ENERGETICS

Energy cannot be created or destroyed. However, it can be converted from one form to another.

Energy changes occur in the chemical reaction and in some physical process.

1. Chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out are called exothermic reactions.
2. Chemical reactions in which heat energy is taken from surroundings in are called endothermic reactions.

In exothermic reaction,

 Products of the reaction have less (chemical) energy than the reactants.
 Chemical energy is converted into heat energy which is released to the surroundings.
 The temperature of the mixture and surroundings goes up.
 Example:

 A reaction that produces flame or, Oxidation

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l)

Mg(s) + O2(g) MgO(s)

 The reactions of metals with acids

Mg(s) + H2SO4 (aq) MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

 Neutralization reactions
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

 Displacement reactions
2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) 2Fe (l) + Al2O3(s)

 Combustion of fuels
CH3 + O2 CO2 + H2O

 Corrosion of metals
 Condensation
H2O (g) H2O (l)
 Freezing
 Dissolving of acid in water
 Respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

In endothermic reaction,

 The products have more (chemical) energy than reactants.

 Extra energy for the products comes from the surroundings. In order to do so, heat energy from the
surrounding is absorbed.
 The heat energy is converted into chemical energy.
 The temperature of the mixture and surroundings goes down as heat is converted into different form
of energy.
 Examples:
 Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

 The action of light on silver bromide photographic film.

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  Thermal decomposition of metal carbonates.
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) ∆H= +178 kJ/mol
178 kJ of heat energy must be absorbed to convert 1 mole of calcium carbonate into calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide.

 Evaporation
 Melting
 Dissolving of some ionic compounds (ammonium chloride, potassium nitrate, copper (II)
sulphate in water.)

Energy level diagram and change of energy:

ΔH is the symbol that represents the amount of energy lost or gained in a reaction.
∆H = Hproducts - Hreactants

+ΔH is endothermic (because it gains heat) 

- Δ H is exothermic (because it loses heat)
When energy of reactants is higher than product, reaction is exothermic and sign of enthalpy change is negative.

Reactants

∆H = Enthalpy change (heat is evolved)

Energy

Products

Progress of the reaction

Figure: An exothermic change

When energy of product is higher than reactants, reaction is endothermic and sign of enthalpy change is positive.

Reactants (chemicals) are gaining energy indicates positive sign of ∆H for reaction.

Products

∆H = Enthalpy change (heat is absorbed)

Energy

Reactants

Progress of the reaction

Figure: An endothermic change

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Measuring enthalpy change of a reaction:

Heat energy change, Q = m × c × ∆T

m is mass, c is specific heat capacity and ∆T is temperature change during the reaction course.

Specific heat capacity: Specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of that substance by 1˚C.

Molar enthalpy change of a reaction: the change of heat energy per mole of product formed or reactant
consumed at a constant pressure.

Calorimetry: Technique used to measure heat change in chemical reaction is called calorimetry.

Application of calorimetry:

Measuring enthalpy change for a decomposition reaction

 Measure 100cm3 of cold water.

 Take initial temperature of the water.
 Weigh a spirit burner containing ethanol with its lid on.
 Place the burner in copper can to heat cold water in the container above the burner.
 Light the wick of burner.
 After sometime, Stop the burner and put the lid back on.
 Stir the water thoroughly, take temperature reading.
 Weigh the burner with lid.
 Repeat the procedure for reliability.

Calculation:

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Volume of water 100 cm3

Mass of burner + ethanol before experiment 137.36g

Mass of burner + ethanol after experiment 136.58g

Original temperature of water 21.5˚C

Final temperature of water 62.8˚C

Mass of ethanol burnt = 137.36g -136.58g =0.78g

Water temperature increases, ∆t = 62.8 - 21.5=41.3˚C

m = 100g

C = 4.18J/g/˚C

Heat gained by water = Q = 100× 4.18 ×41.3 = 17260J = 17.26kJ

Relative molar mass of ethanol = 46

n = mass (m)/relative molecular mass (Mr)= 0.78/46 = 0.01696 mol

Molar enthalpy change for combustion of ethanol,

∆H = heat energy changed (Q)/number of moles of ethanol burnt (n)

=17.26/0.01696=1020kJ/mol

The amount of heat released in the complete combustion of 1 mole of ethanol is therefore:

CH3CH2OH +3O2 2CO2 + 3H2O ∆H= -1020kJ/mol

The negative sign shows that heat is released and the combustion reaction is exothermic.

The accepted value for ethanol is 1370 kJ of heat evolved when 1 mol ethanol is burnt. But the experimental
value is very low. This is because large amount of heat losses for many source of error.

i. There is heat loss from the warming water to the surroundings.

ii. There is heat loss from the flame which goes straight into the air rather than into the water.
iii. Some heat is being used to raise the temperature of the flask and the thermometer.

Measuring enthalpy changes for displacement reaction:

Reaction between zinc and copper sulfate solution.

1. Place a polystyrene cup in a 250 cm3

2. Transfer 50 cm3 of 0.200mol/dm3 copper sulfate solution into the polystyrene cup using a measuring
cylinder.
3. Weigh 1.20g of zinc using a weighing boat on balance
4. Record the initial temperature of the copper sulfate solution
5. Add the zinc into solution
6. Stir the solution as quickly as possible
7. Record the maximum temperature reached

Initial temperature of copper (II) sulfate solution/˚C 17.0

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Maximum temperature of the reaction mixture/˚C 27.3

Heat given out in this reaction: Q= mc∆T = 50 × 4.18 × (27.3 -17.0)= 2152.7J=2.1527kJ

Assumption:

1. The density of the copper sulfate solution is the same as that of water, so 1 cm 3 of solution has a mass of
1g.
2. The specific heat capacity of the mixture is the same as that of water.

Number of moles (n) of zinc added = mass (m)/ relative atomic mass (A r)

=1.20/65 = 0.0185 mol

Number of moles (n) of copper (II) sulfate added = Volume (V) × concentration (C)

= 0.050× 0.200 = 0.0100 mol

I mol of Zn react with 1 mol of CuSO4

So, 0.0100 mol of copper (II) sulfate react with 0.0100 mol of Zn

[Here, zinc is excess in moles by 0.0085, and copper sulfate is limiting agent.]

Molar enthalpy change of reaction (∆H)

∆H = heat energy change (Q)/number of moles of copper sulfate reacted (n)

= 2.1527/0.0100= 215kJ/mol

The amount of heat released in the displacement reaction when 1 mole of CuSO 4 reacts with excess zinc is:

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) ∆H = -215kJ/mol.

Negative sign for exothermic reaction (temperature of mixture went up).

Bond energy and energy change in reaction:

The energy requires to break a chemical bond is the same as the energy released when the same chemical bond is
formed.

2H H―H ∆H = -436 kJ

The required energy to break or form the bond is called bond energy.

The amount of energy needed to break one mole of covalent bonds in gaseous molecules is called bond energy.

The stronger a bond is, the more energy required to break a bond; thus, the higher its bond energy.

 Bond breaking is an endothermic process

 Bond formation is an exothermic process

Exothermic reaction: ∆H bond breaking ˂∆H bond making

Endothermic reaction: ∆H bond breaking ˃ ∆H bond making.

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  When the total bonds breaking need less energy than the energy released from new bonds formed, the
reaction is exothermic. In that case, the products are more stable than the reactants.
 When the total bonds breaking needs more energy than the energy released from new bonds formed, the
reaction is endothermic. In that case, the reactants are more stable than the products.

To get started a reaction, certain amount of energy is needed.

 The minimum energy that reacting particles must possess in order for a chemical reaction to occur is called
the activation energy, Ea.

A chemical reaction occurs because the reactant molecules posses activation energy.

 Energy profile diagram: To show activation energy of a reaction, energy profile diagram is used.

Figure: Energy profile diagram for exothermic reaction

Figure: Energy profile diagram for endothermic reaction

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 Calculation of the heat released or absorbed during a reaction by using bond energy:

Methane reacts with chlorine in the presence of ultra violate light to produce chloromethane and hydrogen
chloride.

CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCl

Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction.

Bond C―H C―Cl Cl―Cl H―Cl

Bond energy/kJ/mol 413 346 243 432
Bonds braking (endothermic):

4 C―H = 4 × (+ 413) = +1652 kJ

1 Cl―Cl = 1× (+243) = +243kJ

Total = +1895 kJ

New bonds made (exothermic):

3 C―H = 3× (-413) = -1239kJ

1 C―Cl = 1× (-346) = -346kJ

1 H―Cl = 1× (-432) = -432kJ

Total = -2017kJ

The overall energy change is = +1895 + (-2017) kJ = -122kJ.

Heat is given out.

Total heat absorbed = +1895kJ

Total heat released = -2017kJ

Overall change: (+1895kJ) + (-2017) kJ

= -122kJ
BQ1. a. Explain what is meant by an exothermic reaction and write balanced chemical equations for any two
exothermic changes.

b. heptanes, C7H16(l) + 11O2(g) 7CO2(g) + 8H2O (l) ∆H =-481kJ/mol

Draw energy level diagram to show the combustion of heptanes. Label the axes and show clearly the reactants,
the products and the enthalpy change of reaction on your diagram.

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c. Explain in terms of breaking and making bonds why the reaction in b is exothermic.

Answers:

a. Chemical reactions in which heat energy is given out are called exothermic reactions.

b.

C7H16(l) + 11O2(g)

∆H =-481kJ/mol (heat is evolved)

Energy

7CO2(g) + 8H2O (l)

Progress of the reaction

Figure: An exothermic change

c. Exothermic reaction: ∆H bond breaking ˂∆H bond making

Total bonds breaking need less energy than the energy released from new bonds formed. So the reaction is
exothermic.

BQ 8. To completely neutralize 200cm 3 of 0.500mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide (NaOH), a student adds 100cm 3 of
0.500mol/dm3 sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The temperature of the solution goes up by 50˚C.

The equation for the reaction is

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

a. Calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH in the sodium hydroxide solution.

b. Calculate the heat released in this reaction. (Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.18J/g/˚C; (mass of 1 cm 3 of
solution =1g)

c. Using your answers from a and b, calculate the enthalpy change when 1 mol of sodium hydroxide is
neutralized by sulfuric acid in kJ/mol.

d. Draw an energy level diagram for this reaction. Label the axes and show clearly the reactants, the products
and the enthalpy change of reaction on your diagram.

e. Predict the temperature rise if the experiment were repeated using 200cm 3 of 1.00mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) with 100cm3 of 1.00mol /dm3 sulfuric acid.

Answers:

a. Moles of NaOH, (n) = (200/1000) × 0.500mol/dm3 = 0.1 mol.

b. Mass of solution = (200+100) g = 300g; C= 4.18 J/g/˚C; ∆T=50˚C

Heat absorbed, Q = m C ∆T= (300×4.18× 50) J = 62700 J = 62.7kJ

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c. Enthalpy change = Q/n = 62.7kJ/0.1mol = 627kJ/mol

d.

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)

∆H =-627kJ/mol (heat is evolved)

Energy

Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

Progress of the reaction

e. 62700 J/mol = (300×4.18× ∆T) J /0.2 mol

∆T = (62700×0.2)/( 300×4.18) = 100˚C

The temperature would rise to 100˚C.

Exercise: Calculate the enthalpy change when methane (CH4) reacts with oxygen (O2), given the following
information.

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

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 Bond Bong Energy (KJ/mol)

C-H 435

O=O 497

C=O 803

H-O 464

C-C 347

C-O 358

Energy needed to break bonds:

4 (C-H) 435 x 4 = 1740 KJ/mol

2 (O=O) 497 x 1 = 994 KJ/mol
Total energy in: 1740 + 994 = 2734 KJ/mol

Energy needed to form bonds:

2 (C=O) 803 x 2 = 1606 KJ/mol
4 (H-O) 464 x 4 = 1856 KJ/mol
Total energy out: 1606 + 1856 = 3462 KJ/mol

ΔH= Energy in – energy out = 2734 – 3462 = -728 KJ/mol

Therefore reaction is Exothermic.

Q. A student uses this apparatus to find the increase in temperature of water when methanol, CH 3OH, is burned.

(a)There are several reasons why the increase in temperature is less than expected.
(i) One reason is the incomplete combustion of methanol to form only carbon monoxide and water.
Write the chemical equation for this incomplete combustion.

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.....................................................................................................................................................................................
. (ii) State another reason why the increase in temperature is less than expected.

.....................................................................................................................................................................................
.

.....................................................................................................................................................................................
.

(b)The student records these results.

mass of burner and methanol before combustion 84.7 g

mass of burner and methanol after combustion 83.2 g
mass of water 125 g
temperature of water at start 22 °C
temperature of water at end 58 °C
(i) Calculate the heat energy change (Q), in joules, in this experiment using the expression
Q = m × 4.2 × ΔT
where m is the mass of water in grams and ΔT represents the increase in temperature.

Q = ..................................................... J

(ii)The relative molecular mass of methanol is 32

Use this information and your value for Q to calculate the molar enthalpy change, ΔH, for the combustion of
methanol.
Give your answer in kJ/mol.

ΔH = ..................................................... kJ/mol

(c) The student is given this table of average (mean) bond energies.

Bond C―H C―O O―H O= O C=O

Bond energy/kJ/mol 412 360 463 496 743

The equation for the complete combustion of methanol is

Use this equation and the information in the table to calculate another value for the molar enthalpy change, ΔH,
for the combustion of methanol.

Combustion of methane:

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