Chapter Thirteen

Chemical
Energetics

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 Physical and chemical changes
Physical changes:

Ice, water and steam look different but they are all made
of H2O. They are different physical forms of the same
substance. They change from one to the other by changing
conditions such as temperature and pressure.

Dissolving sugar in water is also a physical change, it

could be easily separated again by distillation.

Physical changes:

- No new substances are formed.

- Can be easily reversed.

In some physical changes heat energy is involved.

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Chemical changes:

In a chemical reaction new substance is formed.

Some reactions can be reversed and some cannot.

During a chemical reaction there is always an energy

change. Energy can be given out or given in usually in the
form of heat.

Energy in general takes many forms, including heat, light,

sound, chemical and electrical energy.

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, but it can be

changed from one form to the other.

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 Exothermic reactions
Exothermic reactions give out heat energy to the
surroundings. So the temperature of the surroundings
rises.

The surroundings are for example the walls of the

reaction container, the water in a reaction solution or even
the air.

Reactants products + thermal energy

The products contain less energy than the reactants, so

when reactants change into products they get rid of the
extra energy giving it out as heat energy to the
surrounding.

The arrow indicates

how much energy has
been given to the
surrounding.

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 Endothermic reactions
Endothermic reactions take in heat energy from the
surroundings. So the temperature of the surroundings
falls.

Reactants + thermal energy products

The products contain more energy than the reactants, so

when reactants change into products they take in the extra
energy from the surrounding.

The arrow indicates

how much energy is
taken in from the
surrounding.

In both cases the exothermic and endothermic, the total

energy does not change, during a reaction. It is the same
on each side of the arrow.
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 Reaction pathway diagrams
Exothermic:

Endothermic:

- Write the reactants on the left and products on the

right just like in an equation.
- Put an arrow leading from reactants to products.
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 Enthalpy change And Activation energy

Enthalpy change:

It is the overall energy change of a reaction or transfer of

energy in a reaction. It is called ΔH (delta H). It is
negative for exothermic reactions and positive for
endothermic reactions.

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Activation energy

Before bonds are broken in a chemical reaction, particles

must first collide. But they must also collide with
sufficient energy. So the activation energy is the
minimum energy that colliding particles must have to
react.

Activation energy Ea is energy taken in to start a

reaction, so it is always positive.

In exothermic reactions it could be taken from the

surroundings, or some reactions may need initial heating
then they proceed on their own. But most endothermic
reactions need heating until the reaction is complete.

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 Bond breaking and bond making
In a chemical reaction:

Bonds in reacting particles are broken, they need energy

to be broken.

Bonds in product particles are made, this releases energy.

Bond breaking is endothermic

Bond making is exothermic

The energy needed to break bonds is the same as the

energy given out when these same bonds form. It is called
bond energy. It is measured by kj/mol.

ΔH= total energy needed – total energy given out

ΔH= energy needed to break bonds – energy given out when bonds are formed

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E.g. CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + H2O

We need to break: 4C-H and 2O=O bonds.

And form: 2C=O and 4O-H bonds. Bond Bond energy
kj/mol
Bond breaking:
C-H 435
4C-H = 4 x 435= 1740 kj/mol O=O 497
2O=O = 2 x 497= 994 kj/mol C=O 803

Total= 2734 O-H 464

Bond making:

2C=O = 2 x 803= 1606 kj/mol

4O-H = 4 x 464= 1856 kj/mol

Total= 3462

ΔH= 2734-3462= -728 kj/mol

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You will notice that in exothermic reactions ΔH will be
negative and in endothemric reactions it will be positive.
This is because:

In exothermic reactions:

Energy needed to break the bonds is less than energy

given out in bond making.

While in endothermic reactions:

Energy needed to break the bonds is more than energy

given out in bond making.

Try calculating ΔH in the following reactions, using the

bond energies in the following table. State in each
example whether the reaction is exothermic or
endothermic based on the sign of ΔH you’ve calculated.

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- 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O Bond Bond energy
kj/mol
C-H 435
O=O 497
C=O 803
O-H 464
H-H 436
Cl-Cl 242
H-Cl 431
N≡N 946

- H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl N-H 391

- NH3 → 3H2 + N2

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 Examples of exothermic reactions
1- Combustion:

It is the reaction with oxygen to give out energy.

E.g. CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + H2O

Carbon dioxide and water are the products of complete

combustion.

While carbon monoxide or even soot (c) and water are

the products of incomplete combustion.

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Fossil fuels:

Coal: It is a black solid which is a mixture between

carbon and hydrocarbons.

Formed by high temperature and pressure acting on

decayed bacteria over million of years.

Petroleum: It is mainly liquid and is a mixture of

hydrocarbons.

Formed by high temperature and pressure acting on the

remains of dead sea creatures over millions of years.

Natural gas: It is mainly methane gas.

Formed by high temperature and pressure acting on the

remains of dead sea creatures over millions of years.

Note that charcoal is not a fossil fuel and it is a form of

carbon.

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Measuring energy produced by different fuels:

We can compare between

two different fuels to find
which produces more
energy.

Eg.

Which fuel produces more energy methanol or ethanol?

- Add 50cm3 water into the metal can using a

measuring cylinder.
- Using a thermometre measure the initial temperature
of the water.
- Burn 5g of methanol.
- Meaure the final temperature of the water.
- Repeat with ethanol.
- The fuel which raised the temperature more is the one
that produces more energy.

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 2- Respiration

It is the burning of
glucose to give out
energy in biological cells.

3- Hydration

When concentrated sulfuric acid is added to water, heat is

given out.

When anhydrous copper sulfate combines with water, it

forms a hydrate and heat is produced.

Can you think of two other reactions we studied that are

exothermic ?

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 Examples of endothermic reactions
1- Thermal decomposition
Eg

2- Photosynthesis

Plants use carbon dioxide and water to form glucose,

using sunlight as a source of energy and chlorophyll
as a catalyst.

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Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.

In electrolysis we put in electrical energy to make

chemical change.

In a cell a chemical change produces electrical energy.

The electrodes are made of

carbon. In an acidic electrolyte
the following takes place.

2H2→ 4H+ + 4e

O2 + 4H+ + 4e → 2H2O

The overall reaction for the

fuel cell is: 2H2+ O2→ 2H2O

Advantages of a fuel cell:

- Pollution free, the only product is water.

- No recharging needed if hydrogen and oxygen are
fed continuously.
- Produces more energy per gram than other fuels.

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Disadvantages of fuel cells:

- Large fuel tanks required.

- There are very few filling stations where a car could
be topped up with hydrogen.
- Currently expensive.

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