Compression and Compressors

 Introduction to Compressors

 Types of Compressors

 Compression Processes and their Characteristics

 Design Fundamentals and Design of Reciprocating and Centrifugal

Compressors

 Selection Criterion of Compressors

 Application of Compressors
 Introduction to Compressors
• Compression means to compress
the gas. As the gas compresses
i.e. volume decreases, the
pressure increases. Devices used
to do so are compressors
• Why pressure need to be
increased ? To transport the fluid,
as fluid flow from higher
pressure to low pressure
• As pumps are needed for liquids,
compressors are needed for gases
for increasing pressure
Types of Compressors
 Types of Compressors - Cont’d
• Positive Displacement • Dynamic Compressor
Compressor
 System which increases the  System which increases the
pressure of gas by reducing pressure by changing the
the volume using mechanical velocity of the fluid
means
 Directly imparted pressure  Fluid imparted kinetic energy
energy which converts into pressure
energy
 Compress specific volume  Compress fluid continuously
 The velocity of fluid need not  The velocity of fluid is high
be high.  Gives variable flow rate
 Gives constant flow rate against variable output
against variable output pressure.
pressure.
 Reciprocating Compressors –
Cont’d
PV Diagram
 Reciprocating Compressors –
Cont’d
 Process 1-2 COMPRESSION
 Process 2-3 DISCHARGE
 Process 3-4 EXPANSION
 Process 4-1 SUCTION

 At state -1 SUCTION VALVE CLOSES

 At state-2 DISCHARGE VALVE
OPENS
 At state-3 DISCARGE VALVE CLOSES
 At state-4 SUCTION VALVE OPENS
 Types of Compression
• Isothermal
 Temperature - Constant
 pv = Constant
• Isentropic/Adiabatic
 Gas behaves as ideal gas
 Entropy - constant
 No heat added to or removed
from the system
 Frictionless
 pvk = constant
• Polytropic
 Gas behaves as real gas
 Friction and heat transfer exist
 pvn = constant
 Characteristics of Compression Processes
• Isothermal
 Difficult to achieve, not possible to remove the heat of compression as
rapidly it is generated
 Irreversible
• Isentropic/Adiabatic
 Practically not possible to prevent heat exchange during compression and
expansion cycle (positive displacement compressors approaches adiabatic
behavior are designed accordingly)
 Reversible
• Polytropic
 Compressors excluding positive displacement compressors are designed
using polytropic
 Irreversible
 Calculation of Compression
Parameters
• Compression Parameters - k, n, Z, g
• Isentropic exponent k = cp / cv
 cP : specific heat at constant pressure in Btu/lbmole
 cv : specific heat at constant volume in Btu/lbmole
For Ideal gases - cP, cV = f(T) , cP and cV are related by the
equation cp – cv = R
 R : Gas constant , 1.986 Btu/lbmole
k / k-1 = cp/1.986
For real gases - cP, cV = f(p,T) , cP and cV are related by the
equation
Maxwell Relation cp - cv = -T(dp/dT)2v /(dp/dV)T
 Calculation of Compression
Parameters
• Polytropic exponent (n)
Combine Ideal gas law : pv = nRT and Polytropic relation :
pvn = c
T2/T1 = (p2/p1)(n-1)/n = r(n-1)/n
For isentropic compression, replace n with k
T2/T1 = (p2/p1)(k-1)/k = r(k-1)/k
• Polytrophic efficiency (ɳP)
ɳp = ((k-1)/k) / ((n-1)/n)
Polytrophic efficiency (ɳP)
 Problem
A gas is being compressed from 100 psia and
1500F to 2500 psia. Determine its compression
parameters (k, Z, g) at the suction end . The gas
has the following composition in mole fraction
Compound Mole Fraction Critical Pressure, Critical
psia Temperature, 0R
C1 0.9216 667.8 343.1
C2 0.0488 707.8 549.8
C3 0.0185 616.3 665.7
i-C4 0.0039 529.1 734.7
n-C4 0.0055 550.7 765.4
i-C5 0.0017 490.4 828.8
 Design Fundamentals
• Fundamentals
– Determination of capacity
– Power Requirement
• Design Methods
– Analytical Method
– Mollier Diagrams
• Enthalpy vs Entropy charts
• Ideal isentropic compression
– Quickie Charts
• Empirical
• Quick Estimates
 Analytical Method
The basic energy equation, for a steady system, can be expressed as:
Change in internal energy + Change in kinetic energy + Change in potential
energy + work done on the fluid + heat energy added to the fluid – shaft
work done by fluid on the surroundings = 0
Thus on a unit mass basis, the energy balance for a fluid under steady state
flow conditions can be written as:
𝑑𝑣 2 𝑔
𝑑𝑈 + + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑 𝑝 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊 = 0
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
It is converted into mechanical energy balance by using:
𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑 𝑝 𝑉 = dh = Tds + V dp
𝑑𝑣 2 𝑔
Tds + V dp + + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑𝑄 − 𝑑𝑊 = 0
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
For ideal process: ds = - dQ/T. Since no process is ideal (reversible),
therefore
ds ≥ - dQ/T
or Tds = -dQ + dlw
where lw is the lost work due irreversibilities such as friction.
 Analytical Method
𝑑𝑣 2 𝑔
𝑑𝑙𝑤 + V dp + + 𝑑𝑧 − 𝑑𝑊 = 0
2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐

The relationship for theoretical work required to compress a unit mass

of gas from pressure p1 at state 1 to p2 at state 2 is given by:

𝑝2
𝑣2 𝑔
𝑤𝑠 = න 𝑉 dp + + ∆𝑧 + lw
𝑝1 2𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐

Neglecting the frictional losses and the change in kinetic and potential
energies, the energy balance equation is given by:

𝑝2
𝑤𝑠 = න 𝑉 dp
𝑝1
 Analytical Method
ws = work done by the compressor, ft-lbf/lbm
p = pressure, lbf/ft2
V = volume of unit mass of gas, ft3/lbm
• Using pVk = C and after integration

since pressure is measured in psia, converting it

from lbf/ft2 to lbf/in2 and replacing C/p1 with V1
 Analytical Method

From ideal gas law for a unit mass of gas

 Analytical Method

In order to calculate the power requirement in hp per MMscfd

of gas flow rate, use the following approach –
• Use 1 hp = 33,000 ft-lbf/min
• Convert lbm/min into scf/min using Vsc = m zsc R Tsc/pscM
 Analytical Method

For qsc (MMscfd) of gas measured at psc (psia) and Tsc (0R)
 Analytical Method
Modification

If gas flow rate is measured at suction temperature T1 (0R)

Where qa1 is the gas flow rate in MMscfd measured at any

pressure pa (psia) and suction temperature T1 (0R)
 Mollier Charts
• Plot of enthalpy vs entropy , function of
temperature and pressure
• Compressors exhibits isentropic compression
e.g. reciprocating
• Representation of ideal compression process
• State of the gas before and after the process.
Enthalpy-Entropy Diagram
(For 0.6 gravity gas) Mollier Charts
 Mollier Charts - Single Stage
1 – Inlet conditions
2 – Outlet conditions
• Work done
w = ΔH = ng (h2 – h1) , Btu
Where
ΔH - change in enthalpy, Btu
ng - moles of gas, lbmoles
h1, h2 - enthalpies at the inlet and
outlet , Btu/lbmole
Mollier diagram of a single-stage
compression process
 Mollier Charts - Multi Stage
1 - Inlet conditions
7 - Outlet conditions
• Work done
w = ΔH = ng (h2 – h1) , Btu
Where
ΔH - change in enthalpy, Btu
ng - moles of gas, lbmoles
h1, h2 - enthalpies at the inlet and
outlet , Btu/lbmole
 Ideal Compression Power
• Compression Power/Rate of work = work
done/ time
P = w/t = ng(h2 – h1)/t , Btu/day
Where
t - time for compression, days

• Ideal Horse Power/ Theoretical Horse Power

IHP = 1.6376 x 10-5 ng (h2 – h1)/t , hp
• Brake Horse Power supplied (BHP)
• BHP > IHP
 Energy Losses
• Represented by two efficiencies - (ɳc, ɳm)
• Compressor Efficiency (ɳc)
– Ideal or Theoretical work required/ Actual work
required
– Range : 83 % to 93%
ɳc = IHP/GHP
• Mechanical Efficiency (ɳc)
– Actual power required/Actual power supplied
– Range : 88 % to 95%
ɳm = GHP/BHP
 Energy Losses – cont’d
• Overall efficiency (ɳ)
– Range : 73 % to 88%
ɳ = ɳc ɳm = IHP/BHP
 Volumetric Efficiency (ɳv )
• Applicable for reciprocating compressor
• Ratio of volume of gas actually delivered to
the piston displacement
• Theoretical volumetric efficiency
ɳv = 1 - (r1/k - 1 ) Cl
Where Cl – clearance, ratio of clearance volume to the piston displacement , 0.04
to 0.16
Cl = V3 / ( V1-V3 )
 Volumetric Efficiency (ɳv )
• Actual volumetric efficiency
 Quickie Charts
• BHP directly estimated from the charts
• Charts plots the brake horsepower
required/MMcfd
Quickie Charts
 Designing of Reciprocating
Compressors
• Number of stages
• Ideal Horse Power (IHP)
• Actual Power Supplied (BHP)
• Compressor speed/Stroke Length
 Designing of Reciprocating
Compressors - cont’d
• Number of stages
• Mutistage compression is necessary to get the required
compression ratio
• Compression ratio in each stage is same
• r ≤ 6 (As a matter of deign, r per stage is usually less than
6.0. In actual practice, r seldom exceeds 4.0)
• Optimum compression ratio per stage without
intercoolers
ropt = (rt)1/ns = (pd/ps )1/ns
Where
rt – total compression ratio desired
pd – final discharge pressure , psia
ps – suction pressure at first stage , psia
 Designing of Reciprocating
Compressors - cont’d
• Optimum compression ratio per stage with
intercoolers
• Reducing pressure drop in each stage by about 3 %
ropt = (rt /0.97)1/ns = (pd/ps )1/ns
Where
rt – total compression ratio desired
pd – final discharge pressure , psia
ps – suction pressure at first stage , psia
 Problem
A gas is being compressed from 100 psia and 1500F to 2500 psia. What is the
compression ratio and how many reciprocating compressor stages are
required if
a) Intercooling is not provided
b) Intercooling is provide
The gas has the following composition in mole fraction
Compound Mole Fraction Critical Pressure, psia Critical Temperature, 0R

C1 0.9216 667.8 343.1

C2 0.0488 707.8 549.8
C3 0.0185 616.3 665.7
i-C4 0.0039 529.1 734.7
n-C4 0.0055 550.7 765.4
i-C5 0.0017 490.4 828.8
 Designing of Reciprocating
Compressors
• Number of stages
• Ideal Horse Power (IHP)
• Analytical Method/Mollier Charts/Quickie Charts
 Designing of Reciprocating
Compressors
• Number of stages
• Ideal Horse Power (IHP)
• Actual Power Supplied (BHP)
• Calculate by using IHP and overall compressor
efficiency
 Designing of Reciprocating
Compressors
• Number of stages
• Ideal Horse Power (IHP)
• Actual Power Supplied (BHP)
• Compressor speed/Stroke Length
qrc = (Π/4)d2LS ɳ v
Where
qrc – capacity of reciprocating compressor, ft3/time
d – piston diameter, ft
L – Stroke length, ft
S – compressor speed, strokes/ time
 Problem
A reciprocating compression system is to be designed to
compress 5 MMscfd of the gas from 100 psia and 150 oF to
2500 psia with intercoolers and cool the gas to 150 oF. The
compression parameters are:
k = 1.2565, z= 1 and γg = 0.612, η = 0.80
• Calculate the brake horse power (BHP) using the analytical
method.
• Calculate the capacity of the compressor having speed =
1200 rpm, piston diameter = 12 inches and stroke length = 3
feet, Assume A = 0.05, Lu = 0, Cl = 0.08
• Determine whether the first stage can be handled by the
compressor.
 Centrifugal Compressor
• Gas flows radially
• Energy is transferred predominantly by changing the centrifugal
forces acting on the gas.
• The impeller has radial or backward leaning vanes, the mechanical
action of the rapidly rotating impeller vanes force the gas through
the impeller.
• The velocity generated is converted into pressure partly in the
impeller itself and partly in the stationary diffusers following the
impeller.
Centrifugal Compressor
 Advantages of Centrifugal Compressor
• Low maintenance cost due to fewer moving parts, only the
shaft and impeller rotate.

• Delivery is continuous, without cyclic variations.

• The discharge pressure from a single stage is 100 psig, but the
flow capacity is high (upto about 100 000 cfm)

• Easy adaptation to multistage operations, enabling greater

compression.
 Centrifugal Compressor

Theoretical work required for compression is represented by

the polytropic head (similar to w in reciprocating
compressor as shown below)

144 𝑅 𝑇1 (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ) 𝑛
ℎ𝑝 = 𝑟 (𝑛−1)/𝑛 − 1
2 𝑧1 𝑀 𝑛−1
 Centrifugal Compressor
The ideal compression horse power (hp) for the gas flow
rate of m lbm/min is given by
IHP = m hp/33000
The gas horse power is given by
GHP = IHP/ηp
where ηp is the polytropic compression efficiency (fraction)
 Actual Horsepower
The BHP for centrifugal compressors is generally estimated by adding the
mechanical and the hydraulic losses to GHP:
BHP = GHP + HPLm + HPLh
where HPLm - Mechanical losses
HPLh - Hydraulic losses
Mechanical Horsepower
• Losses in the compressor seals and bearings
• Range - 7 to 50 hp
• Depend upon the speed and casing size of the unit.
Hydraulic Horsepower
• Losses consisting of the casing and leakage losses
• Range - Between 0.3 to 2.5% of the gas horse power (GHP)
• Depends primarily on the size of the unit (with increasing size,
mechanical losses increase whereas the hydraulic losses decrease)
 Number of Stages
The polytropic head, hp, is an indication of the number of stages
required for the centrifugal compressor.

The number of stages required, ns, is given by

ns = hp/9500

where 9500ft-lbf/lbm is a common limit assigned to each

centrifugal compression stage.
 Compressor Speed
Centrifugal compressor performance is highly dependent
upon speed s.

• The capacity q varies directly as speed s.

• The head developed hp varies as square of speed s.

• The required horse power (BHP) varies as the cube of

speed s.
 Problem
Find the horsepower required by a centrifugal compressor
for compressing 10 MMscfd gas at suction conditions of 150
psia and 80 0F to 500 psia. Assume γ = 0.60, n = 0.315, z1, z2
= 1, ηp =0.725, HPlm = 30 hp and HPlh = 1 % of GHP.

For centrifugal compressors, the polytropic head is given by

144 𝑅 𝑇1 (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ) 𝑛
ℎ𝑝 = 𝑟 (𝑛−1)/𝑛 − 1
2 𝑧1 𝑀 𝑛−1
 Compressor Selection
• Gas characteristics
• Flow rate
• Compression ratios and operating pressures
• Operating temperature
• Compressor driver
• Foundation and floor space
• Continuity of operation
• Capital costs
• Operating costs
• Maintenance costs
Typical Application Ranges of
Compressor Types
Applications in Gas Industry
• Transportation/Distribution
• Compressor increases pressure
• Reduces gas volume for shipment by tankers
• Reduces gas volume for storage
• Reservoir Engineering Operations
• Compressor lowers the wellhead pressure (<
atmospheric pressure) to produce the well at a higher
rate.
• Reinjection of gas for pressure maintenance or cycling
• Injection of gas for underground storage
• Gas Processing
• Compressors required for circulation of gas
• Raising gas pressure to the required level for a chemical
reaction
 Compressors –
Manufacturers/Suppliers