CHAPTER 1 “The end justifies the means only when the means used are such as actually

bring about the desired and desirable end.”

ENERGY John Dewey

1.3 – LATENT HEAT, HEAT OF REACTION, THERMOCHEMICAL EQUATION

Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this lesson, the student will be able
1. Define enthalpy.
2. Calculate heat energy transfer in physical change or Latent Heat of transformation.
3. Write and balance thermochemical equations
4. Calculate enthalpy changes for various chemical reactions.
5. Explain Hess’s Law and use it to compute reaction enthalpies.

DEFINING ENTHALPY

Enthalpy (H) also known as heat content is the total energy of a system, some of which is stored as
chemical potential energy in the chemical bonds.
Chemists use the term enthalpy change (ΔH) to refer to the potential energy change of a system during a
process such as a chemical reaction or a physical change.
Enthalpy changes are measured at constant pressure.
The units of enthalpy change are J/mol, cal/mol, Btu/mol.

ENTHLAPY CHANGES FOR VARIOUS PROCESSES

The heat given off or absorbed when the process is run at constant pressure is equal to the change in the
enthalpy of the system.
• Change of temperature of a substance
• Change of a phase of a substance
• Chemical Reaction

CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE OF A SUBSTANCE

q = (specific heat) × (mass of substance) × (temperature change)

q = c × m × ΔT = m c (Tfinal − Tinitial)
at constant pressure, ∆𝐻 = 𝑞
∆𝐻 = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇

CHANGE OF A PHASE OF A SUBSTANCE: LATENT HEAT

Latent heat - is the transfer of heat energy that causes a phase change with no change in temperature.

𝒒 = ∆𝑯 = 𝒎 𝑳
Where: m = mass
L = latent heat

o Forms of latent heat:

• Latent heat of evaporation – energy used to change liquid and vapor.
• Latent heat of condensation – energy released when water vapor condenses to form
liquid droplets.
• Latent heat of fusion – energy required to change solid to liquid.
• Latent heat of sublimation – energy released when solid changes directly to vapor.

o For water:
- Latent heat of fusion = 3.35 x 105 J/kg
- Latent heat of vaporization = 2.26 x 106 J/kg
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Exercises:

1. How much heat is required to change 10 g of ice at 0oC to steam at 100oC.

Given: mice = 10 g ice → liquid → steam
Tice = 0oC 0oC 100oC 100oC
Tsteam = 100oC fusion/melting vaporization
Latent heat of fusion of ice = Hfusion = 80 cal/g
Latent heat of vaporization for H2O = Hvap = 540 cal/g
Specific heat of water = c = 1 cal/g
Reqd: Total heat required to change 10 g ice at 0°C to steam at 100°C
Solution:
Heat required to melt 10 g of ice = q
𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝒒 = ∆𝑯𝒇𝒖𝒔 = 𝒎 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒈 𝒙 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝒈
Heat require to raise the temperature of water from 0°C to 100°C = q'
𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝒒′ = 𝒎 𝒄 ∆𝑻 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒈 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙 [𝟏𝟎𝟎℃ − 𝟎℃] = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝒈℃
Heat required to vaporize 10 g of water = q''
𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝒒′′ = ∆𝑯𝒗𝒂𝒑 = 𝒎 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒈 𝒙 𝟓𝟒𝟎 = 𝟓𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝒈
Total heat is required to change 10 g ice at 0°C to steam at 100°C.
= 𝒒 + 𝒒’ + 𝒒’’ = 𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒂𝒍 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒂𝒍 + 𝟓𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒄𝒂𝒍 Ans.

2. The heat of fusion of pure silicon is 43.4 kJ/mol. How much energy would be needed to melt a 5.24-g sample
of silicon at its melting point of 1693 K?

3. Determine the resulting temperature, t, when 150 g of ice at 0oC is mixed with 300 g of water at 50oC.
Ans. 6.7oC
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HEAT OF CHEMICAL REACTION OR ENTHALPY OF REACTION

o Heat of reaction – is the amount of heat that must be added or removed during a chemical reaction in
order to keep all of the substances present at the same temperature.

o If the pressure in the vessel containing the reacting system is kept at a constant value, the measured
heat of reaction also represents the change in the thermodynamic quantity called enthalpy, or heat
content, accompanying the process—i.e., the difference between the enthalpy of the substances present
at the end of the reaction and the enthalpy of the substances present at the start of the reaction.

𝒒𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 = ∆𝑯𝒓𝒙𝒏= ∑(𝒏∆𝑯𝒐𝒇 )𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 − ∑(𝒏∆𝑯𝒐𝒇 )𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

where:
𝑛 = stoichiometric coefficient of the product or reactant from the balanced reaction
∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 = standard enthalpy of formation for the reactants or the products

o The Standard Enthalpy of Formation (∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 ) is defined as the change in enthalpy when one mole
of a substance in the standard state (1 atm of pressure and 298.15 K) is formed from its pure
elements under the same conditions.

o ∆𝐻𝑓𝑜 = 0 for an element in the most stable form at 25oC (298 K) and1 atm.

o A sign convention is required for heat energy transfer. According to the classical sign
convention, heat transfer to a system is positive and heat transfer from a system is negative.

o A thermochemical equation is the chemical equation for a reaction (including phase labels) in
which the equation is given a molar interpretation, and the enthalpy of reaction for these molar
amounts is written directly after the equation.

Ex. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g); H = – 91.8 kJ

Rules:
a. When a thermochemical equation is multiplied by any factor, the value of ΔH for the new
equation is obtained by multiplying the ΔH in the original equation by that same factor.

b. When a chemical equation is reversed, the value of ΔH is reversed in sign.

Example: Calculate the ∆𝑯𝒇 of carbon monoxide from the following reaction:
2C(s) + O2(g) → 2 CO(g) + 52.8 kcal ( 221 kJ )

Note: another way of writing the above reaction

2C(s) + O2(g) → 2 CO(g) ∆𝑯𝒓 = – 52.8 kcal ( – 221 kJ )

The ∆𝑯𝒓 for the reaction as written is – 52.8 kcal ( – 221 kJ )

This is not the ∆𝑯𝒇 of CO, however, since the reaction as written involves the formation of 2 moles of CO.
Therefore, to calculate, we must divide by 2 through the equation to give
C(s) + ½ O2(g) → CO(g) + 26.4 kcal ( 110 kJ )

Thus, ∆𝑯𝒇 of CO = – 26.4 kcal/mol ( – 110 kJ/mol )

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Example: Calculate the ∆𝑯r for the following reaction:

2CH3OH (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 4 H2O
Data:
CH3OH ∆𝑯𝒇 = – 57.0 kcal/mol CO2 ∆𝑯𝒇 = – 94.1 kcal/mol H2O ∆𝑯𝒇 = – 68.3 kcal/mol

∆𝑯𝒓𝒙𝒏= ∑(𝒏∆𝑯𝒐𝒇 )𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 − ∑(𝒏∆𝑯𝒐𝒇 )𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

∆𝑯𝒓𝒙𝒏 = ∑(𝟐[−𝟗𝟒.𝟏 𝒌𝒄𝒂𝒍/𝒎𝒐𝒍]+𝟒[−𝟔𝟖.𝟑 𝒌𝒄𝒂𝒍/𝒎𝒐𝒍])𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 − ∑ (𝟐[−𝟓𝟕 𝒌𝒄𝒂𝒍/𝒎𝒐𝒍]+𝟑[𝟎 𝒌𝒄𝒂𝒍/𝒎𝒐𝒍])𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔

∆𝑯𝒓𝒙𝒏 = [ 2(– 94.1 kcal/mol) + 4(– 68.3 kcal/mol) ] – [ 2(– 57 kcl/mol + 3(0 kcal/mol) ]
∆𝑯𝒓𝒙𝒏 = [ (– 188.4 kcal/mol) + (– 273.2 kcal/mol) ] – [ – 114 kcal/mol ]
∆𝑯𝒓𝒙𝒏 = – 277.6 𝒌𝒄𝒂𝒍/𝒎𝒐𝒍 Ans.

Exercises:
1. Write the formation reaction for each of the following substances:

[a] CH4(g),

C(s) + 2 H2(g) → CH4(g)

Another Example: The formation reaction for carbon dioxide (CO2) is

C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

[b] C3H8(ℓ),

[c] HCl(g),

[d] C6H12O6(s),

[e] NaF(s)
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2. For the reaction N2(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2 NO(g), ΔH° = 180.5 kJ, how much energy is needed to generate
35 moles of NO(g)?

3. Nitroglycerine, C3H5(NO3)3(l), is an explosive most often used in mine or quarry blasting. It is a powerful
explosive because four gases (N2, O2, CO2, and steam) are formed when nitroglycerine is detonated. In
addition, 6.26 kJ of heat is given off per gram of nitroglycerine detonated.
(a) Write a balanced thermochemical equation for the reaction.
(b) What is ΔH when 4.65 mol of products is formed?
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HESS’S LAW
• Hess's Law of Constant Heat Summation (or just Hess's Law) states that regardless of the multiple stages or
steps of a reaction, the total enthalpy change for the reaction is the sum of all changes.
o Rules for using Hess’s law in solving problem:
1. Make sure to rearrange the given equations so that reactants and products are on the
appropriate sides of the arrows.
2. If you reverse equations, you must also reverse the sign of ∆H.
3. If you multiply equations to obtain a correct coefficient, you must also multiply the ∆H by this
coefficient.

Exercises:

1. Using these reactions, find the standard enthalpy change for the formation of 1 mol PbO(s) from lead metal
and oxygen gas.
PbO(s) + C(graphite) : Pb(s) + CO(g) ∆H° = 106.8 kJ
2C(graphite) + O2(g) : 2CO(g) ∆H°= –221.0 kJ
If 250. g of lead reacts with oxygen to form lead (II) oxide, what quantity of thermal energy (in kJ) is
absorbed or evolved?

Use Hess’s Law to compute ∆H° for the overall reaction:

PbO(s) + C(graphite) → Pb(s) + CO(g) ∆H° = 106.8 kJ
2C(graphite) + O2(g) → 2CO(g) ∆H°= – 221.0 kJ

Flip the first equation and reverse the sign of its enthalpy change
Pb(s) + CO(g) → PbO(s) + C(graphite) ∆H° = – 106.8 kJ
2C(graphite) + O2(g) → 2CO(g) ∆H°= – 221.0 kJ

Multiply both sides of the first eqn. including its enthalpy change
2Pb(s) + 2CO(g) → 2PbO(s) + 2C(graphite) ∆H° = – 213.6 kJ
2C(graphite) + O2(g) → 2CO(g) ∆H°= – 221.0 kJ

Cancel particles that appear on both sides of the equation and add the enthalpies together to get the enthalpy
change for the net reaction
2Pb(s) + 2CO(g) → 2PbO(s) + 2C(graphite) ∆H° = – 213.6 kJ
2C(graphite) + O2(g) → 2CO(g) ∆H°= – 221.0 kJ

2Pb(s) + O2(g) → 2PbO(s) ∆H°= – 434.6 kJ

Find the standard enthalpy change for the formation of 1 mol PbO (s) from lead metal and oxygen gas.
Divide by 2 the net reaction including its enthalpy change
1Pb(s) + ½ O2(g) → 1PbO(s) ∆H°= – 217.3 kJ Ans.

If 250 g of lead reacts with oxygen to form lead (II) oxide,

what quantity of thermal energy (in kJ) is absorbed or evolved?
𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍 −𝟒𝟑𝟒.𝟔 𝒌𝑱
𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒈 𝑷𝒃 | | | | = − 𝟐𝟔𝟐. 𝟐 𝒌𝑱 Ans.
𝟐𝟎𝟕.𝟐 𝒈 𝑷𝒃 𝟐 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑷𝒃

2. The phase change between graphite and diamond is difficult to observe directly. Both substances can be
burned, however. From these equations, calculate ∆H° for the conversion of diamond into graphite.
C(s, graphite) + O2(g) ⟶ CO2(g) ∆H° = –393.51 kJ
C(s, diamond) + O2(g) ⟶ CO2(g) ∆H° = –395.94 kJ
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ACTIVE LEARNING EXERCISES:

1. A flask containing 8.0 × 102 g of water is heated, and the temperature of the water increases from 21°C to 85°C.
How much heat did the water absorb? Ans. 210 kJ

2. How much heat is needed to transform 500 g of ice at –20oC into water at 50oC?

3. 4 kg of water (at 25oC) and 2 kg of ice (at 0oC) are mixed inside an isolated container.
What is the final temperature? Is there any ice left? Ans. 0oC, yes
What happens if there is only 1 kg of ice? What will be the final temperature? Ans. 4.1oC
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4. When 1.34 g Zn(s) reacts with 60.0 mL of 0.750 M HCl(aq), 3.14 kJ of heat are produced. Determine the enthalpy
change per mole of zinc reacting for the reaction:
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⟶ ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

5. When 1.42 g of iron reacts with 1.80 g of chlorine, 3.22 g of FeCl 2(s) and 8.60 kJ of heat is produced.
What is the enthalpy change for the reaction when 1 mole of FeCl 2(s) is produced? Ans. −338 kJ

6. Write the heat of formation reaction equations for:

[a] C2H5OC2H5(l),

[b] Na2CO3(s)
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7. Calculate ΔH for the process: N2(g) + 2O2(g) ⟶ 2NO2(g) from the following information:
N2(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2NO(g) ΔH = 180.5 kJ
NO(g) + ½ O2(g) ⟶ NO2(g) ΔH = −57.06 kJ Ans. 66.4 kJ

8. Aluminum chloride can be formed from its elements: 2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) ⟶ 2AlCl3(s) ΔH° = ?
Use the reactions here to determine the ΔH° for reaction:
HCl(g) ⟶ HCl(aq) ΔH°= −74.8 kJ
H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⟶ 2HCl(g) ΔH° = −185 kJ
AlCl3(aq)⟶ AlCl3(s) ΔH° = +323 kJ/mol
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) ⟶ 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g) ΔH°= −1049 kJ Ans. –1047 kJ

9. How much heat is produced when 100 mL of 0.250 M HCl (density, 1.00 g/mL) and 200 mL of 0.150 M NaOH
(density, 1.00 g/mL) are mixed?
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) ΔH°298 = −58 kJ
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10. Use a standard enthalpies of formation table to determine the change in enthalpy for each of these reactions.
a. NaOH(s) + HCl(g) ⟶ NaCl(s) + H2O(g)
b. 2 CO(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2 CO2(g)
c. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) ⟶ CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
d. 2 H2S(g) + 3 O2(g) ⟶ 2 H2O(l) + 2 SO2(g)
e. 2 NO(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2 NO2(g)

HEAT OF FORMATION TABLE:

Compound ∆Hf (kJ/mol) Compound ∆Hf (kJ/mol)

CH4(g) –74.8 HCl(g) –92.3

CO2(g) –393.5 H2O(g) –241.8

NaCl(s) –411.0 SO2(g) –296.1

H2O(l) –285.8 NH4Cl(s) –315.4

H2S(g) –20.1 NO(g) +90.4

H2SO4(l) –811.3 NO2(g) +33.9

MgSO4(s) –1278.2 SnCl4(l) –545.2

MnO(s) –384.9 SnO(s) –286.2

MnO2(s) –519.7 SnO2(s) –580.7

NaCl(s) –411.0 SO2(g) –296.1

NaF(s) –569.0 SO3(g) –395.2

NaOH(s) –426.7 ZnO(s) –348.0

NH3(g) –46.2 ZnS(s) –202.9

a. NaOH(s) + HCl(g) ⟶ NaCl(s) + H2O(g)

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b. 2 CO(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2 CO2(g)

c. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) ⟶ CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)

d. 2 H2S(g) + 3 O2(g) ⟶ 2 H2O(l) + 2 SO2(g)

e. 2 NO(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2 NO2(g)

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11. The specific heat of gold is 0.13 J g –1 K–1, and that of copper is 0.39 J g–1 K–1. Suppose that we heat both a 25-g
sample of gold and a 25-g sample of copper to 80°C and then drop each into identical beakers containing 100
ml of cold water at 10°C. When each beaker reaches thermal equilibrium, which of the following will be true,
and why? You should not need to do any calculations here.
[i] Both beakers will be at the same temperature.
[ii] The beaker with the copper sample in it will be at a higher temperature.
[iii] The beaker with the gold sample in it will be at a higher temperature.

12. A gummy bear contains 2.67 g sucrose, C12H22O11. When it reacts with 7.19 g potassium chlorate, KClO3,
43.7 kJ of heat are produced. Determine the enthalpy change for the reaction
C12 H22 O11(aq) + 8 KClO3(aq) ⟶ 12CO2(g) + 11H2 O(l) + 8KCl(aq). Ans. –5960 kJ