NAR – 808 / DISSERTATION

SESSION – 2018-19
Research Topic – Contribution of Structural
Engineer

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY
AR. SHAZAD AHMAD MALIK AMBUJ K. SHARMA
4th Yr., 8th Sem.
Roll No. – 1459781006
 DISSERTATION
ON

Contribution of Structural

Engineering in Architecture

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirement for

The award of degree of Bachelor of Architecture

Submitted by

AMBUJ KUMAR SHARMA

Khandelwal College of Architecture & Design, Bareilly

(2018-2019)
 Certificate
In the partial fulfillment of the B. Arch degree program, this is to certify that ‘Ambuj Kumar Sharma’ has
worked on the Thesis Report entitled “Contribution of Structural Engineering in Architecture” under my
guidance and supervision.

Ar. SHAZAD AHMAD MALIK

External Examiner(s)

(I)…………………………………………

1
 Declaration

I, Ambuj Kumar Sharma, hereby declare that the Dissertation entitled ‘Contribution of Structural
Engineering in Architecture ‘submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
degree of Bachelor of Architecture, is my original research work and that the information taken from secondary
sources is given due citations and references.

Date : 10/6/2019 Ambuj Kumar Sharma

Place : Bareilly B.Arch.

( 8th Semester )

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Contents
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 4
Aims and objectives ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Scope and limitation .............................................................................................................................. 5
Methodology .......................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................................................... 6
HISTORY ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Early Structural engineering development ............................................................................................. 8
Mordan development in structural emgineering .................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................................................... 13
Structural engineering importance .................................................................................................... 13
Role of structural engineering in our nation development ................................................................ 13
Responcblities of a structural engineer ............................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................................................... 15
Role of structural engineering in Architectural field ............................................................................ 15
Types of structures in structural engineering ........................................................................................ 15
CHAPTER 5 ......................................................................................................................................... 17
Future of structural engineering .......................................................................................................... 17
Limitation of structural engineering ..................................................................................................... 19
Scope of structural engineering in India ........................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 6 ..................................................................................................................................... 21
The preminent personalities in structural engineering in India ......................................................... 21
Biografyes ......................................................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 7…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………28

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...28

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 CHAPTER - 1
INTRODUCTION –
The role of the structural engineer is a key component in the construction process. Part of the wider
discipline of civil engineering, structural engineering is concerned with the design and physical
integrity of buildings and other large structures, like tunnels and bridges. Structural engineers have
wide range of responsibilities - not least a duty to ensure the safety and durability of the project on
which they are working.
Unlike architects, who must focus on the appearance, shape, size and use of the building, structural
engineers must solve technical problems - and help the architect achieve his or her vision for the
project.

Every standing structure you see had a carefully constructed design and proper planning behind it.
Every aspect of the concept to the finished project was carefully considered by a structural engineer
to make sure it would stand the test of time.

Structural engineers are highly trained professionals that work closely with architects and
surveyors. They are the guardians of safe construction who improve the places we live, do
business, and visit.

These skilled engineers are not only designers but are also problem solvers. They encounter and
overcome many unique challenges that require a combination of creativity and problem solving
skills. A structural engineer is involved in a project from conception to completion.

There are specialists within the structural engineering field ranging from those who plan for severe
weather and earthquakes to those who specialize in disaster relief and renovation.

Structural engineers must continually evolve and further their education. This is due to increasing
climate change concerns and the increasing importance of sustainability. New ‘green’ materials
must be calculated and tested for safety and strength.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES –

1- History of structural engineering.

2- Development of structural engineering

3- Role of structural engineering in our nation development.

4- Structural Engineering Importance.

5- Role of structural engineering in architectural field.

6- Types of structures in structural engineering. 4

7- Future of structural engineering.

8- Limitation of structural engineer.

9- Scope of structural engineering in India.

10- Who are the prominent personalities in structural engineering in India.

11- Biography of a Structural Engineer.

Scope and limitation

1-To understand early structural engineering developments.

2- To understand modern developments in structural engineering.

3- To understand what Is Structural Engineering?

4- To understand what do structural engineers do?

5- To understand Structural Engineering Important.

METHODOLOGY-

INTRODUCTION FUTURE LIMITATION

ROLE IN
HISTORY SCOPE
ARCHITECTURE

UNDERSTANDING RIVIEW AND

DEVELOPMENT
OF IMPORTANCE CONCLUSION

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CHAPTER 2
History
The history of structural engineering dates back to at least 2700 BC when the step pyramid for Pharaoh
Djoser was built by Imhotep, the first engineer in history known by name. Pyramids were the most common
major structures built by ancient civilizations because it is a structural form which is inherently stable and can
be almost infinitely scaled (as opposed to most other structural forms, which cannot be linearly increased in size
in proportion to increased loads).

Another notable engineering feat from antiquity still in use today is the qanat water management
system. Qanat technology developed in the time of the Medes, the predecessors of the Persian Empire (modern-
day Iran which has the oldest and longest Qanat (older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km) that also spread
to other cultures having had contact with the Persian.

Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans,
such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. No theory of structures existed and
understanding of how structures stood up was extremely limited, and based almost entirely on empirical
evidence of 'what had worked before'. Knowledge was retained by guilds and seldom supplanted by advances.
Structures were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.

No record exists of the first calculations of the strength of structural members or the behaviour of structural
material, but the profession of structural engineer only really took shape with the Industrial Revolution and the
re-invention of concrete (see History of concrete). The physical sciences underlying structural engineering
began to be understood in the Renaissance and have been developing ever since.

Early structural engineering developments

The recorded history of structural engineering starts with the ancient Egyptians. In the 27th century
BC, Imhotep was the first structural engineer known by name and constructed the first known step pyramid in
Egypt. In the 26th century BC, the Great Pyramid of Giza was constructed in Egypt. It remained the largest
man-made structure for millennia and was considered an unsurpassed feat in architecture until the 19th century
AD.

The understanding of the physical laws that underpin structural engineering in the Western world dates back to
the 3rd century BC, when Archimedes published his work On the Equilibrium of Planes in two volumes, in
which he sets out the Law of the Lever, stating:

Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Leon

Equal weights at equal distances are in equilibrium, and equal weights at unequal distances are not in
equilibrium but incline towards the weight which is at the greater distance.

Archimedes used the principles derived to calculate the areas and centres of gravity of various geometric figures
including triangles, parabolise, and hemispheres archimedes's work on this and his work on calculus and

6
geometry, together with Euclidean geometry, underpin much of the mathematics and understanding of
structures in modern structural engineering.

The ancient Romans made great bounds in structural engineering, pioneering large structures
in masonry and concrete, many of which are still standing today. They
include aqueducts, thermae, columns, lighthouses, defensive walls and harbours. Their methods are recorded
by Vitruvius in his De Architecture written in 25 BC, a manual of civil and structural engineering with
extensive sections on materials and machines used in construction. One reason for their success is their
accurate surveying techniques based on the dioptra, groma and chorobates.

Centuries later, in the 15th and 16th centuries and despite lacking beam theory and calculus, Leonardo da
Vinci produced many engineering designs based on scientific observations and rigour, including a design for a
bridge to span the Golden Horn. Though dismissed at the time, the design has since been judged to be both
feasible and structurally valid.

Leonhard Euler portrait

The foundations of modern structural engineering were laid in the 17th century by Galileo Galilei, Robert
Hooke and Isaac Newton with the publication of three great scientific works In
1638 Galileo published Dialogues Relating to Two New Sciences, outlining the sciences of the strength of
materials and the motion of objects (essentially defining gravity as a force giving rise to a
constant acceleration). It was the first establishment of a scientific approach to structural engineering, including
the first attempts to develop a theory for beams. This is also regarded as the beginning of structural analysis, the
mathematical representation and design of building structures.

This was followed in 1676 by Robert Hooke's first statement of Hooke's Law, providing a scientific
understanding of elasticity of materials and their behaviour under load.

Eleven years later, in 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published Philosophise Naturalis Principia Mathematica, setting
out his Laws of Motion, providing for the first time an understanding of the fundamental laws governing
structures.

Also in the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz both independently developed
the Fundamental theorem of calculus, providing one of the most important mathematical tools in engineering.

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Further advances in the mathematics needed to allow structural engineers to apply the understanding of
structures gained through the work of Galileo, Hooke and Newton during the 17th century came in the 18th
century when Leonhard Euler pioneered much of the mathematics and many of the methods which allow
structural engineers to model and analyse structures. Specifically, he developed the Euler-Bernoulli beam
equation with Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) circa 1750 - the fundamental theory underlying most structural
engineering design.

Daniel Bernoulli, with Johann (Jean) Bernoulli (1667–1748), is also credited with formulating the theory
of virtual work, providing a tool using equilibrium of forces and compatibility of geometry to solve structural
problems. In 1717 Jean Bernoulli wrote to Pierre Varignon explaining the principle of virtual work, while in
1726 Daniel Bernoulli wrote of the "composition of forces".

In 1757 Leonhard Euler went on to derive the Euler buckling formula, greatly advancing the ability of engineers
to design compression elements.

Modern developments in structural engineering

`
Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, materials science and structural analysis underwent
development at a tremendous pace.

Though elasticity was understood in theory well before the 19th century, it was not until 1821 that Claude-Louis
Navier formulated the general theory of elasticity in a mathematically usable form. In his leçons of 1826 he
explored a great range of different structural theory, and was the first to highlight that the role of a structural
engineer is not to understand the final, failed state of a structure, but to prevent that failure in the first place. In
1826 he also established the elastic modulus as a property of materials independent of the second moment of
area, allowing engineers for the first time to both understand structural behaviour and structural materials.

Towards the end of the 19th century, in 1873, Carlo Alberto Castigliano presented his dissertation "Intorno ai
sistemi elastici", which contains his theorem for computing displacement as partial derivative of the strain
energy.

8
In 1824, Portland cement was patented by the engineer Joseph Aspdin as "a superior cement resembling
Portland Stone", British Patent no. 5022. Although different forms of cement already existed (Pozzolanic
cement was used by the Romans as early as 100 B.C. and even earlier by the ancient Greek and Chinese
civilizations) and were in common usage in Europe from the 1750s, the discovery made by Aspdin used
commonly available, cheap materials, making concrete construction an economical possibility.

Developments in concrete continued with the construction in 1848 of a rowing boat built of ferrocement - the
forerunner of modern reinforced concrete - by Joseph-Louis Lambot. He patented his system of mesh
reinforcement and concrete in 1855, one year after W.B. Wilkinson also patented a similar system. This was
followed in 1867 when a reinforced concrete planting tub was patented by Joseph Monier in Paris, using steel
mesh reinforcement similar to that used by Lambot and Wilkinson. Monier took the idea forward, filing several
patents for tubs, slabs and beams, leading eventually to the Monier system of reinforced structures, the first use
of steel reinforcement bars located in areas of tension in the structure.

Steel construction was first made possible in the 1850s when Henry Bessemer developed the Bessemer
process to produce steel. He gained patents for the process in 1855 and 1856 and successfully completed the
conversion of cast iron into cast steel in 1858. Eventually mild steelwould replace both wrought iron and cast
iron as the preferred metal for construction.

Belper North Mil

During the late 19th century, great advancements were made in the use of cast iron, gradually replacing wrought
iron as a material of choice. Ditherington Flax Mill in Shrewsbury, designed by Charles Bage, was the first
building in the world with an interior iron frame. It was built in 1797. In 1792 William Strutt had attempted to
build a fireproof mill at Belper in Derby (Belper West Mill), using cast iron columns and timber beams within
the depths of brick arches that formed the floors. The exposed beam soffits were protected against fire by
plaster. This mill at Belper was the world's first attempt to construct fireproof buildings, and is the first example
of fire engineering. This was later improved upon with the construction of Belper North Mill, a collaboration
between Strutt and Bage, which by using a full cast iron frame represented the world's first "fire proofed"
building.

The Forth Bridge was built by Benjamin Baker, Sir John Fowler and William Arrol in 1889, using steel, after
the original design for the bridge by Thomas Bouch was rejected following the collapse of his Tay Rail Bridge.
The Forth Bridge was one of the first major uses of steel, and a landmark in bridge design. Also in 1889, the
wrought-iron Eiffel Tower was built by Gustave Eiffel and Maurice Koechlin, demonstrating the potential of
construction using iron, despite the fact that steel construction was already being used elsewhere.

9
During the late 19th century, Russian structural engineer Vladimir Shukhov developed analysis methods
for tensile structures, thin-shell structures, lattice shell structures and new structural geometries such

The Forth Bridge

as hyperboloid structures. Pipeline transport was pioneered by Vladimir Shukhov and the Branobel company in
the late 19th century.

Again taking reinforced concrete design forwards, from 1892 onwards François Hennebique's firm used his
patented reinforced concrete system to build thousands of structures throughout Europe. Thaddeus Hyatt in the
US and Wayss & Freitag in Germany also patented systems. The firm AG für Monierbauten constructed 200
reinforced concrete bridges in Germany between 1890 and 1897 The great pioneering uses of reinforced
concrete however came during the first third of the 20th century, with Robert Maillart and others furthering of
the understanding of its behaviour. Maillart noticed that many concrete bridge structures were significantly
cracked, and as a result left the cracked areas out of his next bridge design - correctly believing that if the
concrete was cracked, it was not contributing to the strength. This resulted in the revolutionary Salginatobel
Bridge design. Wilhelm Ritter formulated the truss theory for the shear design of reinforced concrete beams in
1899, and Emil Mörsch improved this in 1902. He went on to demonstrate that treating concrete in compression
as a linear-elastic material was a conservative approximation of its behaviour. Concrete design and analysis has
been progressing ever since, with the development of analysis methods such as yield line theory, based on
plastic analysis of concrete (as opposed to linear-elastic), and many different variations on the model for stress
distributions in concrete in compression.

Prestressed concrete, pioneered by Eugène Freyssinet with a patent in 1928, gave a novel approach in
overcoming the weakness of concrete structures in tension. Freyssinet constructed an experimental prestressed
arch in 1908 and later used the technology in a limited form in the Plougastel Bridge in France in 1930. He went
on to build six prestressed concrete bridges across the Marne River, firmly establishing the technology.

Structural engineering theory was again advanced in 1930 when Professor Hardy Cross developed his Moment
distribution method, allowing the real stresses of many complex structures to be approximated quickly and
accurately.

In the mid 20th century John Fleetwood Baker went on to develop the plasticity theory of structures, providing
a powerful tool for the safe design of steel structures. The possibility of creating structures with complex
geometries, beyond analysis by hand calculation methods, first arose in 1941 when Alexander
Hrennikoff submitted his D.Sc thesis at MIT on the topic of discretization of plane elasticity problems using a
lattice framework. This was the forerunner to the development of finite element analysis. In 1942, Richard
Courant developed a mathematical basis for finite element analysis. This led in 1956 to the publication by J.

10
Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp's of a paper on the "Stiffness and Deflection of Complex
Structures". This paper introduced the name "finite-element method" and is widely recognised as the first
comprehensive treatment of the method as it is known today.

High-rise construction, though possible from the late 19th century onwards, was greatly advanced during the
second half of the 20th century. Fazlur Khan designed structural systems that remain fundamental to many
modern high rise constructions and which he employed in his structural designs for the John Hancock Center in
1969 and Sears Tower in 1973. Khan's central innovation in skyscraper design and construction was the idea of
the "tube" and "bundled tube" structural systems for tall buildings. He defined the framed tube structure as "a
three dimensional space structure composed of three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear
walls, joined at or near their edges to form a vertical tube-like structural system capable of resisting lateral
forces in any direction by cantilevering from the foundation." Closely spaced interconnected exterior columns
form the tube. Horizontal loads, for example wind, are supported by the structure as a whole. About half the
exterior surface is available for windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more usable
floor space. Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the tube frame must be interrupted, with
transfer girders used to maintain structural integrity. The first building to apply the tube-frame construction was
in the DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building which Khan designed in Chicago. This laid the foundations for the
tube structures used in most later skyscraper constructions, including the construction of the World Trade
Center.

Another innovation that Fazlur Khan developed was the concept of X-bracing, which reduced the lateral load on
the building by transferring the load into the exterior columns. This allowed for a reduced need for interior
columns thus creating more floor space, and can be seen in the John Hancock Center. The first sky lobby was
also designed by Khan for the John Hancock Center in 1969. Later buildings with sky lobbies include the World
Trade Center, Petronas Twin Towers and Taipei 101.

In 1987 Jörg Schlaich and Kurt Schafer published the culmination of almost ten years of work on the strut and
tie method for concrete analysis - a tool to design structures with discontinuities such as corners and joints,
providing another powerful tool for the analysis of complex concrete geometries.

The Lattice shell structure of the Shukhov Tower in Moscow.

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries the development of powerful computers has allowed finite element
analysis to become a significant tool for structural analysis and design. The development of finite element
programs has led to the ability to accurately predict the stresses in complex structures, and allowed great
advances in structural engineering design and architecture. In the 1960s and 70s computational analysis was

11
used in a significant way for the first time on the design of the Sydney Opera House roof. Many modern
structures could not be understood and designed without the use of computational analysis.

Developments in the understanding of materials and structural behaviour in the latter part of the 20th century
have been significant, with detailed understanding being developed of topics such as fracture
mechanics, earthquake engineering, composite materials, temperature effects on materials, dynamics
and vibration control, fatigue, creep and others. The depth and breadth of knowledge now available in structural
engineering, and the increasing range of different structures and the increasing complexity of those structures
has led to increasing specialisation of structural engineers.

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 CHAPTER -3

Structural Engineering Importance

Structural engineering is one of the most fundamental engineering disciplines because it deals directly with the
structural integrity and strength of a building or structure. Thus all construction projects must utilize the
principles of structural engineering in order for the new building or structure to bear its own load and to be able
to withstand the demands that will be placed upon it.

Structural engineering is founded on the principles of physics and mathematics. It involves applying knowledge
of physical laws as well as empirical research into the strength of different materials as well as the necessary
geometry and calculations required for a structure to be sound. Some key ways that structural engineering
affects projects include the design of the structure and an analysis of the structure.

Design of the Structure – Structures must be designed so that they can withstand their own weight as well as
the loads and pressures that will be placed upon them. Structural engineers provide crucial information about
roof types, foundations, floors, steel beams, material quality, retaining walls, and more. A structure that does
not consider structural engineering in its design runs the risk of collapsing under its own weight or under the
environmental pressures placed on it.

Analysis of the Structure – A thorough analysis of the structure according to the principles of structural
engineering will ensure that the new building or structure is up to all necessary design codes. Careful analysis
also yields information about the load the structure can bear, the wind velocity it can withstand and the overall
capability and utility of the building.

Structural engineering is crucial because it directly impacts the safety and durability of buildings and structures.
For example it is structural engineering that allows for an accurate estimation of safe weight maximums on
bridges, the storm force winds a warehouse or facility can withstand, or the magnitude of tremors a skyscraper
can endure during an earthquake.

Structural engineering is also tasked with ensuring that materials and resources are used efficiently. For
example structural engineers must be able to determine the optimal material grade that ensures safety and
function without unnecessarily raising costs. Structural engineers must also be able to work within the design
aesthetics called for by the project. Thus structural engineering plays a crucial role by marrying visual appeal,
practical function, and budgetary resources in a way that satisfies all needs.

Role of structural engineering in our nation development

Civil engineers play a major role in the infrastructures development of a country. All structures constructed in
the past exhibit the path of civilization and current infrastructures development express the practices followed
by civil engineers.

Infrastructure can be defined as activities that provide society with services necessary to conduct daily life and
to engage in productive activity and development in a country’s economy.

Structural Engineer has a pre-eminent role in the creation of Built Environment, which is safe, economical,
elegant and also resistant to earthquakes and other natural forces.

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  More than 50 percent of India’s total national expenditure is on construction activities, with which
Structural Engineer has to be necessarily involved.
 Be it housing, urban development, multi-storeyed buildings, bridges, hydraulic structures, or highways –
all require substantive inputs from Structural Engineer.
 Some very large span structures, tall buildings, very large span bridges, off-shore platforms for oil
exploration, marine structures and space structures require very intensive and high quality inputs from
Structural Engineer.

In a country like India, the major infrastructural. Factors that are most significant in accelerating the pace of
economic development are energy, transport, irrigation, finance, communications, education, and health.

The knowledge of basic areas of civil engineering can be of great use in providing the infrastructural facilities
where constructional aspects are involved for development of regions.

Civil engineers play an extremely important role in the society. They are responsible for maintaining the overall
safety of society in a number of ways including rural engineering. From constructing highways and buildings to
bridges and tunnels, the responsibilities of civil engineers are many.

Civil engineers are responsible for planning and overseeing different construction efforts and apply civil
engineering principles to ensure that the constructed structures are safe and sturdy.

Let’s take a look at the roles and responsibilities of a structural engineer:

A structural engineer is responsible for analysing different factors regarding a construction project. They
analyse the site of the construction and the surrounding area. The process includes search and investigation,
verifying whether that location is feasible for construction purposes or not. Civil engineers also analyse the
entire construction work that needs to be completed at the site. They have to analyse every step of the processes
required for completing the construction job.

Once they have properly analysed the situation, they need to prepare detailed reports. The report encompasses a
detailed description of the various factors present and also the factors that need to be changed before
commencing the construction work. Once the proposed changes have been implemented, it’s up to the civil
engineer to review the plans and project site once again. This is to ensure that all proposed changes have been.

They are also responsible for planning the construction project. He/she is required to inspect the project for
ensuring that all rules, regulations and guidelines are been properly followed.

A civil engineer has to follow a construction project from beginning to end and make necessary changes along
the way to completion. They are responsible for checking whether the safety features of the project are
maintained or not and must ensure that all the processes are followed.

A civil engineer also needs to use different figures, equation and applications to ensure that the processes are
been implemented accurately. They need to conduct a number of functions such as conducting chemical testing
using various applications, use a drafting and design software throughout the project, and conducting electrical
testing of devices and equipment. They also need to be aware of land surveying techniques and the metric
system.

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 CHAPTER -4

Role of structural engineering in architectural field

Structural engineering is a specialized branch of civil engineering that entails analyzing and designing
structures, like buildings, bridges, tunnels, even sports stadium (or any habitable entity we can think of ) .

Engineering is a broad discipline that involves a systematic approach to designing solutions to problems
experienced in the real world. There are many different fields of engineering, like mechanical engineering,
electrical engineering, civil engineering, chemical engineering, computer engineering (and so on). Within these
fields are various specializations; structural engineering is a specialization in civil engineering (like doctors
specialize in cardiology,ENT etc or the same way lawyers specialize in civil, corporate ,crime etc).

Structural engineers use mathematics and physics along with their knowledge of behaviour of various types of
engineering materials, various classes of loads & different combinations of structural members to make sure
that a given structure won’t collapse or fall over in the most economic & feasible way. When ensuring a
structure’s stability, structural engineers perform calculations and look at several factors, such as

 The forces a structure is likely to encounter.

 The properties of the materials that make up a structure.
 The shapes that make up a structure.

For example, a bridge not only has to support itself; it also has to handle a variety of forces, such as downward
forces caused by the traffic driving over it, and forces caused by wind, tidal forces or an earthquake.
Structural engineers take properties like strength, weight, shapes and stiffness of materials into
consideration. For example, steel is typically heavier and stronger than concrete. Additionally, different shapes
lend themselves to different purposes. Each shape has various geometrical properties, A structural engineer will
select the best shape with the most suited orientation of the shape for the desired function. This would prove to
be a real cost saver. Structural engineers perform calculations to determine the best materials and shapes to use
in order to build a sturdy structure.

Types of structures in structural engineering

Rigid Frame

Its is that type of structure in which the members are joined together by rigid joints e.g. welded joints.

Truss (Pin connected joints)

A type of structure formed by members in triangular form, the resulting figure is called a truss. In truss joints
are pin connected and loads are applied at joints. No shear force & bending moment are produced. Only axial
compression and axial tension is to be determined while analyzing a truss.

Structural members
Those members that are interconnected in such a way so as to constitute a structure are called structural
members.

15
Beam

Beam is a flexure member of the structure. It is subjected to transverse loading such as vertical loads, and
gravity loads. These loads create shear and bending within the beam.

Columns

A long vertical member mostly subjected to compressive loads is called column

Strut

A compressive member of a structure is called strut.

Beam-Column

A structural member subjected to compression as well as flexure is called beam column

Grid

A network of beam intersecting each other at right angles and subjected to vertical loads is called grid.

Cables and Arches

Cables are usually suspended at their ends and are allowed to sag. The forces are then pure tension and are
directed along the axis of the cable. Arches are similar to cables except hath they are inverted. They carry
compressive loads that are directed along the axis of the arch.

Plates and Slabs

Plates are three dimensional flat structural components usually made of metal that are often found in floors and
roofs of structures. Slabs are similar to plates except that they are usually made of concrete.

16
 CHAPTER - 5

Future of structural engineering

The structural-engineering industry is being rocked by a sizable earthquake of changes right now.

“There are just so many fundamental industry factors affecting the future of structural engineering,” says David
Odeh, principal at Odeh Engineers. “One scenario is that engineers become irrelevant.”

That’s a major professional concern among structural engineers, and their anxiety is mostly driven by three
factors. First, the enormous advance in computer modeling has led to significantly more complex structures.
“It’s almost a self-fulfilling prophecy, or a feedback loop,” Odeh says. “More advanced modeling and analysis
leads to more complex designs.

But paradoxically, as traditional engineering tasks are increasingly automated, actual engineers can seem (and
feel) less important. This is the second factor: “When traditional tasks are turned over to advanced solutions,
supplemented by cloud-enabled access to calculating power, the reduction in engineer time, and required skill,
can be enormous,” Odeh says.

On the surface, it might seem as though structural engineers could go the way of the dinosaur. “For example,
selecting member sizes for steel-frame structures is a task that used to require days of painstaking work, as a
structural engineer worked from tables and exercised considerable judgment,” Odeh says. “Now, that’s almost a
trivial task—for a 100,000-square-foot building, it can take seconds, and the resulting design will be more
precise and better optimized.”

And the third factor is global competition. “Everything we do is now influenced by the spread of knowledge—it
is simply no longer true that structural engineering talent is concentrated in the United States,” Odeh says. “Like
it or not, that affects our profession powerfully.”

It’s a frustrating “perfect storm” of factors that seems to threaten one of the infrastructure industry’s most
respected skill sets. It’s ironic—how can advances in computing that make engineers more capable also make
them seem less necessary? 17
“Some designers and contractors are beginning to ask, ‘Why do we even need engineers?’” Odeh says. “To
them, if a program can do it, engineers become superfluous.”

As a Fellow of the Structural Engineering Institute (SEI), as well as its current president, Odeh is better placed
than most to think about these trends, and he believes there’s reason for optimism . . . if structural engineers
embrace these changes. “We can either harness them for good,” he says, “or we can just let them happen to us.”

His basic argument is simple, albeit counterintuitive. “Of course, it’s true that automation saves time and makes
some of our traditional tasks redundant, and that makes structural engineers more relevant. Since we now have
tools that allow us to spend less time on the profession’s mundane chores, we can now focus more on what has
always been our core value—creativity.”

Put another way, the same automated power that reduces the need for tedious engineering calculations also
enables the analysis of more design options, more complex structures, and more resilient structures. And
structural engineers are the professionals best suited for those demanding tasks.

“Traditionally, architects would conceive a building form, then talk to engineers to see if and how it could be
built,” Odeh says. “That’s changed; we’re now part of design teams much earlier and are contributing to early
form-finding.”

The design of Dubai’s 160-story building, Burj Khalifa, is an example: Structural engineers from Skidmore,
Owings & Merrill (SOM) used simulation and modelling tools to rapidly analyze and iterate forms that
minimize wind loads and optimize material quantities. Instead of finding ways to support and build a particular
form proposed by others, engineers worked directly on the proposed form.

An opportunity now exists for the role of structural engineers to significantly expand beyond their traditional
expertise. But to step into that expanded role, engineers themselves have to expand. “We have to learn new
skills so that we can build better buildings,” Odeh says. “In effect, we have to become renaissance men and
master more disciplines. We can do this by harnessing computer tools and setting our sights higher. It’s not
enough to just automate what we’re already doing.”

18
If expanded roles are the “carrot” that can motivate the profession to embrace new skills and capacities, there is
also a “stick”: Unskillful use of computer tools can result in building failures that will be blamed on engineers.
“For years now, in forensic engineering, we’ve been afraid of what we call the worst case—computer-
caused failure,” Odeh says.

“Something that stark doesn’t seem to have happened yet,” he continues, “but we are certainly seeing cases
where a building hasn’t performed as intended due to wrong calculations. These aren’t really computer errors—
they’re not caused by software glitches or bugs. They’re usually due to engineers not understanding software
limitations.”

This vision for the future is being vigorously promoted by the Structural Engineering Institute of ASCE, and the
response has been “hugely positive,” Odeh says. “Structural engineers have a real hunger to maintain relevance,
be respected, and they want to keep contributing to the design of great buildings.”

Limitation of structural engineer

Geotechnical - Subsurface investigations, soil and foundation analysis, Groundwater hydrology, retaining walls
and construction materials testing for soil, concrete, masonry, structural steel and pavement materials.

Structural - Designs for buildings, bridges and other structures or supports.

Environmental - Design of water and wastewater treatment facilities, landfills, surface and subsurface
hydrology conveyance structures such as pipes, ditches and open channels, wetlands and protection of
environmentally sensitive areas, soil and groundwater contamination mitigation and correction.

Highways - Geometric highway design, traffic analysis and capacity studies, pavement design and maintenance,
bridge design and maintenance, impact studies for new and existing roadway systems.

Surveying/Site work - Land surveying, site work development plans, land planning for new development,
surface and subsurface drainage structures, ponds and detention basin design for storm water management and
nutrient removal of surface runoff, traffic design for roadways and parking facilities, sanitary and storm water
sewer design, infrastructure design.

I am sure that this is not an all inclusive list of what can be done by each discipline and some companies have
more than one discipline included in their offering of services. Some large companies can offer all of these
services, but they will have engineers that specialize in each discipline since they are so different and
specialized.

Scope of structural engineering in india

Structural Engineer’s services encompass a wide range covering, broadly 19

Let us have a look on a things a structural engineer gets to design:
1. Houses (obviously)
2. High Risers (which itself encompasses a huge variety of structures)
3.Bridges flyovers viaducts
4.Tunnels
5.Canals aqueducts Cross drainage structures
6. Water retaining structures
7.Jack up rigs harbours and other offshore structures
8. Ships- structural design I mean.
9. Structural design of all kinds of automobiles
10. Structural design of rockets, satellites and launch vehicles
11. Bullet proof vests (yes, one of my classmates is in fact doing just that).

There are enough consultancy firms in India who would give ample opportunities to work on a huge variety of
projects. Offshore structures among them being quite ' hot' cause it is still not very 'conventional' yet and there
is little competition in India and is very rewarding as a career choice.

Besides, cement and concrete studies opens a whole new world of material sciences and there are a few good
R&D jobs in India.

20
 CHAPTER - 6

The prominent personalities in structural engineering in India

1- M. Visvesvaraya –

Birthday: September 15, 1860

Nationality: Indian

Famous: Civil/Structural Engineers

Sun Sign: Virgo

Born In: Muddenahalli, Chikballapur, Kingdom Of Mysore (Now In Karnataka)

Famous As: Civil Engineer

Father: Mokshagundam Srinivasa Shastry

Mother: Venkatalakshmamma

Died On: April 14, 1962

Place Of Death: Bangalore

One of the most eminent engineers ever produced by India, Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya, better known as
M. Visvesvaraya, was a man of high principles and discipline. An engineer par excellence, he was the chief
architect behind the construction of the Krishna Raja Sagara dam in Mandya which helped to convert the
surrounding barren lands into fertile grounds for farming. An idealistic person, he believed in simple living and
high thinking. His father was a Sanskrit scholar who believed in providing quality education to his son. Even
though his parents were not financially rich, the young boy was exposed to a richness of culture and tradition at

21
home. Tragedy struck the loving family when his father died when Visvesvaraya was just a teenager. After the
death of his beloved father, he struggled hard to get ahead in life. As a student he was poverty stricken, and
earned his livelihood by tutoring smaller kids. Through his hard work and dedication he eventually became an
engineer and went on to play a pivotal role in designing the flood protection system in Hyderabad. He was
decorated with numerous awards and honors for his relentless contributions to the country.

Childhood & Early Life

 Visvesvaraya was born into a Telugu Brahmin family in a village near Bangalore, India. His father was
a prominent Sanskrit scholar of his times. His parents were very simple but principled people.
 Even though the family was not rich, his parents wanted their son to get good education. He completed
his primary education from his village school and went to high school in Bangalore.
 His father died when he was just 15 and the family was plunged into poverty. In order to continue his
education Visvesvaraya started giving tuitions to small children and earned his livelihood this way.
 He joined the Central College in Bangalore and studied hard. He was a good student in spite of all the
hardships in his life and completed his Bachelor of Arts in 1881.
 He went to the prestigious College of Engineering at Pune after he managed to get some help from the
Government.

Career

 After his graduation in 1884, he found a job with the Public Works Department (PWD) of Mumbai and
joined as an Assistant Engineer. Over the course of this job he served in Nasik, Khandesh and Pune.
 He then joined the Indian Irrigation Commission and helped to implement a complex system of
irrigation in the Deccan area. During this time he was told to devise a method of supplying water from
the river Sindhu to a small town called Sukkur.
 He designed and carried out the waterworks for the Municipality of Sukkur in 1895. He is credited with
the development of the Block System which would prevent the wasteful flow of water in dams.
 His work was becoming so popular that the Government of India sent him to Aden to study water supply
and drainage system in 1906-07. He did so and designed a project based on his study which was
implemented in Aden.
 The Visakhapatnam port was in danger of being eroded from the sea. Visvesvaraya with his high
intelligence and capabilities came up with a good solution to solve this issue.
 During the decade of the 1900s Hyderabad city was reeling under the threats of flood. Once again the
brilliant engineer supervised the engineering work at Hyderabad by lending his services as a Special
Consulting Engineer in 1909.
 He was appointed as the Chief Engineer of Mysore State in 1909 and as the Diwan of the princely state
of Mysore in 1912, a position he held for seven years. As the Diwan, he made immense contribution
towards the overall development of the state.
 He helped in founding of the Government Engineering College at Bangalore in 1917 which was later
renamed as the Visvesvaraya College of Engineering in his honor.
 He served as the chief engineer for the construction of the Krishna Raja Sagara Lake and dam in 1924
across river Kaveri in Mandya district near Mysore in Karnataka.

Major Works

 He is best remembered for the instrumental role he played in the construction of the Krishna Raja Sagara
Lake and dam in 1924. This dam not only became the main source of water for irrigation for the nearby
areas, but was also the main source of drinking water for several cities.

Awards & Achievements 22

  Visvesvaraya was knighted as the Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (KCIE) by the British
for his contributions to the society in 1915.
 He was awarded with independent India’s greatest honor, The Bharat Ratna in 1955 for his relentless
work in the fields of engineering and education.
 He is the recipient of several honorary doctoral degrees from eight universities in India.

Personal Life & Legacy

 Visvesvaraya was a man of principles and values. He was a very honest person who gave his best
towards his profession and country. He valued cleanliness and was impeccably dressed even when he
was well into his 90s.
 This great Indian engineer lived a long and productive life and died on 14 April 1962 at the ripe old age
of 102 years.
 His alma mater, the College of Engineering, Pune, erected a statue in his honor.
 The Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum, Bangalore is named in his honor.

2- E. Sreedharan

Birthday: June 12, 1932

Nationality: Indian

Famous: Civil Engineers

Age: 86 Years, 86 Year Old Males

Sun Sign: Gemini

Also Known As: Elattuvalapil Sreedharan, Metro Man

Born In: Palakkad, Kerala

Famous As: Metro Man

Elattuvalapil Sreedharan, popularly known as the “Metro Man”, is an Indian engineer who played a key role in

23
the building of the Konkan Railway and the Delhi Metro. In India millions of people are dependent on the
public transport and the credit for changing the very face of Indian public transport goes to this enterprising
engineer. The man who began his career as a lecturer in an engineering college appeared for the Engineering
Services Examination (ESE) and joined the Indian Engineering Service (IES). He first proved his ability as an
engineer when he was put in-charge of restoring a bridge that had been damaged by a cyclone. He executed the
complete work within 46 days as against the six months allotted to this task. Recognized by the government for
his brilliance, he was made the in-charge for planning and designing the Kolkata metro, the very first metro in
India. The next several years saw him working with the single-minded conviction to improvise the public
transport system in India. He had become such an invaluable asset to Indian Railways that the government let
him know that his services would be required even after he retired from IES. Several national and international
honors have been bestowed upon him for his pioneering works.

Childhood & Early Life

 He was born in Palakkad district of Kerala on 12 June 1932. His family hailed from Karukaputhoor.
 He received his early education from Basel Evangelical Mission Higher Secondary School after which
he went to the Victoria College in Palghat.
 He chose to study engineering and completed his Civil Engineering from the Government Engineering
College, Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh.

Career

 After completing his education he was appointed as a lecturer in Civil engineering at the Government
Polytechnic, Kozhikode. He worked there only for a short while before joining the Bombay Port Trust as
an apprentice.
 In 1953, he appeared for the Engineering Services Examination (ESE) conducted by the Union Public
Service Commission (UPSC) and cleared it. He joined the Indian Engineering Service (IES) and was
posted as a Probationary Assistant Engineer in the Southern Railway in December 1954.
 He faced the first big challenge of his career in December 1964 when a cyclone damaged the Pamban
Bridge in Tamil Nadu. The Railways allotted a period of six months for the repair works while
Sreedharan’s boss wanted the work done within three. Sreedharan, who was made in-charge of the
restoration, executed the work in just 46 days.
 In 1970, Sreedharan was assigned the responsibility of implementing, planning and designing the
Kolkata metro, the first ever metro in India. He was deputy chief engineer at that time.
 With his hard work and determination he led the successful completion of the job and set the pace for
the further development in infrastructure engineering in India. He was associated with the project till
1975.
 In October 1979 he joined the Cochin Shipyard Limited, the largest shipbuilding and maintenance
facility in India. But at the time of his joining, the agency was not performing well. However, under
Sreedharan’s direction, the agency flourished and launched its first ship MV Rani Padmini in 1981.
 He became the general manager, Western Railway in July 1987. A couple of year later he was elevated
to the post of Member Engineering, Railway Board and ex-officio Secretary to the Government of India.
 He retired in June 1990 but the government informed him that his services would still be needed and
thus he was appointed the CMD of Konkan Railway on contract.
 The Konkan Railway project, which had 93 tunnels with a total tunnel length of 82 km and involved
tunneling through soft soil, was very different from the typical Indian railway projects. The total project
covered 760 km and had over 150 bridges. Under his leadership, the work was completed in seven years.
 He was later made the managing director of Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC). Again he proved to
be an extraordinary leader and all the scheduled sections were completed within their respective
budgets, and by their target time.

24
  The phenomenal success of the Delhi Metro made him a national celebrity and the government honored
him with many awards for his relentless hard work and dedication. He retired from service in December
2011.

Awards & Achievements

 The Government of India honored him with the Padma Shri, the fourth highest civilian award in the
Republic of India, in 2001.
 The Government of France bestowed upon him The Order of Légion d'Honneur, the highest decoration
in France, in 2005.
 In 2008 he received the Padma Vibhushan, the second highest civilian award in the Republic of India, in
recognition of his work with the Delhi Metro.

Personal Life & Legacy

 He is married to Radha and regards his wife as a great pillar of support. The couple has four children, all
of them are now well accomplished in their own chosen fields.
 He regularly reads the Bhagwad Gita and tries to imbibe its teachings in his professional and personal
life. He does not regard the Gita as a religious text, but as a handbook of advice on how to optimize life.
 He is a very principled man who believes that time is money. Even though he is in his eighties, he still
leads an active life and continues to advice the government on its metro and rail projects.

3- Mr. Mahendra Raj

Born in 1924, he graduated in Civil Engineering in 1946 from Lahore, did his MS in Structures in 1956 from
Minnesota, and CE in Structures from Columbia, New York in 1959. He started his career with Punjab Public
Works Department as an Assistant Engineer in 1946, was promoted as an Executive Engineer in 1953 and went
to USA for further studies and work experience from 1955 to 1959. On his return he resigned from the
Government service and started his independent practice as a civil engineer in 1960.

Mahendra Raj's 60 years service to the building profession has shown an uncommon inventiveness and
willingness to experiment with new concepts. He is considered to be one of the most inventive engineers in the
country. He has worked with some of the leading Architects of the World and of the Country such as Le-
Corbusier, Minoru Yamasaki, Louis Kahn, Charles Correa, B V Doshi, A P Kanvinde, J A Stein and Raj Rewal.

Some of the projects he worked on are trend setters in the country:

on are trend setters in the country:

25
 Hall of Nations and Halls of Industries, Pragati
Maidan, New Delhi
The first large span space frame in reinforced
concrete in the world

Usha Kiran, Mumbai

The first skyscraper in India

Tagore Memorial Theatre, Ahmedabad

The first large span folded plate structure
Covered Sports Stadium, Srinagar
The first large span space frame with precast
concrete members and insitu joints

DCM Hindon River Mills, Ghaziabad

The first large span industrial structure comprising
post tensioned tied arches with precast concrete
flooring units to create a 48m x 250m column free
space

In recognition of his contribution to Structural Engineering, he was elected

President of 'Indian Concrete Institute' for 1987-89.
Mr Raj received the 'Architectural Engineering Design Award' from the
Institution of Engineers (India) in 1989-90, the 'GOURAV Award' from the
Association of Consulting Civil Engineers in 1991, and "The Chairman's
Award" in the series 'Architect of the Year Awards' in 1995. This was the
first time that an award meant for Architects was given to an Engineer 'for
outstanding contribution towards achieving integration of structural
functional and architectural aspects in design for living…'

26
Mr Mahendra Raj has made extensive contributions to the development of the profession of Consultancy in the
country. He was President of the Association of Consulting Engineers India (ACEI) for a number of years
before it merged with the National Association of Consulting Engineer and was renamed Consulting Engineers
Association of India (CEAI). As President of ACEI Mr Raj has sponsored the cause of Consultancy in India

He has been very active in framing a legislation for regulation of the profession of Engineering in the country
'The Engineer's Bill'. His efforts of the last over twenty years for this cause eventually won support of all
professional organisations in India. As a result, the Government has instituted an 'Engineering Council of India'.
Mr Raj was a member of the committee which drafted Rules and Regulations for this Council. Later he was the
Vice Chairman of the Council for a number of years. The Government has given an assurance to the
Engineering Profession that legislation of the Engineer's Bill will follow.

Along with some other organizations Mr. Raj was, as the President of ACEI, instrumental in the setting up of
the Consultancy Development Centre (CDC) under the patronage of the Government of India to promote
Consultancy in the Country. He was the Vice Chairman of CDC and held the post for a number of years. He
participated actively and made significant contribution towards formation of Technical Consultancy
Development Programme for Asia and Pacific (TCDPAP) under the sponsorship of ESCAP.

Mr Mahendra Raj has been active in International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC), since India
became a member in 1981. He was member of North and South Committee on Needs and Resources
(NASCONAR) set up in 1981-82 and later of the Client Consultant Relationship Committee (CCRC) for a
number of years.

He was also instrumental in the Indian Association hosting three FIDIC related meetings in Delhi. First, Asia
South Pacific Asian countries ASPAC meeting in March 1984, second, FIDIC-Executive Committee meeting in
January'1988 both organized by Mr Raj as the President of the Association of Consulting Engineers India,
ACE(I) and the third, again a FIDIC Executive Committee meeting in January'2001 organized by Consulting
Engineers Association of India. This was followed by a very successful International Conference on FIDIC
Conditions of Contract in which Mr Raj was the Chairman of the Technical Committee.

He was also member of a high-powered committee set up by the Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty
Alleviation of the Government of India to draft a Comprehensive Legislation to Regulate and Control the
Activities of Builders and Developers.

27
 CHAPTER – 7

Conclusion

Structural engineers are work with Architects But after building design, that building was known as its architect
and not as a structural engineer. You must have studied that no one remembers the basic structure of a building
after it has been built by architect, but also remembers the exterior structure of the building. We do not know
how to strengthen the building that strengthened that building and which was too much to be able to endure. "In
my eyes, if an architect likes to design and planed a dream, then the structural engineer is able to strengthen
those dreams."

the greatest challenge facing the profession of structural engineering is that “I don’t think we have enough self-
esteem and enough confidence in ourselves to believe that what we do is so important... Architects are trained to
present, to communicate, to sell, to promote themselves, to promote their industry, and to take credit for what
they do.”

As a structural engineer with over a decade of experience, I agree with Mr. Thornton—to an extent.

Yes, structural engineering is the red-headed stepchild of the construction process and, yes, some of the fault is
ours. The structural engineer doesn't get the credit that the architect does because as an industry, we have failed
to demand it. We have settled into a back seat role rather than asserting ourselves. We play our part, get our
check, and move on.

Where I respectfully disagree with Mr. Thornton is his assertion that structural engineers don’t believe what we
do is important.

On the contrary, we are very aware of the pivotal nature of our work. The issue is whether other people do,
particularly our colleagues in the creative design world.

Many engineers feel (and likely perpetuate) an "us vs. them" mentality in their relationship with
architects. Personally, I would describe it as more of an undervalued feeling. Structural engineering services are
often treated as a necessary evil in the construction process. Sure, architects, builders, developers, and owners
understand that they have to have our seal and signature on their drawings in order to comply with building
code requirements and ultimately to get their building permits. But I don't believe the value of what we have to
offer is realized.

This sense of disregard is real. The website of The American Society of Civil Engineers features a studyamong
practicing engineers that concludes that “there are challenges for structural engineers in the relationship with
their architectural client, which include architects’ lack of respect for their structural engineering colleagues as
well as negative connotations of the field.”

A study by the Society of Structural Engineers concurs, noting engineers’ frustration with the lack of structural
understanding among architects, their habit of seeking structural advice too late for optimal structural solutions,
and their general lack of interest in collaboration. On the other hand, architects are frustrated by the engineer’s
lack of both innovation and engagement with architectural design ideas.

28
Architects view engineers as lacking vision and appreciation for aesthetics—technically competent but
otherwise underqualified and uninspired—while engineers typically view architects as idealistic and ignorant to
the laws of physics—design snobs oblivious to budgets. Working together can be a collision of conflicting
personality types and professional goals.

Is there a certain amount of jealousy in structural engineers’ relationship with our colorful colleagues?
Perhaps. Most architects insist on winning jobs based on their qualifications and design abilities (among other
professional capabilities, of course). But outside of extremely complex and specialized fields (high rises,
stadiums, etc), I believe it is rare for a structural engineering firm to sell themselves solely based on merit and
having the greatest ability to do the job well.

Architects build “testaments to the human spirit” with glossy magazines devoted to their work, while structural
engineers talk rigidity and load factors and are anonymous until something goes wrong. This, of course, is not
the rule. There are many engineers who are aesthetically oriented and many architects adept at mechanical
disciplines.

29
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2- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_structural_engineering

3- https://www.cwejournal.org/vol10noSpecial/the-role-of-structure-in-creating-architectural-space/

4- https://www.newcivilengineercareers.com/article/structural-engineers-roles-and-responsibilities/

5- https://rmg-engineers.com/what-is-a-structural-engineer/

6- http://fittzshipman.com/structural-engineering/understanding-what-structural-engineering-is-why-it-is-important/

7- http://www.cece.ucf.edu/files/catbas/Developing-the-Nex-Generation-of-Structural-Engineers.pdf

8- https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Types_of_structure

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14-
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mic_Transformation_and_Sustainability

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mic_Transformation_and_Sustainability

16- https://www.asce.org/uploadedFiles/visionforthefuture.pdf

17-http://www.mrc.co.in/cp_1.html

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indian-architecture-118052501573_1.html

19- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_structural_engineers

20- https://www.ranker.com/list/notable-structural-engineer_s)/reference

21-https://www.jagranjosh.com/articles/top-10-indian-engineers-1474546207-1

22- https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-current-scope-of-structural-engineering-in-India-and-all-over-the-world

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015063.html

24-http://www.iastructe.co.in/faq.html 30
25- https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-limitations-of-civil-engineering

26- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._Visvesvaraya

27- https://www.scoopwhoop.com/engineering-marvels-in-india/

28- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/civil-engineers.php

29- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/m-visvesvaraya-5290.php

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0023073267844535%3Ajlk2i21njrj&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=ISO-8859-1&q=mahendra+raj

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