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In this document is a brief review of the relationship between the guiding theory of your research study and the data collection
instrument. Additionally I will review some guiding principles for each type of question that might be in the data collection
instrument.
The Topic of Inquiry leads to the organization (taxonomy and categorization) of the Literature Review, which leads to the
development of the quantitative theoretical framework, or the qualitative theoretical construct, or conceptual framework, literature
map. These are the source of the questions developed for interviews, questionnaires, and surveys. For the purposes of this experience
I define Interviews use open-ended questions that encourage lengthy and detailed responses. Questionnaires contain semi-structured
questions with a short answer response. Surveys contain directed questions with a quantifiable measured response.
The process of developing the data collection instrument provides a direct relationship between the theory and the data
collection instrument. Data collected should always be related to the theory. This is the essence of reliability in scientific research. It
is also necessary to be mindful of your unit of analysis. If you are analyzing at the individual level your questions should be related to
this level or the individual perspective of other units of analysis, such as the team, organization, or social institution.
The diagrams below might lead you to believe there is a one question to one concept relationship. There are two strategies
regarding the concept to question ratio. In one strategy with quantitative directed questions and qualitative semi-structured questions
you might have multiple questions concerning each concept; the point is that you do not leave assumptions unquestioned or gaps in
THEORY TO DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS 2
the questions, which leave data uncollected. Although you might have multiple questions for each concept, you will not have multiple
concepts for one question. In a second strategy with qualitative open-ended questions you are attempting to encourage the participant
to respond regarding the concepts with one or more questions that are over arching in nature, or of a broader scope.
Open-Ended Questions are artfully crafted to be as inclusive of the factors making up the qualitative theoretical construct, or
conceptual framework, literature map in as few questions as possible. The artful open-ended question does not lead or bias the
participant’s response. This leaves room for the participant to respond from their perspective as it naturally occurs to them. If you
have too many questions, you are really constructing a questionnaire of semi-structured questions. When using open-ended questions
the interviewer should prepare a few questions to use in probing for greater detail and clarifying questions to reduce the assumptions
left unquestioned. It is difficult to anticipate these probing or clarifying questions, engaging in the practice of prewriting will prepare
you to improvise good questions during the interview. A good open-ended question might encourage the participant to reflect on and
then respond from her or his experience without prompting for the specific concepts or variables. Begin with a discussion of the
purpose of the research study. Then discuss briefly the theoretical perspective. This grounds the participant into the research study
and makes it more likely their responses will be appropriate. Although this can constitute a form of leading the participant to give the
responses you are looking for. Be cautious with how much information you give prior to the interview and in revealing your bias.
Refer to Figure 1 and Table 1 for a progression from theory to open-ended questions.
THEORY TO DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS 3
Concept Question
Factor Concept Question Factor
Concept Question
Question
Factor Concept Question Factor
Concept Question
Concept Question
Theory
Theory
Factor Concept Question Factor
Concept Question
Factor Concept Question Factor
Concept Question
Factor Concept Question Question
Factor
Concept Question
Concept Question
Factor Factor
Concept Question
Figure 2. Theory to open-ended data collection instrument. In this model the researcher would ask one question for each factor of the
Exercise:
In small groups develop two open-ended questions with their related two probing and two clarifying questions.
THEORY TO DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS 5
Semi-Structured Questions should only respond to one concept in the qualitative theoretical construct, or conceptual
framework, literature map. In other words the response to a question of these types should only satisfy one concept. Questions of
these types that satisfy or answer more than one question are not clear and concise enough, and the resulting data will not yield
specific and reliable data. The well constructed semi-structured question limits the scope of the participant’s response and yet does
not lead or bias that response. Note that semi-directed questions should not require probing or clarifying and are appropriate for a
self-administered instrument. See Figure 2 and Table 2 below for an example of the progression from a theory to its factors, then to
questions.
THEORY TO DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS 6
Concept Question
Factor Concept Question Factor
Concept Question
Factor Concept Question Factor
Concept Question
Concept Question
Theory
Theory
Factor Factor
Concept Question
Concept Question
Factor Concept Question Factor
Concept Question
Factor Concept Question Factor
Concept Question
Concept Question
Factor Factor
Concept Question
Exercise:
In small groups develop at least two semi-structured questions for each concept that is part of the factor of Empathy.
THEORY TO DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS 8
Directed Questions should only respond to one concept in the quantitative theoretical framework. In other words the
response to a question of these types should only satisfy one concept. Questions of these types that satisfy or answer more than one
question are not clear and concise enough, and the resulting data will not yield specific and reliable data. The directed (closed-ended)
question provides the participant with a specific range of responses yet does not lead or bias the response. An important consideration
for directed questions is the level of measurement you will use. The level of measure is either: nominal, ordinal, or interval/ratio. For
direct comparisons of responses you should use the same level of measurement. In SPSS these questions are referred to as variables
and in testing your model and hypothesis you will be comparing the variables (questions) against each other. See Figure 3 and Table 3
below for an example of the progression from a theory to its factors, then to questions.
THEORY TO DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS 9
Theory
Variable II Concept Question Variable II
Independent Concept Question Independent
Exercises:
In small groups develop at least two directed questions and choose an appropriate level of measurement format for each
concept that is part of the variable Empathy. The questions should represent the full diversity of measurement formats.
THEORY TO DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS 11
Recommended Reading
Creswell, J. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publishing
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Saldaña, J. (2011). Fundamentals of qualitative research. In P. Leavy (series Ed.) Series in Understanding Qualitative Research.
Saldaña, J. (2013). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. London, UK: Sage Publishing.
Schensul, S. L., Schensul, J. J., & LeCompte, M. D. (1999). Essential ethnographic methods: Observations, interviews, and
LeCompte, M. D. & Schensul, J. J. (2013). Essential ethnographic methods: Observations, interviews, and questionnaires. Walnut