PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

19- ENERGETICS

Exothermic Reactions

 This occurs when chemical reactions give out energy in the form of heat to its
surroundings
o If you are holding a test tube where the reaction is occurring it gets warmer
 In an exothermic reaction, the products of the reaction have less (chemical) energy than
the reactants
o Chemical energy (stored the bonds of chemicals) is converted to heat energy, which is
released to space
o The temperature of the reaction mixture and its surroundings increases
 Example of an Exothermic Reaction: Adding water with Calcium oxide
o If you add water to solid calcium oxide, the heat produced is enough to boil the water
and produce steam
o Calcium hydroxide is produced

CaO(s) + 𝐻2 𝑂 (l) -> Ca(𝑂𝐻)𝑠 (s)

Other Examples:

Combustion Reactions

 Any reaction that produces a flame is exothermic since burning produces heat energy

2𝐻2 O (g) + 𝑂2(g) -> 2𝐻2 𝑂 (l)

Neutralisation Reactions

NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) -> NaCl(aq) + 𝐻2 𝑂 (l)

Reactions of Metals and Acids

Mg (s) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (aq) -> MgS𝑂4 (aq) + 𝐻2 (g)

Displacement Reactions

 This releases a large amount of heat which can be used in railway welding

2Al (s) + 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 (s) -> 2Fe (l) + 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 (s)

Endothermic Reactions

 This occurs when reactions absorbs heat from the surroundings

o If you hold a test tube in which the reaction is occurring, the test tube gets colder
 In an endothermic reaction, the products have more (chemical) energy than the
reactants
o In order to supply the extra energy that is needed to convert the reactants (lower
energy) into the products (higher energy), heat energy needs to be absorbed from the
surroundings
o This heat energy is converted into chemical energy (energy stored in the bonds of
chemicals)
o The temperature of the reaction mixture and the surroundings decreases because heat
energy has been converted into a different form of energy

Thermal Decomposition

 Is an example of an endothermic reaction and is done by constantly heating a

carbonate, making it decompose
 Copper (II) carbonate (green) decomposes on heating to produce copper(II) oxide (black)

CuC𝑂3 (s) -> CuO (s) + C𝑂2 (g)

 Zinc carbonate decomposes to form zinc oxide when heated

ZnC𝑂3 (s) -> ZnO (s) + C𝑂2 (g)

Enthalpy Change

 Is the amount of heat energy taken in or released in a chemical reaction and is

represented as the symbol : ΔH (KJ/mol)
o Is the amount of heat energy taken in or given out in a chemical reaction and is the
difference between the energy of the products and of the reactants
 ΔH = 𝐻𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠
 ΔH can be given a minus or plus sign to show whether heat is being given out or
absorbed by the reaction
o Exothermic - ΔH is given a negative number because the reactants loose energy as heat
which is transferred into the surroundings
o Endothermic – ΔH is given a positive number because the reactants gain energy which is
taken in from its surroundings
 Enthalpy Graphs: Exo vs. Endo

Bond Making and Bond Breaking: Why do reactions either give or absorb heat?

 At the start of the reaction, the reactant molecules have kinetic energy and potential
energy
o The potential energy is mainly stored within their bonds
 During chemical reactions, bonds in reactants have to be broken and new ones form
to make the products
o Breaking bonds needs energy (endothermic)
o Making bonds releases energy (exothermic)
 In exothermic Reactions:
o Energy is being supplied to break the bonds (endothermic) which in turn forms new
bonds which releases energy (exothermic)
o This results the release of energy in products, meaning that they have less energy
stored in them than in reactants (less potential energy, more kinetic energy)
 The release of energy causes its surroundings to heat up
o This also means that products in an exothermic reaction are more stable than the
reactants
 In endothermic Reactions:
o Breaking up original bonds would accuire more energy leading to products to have
more energy stored than that of reactants
o Meaning that products have more energy stored in them (potential energy) than in
reactants
 This means that they will have less kinetic energy, resulting the products to
be colder than their surroundings
Calculation of Enthalpy Changes of Reaction using Bond Energies

Bond Energies:

 Breaking bonds requires energy, the stronger the bond is, the more energy is needed to
break it
o I.e. Cl-Cl bond energy = 243 kJ/mol
o Therefore: takes 243kJ to break all Cl-Cl bonds in 1 mole of chlorine gas
o This also represents the amount of energy being released when 1 mole of the bonds
form

Energy absorbed: + 243 kJ Energy released: - 243

kJ

 Breaking bonds = endothermic (needs energy)

 Making bonds = exothermic (releases energy)

Calculation of the Heat Released or Absorbed during a Reaction:

If: Energy needed to break all bonds in the = + 1000 kJ (+, because the process is
reactants endothermic)

And: Energy released when new bonds are made = -1200 kJ (-, because the process is exothermic)
in products

Then: Overall change = -200 kJ (the overall reaction is exothermic)

I.e.: ΔH = Σ𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 + Σ 𝐵𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔

O=O + H–O–H
+  O=C=O
O=O H–O–H

Bonds to be Broken (Endothermic) Bonds to be Made (Exothermic)

4 C-H bonds = 4 x (413) = 1652 kJ 2 C=O bonds = 2 x (743) = 1486 kJ

2 O=O bonds = 2 x (498) = 996 kJ 4 O-H bonds = 4 x (464) = 1856 kJ

Total = + 2648 kJ Total = - 3342 kJ

𝚫H = 2648 + (-3342) = -694 kJ/mol
Bond energy in: Bond energy in:

C-H = 413 kJ/mol C =O = 743 kJ/mol

O=O = 498 kJ/mol O-H = 464 kJ/mol

Types of Enthalpies and Measuring Enthalpy Changes of Reactions

Heat Capacity:

 Is how much energy that has to be put in to increase the temperature of something
o Amount of heat needed to raise temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1°C
 In water, the heat capacity is 4.18 J/g/° C (joules per gram per degree Celsius)
o This means that 4.18 J of heat energy is needed to increase the temperature of 1g of
water by 1°C
 Heat energy change = mass x specific heat capacity x temp. Change (𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑥 𝑐 𝑥 Δ𝑇)
o The amount of heat energy required is directly proportional to the mass (m) and the
temperature change (Δ𝑇) of the substance
o The equation above can be used to calculate how much heat energy needs to be
supplied to raise the temperature of mass (m) by Δ𝑇 ° C
 This equation can be used in calculating the enthalpy of a reaction:
o During chemical reactions, energy is released to the surroundings (exothermic) or taken
in from the surroundings (endothermic)
o Often the surroundings are the water that the chemicals are dissolved in

Enthalpy of Combustion

 The enthalpy combustion of a substance is the enthalpy change when 1 mole of the
substance burns completely in oxygen
 Since combustion reactions are always exothermic, making ΔH values always negative

I.e. Propane
ΔH = -2219 kJ/mol 𝐶3 𝐻8 (𝑔) + 5𝑂2 (𝑔) → 3𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 4𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

Caliometry Experiments for Determining the Enthalpy Changes of the Reactions

Practical: Investigate Enthalpy Changes in Combustion Reactions

 Caliometry- measuring the heat given out or taken in by a chemical reaction

 The given experiment aims to measure the heat given off when a number of small alcohols (I.e.
methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol, ...) are burnt in a small spirit burner
Procedure:

1. Measure 100c𝑚3 of cold water using a measuring cylinder and transfer the water to a copper
can
2. Take the initial temperature of the water
3. Weigh a spirit-burner containing ethanol with its lid on
a. The lid should be kept on when the wick isn’t lit to prevent the alcohol from evaporating
4. Arrange the apparatus so the spirit burner can be used to heat the water in the copper can
a. Make sure to shield the apparatus to prevent draughts

5. Light the wick to heat the water until reasonable temperature is reached (i.e. 40.0°C)
a. The flame can be extinguished by putting the lid back on the wick
6. Stir the water thoroughly and measure the maximum temperature of the water
7. Weigh the spirit burner again with its lid on
8. The experiment can be repeated with the same alcohol to check for reliability, and then carried
out again with whatever other alcohols are available

Sample Data:

Volume of water (𝑐𝑚3 ) 100  Combustion is an exothermic reaction, so

Mass of burner + ethanol before experiment (g)
Mass of burner + ethanol after experiment (g)
Original temperature of water (°C)
Final temperature of water (°C)
the temperature of water goes up
137.36
 As the ethanol is burned, the total mass of
136.58 the burner and ethanol decreases
21.5  Using the given data in the table, we can
determine how much heat is released when
62.8
one mole of alcohol is burnt
o Molar enthalpy of combustion
Calculations for Enthalpy of Combustion:

The equation 𝐐 = 𝐦 𝐜 𝚫𝐓 is used:

 Heat capacity of water (c) = 4.18 J/g/°C

 Temperature change of water (ΔT) = 62.8 – 21.5 = 41.3°C
 Mass of water being heated (m) = 100 g
o Density of water is approx. 1g/𝑐𝑚3 at room temperature, so 100 𝑐𝑚3 of water has a
mass of 100g

Heat gained by Water (Q) = 100 (m) x 4.18 (c) x 41.3 (ΔT) = 17,260 J

 Divide by 1000 to give answer in kJ:

17.26kJ

 This means that 17.26 kJ of heat energy is released by the combustion of the ethanol in the
experiment

Calculate amount of heat produced when 1 mole of alcohol burns:

1. Find out the mass of ethanol burned in the experiment:

a. Mass of ethanol burned = decrease in the mass of the burner
b. 137.36 – 136.58 = 0.78g
2. Calculate the RFM of ethanol:
a. Ethanol formula = 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂𝐻
b. Elements = Carbon (12), Hydrogen (1), Oxygen (16)
c. (2 x 12) + (1 x 6) + 16 = 46
3. Find number of moles (n) of ethanol burned
0.78 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
a. 𝑛= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟗𝟔 𝒎𝒐𝒍 Mass (m)
46 (𝑅𝐹𝑀)

4. Molar enthalpy change of combustion of ethanol (Δ𝐻)

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)
a. Δ𝐻 = Number of RFM
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑑 (𝑛)
moles (n)
b. 17.26⁄0.01696 = 1020 kJ/mol

𝚫𝑯 = −𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍
Negative sign since combustion is
exothermic
Evaluation of the Experimental Results

How Accurate? The accepted data found in booklets is 1370kJ of heat given out in the
experiment when 1 mole of ethanol burns, therefore, the value is less
obtained than expected
Limitations:
Heat loss Warm water gives out heat to the air and heat is lost from the flame, going
straight to the air rather than into the water

Solution: 1. Use a lid to cover the beaker, to prevent heat from escaping
2. Use insulating materials like plastic or a cloth to wrap around the
beaker to store in heat
Incomplete combustion Occurs when there isn’t enough oxygen present, producing soot and less
heat rather than complete combustion
o If the combustion is incomplete, then the flame would
appear yellow rather than blue
o If the combustion is complete, the flame would be blue and
carbon dioxide will be produced

Enthalpy of Solution

 The enthalpy of solution of a substance is the enthalpy change in energy when 1 mole of
substance is completely dissolved in water
 The reaction can either be endothermic or exothermic which means that the Δ𝐻 value
can either be positive or negative

I.e. Ammonium Nitrate

Δ𝐻 = +26.8 𝑘𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐻4 𝑁𝑂3 (𝑠) + 𝑎𝑞 → 𝑁𝐻4 𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞)

Sodium hydroxide

Δ𝐻 = −726 𝑘𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑠) + 𝑎𝑞 → 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)

Practical: Measuring Enthalpy Changes for Displacement Reactions

Procedure:

1. Place a polystyrene cup in a 250 𝑐𝑚3 glass beaker

2. Transfer 50 𝑐𝑚3 of 0.200 mol/𝑑𝑚3 copper (II) sulphate solution into the polystyrene
cup using a measuring cylinder
3. Weigh 1.20 g of zinc using a weighing boat on a balance
4. Record the initial temperature of the copper (II) sulphate solution
5. Add the zinc
6. Stir the solution as quickly as possible
7. Record the maximum temperature reached

Sample Data:

Initial temperature of copper (II) sulphate solution (°C) 17.0

Maximum temperature of the reaction mixture (°C) 27.3

Calculations for Enthalpy of Solution (1):

The equation 𝐐 = 𝐦 𝐜 𝚫𝐓 is used:

 Heat capacity of water (c) = 4.18 J/g/°C

 Temperature change of water (ΔT) = 27.3 – 17.0 = 10.3°C
 Mass of water (m) = 50 g

Heat gained by Water (Q) = 50 (m) x 4.18 (c) x 10.3 (ΔT) = 2,152.7 J

 Divide by 1000 to give answer in kJ:

2.1527kJ
 The following are assumed:

 The density of the copper sulphate solution is the same as that of water
o so 1 𝑐𝑚3 of solution has a mass of 1 g
 The specific heat capacity of the mixture is the same as that of water
o Is a fairly reasonable assumption since the reaction mixture is mostly water

Calculate amount of heat produced in the Displacement reaction:

Excess Zinc is used in the experiment to ensure that all of the copper (II) sulphate will react

o Calculation shows that the number of moles of zinc used is greater than copper (II)
sulphate
N = mass / RAM -> 1.20 / 65 = 0.0185 mol

Note: Divide  Find out how many moles of copper (II) sulphate are added in experiment:
volume by 1. Number of moles of copper (II) sulphate added = volume (v) x concentration (C)
1000 to
2. (50/1000) x 0.200 = 0.0100 mol
convert to
𝒅𝒎𝟑  Calculate the heat released when 1 mol of copper sulphate reacts with excess zinc (Δ𝐻)
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)
1. Δ𝐻 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝑛)

2.1527⁄ = 215 kJ/mol

0.0100 Number of
moles (n)
𝚫𝑯 = −𝟐𝟏𝟓 𝒌𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍
Negative sign since temperature of Concentration
Volume (V)
substance increased (C)

Practical: Measuring Enthalpy Changes when Salts dissolve in Water

Procedure:

1. Place a polystyrene cup in 250 𝑐𝑚3 glass beaker

2. Transfer 100 𝑐𝑚3 of water into the polystyrene cup using a measuring cylinder
3. Record the initial temperature of water
4. Weigh 5.20 g of ammonium chloride using a weighing boat on a balance
 5. Add the ammonium chloride using a weighing boat on a balance
6. Add the ammonium chloride to water and stir the solution vigorously until all the
ammonium chloride has dissolved
7. Record the minimum temperature

Sample Data:

Initial temperature of water(°C) 18.3

Minimum temperature water(°C) 15.1

Calculations for Enthalpy of Solution (2):

The equation 𝐐 = 𝐦 𝐜 𝚫𝐓 is used:

 Heat capacity of water (c) = 4.18 J/g/°C

 Temperature change of water (ΔT) = 18.3 – 15.1 = 3.2°C
 Mass of water (m) = 100 g

Heat gained by Water (Q) = 100 (m) x 4.18 (c) x 3.2 (ΔT) = 1,337.6 J

 Divide by 1000 to give answer in kJ:

1.3376kJ

The following are assumed:

 The specific heat capacity of the diluted solution of ammonium chloride is the same as
water
o Since the mixture is mostly water
 The mass of the solution is 100 g
o The mass of ammonium chloride is relatively small and is ignored
o Are other major sources of error in the experiment (i.e. heat absorbed from the air,
making it much more difference to the results)
Calculate amount of heat absorbed:

1. Find out the RFM of ammonium chloride

a. Formula = 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙
b. Elements = Nitrogen (14), Hydrogen (1), Chlorine (35.5)
c. 14 + (4 x 1) + 35.5 = 53.5
2. Calculate the number of moles of ammonium chloride dissolved
5.20 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
a. 𝑛= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟐 𝒎𝒐𝒍
53.5(𝑅𝐹𝑀)

3. Calculate the molar enthalpy change of solution (Δ𝐻)

Mass (m)
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)
2. Δ𝐻 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 (𝑛)

1.3376⁄ = 13.8 kJ/mol Number of RFM

0.0972
moles (n)

𝚫𝑯 = +𝟏𝟑. 𝟖 𝒌𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍
Positive sign since temperature of
substance decreased

Enthalpy of Neutralisation

 The enthalpy of neutralisation of an acid is the enthalpy change when the acid is
neutralised to form one mole of water
 Enthalpies of neutralisation is always exothermic, meaning that Δ𝐻 values are always
negative

I.e. Hydrochloric acid / NaOH

− − −
Δ𝐻 = −57.3 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 + 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎+ 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎 + 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

Practical: Measuring Enthalpy Changes of Neutralisation between an Alkali and an Acid

 The experiment can be used to find out the concentration of the acid and how much heat is
released during the neutralisation reaction
Procedure:

1. Place a polystyrene cup in a 250 𝑐𝑚3 glass beaker

2. Transfer 25 𝑐𝑚3 of 2.00 mol/𝑑𝑚3 potassium hydroxide into the polystyrene cup using a
measuring cylinder
3. Record the initial temperature
4. Fill a burette with 50.00 𝑐𝑚3 of dilute hydrochloric acid to the potassium hydroxide
5. Stir vigorously and record the maximum temperature reached
6. Continue adding further 5.00 𝑐𝑚3 portions of dilute hydrochloric acid to the cup,
stirring and recording the maximum temperature each time, until a total volume of
50.00 𝑐𝑚3 has been added
7. The temperature of the mixture vs. The volume of the acid added are to be plotted in a
graph (optional)
Neutralisation point volume (28𝑐𝑚3 )
Sample Data:
 At the beginning, the temperature goes up because the
acid reacts with the alkali, producing heat
 The alkali then gets used up, resulting to no reaction
since the acid has no substance to react with and the
temperature starts to cool down
 The part where the two lines intersect represents
complete neutralisation (where the amount of alkali and
acid are equal) this is known as the neutralisation point
o Maximum temperature: 31.8 °C
o Amount of acid in max. Temp: 28.00 𝑐𝑚3

Calculation for Enthalpy of Neutralisation:

The equation 𝐐 = 𝐦 𝐜 𝚫𝐓 is used:

 Heat capacity of water (c) = 4.18 J/g/°C

 Temperature change of water (ΔT) = 31.8 – 19.3 = 12.5°C
 Total volume of solution (m) = 25 + 28 = 53 𝑐𝑚3

Heat gained by Water (Q) = 53 (m) x 4.18 (c) x 12.5 (ΔT) = 2769.3 J
  Divide by 1000 to give answer in kJ:

2.769kJ

The following are assumed:

 The density of the reaction mixture is the same as that of water

o So 1 𝑐𝑚3 of solution has a mass of 1 g
 The specific heat capacity of the mixture is the same as water
o Since the mixture is mostly water

Calculate amount of heat absorbed:

1. Calculate how much heat is released

Note: Divide
a. Number of moles (n) = concentration (c) x volume (v)
volume by 25
b. 2.00 x = 0.0500 mol
1000 to 1000

convert to c. The number of moles of HCl will be exactly the same because the temperature at
the neutralisation point is taken
𝒅𝒎𝟑
2. Calculate the molar enthalpy of neutralisation (Δ𝐻)
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 (𝑄)
a. Δ𝐻 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐾𝑂𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 (𝑛)

b. 2.7693⁄0.0500 = 55.4 kJ/mol

𝚫𝑯 = −𝟓𝟓. 𝟒 𝒌𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍
Negative sign since neutralisation is
always exothermic

Chemistry Only:

Working out the Unknown HCl Concentration:

 We know that there was 0.0500 mol KOH present

 28.00 𝑐𝑚3 of HCl was required for neutralisation therefore this contained 0.0500 mol
(mass (volume) / RFM) of HCl:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑛)
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐. 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑙 (𝑐) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑉)

0.0500
= 𝟏. 𝟕𝟗 𝒎𝒐𝒍/𝒅𝒎𝟑
0.02800
20- RATES OF REACTION

Experiments Involving the Rates of Reaction

 Rate of reaction- speed at which the amount of reactants decreases or increases

o Is measured as a change in the concentration (amount) of reactants or products per unit
time (per second, per minute…)
Rate of Reaction = change in concentration / time

Practical: Investigation of the Rate of Reaction between Marble chips and Dilute HCl
Context:
 Marble chips are made of calcium carbonate and react with HCl (hydrochloric acid) to
produce carbon dioxide gas
o Calcium chloride solution is also formed

Procedure:
1. Use a measuring cylinder to measure 25 𝑐𝑚3 of 2.00 mol/𝑑𝑚3 dilute HCl
2. Add 5.00g of large marble chips to a conical flask
a. The cotton wool is there to allow the gas to escape during the reaction but prevents the
acid from escaping
b. The marble is in excess- some of it will be left over when the acid is all used up
3. Place everything on a balance and reset it to zero
4. Add the acid to the marble chips and record the reading on the balance every 30
seconds
Experiment Results:

 The acid has been poured into the marble chips and carbon dioxide gas has been
produced
o This is proven because once the reaction starts, the balance shows a negative mass
meaning that mass decreases since carbon dioxide gas escapes through the cotton wool
 Note:
o Slopes can be used to find the speed of the reaction at any point
 Steeper slope = faster reaction
 Less steep slope = slower reaction
o To find the rate of reaction at a specific point, draw a tangent to the line at a specific
time and find its slope

Calculating the Avg. Rate of Reaction:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑂2 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Avg. Rate of Reaction in the First Minute:

0.47
= 0.47 𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
1

Avg. Rate of Reaction in the Second Minute:

0.20
= 0.20 𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
1

Avg. Rate over the First two Minutes:

0.67
= 0.34𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛
2

 This shows that the reaction is fastest in the beginning and goes slower as time progresses
o The reaction eventually stops because the HCl acid is no longer present
The Science behind It:

Key Words:

o Collision theory- states that for a reaction to occur, the reactant particles must collide with
each other and the collision needs to have sufficient energy and the correct orientation
o Activation Energy- the minimum amount of energy required for a collision to be successful
(to result to a reaction)
o Successful collisions- collisions with energy greater than or equal to the activation energy
which results into reactions
 Reactions can only occur when particles collide but not all collisions end in a reaction since
many particles just bounce off each other
 In order to generate a reaction, the particles have to collide with a minimum amount of
energy (activation energy)
o Successful collisions have energies equal or greater than the activation energy
o Unsuccessful collisions have energies less than the activation energy

In the Reaction between Calcium Carbonate and HCl:

 Particles will have to collide with the particles at the surface of the marble chip,
generating a reaction producing carbon dioxide
 This uses up the hydrochloric acid, which causes the collision rate to decrease, slowing
down the reaction
 The marble’s shape doesn’t change much since it is in a large excess

Different Form of Graph: (The Fall of HCl Conc. Over Time)

Concentration of acid is falling quickly, showing a fast reaction

Graph is getting less steep, showing that the reaction is slowing down as
the acid is used up

All acid is used up- the reaction has stopped

Changing the Surface Area of the Reactants

Practical: Investigating Effect of Changing the SA of Marble chips

1. Repeat the aforementioned experiment, using marble chips having a larger surface area
2. Plot those results into the same graph:

 The mass of carbon dioxide gas produced by both marbles are the same but the reaction
in the smaller marble chip is much faster (steeper slope)

The Science behind It:

 Reactions between solids and liquids/gasses are faster when the solid is present in
smaller pieces
o The more finely divided the solid is, the faster the reaction
o This is because the surface area in contact with the liquid/gas is larger and is
more exposed to the liquid/gas

Solid Only the particles available for collisions are on the surface of the solid

More particles are in contact with the acid, meaning that it has a larger SA

**The frequency of successful collisions increases as the SA of the solid

increases**
Changing the Concentration of the Reactants

Practical: Investigating Effect of Changing the Concentration of Reactants

1. Repeat the aforementioned experiment, using HCl of half the concentration

2. Plot those results into the same graph:

 The reaction is slower and half the mass of carbon dioxide gas is produced since half of
the concentration of acid is used

The Science behind It:

 The reaction becomes slower if the concentration of reactants is decreased

o Increasing the concentration increases the number of acid particles within a
fixed volume
o This means, the higher the concentration is, the more the acid particles will be
closer together making them collide more frequently
o This increases the amount of successful collisions between the acid and the
marble chips

Lower Concentration = Less acid particles = less successful collisions

Higher Concentration = more acid particles = closer they are together = more
successful collisions
Changing Temperature of the Reaction

Practical: Investigating Effect of Changing the Temperature of Reactants

1. Repeat the aforementioned experiment, but at a higher temperature

2. Plot those results into the same graph:

 Reactions get faster as the temperature increases; the slope is steeper and finishes
sooner
 The same mass of gas is given off because same quantities are used

The Science behind It:

Two Factors to consider why Temperature increases the Rate of Reaction:

1. Increasing temperature gives particles more kinetic energy, causing them to move faster
and to collide more frequently
a. This will make a reaction go faster but only has a small part in increasing the rate of
reaction
2. Increasing the temperature will increase the activation energy in particles (making it
greater or equal to the activation energy)
a. This increases the chances of successful collisions which start up a reaction
b. Increase in temp = frequency of successful collisions increases

Lesser the temperature = less successful collisions

Higher the temperature = Increased Activation energy = more successful collisions

Changing the Pressure of the Reaction

 Only works when the reactants are gasses and does speed up the rate of reaction
o We increase pressure of a fixed mass of gas by squeezing it into a smaller volume
o This forces particles closer together, causing them to collide more frequently,
which is the same as increasing the concentration of the gas

Lower pressure = larger volume = particles further apart = less collisions

Higher pressure = smaller volume = particles closer = more collisions

Catalysts

 Are substances that speed up chemical reactions but aren’t used up in the process
o Because they don’t get consumed, they can be used in small amounts to process lots of
reactant particles
o Enzymes- biological catalysts

 Different reactions need different catalysts

How Does a Catalyst Work?

Context:

 To generate a reaction, collisions in particles have to involve at least a certain minimum

amount of energy (activation energy)
 If a reaction is slow, it means that few of these collisions have this amount of energy
o When most collisions happen, particles bounce off each other

How They Work?

 Catalysts work by providing an alternative route for the reaction, involving a lower
activation energy
o A lower activation energy results to more successful collisions
o The reaction happens faster because many more particles have energy greater
or equal to the activation energy for the alternative route
o The energy of particles isn’t changed but it has been made easier for them to
react

Catalyst Reaction Profile Diagram:

Practical: Investigate Effect of Different Solids on Catalytic Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide

Solution

 Oxygen is made in the lab from hydrogen peroxide using manganese(IV) oxide as a
catalyst
Procedure:

1. Measure 100 𝑐𝑚3 of 2 vol hydrogen peroxide and transfer to a 250 𝑐𝑚3 conical flask
2. Weigh out 0.20g of manganese (IV) oxide on a balance
3. Add the manganese (IV) oxide to the hydrogen peroxide and quickly replace the bung
with the gas syringe already attached
a. Swirl the reaction mixture at a constant speed
4. Record the amount of oxygen produced every 20 seconds for 3 minutes and plot a graph
of volume of oxygen vs. Time
5. Repeat the reaction with 0.20g of lead (IV) oxide and copper (II) oxide

21- REVERSIBLE EQUILIBRIA

Reversibility and Dynamic Equilibria

 Reversible reaction- is a reaction that goes both ways:
o can react to form products
 Is represented by using
o can react to form reactants
this symbol
Two Reversible Reactions:
Dehydration of Copper (II) Sulphate Crystals
 If copper (II) sulphate crystals (blue coloured) are heated, they turn into a white powder
and water has evaporated
o Heating causes the crystals to lose their water of crystallisation
o This forms an anhydrous product
 o Anhydrous- without water
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 . 5 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑠) → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4(𝑠) + 5 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) Heat is needed for the
reaction to occur
Blue White

 If water is added to the anhydrous white powder, it turns blue again, so it becomes very
warm
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4(𝑠) + 5 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 . 5 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑠) Heat is released from
this reaction
White Blue

Heating Ammonium Chloride

 If ammonium chloride is heated, the white crystals disappear from the bottom of the
tube and reappear further up
 Heating ammonium chloride splits it into the colourless gasses ammonia and hydrogen
chloride
𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙(𝑠) → 𝑁𝐻3 (𝑔) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) Heat is needed for this
reaction to occur
White solid Colourless Gasses

 These gasses recombine further up the tube, where it is cooler, to form a white solid:

𝑁𝐻3 (𝑔) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) → 𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙(𝑠) Heat is released from

this reaction

The reaction reverses when the conditions are changed from hot to cool

Reversible Reactions in a Sealed Container

 A sealed container means that no substances are added to the reaction mixture and no
substances can escape from it
o Heat may be either given off or absorbed

Dynamic Equilibrium- means the concentrations of the reactions of the reactants and the
products in a reversible reaction remain constant.

 Dynamic means the reactions are still continuing, but the rate of the forward reaction is
equal to the rate of the reversible reaction
 Decomposition Reaction of Calcium Carbonate in a Container:

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔)

Reactant A Product B

1. In the start of the reaction, we have a lot of reactant A

o This means the reaction which converts reactant A to product B (forward
reaction) is very fast
2. Since this is a reversible reaction, product B can turn back into the reaction A
o This means, as the rate of product B increases, the rate of the backwards
reaction also increases (turning product B back to A)
3. At some point, the rate of the forward and backward reaction are equal
o This means that the reaction has reached equilibrium
o In equilibrium, the concentrations of the reactants and the products have
stopped changing
o This means that the total numbers of reactant A and product B will remain
constant
4. This only works if the system is in a closed container

The Position of Equilibrium

Key Words:

 Forward reaction- from reactants to products (left to right reaction)

 Backward (reverse) reaction- from products to reactants (right to left reaction)
  Position of Equilibrium- a reference to the proportion of the various things in an
equilibrium mixture

A B
90% 10%
 This means that the equilibrium lies to the left, meaning that we have
more reactants than products
Note:
In equilibrium, it doesn’t necessarily mean that both reactants and
products will be 50%

A B
80% 20%

 After changing the conditions of the environment the substance is in (i.e.

increase temp), a change in the equilibrium occurs
 Because the change has decreased the amounts of reactant A, this means
the equilibrium is shifted to the right

How to Predict the Effect of Changing Conditions on the Position of Equilibrium:

 By changing pressure or temperature, the position of equilibrium may get shifted to the
right or left

This is done by the Le Chatelier's principle:

If we change the conditions of a reversible reaction at equilibrium, the position of the

equilibrium will shift to oppose the change

Changing Pressure:

 Only applies to reactions in which:

o At least one of the reactants or products is a gas
o Where the moles of gas on both sides of the equation are different

Pressure – is caused by particles hitting the walls of their container

o If you have fewer molecules in the same volume at the same temperature, you
will have a lower pressure

Increasing Pressure: the position of equilibrium shifts to the side which as fewer gas molecules
 𝑁2(𝑔) + 3𝐻2(𝑔) 2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔)

 If we want to make as much ammonia as possible, we need to make the pressure as high
as possible
o There are 4 molecules in the left hand side
o There are only 2 molecules in the right hand side
 To increase pressure, the equilibrium will shift to the side with fewer molecules, which is
in ammonia’s side
 This doesn’t work if both sides have the same number of molecules

Decreasing Pressure: the position of equilibrium shifts to the side which has more gas
molecules

𝑁2(𝑔) + 3𝐻2(𝑔) 2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔)

 If we want to make as much nitrogen and hydrogen as possible, we need to make the
pressure as low as possible
o There are 4 molecules in the left hand side
o There are only 2 molecules in the right hand side
 To decrease pressure, the equilibrium will shift to the side with more molecules, which is
in the reactant’s side
 This doesn’t work if both sides have the same number of molecules

Changing Temperature:

Key points:

1. At equilibrium, the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse
reaction so as much heat is being given out as is taken in
o Nothing appears to change
2. In an endothermic reaction, the heat is converted to a different form (chemical energy),
so it is being removed (gets cooler)

𝐴 + 2𝐵 𝐶+𝐷 ∆𝐻 = −100𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Equilibrium at 500°C 80% 20% ∆𝐻 Being negative shows that the
forward reaction is exothermic
Equilibrium at 100°C 60% 40%
 Increasing Temperature: the position of equilibrium shifts in the endothermic direction

 The reaction equilibrium will change to remove extra heat by absorbing it in an

endothermic change
 This time, the reverse reaction is favoured and the position of equilibrium moves to
the left

Decreasing Temperature: the position of equilibrium shifts in the exothermic direction

 If some A and B are converted in to C and D, heat is given out since this is an
exothermic change
 The extra heat produced will warm the reaction mixture up again
 Decreasing temperature will cause the position of equilibrium to move to the right
hand side and more C and D to be formed

Adding a Catalyst:

 Adding a catalyst speeds up reactions

 In the reversible change, it speeds up the forward and reverse reactions by the same
proportion
o If a forward reaction is sped up 10 x the reversible reaction is also sped up 10x
 The net effect of this is that there is no change in the position of equilibrium if a catalyst
is added
 The catalyst is added to increase the rate at which equilibrium is reached

Example Illustrating the Effect of Pressure and Temperature in a Reversible Reaction

𝟐𝑁𝑂2(𝑔) 𝑁2 𝑂4(𝑔) ∆𝐻 = −57𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 -> Exothermic

Effect of Pressure: Effect of Temperature:

 If pressure is increased, the position of  If temperature is decreased, the position of

equilibrium will shift to reduce it again by
producing fewer gas molecules
o Produces more dinitrogen tetroxide
 If pressure is lowered, the position of
equilibrium will shift to increase it again by
producing more gaseous molecules
o Produces more brown nitrogen dioxide
equilibrium is shifted to the exothermic
direction
o Produces more dinitrogen tetroxide
 If temperature is increased, the position of
equilibrium will shift to lower it again, shifting
to the reverse reaction
o Produces more brown nitrogen dioxide
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
16- ACIDS, ALKALIS AND TITRATIONS

pH and Indicators

Strongly Acidic Weak Acidic Weakly Alkaline Strongly Alkaline

Neutral

Solution
Strongly acidic Hydrochloric Acid, Sulphuric acid
Weak acid Ethanoic Acid (vinegar) (carboxylic acids)
Neutral Salt (NaCl), water, sugar
Weakly alkaline Ammonia, salty water
Strongly alkaline Sodium Hydroxide (hydroxides), bleach

Measuring pH

Universal Indicator

 Made from a mixture of indicators, which change colour in a moderate way over a range
of pH values
 Can be used as a solution or a paper
 The most common form is the full range universal indicator
o Changes through a variety of colours through 1-14
Acid-Alkali Indicators

Indicator Type Acid Neutral Alkali

Litmus Red Purple Blue
Methyl orange Red - Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless - Pink
Universal Indicator Red green Blue

Acids

Acid Formula
Hydrochloric Acid 𝑯𝐶𝑙
Nitric Acid 𝑯𝑁𝑂3
Sulphuric Acid 𝑯𝟐 𝑆𝑂4
Ethanoic Acid 𝐶𝑯𝟑 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑯
Phosphoric Acid 𝑯𝟑 𝑃𝑂4

ALL ACIDS CONTAIN HYDROGEN

 Acids are substances that act as a source of 𝐻 + ions in a solution
 When measuring pH, we are measuring the concentration of these positive hydrogen
ions in the solution

Acids Reacting to Substances

𝑯𝑪𝒍(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝑙)

 When acids react, the hydrogen in acids are replaced by something else; acids have a
replaceable hydrogen
 The H of HCl is replaced by Na
 Not all acids have a replaceable hydrogen:
o In ethanoic acid, the H attached to an O is replaceable
o The H attached to a C isn’t replaceable

Acids in Water
+
𝐻𝑁𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑂3(𝑎𝑞)

 When acids are in water, they dissociate (break apart) from hydrogen ions
Typical Acid Reactions:

1. With metals: acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen

𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑎𝑞)

2. With bases: acid + base -> salt + water

𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

3. With carbonates: acid + carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)

Bases/ Alkali

 Are substances that neutralise acids by combining with the hydrogen ions in them
 Bases are substances that act as a source of 𝑂𝐻 − ions in a solution

Alkalis in Water

Sodium Hydroxide Ammonia

+ − + −
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) 𝑁𝐻3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) 𝑁𝐻4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)

 When sodium hydroxide is in water, it breaks apart to form sodium and hydroxide ions
 Ammonia reacts with water to form ammonium ions and hydroxide ions
 Other substances including soluble metal carbonates react with water to for hydroxide
ions
o Only some of the carbonates interact with water
o Sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate are both alkalis with pH greater than 7
o These solutions are weakly alkaline

Typical Base Reactions:

1. Bases react with acids to produce salt and water

2. Bases such as sodium, potassium and calcium hydroxides react with ammonium salts,
driving out the ammonia gas:

𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝐻4 𝐶𝑙(𝑠) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂 + 2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔)

Reacting Acids with Bases and Alkalis

Neutralisation Reactions:

 Is when an acid and a base react to produce a salt and water

Reaction of Sodium Hydroxide (alkali) and Hydrochloric Acid

𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) −

𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) +
+ 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

The hydrogen in HCl is replaced by

Sodium and reacts with OH to + −
𝑁𝑎(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
form water

Titration
Sample Data:

Final recording on burette 18.51 mL

Initial recording on burette 2.38 mL

Volume of alkali added 16.13 mL

17- ACIDS, BASES AND SALT PREPARATIONS

Salts

 All acids contain hydrogen, when that hydrogen is replaced in a neutralisation reaction,
salt is formed

Acid Formula Example of Salt Name of Salt

Hydrochloric Acid 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝑪𝒍 Chlorides
Nitric Acid 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 𝐾𝑵𝑶𝟑 Nitrates
Sulphuric Acid 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 𝐶𝑢𝑺𝑶𝟒 Sulphates
Ethanoic Acid 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻 𝑪𝑯𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑁𝑎 Ethanoates
Phosphoric Acid 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 𝐾3 𝑷𝑶𝟒 Phosphates

Reactions of Acids (in detail)

1. With metals: acid + metal -> salt + hydrogen

o They react with metals depending on their positions in the reactivity series:
 Metals below hydrogen = don’t react with acids
 Metals above hydrogen = react with acids to produce salt and hydrogen
Metals and Dilute Sulphuric Acid:

𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑎𝑞)

Observations:
 Rapid fizzing is present and colourless gas is evolved which pops with a
lightened splint (test for hydrogen)
 Is an exothermic reaction
 Magnesium disappears, to form a colourless solution of magnesium
sulphate
o This is a displacement reaction, the more reactive magnesium has displaced the
less reactive hydrogen

Metals with Hydrochloric Acid:

+ −
𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 2𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑎𝑞)

2. With bases: acid + base -> salt + water (NEUTRALISATION REACTION)

Reacting with Metal Oxides:

𝐶𝑢𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

 Alkalis are proton (H+) acceptors and Acids are proton (H+) donors

Bases and Alkalis:

 Alkalis are substances that neutralises acids and are soluble to water
 Bases are substances that neutralises acids but aren’t soluble in water
Examples:
 Metal Oxides
 Metal Hydroxides
 Ammonia

 Some metal oxides are soluble in water (most other metal oxides aren’t soluble) and
react with it to form solutions of metal hydroxides:
+ −
𝑁𝑎2 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝑁𝐻4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
All the Group 1 Oxides (alkali metal oxides) do this reaction
+ −
𝑁𝐻3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) 𝑁𝐻4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
 Ammonia reacts with water to form ammonium ions and hydroxide ions

Reacting with Metal Hydroxides:

𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

3. With carbonates: acid + carbonate -> salt + water + carbon dioxide

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)

Salt Preparations

Salt Solubility Exceptions

sodium, potassium soluble none

and ammonium

nitrates soluble none

chlorides soluble silver chloride (AgCl) and lead (II) chloride (PbCl2)

sulphates soluble barium sulfate (BaSO4), calcium sulfate (CaSO4) and lead (II) sulfate
(PbSO4)

carbonates insoluble sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), potassium carbonate (K2CO3) and

ammonium carbonate ((NH3)2CO3)

hydroxides insoluble sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH) and calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) (calcium hydroxide is slightly soluble)

Making Soluble Salts (Except Sodium, Potassium and Ammonium Salts)

All involve reacting a solid with an acid:

 Acid + metal
o Only for moderately reactive metals from magnesium to iron in reactivity series
 Acid + metal oxide or hydroxide
 Acid + carbonate
Practical: Making Copper (II) Sulphate Crystals

 To make a soluble salt, an insoluble reactant is needed

Procedure: Excess Solid Method

1. Heat Sulphuric acid into a beaker on a tripod and gauze using a Bunsen burner
o Speeds up the rate of reaction
2. Add base (Copper Oxide) until in excess (no more copper oxide dissolves) and stir with
glass rod
o Neutralises all the acid
3. Filter the mixture using filter paper and funnel
o Removes any excess copper oxide
4. Heat the filtered solution of Copper Sulphate over a Bunsen burner
o Hot saturated solution forms
5. Allow the solution to cool so that hydrated crystals form
o Copper(II) sulphate is less soluble in cold water
6. Remove the crystals by filtration and wash with distilled water
o Removes any impurities
7. Dry by leaving in a warm place
o Evaporates the water

Why not simply evaporate the Solution to Dryness?

 Evaporating the solution to dryness would just give a

white anhydrous copper (II) sulphate powder
o Doesn’t give blue copper (II) sulphate crystals

Water of Crystallisation:

 When water becomes chemically bounded with crystals

 Creates hydrated crystals
How to know whether to Heat the Mixture is needed?

 Carbonates react with dilute acids in the cold, and so does magnesium
o Most other things need to be heated

Cold Hot
Carbonates Most other
Magnesium substances

Making Sodium, Potassium and Ammonium Salts

 Titration is used since sodium, potassium, and ammonium are all soluble in water
 They wouldn’t react with the acid and the excess would just dissolve in the water
present
o No visible excess to filter off

Making Sodium Chloride Crystals:

1. Pipette 25𝑐𝑚3 of alkali (NaOH) into a conical flask

o Accurately measures the alkali (NaOH)
2. Do not add indicator
o Prevents contamination of the pure crystals with indicator
3. Using the titration values, titrate the known volume acid (HCl) into conical flask
containing alkali
o Exactly neutralises all of the alkali (NaOH)
4. Transfer to an evaporating basin & heat the solution
o Forms a hot saturated solution (NaCl(aq))
5. Allow the solution to cool so that hydrated crystals form
o Sodium chloride is less soluble in cold water
6. Remove the crystals by filtration and wash with distilled water
o Removes any impurities
7. Dry by leaving in a warm place
o Evaporates the water

Making Sodium Sulphate Crystals

 Do titration using sulphuric acid rather than hydrochloric acid

Making Ammonium Sulphate Crystals

 Use ammonia solution rather than sodium hydroxide solution

Making Insoluble Salts

 Precipitation method
 Preparing pure dry crystals of silver chloride from silver nitrate solution and potassium chloride
solution

Procedure:

1. Mix the two salt solutions together in a beaker

o Forms a precipitate of an insoluble salt (AgCl)
2. Stir with glass rod
o Make sure all reactants have reacted
3. Filter using filter paper and funnel
o Collect the precipitate (AgCl)
4. Wash with distilled water
o Removes any the other soluble salts (KN𝑂3 )
5. Dry by leaving in a warm place
o Evaporates the water
The Science behind It:

 Silver nitrate solution contains silver ions and nitrate ions in solution:
o The positive and negative ions are attracted to each other but aren’t strong enough to
make them stick together
o This situation is similar to the sodium chloride solution
 When both solutions are mixed, the various ions meet each other:
o Silver ions meet chloride ions creating strong attractions, clumping up to form a solid
o Sodium and nitrate ions remain in the solution because they aren’t sufficiently attracted
to each other

What do we Mix together to make Insoluble Salts

Note:

 All nitrates are soluble

 All sodium and potassium salts are soluble

All we have to do is mix nitrate of the metal part of insoluble salt with sodium or potassium salt
of the non metal part

I.e.

Making Lead (II) Iodide:

 The metal part is lead, so a solution of lead (II) nitrate is used

 Non-metal part is iodide, so a solution of sodium iodide is used

𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑁𝑎𝐼(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑃𝑏𝐼2(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂3(𝑎𝑞)

Making Barium Sulphate:

 Can be made by a barium nitrate solution and a potassium sulphate solution or dilute
sulphuric acid

Practical: Preparing a Pure, Dry Sample of Lead (II) Sulphate

Preparing a pure, dry sample of lead (II) sulfate from lead (II) nitrate solution and sodium
sulphate solution:

Pb(NO₃)₂ (aq) + Na₂SO₄ (aq) → PbSO₄ (s) + 2NaNO₃ (aq)

 1. Mix similar volumes lead nitrate solution and sodium sulphate solution in a beaker.
The precise volumes do not matter since any excess will be removed later.
2. A white precipitate of lead (II) sulphate will form.
3. The reaction mixture is filtered.
4. The residue left on the filter paper is washed with distilled water several times to
remove impurities.
5. The residue is then moved to a warm oven to dry.

Summarising Methods of Making Salts:

Theories for Acids and Bases

 An acid is a proton (H⁺) donor

 A base is a proton (H⁺) acceptor

When sulphuric acid reacts with copper (II) oxide (CuO):

Cu²⁺O²⁻ (s) + H₂SO₄ (aq) → Cu²⁺ (aq) + SO₄²⁻ (aq) + H₂O (l)

 H₂SO₄ is an acid (donates protons (H⁺) to CuO, the base)

18- CHEMICAL TESTS

Testing for Gasses

Gas Test Result if gas present

hydrogen Use a lit splint Gas pops

(H2)
2𝐻2(𝑔) + 𝑂2(𝑔) → 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

oxygen (O2) Use a glowing splint Glowing splint relights

carbon Bubble the gas through Limewater turns cloudy

dioxide (CO2) limewater
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

ammonia Use red litmus paper Turns damp red litmus paper blue
(NH3)

chlorine (Cl2) Use moist litmus paper Turns moist litmus paper white (bleaches)

Testing for Water

Anhydrous Copper (II) Sulphate:

 Add copper sulphate (CuSO4) to a sample.

 If water is present the anhydrous copper sulphate will change from white to blue
Physical test to show that water is pure:

 Can be done by measuring the freezing point and boiling point of the substance:
o If it boils at 100°C, it is pure
o If it freezes at 0°C, it is pure

Testing for Water vapour:

 Is done by using dried cobalt chloride paper

 Turns the paper pale pink

Flame Test

 A flame test is used to show the presence of certain metal ions (cations) in a compound

Procedure:

1. A platinum or nichrome wire is dipped into concentrated hydrochloric acid to remove

any impurities.
2. The wire is dipped into the salt being tested so some salt sticks to the end.
3. The wire and salt are held in a non-luminous (roaring) bunsen burner flame.
4. The colour is observed.

Ion Colour in flame Comments

test

lithium (Li⁺) red Has a strong red flame described

as scarlet red

sodium (Na⁺) yellow Always a very strong colour- seen

when salty water boils over on a
gas cooker

potassium (K⁺) lilac Can be very pale and short lived,

best seen when K reacts with
water and hydrogen burns

calcium (Ca²⁺) orange-red Orange is quite different from the

very yellowy orange of sodium

copper (II) (Cu²⁺) blue-green One of the strongest colours seen

Strontium Crimson red Has a similar red flame as lithium

Barium Yellowish green Often very pale and hard to see

Testing for Cations

 To test for cations, hydroxide solutions are used since metals form precipitates with
hydroxide ions
 For ammonium, hydroxide solution is added along with heat

Cation (positive ion) Test Result Chemical Equation

2+ −
Copper ( Cu2+) Blue precipitate 𝐶𝑢(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑪𝒖(𝑶𝑯)𝟐 (𝒔)
(ppt)
Creates copper hydroxide ppt

2+ −
Iron (II) (Fe2+) Green ppt 𝐹𝑒(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑭𝒆 (𝑶𝑯)𝟐 (𝒔)

Creates iron (II)hydroxide ppt

3+ −
Iron (III) (Fe3+) Brown ppt 𝐹𝑒(𝑎𝑞) + 3𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑭𝒆 (𝑶𝑯)𝟑 (𝒔)

Creates iron (III)hydroxide ppt

Zinc (𝑍𝑛2+ ) White ppt 2+

𝑍𝑛(𝑎𝑞) −
+ 2𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝒁𝒏 (𝑶𝑯)𝟐 (𝒔)

Creates zinc hydroxide ppt

+ −
Ammonium (𝑁𝐻4+ ) Releases 𝑁𝐻4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑵𝑯𝟑(𝒈) + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)
ammonia and
blue litmus paper
stays blue
(no ppt)

3+ −
Various White ppt 𝐴𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 3𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑨𝒍 (𝑶𝑯)𝟑 (𝒔)
(𝐶𝑎2+ , 𝑀𝑔2+ , 𝐴𝑙 3+ )
Creates Aluminium hydroxide ppt

Testing for Anions

Halide Ions:
 Sulphate Ions (SO42–):

Carbonate Ions (CO32-):

11- THE ALKALI METALS

Alkali Metals

 Are group 1 elements including lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and
francium

Melting Point (°C) Boiling Point (°C) Density (g/𝑐𝑚3 )  Melting and boiling points increase as
Li 181 1342 0.53 you go up the group
Na 98 883 0.97  Density increase as you go down the
K 63 760 0.86 group
Rb 39 686 1.53  Becomes softer as you go down the
Cs 29 669 1.88 group
 Storage and Handling

 Since they are extremely reactive to air and water and get more reactive as you go down
the group, they are stored in containers filled with oil (i.e. paraffin)
o This is because alkali metals react with oxygen quickly to form oxides
o They react with water to form strongly alkaline solutions of the metal hydroxides
 This is why they are known as alkali metals
 Rubidium and Caesium are so reactive that they are stored in sealed glass tubes to
prevent contact with oxygen

A Family of Elements (Reasons why they are grouped together in Group 1):

 This is because they all share the same properties:

1. They all have one electron in their outer shell:
 Lithium: 2,1
 Sodium: 2,8,1
 Potassium: 2,8,8,1
2. Have similar main features:
 Are metals
 Are soft with low melting points and densities
 Have to be stored out of contact with water and air
 Increases reactivity as you go down the group
3. They all have similar chemical properties:
 All react with water in similar ways to produce hydroxides and hydrogen
 React with oxygen to produce an oxide
 React with halogens to form compounds
 Have mainly white/ colourless compounds which dissolve to produce
colourless solutions
 Forms ionic compounds with a 1+ charged ion

Have similar properties since they all have the same electrons on their outer shell since
chemical properties and reactions depend on electron configuration
Reactions with Water

 All react in similar ways with water, producing a metal hydroxide and hydrogen:

2𝑀 + 2𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑀𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2

Alkali metal
Water Alkali metal Hydrogen
hydroxide

Main difference = As you go down the group this reaction becomes more quick and aggressive

With Lithium:

Observations

 Lithium floats and moves around on the water

o This is because lithium is less dense than water
o Hydrogen isn’t given off symmetrically around lithium,
causing it to be pushed around the water
 Fizzes (effervescence) because of production of hydrogen
gas
 The metal gets smaller and eventually disappears
 Turns indicator solution blue since lithium metal hydroxide
is formed

Lithium + Water → Lithium hydroxide + Hydrogen

2Li (s) + 2H₂O (l) → 2LiOH (aq) + H₂ (g)

With Sodium:

 Is similar with lithium but is slightly different because of its

lower melting point:
o Reaction is more fast and heat is produced more quickly
o Melts into a ball due to its lower melting point and heat
released in the reaction
With Potassium:

 Is similar, but reacts faster and more vigorously

 Enough heat is produced to ignite hydrogen, producing a
lilac flame
 Reaction ends with potassium spitting around and
exploding

With Rubidium and Caesium:

 Reacts more violently than potassium and can be

explosive
 Like the rest, metal hydroxides are formed

Reactions of Alkali Metals with Air

Piece of Sodium taken out of Oil:

Has crust on the outside, since it tarnishes rapidly when it

reacts with oxygen in air (oxidises producing sodium oxide)

When freshly cut, it is shiny, but it tarnishes quickly

When heated in air using a Bunsen burner, a much more

vigorous reaction is made, producing a coloured flame

 Sodium = yellow flame to form sodium oxide

 Lithium= red flame to form lithium oxide
 Potassium= lilac flame to produce potassium oxide

4𝑀(𝑠) + 𝑂2(𝑔) → 2𝑀2 𝑂(𝑠)

Metal Oxygen Metal Oxide
Compounds of Alkali Metals

 All group 1 metal ions are colourless meaning that their compounds will be colourless or
white in colour unless they are combined with a coloured negative ion
 Potassium dichromate (IV) is orange since the dichromate ion is orange
 Group 1 compounds are typical ionic solids and are mostly soluble in water

Explaining the Increase in Reactivity

Using Knowledge of Trends to predict Properties:

PREDICTED PROPERTIES OF FRANCIUM

 Will be very soft

 Will be denser than other alkali metals, around 2 g/c𝑚3
 Will have a lower melting point, around room temperature
 Will be a silvery metal but tarnish almost instantly in air
 Will react violently in water to give francium hydroxide and hydrogen
 Will be more reactive than Caesium
 Will form white/colourless compounds
12- THE HALOGENS

Halogens

 Are elements in the group 7 of the periodic table and include the elements fluorine,
chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine

Physical state at room temperature Colour

𝐹2 Gas
𝐶𝑙2 Gas
𝐵𝑟2 Liquid Red-brown liquid
orange/brown vapour
𝐼2 Solid Grey solid
Purple vapour

Main Features of Group 7 Elements (Halogens)

 Are diatomic (𝑋2)

 Go from gasses to liquid to solid as you move down the group
o Melting points and boiling points increase as you go down the group
 Have coloured poisonous vapours
o Colours get darker as you go down the group
 Form compound with the formula HX when reacted with hydrogen
o H = hydrogen, X= halogen i.e. HCl
o These dissolve in water to form acids
 Form ionic salts with metals and covalent compounds with non-metals
 Form 𝑋 − ions in ionic compounds
o 𝐹 − , 𝐶𝑙 − , 𝐵𝑟 −
 Become less reactive towards the bottom of the group
 Will displace elements lower down the group form their salts
Using Knowledge in Trends to predict Properties of other Halogens

Astatine:

 Will be a darker colour than iodine, very dark grey or black

 Will be a solid at room temperature and have a higher melting point than iodine
 Will be diatomic
 Will react with hydrogen to form Hat which will dissolve in water to form an acid
 Will form the salt NaAt with sodium or Kat with potassium
 Will contain the astatide ion (𝐴𝑡 − ) in its ionic salts
 Will be less reactive than iodine
 Will be displaced from solution by iodine

Reactions with Halogens

 Hydrogen halides- is the product from when hydrogen and halogens react
o Are all acidic, poisonous gasses and are covalently bonded
o Are soluble in water, reacting with it to form acids

Hydrogen Halide
Hydrogen 𝐻2(𝑔) + 𝐶𝑙2(𝑔) → 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔)
(hydrogen Chloride)

Halogen
(Chlorine)

Hydrogen chloride 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔) → 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) Hydrochloric Acid

Dissolves in water

 Halogens react with alkali metals to produce salts:

2𝑁𝑎(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑙2(𝑔) → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑠)

Salt
Displacement Reactions

 A chemical reaction in which a more reactive element replaces a less reactive element in
its compound
o In halogens, the reactivity falls as you go down the group

Reacting Chlorine with Potassium Bromide:

2𝐾𝐵𝑟(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐾𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐵𝑟2(𝑎𝑞)

Potassium bromide
Chlorine Bromine is
replaces less
Chlorine bromine reactive
because it is and is
more reactive replaced
As Redox Equations:
Gain of Electrons

REDUCTION
 Chlorine acts as an oxidising agent
− −
2𝐵𝑟(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐵𝑟2(𝑎𝑞) o Oxidises negative bromine ions
 The newly negatively charged chlorine
is then attracted to the positively
Loss of Electrons charged potassium ion

OXIDATION

Following Experiments showing no Reaction:

Reactions occur if ions are displaced, hence, DISPLACEMENT reaction

 Bromine + potassium chloride solution:

o The less reactive bromine cant displace more reactive chlorine
 Iodine + potassium chloride solution:
o Less reactive iodine cant displace more reactive chlorine
 Iodine + potassium bromide solution:
o Less reactive iodine cant displace the more reactive bromine

Why do more Reactive Substances replace less Reactive Substances?

The more reactive a substance is, it as a greater tendency to react to form a compound

Something that is less reactive is more likely to go back being an element (less reactive form)
Explaining the Decrease in Reactivity

13- GASSES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

The Composition of Air

Gas Amount in air (%) Amount in air (fraction)

Nitrogen 78.1 About 4/5
Oxygen 21.0 About 1/5
Argon 0.9
Carbon dioxide 0.04

Showing that Air Contains about 1/5th of Oxygen

Practical: Using Phosphorus

1. Place phosphorus on evaporating basin which is floating
on water
2. Mark initial water level and phosphorus is lit with a hot
metal
3. Phosphorus burns (forming phosphorus oxide) which
causes the water level to rise because it absorbs in water
4. Mark the final water level and find the change of water
level:
a. Pour remaining liquid from bell jar in cylinder
b. Calculate percentage of the change of water level

Result: the water will rise approx. 20%

Practical: Using Iron
Practical: Using Copper
Combustion of Elements in Oxygen
Hydrogen:
Hydrogen + oxygen → water
2H₂ (g) + O₂ (g) → 2H₂O (l)
1. Know the volume of air present in apparatus
a. fill conical flask and connecting tube with water
b. transfer water to graduated cylinder
2. set up apparatus as shown and place wet iron filings
into conical flask
3. record initial reading on syringe
4. Leave apparatus for a week until reading in syringe
stops changing
5. Record final reading
To calculate percentage:
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡 − 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑑
𝑥 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Result: percentage of 𝑶𝟐 approx. 20%
1. Plunger on one side of syringe is pushed all the way in and
the other moved out to 100 𝑐𝑚3 (initial volume)
a. We know the apparatus contains 100 𝑐𝑚3 of air
2. Silica tube (between syringes, packed with copper filings) is
heated by using Bunsen burner
3. Plungers are pushed in sequence so air keeps passing over
heated copper
a. Forms copper (II) oxide
4. Volume of gas in syringes falls as the oxygen is consumed,
plungers are pushed in and out until there is no change in
volume
5. Cool down apparatus to take final volume of gas
Result: the volume of air
Calculations:
will decrease approx. 20%
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
 Burns in oxygen with a pale blue flame
 Reacts with oxygen in an explosive reaction
 This is the basis of the ‘squeak pop’ test for
hydrogen in test tube
o With larger quantities of hydrogen this
explosion can be dangerous
 Magnesium:

 Reacts with oxygen producing a bright white flame

Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide leaving behind a white ash of magnesium oxide

2Mg (s) + O₂ (g) → 2MgO

 White powder formed isn’t very soluble but
dissolves to form alkaline solutions in small
amounts

Sulphur:

 reacts with oxygen producing a blue flame and

produces poisonous and colourless gas, sulphur
Sulphur + oxygen → sulphur dioxide dioxide
 When sulphur dioxide (SO₂) dissolves in water it forms
S (s) + O₂ (g) → SO₂ (g)
an acidic solution of sulphurous acid:

SO₂ (g) + H₂O (l) → H₂SO₃ (aq)

Properties of Oxides

Metal Oxides:

 Metal oxides are ionic compounds containing 𝑂2− ions

 Metal oxides are usually basic oxides, meaning they react with acids to form salts
 Metal oxides are usually insoluble
o Those that are soluble react with water to form alkaline solutions containing hydroxide
(𝑂𝐻 − ) ions

Non-metal Oxides:

 Are covalent compounds

 Are usually acidic oxides, which react with alkalis/bases to form salts
 Are often soluble in water and react with it forming acidic solutions containing hydrogen
(𝐻 + ) ions

Carbon Dioxide
  Thermal decomposition- decomposition (breaking down) reaction that requires heating
to occur
o Thermal decomposition of metal carbonates form carbon dioxide gas

 Reactions between metal carbonates and hydrochloric acid can form carbon dioxide
gas

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜3(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

o This reaction forms a salt (calcium chloride), water, and carbon dioxide gas

Producing Carbon Dioxide (Greenhouse Gas):

Fossils

 Burning of fossils (coal, oil, gas, ...) produces carbon dioxide since they contain mostly
carbon in them

𝐶(𝑠) + 𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)

Petrol

 Is a mixture containing many different hydrocarbons and carbons from these

hydrocarbons can form carbon dioxide

2𝐶8 𝐻18(𝑙) + 25𝑂2 → 16𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 18𝐻2 𝑂𝑙

Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse Gas – gasses which can trap heat radiated from the earth’s surface (originally from
the sun)

How it occurs:

1. High energy UV radiation and visible light from sun pass through atmosphere, warming
up earth’s surface
2. Earth’s surface radiates IR radiation which is absorbed by molecules such as carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere
3. This give out energy again in all directions, heating the atmosphere

Result of Greenhouse Effect:

 Melting of polar ice caps

 Sea levels rise
 Changes of weather
o Floods
o Droughts
o Heat waves

LOOKING AHEAD: WHY IS CARBON DIOXIDE A GREENHOUSE GAS?

CONTEXT:

 A greenhouse gas absorbs infrared radiation (IR) and reemits it

o In order to do so, changes in polarity of the molecule must occur

POLARITY:

 One end of a molecule is slightly positive and the other end is slightly negative
 Depends on shape of molecule (non-linear and non-symmetrical molecules are often
polar)
 Electronegativity:
o Different atoms attract the electrons in a covalent bond to different extents
 Polarity of water molecules changes as it vibrates enabling it to absorb IR

CARBON DIOXIDE:

 Is a non-polar molecule because it is linear and symmetrical

 When it vibrates, it becomes non-symmetrical and non-linear, giving it polarity, enabling it
to absorb IR
 14- REACTIVITY SERIES

CARBON

HYDROGEN
Displacement Reactions involving Metal oxides

Magnesium and Copper (II) Oxide:

Magnesium and copper (II) oxide are mixed together and heated:

Copper is less reactive than magnesium in the reactivity

series causing Magnesium to displace copper

Note:

 If magnesium oxide would react with copper, then there would be no displacement
reaction since copper is less reactive than magnesium to displace it
o Hence, DISPLACEMENT reaction

Magnesium and Zinc Oxide:

𝑴𝒈(𝑠) + 𝒁𝒏𝑂(𝑠) → 𝑴𝒈𝑂(𝑠) + 𝒁𝒏(𝒔)

 The more reactive magnesium displaces the less reactive zinc, producing magnesium
oxide and zinc

Carbon and Copper (II) Oxide:

𝑪(𝒔) + 2𝑪𝒖𝑂(𝑠) → 𝑪𝑂2 (𝑔) + 2𝑪𝒖(𝑠)

 The more reactive carbon displaces the less reactive copper, producing carbon dioxide
gas and copper

CHEMISTRY ONLY:

 Carbon is included in the reactivity series because it is important in extracting metals

from metal oxides
o Works if carbon is more reactive than the metal in the reactivity series
Displacement Reactions involving Solutions of Salts

Zinc and Copper (II) Sulphate solution:

Copper is less reactive than Zinc in the reactivity series causing zinc to
displace copper (basically the same aspect as in metal oxides)

Oxidation and Reduction

OXYGEN TRANSFER:

Oxidation:

 Oxidation is the gain of oxygen

o I.e. carbon combines with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, the carbon is being oxidised

Reduction:

 Reduction is the loss of oxygen

o I.e. aluminium oxide is broken down to produce aluminium and oxygen, the aluminium
is being reduced

Gain of Oxygen = OXIDATION

𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒖𝒎 + 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 (𝐼𝐼)𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 → 𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓

Loss of Oxygen = REDUCTION

Key Words (in terms of OXYGEN)

Redox- is a reaction where BOTH reduction and oxidation are occurring

Reducing Agent- a substance that reduces something else (magnesium is a reducing agent since it
takes oxygen away from copper)

Oxidising Agent- a substance that oxidises something else and always gets reduced in a chemical
reaction (copper (II) oxide is the oxidising agent because it gives oxygen to magnesium, oxidising it)
ELECTRON TRANSFER:

Oxidation:

 Oxidation is the loss of electrons Oxidation

o I.e. a sodium atom loses an electron to become a sodium ion (Na⁺) Is
o I.e. a chloride ion (Cl⁻) losing an electron to become a chlorine atom (Cl)
Loss
Reduction:
Reduction
 Reduction is the gain of electrons Is
o I.e. a sodium ion (Na⁺) gains an electron to become a sodium atom(Na)
o I.e. a chlorine atom (Cl) gaining an electron to become a chloride ion(Cl⁻) Gain

Loss of Electrons = OXIDATION

2− 2−
𝑴𝒈(𝑠) + 𝑪𝒖𝟐+ 𝑂(𝑠) → 𝑴𝒈𝟐+ 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝑪𝒖(𝒔)

Gain of Electrons = REDUCTION

2+
𝑀𝑔(𝑠) → 𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 2𝑒 −

Magnesium looses two electrons

2+
𝐶𝑢(𝑠) + 2𝑒 − → 𝐶𝑢(𝑠)

Copper gains two electrons

Key Words (in terms of ELECTRONS)

Redox- is a reaction where BOTH reduction and oxidation are occurring

Reducing Agent- is something that reduces something else by giving electrons to it, therefore are
oxidised in the reaction (ELECTRON DONOR)

 Magnesium is the reducing agent because it donates its electrons to copper (becomes
positive)
 Gets oxidised (Magnesium oxide)

Oxidising Agent- is something that oxidises something else by taking electrons away from it,
therefore reduced in the reaction (ELECTRON ACCEPTOR)

 Copper is the oxidising agent because it gains electrons (becomes neutral)

 Gets reduced (lost oxygen)
Reactions of Metals with Water

GENERAL SUMMARY

Metals above Hydrogen in the Reactivity series:

 They react with water (or steam) to produce hydrogen

o The reactions become less vigorous as you go down the reactivity series

In Cold Water:

𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

In Steam:

𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 → 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

Metals below Hydrogen in the Reactivity series:

 Doesn’t react with water or steam, which is why copper can be used for both hot and
cold water pipes

Potassium, Sodium, or Lithium with Cold water:

2𝑀(𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝑀𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 (𝑔)

*replace M (metal) with -> K, Na or Li*

 Becomes less violent in the following order:

o Potassium (K)
o Sodium (Na)
o Lithium (Li)

Calcium with Cold water:

𝐶𝑎(𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑎𝑞 𝑜𝑟 𝑠) + 𝐻2 (𝑔)

 Reacts gently with water, forming calcium hydroxide which isn’t soluble in water
o Some of it dissolves to give a colourless solution, most is left as a white insoluble solid

Magnesium with Cold water:

 Almost no reaction, if magnesium is clean, a few bubbles of hydrogen form which then
stops because magnesium becomes coated with insoluble magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium with Steam:

𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) → 𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 (𝑔)

 Magnesium burns with bright white flame in steam, producing magnesium oxide and
hydrogen which can be ignited

Zinc or Iron with Steam:

 The hydrogen comes off slowly enough to be collected, neither metal burns:

Zinc:

𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) → 𝑍𝑛𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 (𝑔)

 Zinc oxide is formed, which turns yellow when hot and white when cooling

Iron:

3𝐹𝑒(𝑠) + 4𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) → 𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4(𝑠) + 4𝐻2 (𝑔)

 Iron becomes slightly darker grey and iron oxide (rust) is formed (iron tetroxide)

Reactions of Metals with Dilute Acids

GENERAL SUMMARY

Metals above Hydrogen in the Reactivity series:

 They react with acids to form salt hydrogen

o The reactions become less vigorous as you go down the reactivity series

𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 → 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 → 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 → 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

Metals below Hydrogen in the Reactivity series:

 Metals including copper, silver, and gold don’t react with simple dilute acids such as
sulphuric or hydrochloric acids
Potassium, Sodium, Lithium and Calcium with Dilute Acids:

 Are too reactive to add safely to acids, the reaction is too violent
o Calcium can be used if acid is VERY dilute

Magnesium with Dilute Acids:

 Reacts vigorously with cold dilute acids and the mixture becomes hot
 Colourless solution of magnesium sulphate or chloride is formed with dilute sulphuric
acid

𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑔)

Aluminium with Dilute Acids:

 Is slow to start reacting, but after warming, it reacts vigorously

 A thin layer of aluminium oxide is formed on the surface of the aluminium, stopping
acid from getting into it
o On heating, the acid removes this layer, and reacts with aluminium

2𝐴𝑙(𝑠) + 6𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐴𝐿𝐶𝑙3(𝑎𝑞) + 3𝐻2(𝑔)

Zinc and Iron with Dilute Acids:

 Reacts slowly in cold and more rapidly when heating

 Is less vigorous than aluminium

Zinc:

𝑍𝑛(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑔)

Iron:

𝐹𝑒(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑔)

Practical: Investigation into the Reactions between Metals and Dilute Acids

By Gas Produced:

1. Set up four test-tubes and put about 2 𝑐𝑚3 of dilute HCl into each one
2. Put a small piece of magnesium, zinc, iron or copper into each test tube and observe any
reaction that occurs
3. If there is fizzing, collect or trap the gas and test with lightened splint- a squeaky pop
indicates the presence of hydrogen gas
4. Repeat experiments with dilute sulphuric acid

Results:

Metal Reaction with dilute HCl

Magnesium  Reacts vigorously with lots of fizzing (effervescence)
 Gas produced gave a squeaky pop with lightened splint
 Colourless solution is formed
 Exothermic
Zinc  Steady reaction with effervescence
 Enough gas collected to produce squeaky pop with lightened splint
 Colourless solution formed
 Exothermic
Iron  Slow fizzing
 Little gas was collected
 Pale green solution formed
 Exothermic
Copper  No change

More reactive metal: More Hydrogen gas produced

Less reactive metal: Less Hydrogen gas produced

By Temperature Change:

1. Measure out 50𝑐𝑚3 of 1 mol/𝑑𝑚3 HCl using a 50𝑐𝑚3 measuring cylinder

a. This amount was chosen so that HCl acid is in excess- more than enough for the metal to
react
2. Pour HCl into a polystyrene cup (this is an insulator) and measure the initial temperature
of HCl
3. Weigh out 0.010 mol of magnesium (0.010 x 24 = 0.24g) powder
a. Is done to ensure that all metal powders have the same amount of substance in them
since chemical reactions depend on amount of particles present
4. Add the magnesium powder into a polystyrene cup and stir rapidly, and measure the
maximum temperature reached
5. Repeat with other metals, using 0.010 mol in each case

Metal Mass (g) Initial temperature (°C) Final temperature (°C)

Magnesium 0.24 18 40
Zinc 0.65 19 26
Iron 0.56 18 22
Copper 0.64 18 18

The metal with the most temperature change, is

the most reactive metal

In both Experiments: Magnesium is the most reactive out of the four metals while copper is the least

Finding the Approximate Position of a Metal in the Reactivity series using Water and Dilute acids

 Add a small piece of metal to cold water, if there is a rapid reaction, the metal must be
more reactive than magnesium
 If there isn’t any reaction, test in dilute acid if there isn’t any reaction in the cold acid, warm
it carefully
 If there is still no reaction, then the metal is between magnesium and hydrogen
Rusting of Iron

 Iron rusts in the presence of oxygen and water

 Rusting occurs with iron and the alloy of iron, steel
 Formula of rust = 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3. 𝑋𝐻2 𝑂 where ‘X’ is a variable number
o Can be called hydrated iron (III) oxide
 Rusting is described as a redox reaction – iron is oxidised

Ways to Prevent Rusting

Barrier Methods:

Rusting may be prevented by stopping the water and oxygen getting to the iron with a barrier
of grease, oil, paint or plastic.

Definition in Book:

 Method of rust production by coating iron with paint, oil, grease, or plastic preventing the
oxygen and water to reach the iron/ steel

Galvanising:

(Coating in zinc) also prevents water and oxygen getting to the iron, but with galvanising even if
the barrier is broken the more reactive zinc corrodes before the less reactive iron. During the
process, the zinc loses electrons to form zinc ions.

Definition in Book:

 Method of preventing rusting by coating iron with a layer of zinc

Sacrificial Protection:

Zinc blocks are attached to iron boat hulls and underground pipelines to act as sacrificial
anodes. Zinc is more reactive than iron, so oxygen in the air reacts with the zinc to form a layer
of zinc oxide instead of the iron.

Definition in Book:

 Method of preventing rusting by attaching a block of a more reactive metal to iron which will
undergo oxidation in preference to iron
15- EXTRACTION AND USES OF METALS

Extracting Metals from their Ores

Minerals and Ores

Minerals:

 Most metals are found in earth’s crust combined with other elements
 The individual compounds are minerals: naturally occurring, crystalline compounds in
the earth’s crust

Ores:

 Rocks that contain enough of the mineral for it to be worthwhile to extract the metal
o i.e. iron ores contain the iron metal and several other minerals
 Reactive metals are to be extracted from ores, while unreactive metals exist naturally as
the uncombined element

Roasting

 Process in which metal ores are heated in air to convert them into metal oxides:
o Many ores contain either oxides or compounds easily converted into oxides
o To obtain metal from the oxide obtained from roasting, oxygen is removed (reduction)
by adding electrons to the metal (reduction is gain)

2𝑍𝑛𝑆(𝑠) + 3𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝟐𝒁𝒏𝑶(𝒔) + 2𝑆𝑂2(𝑔)

Metal Oxide
Methods of Extraction and Reactivity Series

Metals LESS Reactive than Carbon (Zn, Fe, Cu):

Carbon is more reactive than Zinc in the reactivity series, causing it to take the
oxygen away from zinc (reduction) and replace zinc (Displacement reaction)
 Metals MORE Reactive than Carbon (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al):

Electrolysis:

In the Cathode: In the Anode:

Aluminium is positively charged, meaning that it Oxygen is negatively charged, meaning that it
would attract to the cathode would attract to the anode

𝐴𝑙 3+ + 3𝑒 − → 𝑨𝒍 2𝑂2+ → 𝑂2 + 4𝑒 −
Reduction Oxidation

This then creates pure aluminium This then creates pure aluminium

** REQUIRES LARGE AMOUNTS OF ELECTRICITY**

Alloys

 Is a mixture of metal with, (usually) other metals or carbon

o i.e. brass is a mixture of copper and zinc
o i.e. steel is a mixture of carbon and iron

Why are alloys harder than the individual pure metals they are made from?

In an alloy, the different elements have slightly different sized atoms. This breaks up the regular
lattice arrangement and makes it more difficult for layers of ions to slide over each other
Properties and Uses of some Metals

Aluminium

Use Property

Aircraft Low density / resists corrosion

Power cables Conducts electricity / ductile

Pots and pans Low density / strong (when alloyed) / good conductor of electricity and heat

Aluminium resists corrosion because it has a thin but strong layer of aluminium oxide in its
surface

Copper

Use Property

Electrical very good conductor of electricity and ductile

wires

Pots and pans very good conductor of heat / very unreactive / malleable

Water pipes unreactive / malleable

Surfaces in antimicrobial properties / malleable

hospitals

Iron

Use Property

Buildings Strong

Saucepans Conducts heat / high melting point / malleable

Steel

Type of Iron mixed Some uses Properties

steel with

Mild steel up to 0.25% nails, car bodies, ship Mild steel is a strong material that can
carbon building, girders easily be hammered into various
shapes (malleable). It rusts easily.

High- 0.6%-1.2% cutting tools, masonry High-carbon steel is harder than mild
carbon carbon nails steel but more brittle (not as
steel malleable).

Stainless Chromium cutlery, cooking utensils, Stainless steel forms a strong,

steel (and nickel) kitchen sinks protective oxide layer so is very
resistant to corrosion.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
22- INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Hydrocarbons

 A molecule containing only hydrogen and carbon

o Organic compounds are hydrocarbons since they exist as chains, branched chains
or rings of carbon atoms with hydrogen attached

Types of Formula for Organic Molecules

Empirical Formulae

 Shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms present in a compound

o So the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula

Molecular Formulae

 Shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule

General Formulae

 Shows the relationship between the number of atoms of one element to another within
a molecule

 Members of a homologous series share the same general formula:

o general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2

o general formula for alkenes is CnH2n

Key Words:

 Homologous series- Are series of compounds with similar chemical properties because they
have the same functional group

oHave the same general formula (Each member differs from the next by - 𝐶𝐻2- )
osimilar chemical properties because they have the same functional group
oa trend (graduation) in physical properties
 larger molecules have higher boiling points and increased intermolecular forces
 Functional group- is an atom or a group of atoms that determine the chemical properties of a
compound

o Compounds in the same homologous series share the same functional group

o Functional group of an alcohol is the -OH group and that of alkenes is the C=C carbon to
carbon double bond

 Isomers- molecules with the same molecular formula but with a different structure.

Structural Formulae

 Shows how the atoms in a molecule are joined together

Can be represented in two ways:

 Can be drawn as a displayed formula (full structural formula)

 Can be written out in condensed form (condensed structural formula)

Displayed Formulae

 A full structural formula which shows all the bonds in a molecule as individual lines
o Each line represents a pair of shared electrons in a covalent bond
Demonstrating the types of Formulae in Organic Compounds

Butane:
Displayed formula: (see left)

Molecular formula: C₄H₁₀

Empirical formula: C₂H₅

General formula (alkanes): CnH2n+2

Structural formula: CH₃ – CH₂ – CH₂ – CH₃

Ethene: Displayed formula: (see left)

Molecular formula: C₂H₄

Empirical formula: CH₂

General formula (alkenes): CnH2n

Structural formula: CH₂ = CH₂

Naming Organic Compounds

Prefixes:

Code Number of Code Letters Functional Name Side Chain

Letters Carbons in Chain Group
Meth 1 -ane Single bond Methyl 𝐶𝐻3
Eth 2
-ene Double bond
Prop 3 Ethyl 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2
But 4 -anol Hydroxyl
Pent 5 Propyl 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻2
Hex 6 -oic acid Carboxyl
Naming Straight Chain Alkanes:

Name: Ethane

Why?

 Has two carbon atoms (‘eth’)

 Is single bonded (‘ane’)

Name: Pentane

Why?

 Has five carbon atoms (‘pent’)

 Is single bonded (‘ane’)

Naming Branched Alkanes:

Name: 2-methyl-Hexane

Why?

 Has six carbon atoms (‘hex’)

1  Is single bonded (‘ane’)
 Methyl side chain is in carbon number two

Name: 2, 3-dimethyl-Hexane

Why?
1
 Has six carbon atoms (‘hex’)
 Is single bonded (‘ane’)
 Has two methyls (‘di’)
 Methyl side chain is in carbon number two and
three
 Naming Straight Chain Alkenes:

Name: Propene

Why?

 Has three carbon atoms (‘prop’)

 Is double bonded (‘ene’)

Name: Pent-2-ene

Why?

1 2  Has five carbon atoms (‘pent’)

 Is double bonded (‘ene’)
 Double bond is in carbon number 2

Name: Pent-1-ene

Why?

 Has five carbon atoms (‘pent’)

1  Is double bonded (‘ene’)
 Double bond is in carbon number 1

Naming Branched Alkenes:

Name: 3- Methyl-Pent-2-ene

Why?

 Has five carbon atoms (‘pent’)

 Is double bonded (‘ene’)
1  Double bond is in carbon number 2
 Methyl is in carbon number 3

REMINDERS:
Naming Straight Chain Alcohols:

1. WHEN CONSIDERING NUMBERING THE CARBONS, ONLY CONSIDER THE ONE CLOSEST TO THE DOUBLE BOND
2. THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS ‘METHENE’ SINCE TWO CARONS NEED TO BE DOUBLE BONDED
 Name: Butanol

Why?

 Has four carbon atoms (‘but’)

 Has hydroxyl (‘ol’)

Structural Isomerism

 Are molecules with the same molecular formula but have different structural formula

Isomers of 𝐶5 𝐻12
2, 2-DIMETHYL-PROPANE

PENTANE 2-METHYL-BUTANE

Writing Possible Structural and Displayed Formulae of Organic Molecules W/ Molecular Formula

The molecule may have the same number of hydrogen and carbons in them (molecular
formula) but may have different structures (structural/displayed formula)

Clues on Working out the Possible Formulae:

 If the molecular formula only has carbon and hydrogen in it, then of course the
structural formula will only have atoms of these 2 elements.
 If the molecular formula has twice as many carbons as hydrogens (CnH2n) then the
molecule is an alkene and has a double bond somewhere between 2 of the carbon
atoms.
 If the molecular formula has two more than twice as many carbons as hydrogens
(CnH2n+2) then the molecule is an alkane and only has single bonds.
 If the molecular formula has two more than twice as many carbons as hydrogens and
also has an oxygen atom (CnH2n+2O), then the molecule is an alcohol, and somewhere in
the displayed formula will be a carbon single-bonded to an oxygen which itself is then
single-bonded to a hydrogen.
Chemical Reactions in Organic Compounds

Substitution:

 An atom or group of atoms is replaced by a different atom or group of atoms

o I.e. ethane reacts with bromine gas where one of the hydrogen atoms in ethane is
substituted by one of the atoms of bromine from within the bromine molecule

CH₃-CH₃ + Br-Br → CH₃-CH₂Br + H-Br

ethane + bromine → bromoethane + hydrogen bromide

Addition:

 Occurs when an atom or group of atoms is added to a molecule without taking anything
away

o I.e. ethene reacts with bromine gas, the product is simply the addition of the two
molecules

Combustion:

 Another way to say ‘burning’ and is a reaction with oxygen

 Combustion of hydrocarbons with excess oxygen gives the products water and carbon
dioxide, and also releases heat energy (exothermic reaction)
o Two examples the combustion of propane and the combustion of butane

C₃H₈ + 5O₂ → 3CO₂ + 4H₂O

C₄H₈ + 6O₂ → 4CO₂ + 4H₂O

28- CRUDE OIL

Context

Origin:

 Dead organic matter from sea in the bottom of the ocean forms into crude oil due to
high temperatures and pressures

Contains:

 Crude oil is a hydrocarbon (contains hydrogen and carbon ONLY)

 Is a mixture of hydrocarbons in various sizes

How Physical Properties Change with Size

 As hydrocarbon molecules go bigger, intermolecular forces become stronger making it

harder to separate

Increase in Boiling point:

 The larger the molecule, the higher the boiling point

 Because of increase in molecular forces, it makes it harder to break it down, meaning
that more energy is required to do so

Less Volatile:

 Larger hydrocarbons evaporate slowly in room temperature

 Due to larger molecules are more attracted to one another

More Viscous:

 Large molecules are more viscous (thick) due to increase in molecular forces

Other Changes:

 Darker colour
 Doesn’t burn easily
Fractional Distillation

 Crude oil has no uses and is separated into fractions before used
o Fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil
o Fractional distillation- process to separate two liquids of similar boiling points
 Fractions are all mixtures, each has a narrow range of hydrocarbon sizes with similar
boiling points

1. Crude oil is heated and the oil evaporates.

2. It then goes into the tower. As the vapours rise up
the tower the temperature falls.
3. Different sized fractions condense at different
heights because they have different boiling points.
4. Smaller molecules condense high up the tower.
Larger molecules condense low down in the tower.
5. The fractions are collected.

Uses:

Used as Fuels

 All fractions are used as fuels since all hydrocarbons combust in oxygen to form 𝐶𝑂2 and
𝐻2 𝑂 releasing a lot of heat
o Fuels- a substance which, when burned, releases heat energy

Fraction Uses Boiling Point

Refinery Gasses  Mixture of methane, ethane, propane, and butane lowest boiling
 Commonly used as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for point
domestic heating and cooking
Gasoline Used in cars
Kerosene Fuel for jet air craft, domestic heating oil, paraffin for lamps and
small heaters
Diesel  Fuel for busses, trucks, some cars, and rail way engines
 Converted to other useful organic chemicals
Fuel oil Fuel for ships and industrial heating
Bitumen (tar) Thick, black material which is melted and mixed with small pieces Highest boiling
of rock to make surface of roads point
Reactions involved with Fuels

Combustion:

 Another word for burning

Complete Combustion:

 When there is enough oxygen available, producing carbon dioxide and water

Incomplete Combustion:

 When there isn’t enough oxygen available, producing soot (carbon) or carbon monoxide
and water

Dangers of Carbon Monoxide:

 Is a poisonous gas because it prevents/ decreases our oxygen intake since haemoglobin
reacts more with it

Environmental Problems

Global Warming:

 This is due to the production of greenhouse gasses such as carbon dioxide which goes
into the atmosphere, trapping in heat (absorbs IR radiation) leading to increase in
temperatures and climate change

Acid Rain:

 Occurs when water and oxygen in the atmosphere interact with a gas known as sulphur
dioxide to form sulphuric acid or with nitrogen oxides to form nitric acids

Formation of Sulphuric dioxide:

 Comes from burning fossils since they contain small amounts of sulphur (impurities)

S (s) + O₂ (g) → SO₂ (g)

Formation of Nitric Oxides:

 Formed in petrol engines (in cars), where temperatures are high enough to allow
nitrogen (from atmosphere) and oxygen to bind, forming nitric oxides

Creating Acid Rain:

 Nitric oxides and sulphuric dioxide are non-metallic compounds, which interact with
water to form acidic substances which fall as acid rain

2SO₂ (g) + 2H₂O (l) + O₂ (g) → 2H₂SO₄ (aq)

Sulphuric dioxide + water + oxygen -> sulphuric acid

SO₂ (g) + H₂O (l) → H₂SO₃ (aq)

Sulphuric dioxide + water -> sulphurous acid

N₂ (g) + O₂ (g) → NO₂ (g)

Production of nitrous oxides to react with water

to form acid rain

Harmful effects of Acid Rain:

 Kills trees and life on lakes (fishies)

 Damages buildings composed of marble (limestone) and metals like iron

Solution:

 Removing sulphur in fossils and by removing pollutant gases from gasses produced from
combustion in power stations, etc.

Cracking
 A process where long chain alkanes are converted into
alkenes and shorter chain alkanes

Why is it Done?

 There are too much long chain carbons which don’t have as
much uses has the shorter chain ones
 Are used to generate petrol and plastics
Catalytic Cracking:

 Fuel oil is heated to give a gas which is passed over a catalyst of silica (silicon dioxide)
and alumina (aluminium dioxide) at 600 – 700 °C
o Can be done without catalysts (thermal cracking)
 Cracking is an example of thermal decomposition = a big molecule splitting into a
smaller molecule on heating
 Majority of hydrocarbons found in crude oil have single bonds between carbon atoms
where c-c bonds are broken to c=c in cracking

Two Important Outcomes in Cracking:

1. Producing more petrol (more smaller bonds)

2. Producing more alkenes for making polymers

24- ALKANES

What are they?

 Simplest family of hydrocarbons, containing hydrogen and carbon ONLY

 Saturated (single bonded)
 Many used in fuels

General Formula: CnH2n+2

Name Mol. St. Formula Displayed Formula

Formula
Methane 𝐶𝐻4 𝐶𝐻4

Ethane 𝐶2 𝐻6 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻3

Propane 𝐶3 𝐻8 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3

Butane 𝐶4 𝐻10 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3

Pentane 𝐶5 𝐻12 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3

Isomers of Alkanes

 Isomer- compounds having the same molecular formula and different structural
(displayed) formula

𝐶5 𝐻12 :

Reactions of Alkanes

Combustion

 All alkanes burn in air or oxygen

Complete:

 Occurs when enough oxygen is present, burning completely to give off carbon dioxide
and water

Incomplete:

 Occurs when there isn’t enough oxygen present, burning incompletely to give off carbon
monoxide or soot (carbon)
Substitution Reaction

 Alkanes react with halogens in the presence of UV radiation (i.e. sunlight)

 Hydrogen atom in alkane is replaced by halogen atom (hence, substitution)

Monosubstitution Reaction:

 Occurs when one hydrogen atom in alkanes is replaced by a halogen atom

Products between halogens and alkanes are called HALOGENOALKANES

25- ALKENES

What are they?

 Unsaturated (double bonded)

General Formula: CnH2n

Name Mol. St. Formula Displayed Formula

Formula
Ethene 𝐶2 𝐻4 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2

Propene 𝐶3 𝐻6 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻𝐶𝐻3

Butene 𝐶4 𝐻8 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3

Pentene 𝐶5 𝐻10 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻2 𝐶𝐻3

Isomers
2, METHYL-PROP-1-ENE BUT-2-ENE
𝐶4 𝐻8 :
BUTENE

Physical Properties

 Similar to alkanes
 Alkanes up to four carbons are gasses at room temperature, same as alkenes
o Because members of homologus series shows tend in physical properties

Chemical Reactions

Combustion

 Burns in air/oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water

o Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes (due to functional group)

𝐶2 𝐻4(𝑔) + 3𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

Addition

 C=C bond is a functional group

 Have characteristic chemical properties that differs from alkanes
 In addition reactions, part of double bond breaks, forming single C-C bonds
 Electrons used to join other atoms onto the two carbon atoms

Addition of Bromine:

 Bromine adds to alkenes with no need of heat, light or catalysts

 Reaction often carried out using bromine water (aqueous bromine solution (orange
coloured))
 When reaction occurs, the product is a colourless liquid
How Bromine water is used to Distinguish between Alkanes and Alkenes

 In the absence of UV light an alkane added to bromine water will not react: the bromine
water will stay orange.
 However, alkenes react with bromine water even without UV light. There will be a
colour change of orange to colourless

Hydrogenation

 Involves addition of hydrogen

 Reacts with hydrogen to produce an alkane

Hydration

 Involves addition of water

 Alkenes react with water to form alcohol

Starting materials = ethane and steam

Temperature = 300°C

Pressure= 60-70 atmospheres

Catalyst= Phosphoric/ sulphuric acid

26- ALCHOHOLS

What are they?

 Contains functional group –OH covalently bonded to carbon chain

o OH - hydroxyl
o Because of the hydroxyl, alcohol soluble in water
o Alcohol isn’t greasy
 ‘an’ – means saturated
 ‘ol’ – tells you that it is alcohol

Name Mol. St. Formula Displayed Formula

Formula
Methanol 𝐶𝐻4 𝑂 CH₃-OH

Ethanol 𝐶2 𝐻6 𝑂 CH₃-CH₂-OH

Propanol 𝐶3 𝐻8 𝑂 CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-OH

Butanol 𝐶4 𝐻10 𝑂 CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-OH

Oxidations of Ethanol (Or Just Alcohols in General)

Oxidation of Ethanol (Complete Combustion)

 Alcohols can be oxidised by complete combustion, forming carbon dioxide and water

C₂H₅OH (l) + 3O₂ (g) → 2CO₂ (g) + 3H₂O (l)

Microbial Combustion (microorganisms)

 Ethanol is oxidised by air in the presence of microbes (i.e. bacteria and yeast)
 Oxidation of ethanol (microbial) forms ethanoic acid (𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻) also known as vinegar

Oxidising
Agent
Oxidation with Potassium Dichromate (VI) and dilute Sulphuric Acid

 Usual way to oxidise alcohols in labs

 Oxidising agent is a mixture of Potassium dichromate (VI) and dilute hydrochloric acid
o Potassium dichromate (VI) = strong oxidising agent
o Sulphuric Acid = important for potassium dichromate (VI) to act as oxidising
agent without 𝐻 + ions from acid (no redox reactions)

Procedure:

1. Few drops of ethanol added to solution containing oxidising agent and sulphuric acid in
test tube
2. Test tube heated in hot water bath
3. Turns solution green
 Green colour indicates presence of 𝐶𝑟 3+ ions which are formed when potassium
dichromate (VI) is reduced

CH₃CH₂OH + 2[O] → CH₃COOH + H₂O

Ethanol + oxidising agent -> ethanoic acid + water

Production of Ethanol

Fermentation Hydration of Ethene

Use of Resources Uses renewable resources: Uses non-renewable resources
 Sugar beet
 Sugar cane
 Corn
 Other starchy materials
Type of Process Batch process Continuous flow process
 Everything is mixed together in  Stream of reactants is
reaction vessel and left for constantly passed over the
several days catalyst
 That batch is removed and new  More efficient
reaction is set up
 Is inefficient
Reaction Glucose -> ethanol + carbon dioxide Ethane + steam -> ethanol
 Enzymes in yeast converts glucose
to ethanol and carbon dioxide
Rate of Reaction Slow, takes several days for each batch Fast
Quality of Product Produces impure ethanol Produces purer ethanol
Reaction Uses gentle temperatures and pressure Uses high pressures and temperature
Conditions and high energy input
Why do we Ferment in the Absence of Air and at an Optimum temperature?

 In the production of ethanol the process of fermentation is carried out at a low

temperature (30⁰-40⁰).

 Above 40⁰ the enzymes would permanently lose their structure (denature).

 At a temperature lower than 30⁰ the process would be too slow

 Fermentation is conducted in the absence of air. In the presence of air (aerobic

conditions), enzymes in the yeast produce carbon dioxide and water instead of ethanol

27- CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

What are they?

 Acids containing the function group (-COOH)

o COOH – carboxyl

 Formed by oxidation of alcohols

Name Mol. St. Formula Displayed Formula

Formula
Methanoic 𝐶𝐻2 𝑂2 HCOOH
Acid

Ethanoic 𝐶2 𝐻4 𝑂2 CH₃COOH
Acid

Propanoic 𝐶3 𝐻6 𝑂2 CH₃CH₂COOH
Acid

Butanoic 𝐶4 𝐻8 𝑂2 CH₃CH₂CH₂COOH
Acid

Acid Properties of Carboxylic Acids

 Are weak acids with pH of 3-5 depending on concentration

 Turns blue litmus paper red, reacts with substances that other acids react with
Reactions of Carboxylic Acids

With Metals:

 Dilute carboxylic acids react with metals similar to other acids, but slower
 Like acids, they react to produce salt and hydrogen

Magnesium + ethanoic acid → magnesium ethanoate + hydrogen

Mg (s) + 2CH₃COOH (aq) → (CH₃COO) ₂Mg (aq) + H₂ (g)

With Carbonates:

 React to give salt, carbon dioxide and water

 Lots of effervescence (fizzing) may occur due to production of carbon dioxide gas

Sodium carbonate + ethanoic acid → sodium ethanoate + carbon dioxide + water

Na₂CO₃ (s) + 2CH₃COOH (aq) → 2CH₃COONa (aq) + CO₂ (g) + H₂O (l)

Charge of ethanoate is 1- since the positively charged

metal ions are attracted to it

Note: Vinegar is an aqueous solution containing ethanoic acid

28- ESTERS

What are they?

 Organic compounds by reaction of an alcohol and a carboxylic acid (estherification)

 Has a functional group of –COO-
Esterification Process

 Heat mixture of ethanoic acid and ethanol with few drops of concentrated sulphuric
acid
o Acid acts as a catalyst
 Produces liquid called, ethyl ethanoate

Ethanoic acid + ethanol ⇋ ethyl ethanoate + water

CH₃COOH (l) + CH₃CH₂OH (l) ⇋ CH₃COOCH₂CH₃ (l) + H₂O (l)

Starting materials: ethanol and ethanoic acid

Products: ethyl ethanoate and water

Catalyst: Concentrated sulphuric acid (not in equation because it isn’t consumed)

Conditions: heat

 The reaction is known as esterification, which is also described as a condensation

reaction
o Because water is made when two molecules join together
o This is a reversible reaction
o To minimise the yield of ethyl ethanoate, pure ethanol is often used

Drawing and Naming Esters:

Examples of Esters

Uses of Esters Properties of Esters

 Commonly used in solvents  Insoluble in water

 Food flavouring and perfumes o This is because it doesn’t have
 Found in fruits such as: hydroxyl
o Bananas  Oily and greasy
o Pears  Volatile liquids (evaporates easily)
o Raspberries  Good/ pleasant fragrance

29- SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

Polymer Monomer Examples of Uses

Polythene Ethene Plastic bags, squeezy bottles, washing up bowls
Low density = flexible and weak
High density = strong and rigid
Polypropene Propene Milk bottle crates, carpets, plastic ropes
Polystyrene Styrene Plastic toys, expanded polystyrene as insulation
and packaging
 Polyvinylchloride Vinyl chloride Guttering and pipes, electrical insulation, floor
(PVC) and wall coverings

Acrylic Acrylonitrite Fibre for clothing (wool substitute)

polytetrafluoroethene Tetrafluroethene Non-stick coating for pots and pans

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS ARE ALL SINGLE BONDED

Polymerisation

 Joining up of monomers, making a polymer (big molecule)

Addition polymerisation:

 All atoms in monomers used to form polymers

o i.e. polythene, PVC, polystyrene
Working out the Monomer for given Addition Polymer:

1. Take any two existing carbon atoms which are next to each other
2. Remove the extending single bonds
3. Draw in a double bond

Condensation Polymerisation:

 Monomers join up with expulsion of small molecules, not all the original atoms are
present
o I.e. PVA, nylon, polyesters

 Condensation polymers are formed by a condensation reaction

 These polymers are formed by the combination of two different monomers, such as a
dicarboxylic acid and a diol

o When these particular monomers join in an alternating pattern they form a long
polymer called a polyester

o Where each monomer joins to the next, a separate molecule of water is also produced

Process:

1. One of the monomers is a diol, an alcohol with a –OH functional group at each end

a. Since it is only the –OH functional groups which are important for polymerisation, this
can we re-written with the central block of carbons represented as a block:
 2. The other monomer is a dicarboxylic acid, a molecule with a –COOH functional group at each
end

a. Since it is only the –COOH functional groups which are important for polymerisation,
this can we re-written with the central block of 4 carbons represented as a block:

3. These two different types of monomer (the diol and the dicarboxylic acid) can join to form a
polymer with the loss of a water molecule at every bond

Problems with Polymers

1. Polymers are non-biodegradable – can’t be decomposed by bacteria

a. This is because they are un reactive since they have strong C-C bonds

2. They are non- photo recyclable

Biopolyesters

There are environmental issues with the disposal of condensation polymers, though because of
their ester linkage the issues are not as severe as with addition polymers.

Normally condensation polymers can take hundreds of years to break down, but chemists has
developed biopolyesters which break down much more quickly

 Biodegradable polymers can be made from lactic acid which can be obtained from corn
starch
PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY
5 & 6 - CHEMICAL FORMULAE, EQUATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Calculating Relative Formula Mass (RFM) from Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)

 Relative formula mass (Mr) is mass of a molecule or compound (on a scale compared to
carbon-12).

 It is calculated by adding up the relative atomic masses (Ar) of all the atoms present in
the formula.

Example:

The relative formula mass (Mr) for water (H2O) is 18.

Water = H2O

Atoms present = (2 x H) + (1 x O)

Mr = (2 x 1) + (1 x 16) = 18

Calculating RFM of Copper (II) sulphate crystals (CuSO4 . 5H2O):

Water = H2O
WATER
Mr = (2 x 1) + (1 x 16) = 18 x 5 = 90

Copper Sulphate = CuSO4

WATER CuSO4 WATER
Mr = 63.5 + 32 + (16 x 4) = 159.5

90 + 159.5 = 249.5
WATER WATER

Finding the formula of a salt containing water of crystallisation

When you heat a salt that contains water of crystallisation, the water is driven off leaving the
anhydrous (without water) salt behind.

If the hydrated copper sulfate (CuSO4.5H2O) are strongly heated in a crucible then they will break
down and the water lost, leaving behind anhydrous copper sulfate (CuSO4).

The difference of mass before and after heating is the mass of the water lost. These mass numbers
can be used to obtain the formula of the salt.
Using RFM to find Percentage Composition

Finding percentage by mass of copper in copper (II) oxide (CuO)

RFM = O = 16, Cu = 63.5

RFM of CuO = 63.5 + 16 = 79.5

63.5
Percentage of copper = 𝑥 100 = 79.9%
79.5

The Mole

 The mole (mol) is a measure of amount of substance (n).

 The mass of 1 mole of a substance is the relative formula mass (Mr) of the substance in
grams.

Example:
The Mr of water is 18.
Therefore the mass of 1 mol of water equals 18 g
Calculations with Moles
Calculate the amount, in moles, of 8.8 g of carbon dioxide (CO2).

Step 1: Calculate the relative formula mass (Mr) of carbon dioxide

(CO2).

Step 2: Use the formula to calculate the amount in moles.

Calculating reacting masses using Experimental data and Chemical Equations

What mass of ammonia (NH3) is formed when 7 g of nitrogen (N2) is combined with hydrogen (H2)?

Calculating Percentage Yield

 Yield is how much product you get from a chemical reaction.

 The theoretical yield is the amount of product that you would expect to get. This is
calculated using reacting mass calculations.

 In most chemical reactions, however, you rarely achieved your theoretical yield.

For example, in the following reaction:

CaCO3 –> CaO + CO2

You might expect to achieve a theoretical yield of 56 g of CaO from 100 g of CaCO3.

However, what if the actual yield is only 48 g of CaO.

By using the following formula, the % yield can be calculated:

Practical: Investigating the Formula of a Metal Oxide by Combustion

The formulae of metal oxides can be found experimentally by reacting a metal with oxygen and
recording the mass changes.

Example: When magnesium is burned in air, it reacts with oxygen (O2) to form magnesium
oxide (MgO).

Procedure:

1. Weigh a crucible and lid

2. Place the magnesium ribbon in the crucible, replace the lid, and reweigh

3. Calculate the mass of magnesium

(mass of crucible + lid + Magnesium – mass of crucible + lid)

4. Heat the crucible with lid on until the magnesium burns

(lid prevents magnesium oxide escaping therefore ensuring accurate results)

5. Lift the lid from time to time (this allows air to enter)

6. Stop heating when there is no sign of further reaction

(this ensures all Mg has reacted)

7. Allow to cool and reweigh

8. Repeat the heating , cooling and reweigh until two consecutive masses are the same
(this ensures all Mg has reacted and therefore the results will be accurate)

9. Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide formed (mass of crucible + lid + Magnesium
oxide – mass of crucible + lid)
 For example, ethane:

Molecular formula = C2H6

Empirical and the Molecular Formula

Empirical Formula Empirical formula = CH3

 Shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms present in the compound

Calculating the Empirical Formula:

Example: What is the empirical formula of magnesium chloride if 0.96 g of magnesium

combines with 2.84 g of chlorine?
1. Put the symbols for each element involved at the top
of the page.
2. Underneath, write down the masses of each element
combining.
3. Divide by their relative atomic mass (Ar).
4. Divide all the numbers by the smallest of these
numbers to give a whole number ratio.
5. Use this to give the empirical formula.

(If your ratio is 1:1.5 then multiple each number by 2

If your ratio is 1:1.33 then x3. If your ratio is 1:1.25 x4)
Molecular Formula

 Shows the actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule (covalent
compound) or formula unit (ionic compound ) of a compound

Calculating the Molecular Formula:

Example: A compound has the empirical formula CH2, and its relative formula mass is 56.
Calculate the molecular formula.

1. Calculate the relative mass of the empirical

formula.
2. Find out the number of times the relative mass of
the empirical formula goes into the Mr of the
compound.
3. This tells how many times bigger the molecule
formula is compared to the empirical formula.
Empirical Formula Calculations involving Water of Crystallisation

CONTEXT:

When a salt that contains water of crystallization is heated, water evaporates, leaving the anhydrous
salt behind

I.e. Barium chloride crystals contain water of crystallisation, and therefore would have the formula
BaCl2.nH2O where the symbol ‘n’ indicates the number of molecules of water of crystallisation.

This value, ‘n’ can be calculated

Example: If you heated hydrated barium chloride (BaCl2.nH2O) in a crucible you might end up
with the following results:

Step 1: Calculate the mass of the anhydrous barium chloride (BaCl2) and the water (H2O) driven
off.

Step 2: Use the empirical formula method to find the value of n in the formula.
Calculations involving the Volume and the Concentration of a Substance

0.03 mol of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is dissolved in 300 cm3 of water. Calculate the
concentration of the solution.

Titration Calculations (pt. 1)

A pupil carried out a titration to find the concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl).
She found that 25.0 cm3 of 0.100 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) required 23.50
cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid for neutralisation. Calculate the concentration, in mol/dm3 of the
acid.

The chemical equation for this reaction is:

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) –> NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Volume 25.0cm3 23.50cm3

Concentration 0.100mol/dm3
Step 1: Calculate the amount, in moles, of the solution that you know the values for both
volume and concentration. In this case, sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

First convert the volume of NaOH from cm3 into dm3.

Then rearrange the molar concentration formula to calculate of the amount, in moles of NaOH.

Step 2: Deduce the amount, in moles of the solution with the unknown concentration. In this
case hydrochloric acid (HCl).

From the chemical equation the ratio of NaOH to HCl is 1:1

Therefore if you have 0.0025 mol of NaOH, this will react with 0.0025 mol of HCl.

Step 3: Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid (HCl).

Convert the volume of HCl from cm3 into dm3.

Use the molar concentration formula to calculate of the concentration of the HCl.
Calculations involving Gas Volumes and Molar Volume of Gas

The molar volume of a gas is the volume that one mole of

any gas will occupy.

1 mole of gas, at room temperature and pressure (rtp), will

always occupy 24 dm3 or 24,000 cm3.

Note: 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3