence,   90, v w1  0, v1  v f
• For smooth flow through the blade, it is set at an angle such
that it meets the relative fluid velocity tangentially
• At outlet, the relative velocity leaves the blade tangentially and
a similar procedure to that for a centrifugal impeller is used to
complete the velocity triangles.
• For the outlet velocity triangle
cot  2  u  vw 2  v f
so that
vw 2  u  v f cot  2

20

10
Axial Flow Machine Contd.
Substituting for vw2, vw1, u2 and u1 in Euler’s equation

H
u
u  v f cot  2 
g
This equation applies to any particular radius r where r varies
between R1 and R2.
It is not necessarily constant over the range. For any two radii ra
and rb, the expression below must hold.
u a2  u a v f cot  2 a  const  ub2  ub v f cot  2b
which can be shown to give
v f u b cot  2b  u a cot  2 a   u b2  u a2

ra cot  2a  ra cot  2a 
vf
r 2
b  ra2 
21

Axial Flow Machine Contd.

This condition is not always met and it is then necessary to apply
Euler’s equation to an element dr and to integrate from R1 and R2.
The energy transfer from the element dEt is

dEt 
u
u  v f cot  2 dW
g
where
dW  2gv f rdr  weight of fluid flow through the elemental area

dE t  Energy transfer through the elemental area

R2

Et  2v f  r 2  r  v f cot  2 dr

R1
To integrate this equation,  2  f r  must be known.
22

11
Axial flow impeller and velocity triangles

23

Axial Flow Machine

• From the outlet triangle,

24

12
Axial Flow Machine

• For any two radii ra and rb,

25

Axial Flow Machine

26

13
 Departures from Euler’s Theory
• There are two reasons why the actual energy transfer achieved by a
turbomachine is smaller than that predicted by Euler’s equation:
• The velocities in the blade passages and at the impeller outlet are
not uniform due to the presence of the blade, and the real flow
being 3-D. This results in a diminished velocity of whirl component
and hence a reduction in Euler’s head.

27

Departures from Euler’s Theory

• There are two reasons why the actual energy transfer achieved by a
turbomachine is smaller than that predicted by Euler’s equation:
• (i) The velocities in the blade passages and at the impeller outlet
are not uniform due to the presence of the blade, and the real flow
being 3-D. This results in a diminished velocity of whirl component
and hence a reduction in Euler’s head.

The relative eddy

Effect of velocity distribution on the
outlet velocity triangle 28

14
 Departures from Euler’s Theory
• Impeller does work on the fluid by exerting an impelling force
on it. Pressure in the forward face of blade is greater than
that at its rear as shown. Hence, velocity near the rear side is
greater than that near the forward side.
• The non-uniform velocity distribution is responsible for the
mean direction of flow 21 to the less than 2.
• vw = slip velocity
• Slip factor v w 2
Sf 
vw2
 Stodola’s slip factor formula
 sin  2
1
S f
  
z 1  v f u 2 cot  2 
• where z = number of blades.
29

Departures from Euler’s Theory

• Busemann’s formula
S f     
 A  B v f u 2 cot  2 1  v f u 2 cot  2  
• in which A and B are functions of
• Stanitz formula:
0 . 63 
1
z 1  v  
S
f u 2 cot  2
f

• For pumps, best agreement with experimental result is obtained for the
following angles of 2.
• 20o < 2 < 30o Stodola’s corrections
• 30o < 2 < 80o Busemann’s corrections
• 80o < 2 < 90o Staintz corrections
• (ii) In a real impeller, there are losses of energy due to friction,
separation and wakes associated with the development of boundary
layers.
• In a cascade, losses manifest themselves as a drop in pressure
downstream of the cascade. 30

15
Example 1
A centrifugal pump with a 700 mm diameter impeller runs at 1800
rev/min. The water enters without whirl, and 2 = 60o. The actual head
produced by the pump is 17 m. Calculate the theoretical head and the
hydraulic efficiency when V2 = 6 m/s.
Solution:
2  rN 2  0 . 35 1800 
u2   65 . 97 m s
60 60
u 2 V 2 cos  65 . 97  6  cos 60 o
197 . 92
H  2
   20 . 18 m
g 9 . 81 9 . 81

actual head
h   100 %
theoretica l head
17
h   100 %  84 . 24 %
20.18

31

Example 2
An axial flow fan has a hub diameter of 1.50 m and a tip diameter of 2.0
m. It rotates at 18 rad/s and, when handling 5.0 m3/s of air, develops a
theoretical head equivalent to 17 mm of water. Determine the blade
outlet and inlet angles at the hub and at the tip. Assume that the
velocity of flow is independent of radius and that the energy transfer per
unit length of blade (r) is constant. Take the density of air as 1.2 kg/m3
and the density of water as 103 kg/m3.
Solution:
Velocity of flow
Q Q 5
vf     3 . 64 m s
A 
 R 22  R 12 
 1  0 . 5625 
Blade velocity at tip is given by

u1t   R1t  18  1  18 m s
Blade velocity at hub
32

16
Example 2 Contd.
u1h   R1h  18  0.75  13.5 m s
Since for “no-shock” condition
u
cot  1 
vf
Then, the inlet blade angle at tip is given by
 18 
 1t  cot 1    11.4
 3.64 

And at hub
 13.5 
1h  cot 1    15.1
 3.64 
Since the head generated by the tip and hub sections is the same, the
outlet angles may be obtained by applying Euler’s equation to these
sections as follows
H
u
u  v f cot  2 
g
33

Example 2 Contd.
10 3
E  H th  17 mm of water  0.017   14.16 m of air
1.2
Therefore at tip
18
14.16  18  3.64 cot  2t 
9.81
 2t  19.5
And at hub
13.5
14.16  13.5  3.64 cot  2t 
9.81

 2t  48.6

34

17