Chapter 8: Vapor Power Systems

Photo Courtesy of GPU International

A view of the GPU International 80 MW natural gas fired plant

adjacent to the Syracuse University campus in Syracuse NY
Welec/Qfuel = (3,000 MW)/(5,000 MW) = 0.60
Qstack loss/Qfuel = (500 MW)/(5,000 MW) = 0.10
 ENGINEERING CONTEXT

An important engineering goal is to devise systems that accomplish desired types

of energy conversion. The present chapter and the next are concerned with
several types of power-generating systems, each of which produces a net power
output from a fossil fuel, nuclear, or solar input. In these chapters, we describe
some of the practical arrangements employed for power production and illustrate
how such power plants can be modeled thermodynamically. The discussion is
organized into three main areas of application: vapor power plants, gas turbine
power plants, and internal combustion engines. These power systems, together
with hydroelectric power plants, produce virtually all of the electrical and
mechanical power used worldwide.

The objective of the present chapter is to study vapor power plants in which the
working fluid is alternately vaporized and condensed. Chapter 9 is concerned
with gas turbines and internal combustion engines in which the working fluid
remains a gas.
Modeling Vapor Power Systems

Complicated real processes are handled by making

simplified assumptions- this is an engineering art

Models capture essential elements:

• Capture basic functions and performance
• Provide “first order” analyses
• Allow deductions as to how possible changes may improve
performance

Vast majority of electrical power generating plants are

variations of vapor power plants with water as working fluid
(Why water?)

Consider basic components of plant next, with focus on parts

that convert heat to work (thermal to mechanical)
Components of a Vapor Power Plant
Focus on Sub-system A
where Heat converted to Work

First consider other sub-systems

(B, C and D)
 Components of a Vapor Power Plant
Sub-system B:

Purpose is to supply energy to vaporize water

Fossil
Solar
Nuclear
Components of a Vapor Power Plant
Sub-system D:

Purpose is to convert mechanical power

From turbine to electrical power in generator
Components of a Vapor Power Plant
Sub-system C:

Purpose is to remove thermal energy by

condensing water
Components of a Vapor Power Plant
Notice interactions with environment for
Sub-systems B and C: Thermal pollution,
cooling water, fuel safety, pollutant discharge,
waste disposal.
Components of a Vapor Power Plant
Sub-system A: Convert Heat to Work
 Note four components: turbine, condenser, pump, evaporator

Mass of working fluid undergoes cycle

WT
QH Energy conservation requires WNet = QNet

Thermal efficiency < 1.0

QL Improved performance related to reducing

Irreversibilities, minimizing entropy
generation
WP
Reducing Irreversibilities depends on:
Thermodynamics, economics, other…
Rankine Cycle and Heat Engines

WT
QH

QL

WP
 Analyzing Vapor Power Systems:
Rankine Cycle

All fundamentals for analyzing

vapor power cycles have
been introduced:

• Mass & Energy conservation

• Second Law
• Thermodynamic data

Can model subsystems and

overall power system

Rankine (or Steam) Cycle is model for basic Vapor Power System
Principal Device Analysis:
Assume: steady-state, “stray” Q = 0
KE & PE terms are negligible

• • ( h1 − h2 )
Wt = m ( h1 − h2 ) ηt =
( h1 − h2 s )

• •
W p = m ( h4 − h3 )

ηp =
( h4 s − h3 )
( h4 − h3 )
 Principal Device Analysis:
Assume: steady-state, “stray” Q = 0
KE & PE terms are negligible

• •
Qin = m ( h1 − h4 )

• •
Q out = m ( h2 − h3 )
Cycle Performance Parameters

 • •  • •
W t / m  − W p / m 
η=   
• •
 Q in / m 
 

 • •
W p / m 
bwr =  • • 
 
W
 t / m
 
 Rankine Cycle
Assume: steady-state, “stray” Q = 0
KE & PE terms are negligible
Turbine: Pump:
• •
Wt Wp
•
= h1 − h2 •
= h4 − h3
m m
η <1
Overall Performance:
• • • •

η=
Wt / m − W p / m
=
( h1 − h2 ) − ( h4 − h3 )
Boiler: Condenser (1 side): •
Qin / m
•
( h1 − h4 )
• •
Qin
•
= h1 − h4
Qout
•
= h2 − h3
η = 1−
( h2 − h3 )
η <1
m m
( h1 − h4 )
 Rankine Cycle
Back Work Ratio (bwr):

W P
bwr =  m =
( h4 − h3 )
η <1 WT ( h1 − h2 )
m

Specific enthalpy change for vapor expansion thru turbine

usually very large compared to specific enthalpy change
for liquid thru pump. Thus, bwr is typically small (few %)

Thermodynamic analysis applied for ideal, reversible cycle

(upper limit of performance) and irreversible cycle (real)
as well as to study influence of altering cycle
 Ideal Rankine Cycle

No irreversibilities:

No friction (pressure drop) Processes 1-2, 3-4: Isentropic

in heat exchangers. Processes 2-3, 4-1: Isobaric
Saturated liquid at State 3 (bwr)
Adiabatic, reversible turbine Saturated vapor at State 1
& pump (Isentropic) Superheated vapor at State 1’
 Ideal Rankine Cycle

Process 3-4: Isentropic

 Wcv  4

  = ∫ vdP
 m  Int Re v 3

 W• 
Reversible Pump Work Equation:  • p  ≈ v3 ( p4 − p3 )
 m 
 int
rev

For Incompressible Fluids Only!

Example 8.1 Ideal Rankine Cycle
Rankine Cycle and Heat Engines
T
TH2
TH1

TC1
TC2

TC
ηmax = 1− Increasing TH or Decreasing TC
TH will increase Carnot Efficiency
Rankine Cycle: Condenser & Boiler

TC
ηmax = 1−
TH

Increasing TH or Decreasing TC
will increase Carnot Efficiency

For TC=298 K
Example (Fig. 5.12):
For fixed TC = 298 K
 Improving Cycle Performance
Findings from Ideal Rankine apply qualitatively to Real cycles

Keys include the Evaporator & Condenser pressures:

Each method increases cycle thermal efficiency!

 Improving Cycle Performance

Notes:

• Turbine exit pressure = condenser pressure

• Condenser pressure less than atmospheric pressure (leaks)
• Lowest practical condenser pressure is saturation
pressure for ambient temperature because rejecting heat to
atmosphere at Tamb.
 Role of Condenser

Notes:

• Power could be produced in open process without condenser

• Using condenser means pressure less than atmospheric
pressure is “available” as turbine exit pressure, raises cycle
efficiency
• Using condenser means closed loop recirculation of water,
thus purified water can be used, reducing corrosion
Comparing Rankine and Carnot Cycles
Rankine cycle (1-2-3-4-4’-1) has
Cooling curve for
lower efficiency than Carnot cycle
products of combustion (1-2-3’-4’-1) having same max temp
because average temp for process
nt

4’-4 is lower than TH.

onsta
P=c

4’ Shortcomings of Carnot cycle

TH model:

Combustion gases only cooled to

TH, but more energy available if
TC cooled further
3’

Carnot pumping is 2-phase

(problems), Rankine is all liquid
 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses

Irreversibilities and losses for each of four main processes,

Some more significant than others

Now let’s examine these

 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses
Irreversibilities and losses for turbine expansion are significant

Heat transfer from hot turbine

is an energy loss that could
have been converted to work,
but this is usually a small loss

Note entropy increase 2s to 2

associated with irreversibilties
2s 2
Will show this decreases
WOUT and turbine efficiency
 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses
Turbine: Irreversibilities and losses for expansion are significant

Turbine efficiency

ηt =
(W m ) ( h − h )
T
= 1 2

(W m ) ( h − h )
T s
1 2s

s2 > s2s
2s 2
h2 > h2s
What are sources of entropy
Entropy generation
generation and irreversibility?
reduces efficiency
 Principal Irreversibilities and Losses
Pump: Work input to overcome friction and increase pressure

Isentropic pump efficiency:

ηP =
(W m )
P
=
s ( h
4s− h3 )
(W m ) ( h
P 4 − h3 )

s4 > s4s

4 h4 > h4s

4s Entropy generation
reduces pump efficiency
Pump work much less than turbine work,
so irreversibilities in pump not so important
s in overall cycle performance
 Other Non-Idealities
Turbine and pump irreversibilities are INTERNAL and
experienced by working fluid (water)

Most significant irreversibilities for fossil fuel power plants are

EXTERNAL and associated with combustion process and
heat transfer from combustion gases to cycle working fluid

Large ∆T between combustion gas and water could have

been used to produce work, but none of it was

W=0

External irreversibilties considered using Exergy (Ch 13)

 Other Non-Idealities
Considerable energy OUT of condenser, but low UTILITY
Because water temperature close to surroundings, ∆T -> 0.
Thus, even maximum work possible is limited.

TH ~ TC
W~0

• “Stray” heat transfer “leaks” limit conversion of heat to work

• Frictional pressure drops throughout system ignored here
(need to be included for complete analysis)
• Entrance state of pump may be sub-cooled liquid (Fig 8.6)
which would require additional heating
 Rankine Cycle Non-Idealities
Note: Pressure drops (friction) and entropy generation
Pressure difference could have produced work

2s 2
Example 8.2 Rankine Cycle with Irreversibilities
 Improving Cycle Performance
Actual vapor power plants are more complex and include
modifications that improve performance relative to basic
Rankine cycle. Common modifications are Superheat and
Reheat

Increasing boiler pressure or decreasing condenser

pressure improve efficiency, BUT, quality is reduced (2’, 2”)
 Improving Cycle Performance

Reduced quality (2’, 2”) has negative implications for

turbine blades because more liquid water droplets in flow
can erode turbine blades.

Common practice is to aim for minimum quality of 90% at

turbine exit. Superheat and Reheat modifications allow
advantageous boiler and condenser pressures while
maintaining high enough turbine exit quality
 Improving Cycle Performance: Superheat
Not limited to saturated vapor at Turbine inlet. Add more
energy in another heat exchanger called a Superheater.
Boiler and Superheater Combination is a Steam Generator.

Superheating to 1’

Note that average temperature of heat addition with

superheating (1’-2’-3-4-1’) is higher than without superheating
(1’-2’-3-4-1’). Also quality is increased from 2 to 2’.
 Improving Cycle Performance: Reheat

Another way to increase quality

of turbine exit state is to Reheat
the water vapor after it is partially
expanded. Thus 2 turbine stages
are involved with heating between
expansion stages.

Note that quality of turbine exit state after reheating (4’) is

greater than before reheating (4).
Improving Cycle Performance: Reheat
Schematic of components used in Reheat Cycle
 Improving Cycle Performance: Reheat

Superheat and Reheat protect the turbine, and increase TH

 Supercritical Cycle
Power cycle efficiency is improved with higher maximum
temperatures.

Maximum power plant temperatures are limited by

metallurgical considerations.

System integrity and safety issues motivate development of

improved materials and fabrication methods.

Advances have made possible operating steam turbines for

supercritical conditions.

P > Pcritical = 22.1 MPa (3203.6 lbf/in2)

Turbine inlet temperature > 600oC (1100oF)
Supercritical Ideal Reheat Cycle
1

6
5 4
Example 8.3 Ideal Reheat Cycle

Example 8.4 Reheat Cycle with Turbine Irreversibility

 Improving Cycle Performance:
Regenerative Cycle
Adding an Open Feedwater Heater (with pump).

h6 − h5
y=
h2 − h5
END