Grammar Tenses and Parts of Speech Guide

GRAMMAR BOOK
1. TENSES
1.1. PRESENT SIMPLE
1.1.1. Yes/No Questions…………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 7
1.1.2. Wh Questions………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 8
1.1.3. Tag Questions………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 8
1.1.4. Vs. Present Progressive………………………………………………………………… Pág. 9
1.1.5. Statements…………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 9
1.1.6. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 10
1.2. BE
1.2.1. Affirmative………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 13
1.2.2. Negative……………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 13
1.2.3. Wh Questions……………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 14
1.2.4. Yes/No Questions………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 14
1.2.5. Contractions………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 15
1.2.6. Short Answer……………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 16
1.2.7. Tag Questions……………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 17
1.2.8. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 17
1.3. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

1.3.1. Affirmative…………………………………………………………………………………... Pág. 21
1.3.2. Negative………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 21
1.3.3. Wh Questions………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 22
1.3.4. Yes/No Questions…………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 22
1.3.5. Short Answers…………………………………………………………………………….... Pág. 23
1.3.6. Contractions…………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 24
1.3.7. Spelling Changes…………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 25
1.3.8. Tag Questions……………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 25
1.3.9. Review………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 26
1.4. PAST SIMPLE

1.4.1. Regular Verbs……………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 30
1.4.2. Irregular Verbs……………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 31
1.4.3. Questions…………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 31
1.4.4. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 32
1.5. BE PAST
1.5.1. Statements………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 34
1.5.2. Questions……………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 35
1.5.3. Review………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 36
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1.6. PAST PROGRESSIVE
1.6.1. Statements…………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 37
1.6.2. Questions and Answers………………………………………………………………. Pág. 38
1.6.3. Progressive vs. Simple………………………………………………………………… Pág. 39
1.6.4. Review……………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 39
1.7. THE FUTURE

1.7.1. Will vs. Going To………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 41
1.7.2. Present Progressive…………………………………………………………………… Pág. 43
1.7.3. Simple Present………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 44
1.7.4. Review………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 44
1.8. MORE FUTURE

1.8.1. Future Perfect…………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 45
1.8.2. Future Progressive……………………………………………………………………. Pág. 46
1.8.3. Review……………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 48
1.9. PRESENT PERFECT

1.9.1. Statements Q and A…………………………………………………………………… Pág. 48
1.9.2. Progressive………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 51
1.9.3. Contrast with other tenses………………………………………………………… Pág. 52
1.9.4. Review………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 53
1.10. PAST PERFECT

1.10.1. Simple……………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 55
1.10.2. Progressive………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 56
1.10.3. Review………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 57
2. PARTS OF SPEECH 1
2.1. NOUNS
2.1.1. Singular/ Plural…………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 58
2.1.2. Possessive………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 59
2.1.3. Articles………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 59
2.1.4. There is/ There are……………………………………………………………………. Pág. 60
2.1.5. This/ That/ These/ Those…………………………………………………………… Pág. 60
2.1.6. Review………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 61
2.2. NOUNS AND QUANTIFIERS

2.2.1. Count and Non-Count………………………………………………………………… Pág. 62
2.2.2. Count Nouns and Quantifiers…………………………………………………….. Pág. 63
2.2.3. Non-Count and Quantifiers……………………………………………………….. Pág. 64
2.2.4. Review………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 64
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2.3. COMPARISON AND ADJECTIVES
2.3.1. Equality……………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 65
2.3.2. Comparatives………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 65
2.3.3. Superlatives………………………………………………………………………………... Pág. 66
2.3.4. Review……………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 67
2.4. PRONOUNS
2.4.1. Object…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 69
2.4.2. Subject………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 69
2.4.3. Possessive…………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 69
2.4.4. Review……………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 70
2.5. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

2.5.1. Review………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 71
2.6. ADVERBS
2.6.1. Form……………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 72
2.6.2. Too vs. Enough……………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 72
2.6.3. Comparisons…………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 73
2.6.4. Frequency……………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 74
2.6.5. Review………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 75
2.7. PARTICIPLES
2.7.1. Participial Adjectives……………………………………………………………………… Pág. 78
2.7.2. Present/ Past…………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 79
2.7.3. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 80
3. PARTS OF SPEECH 2
3.1. MODALS
3.1.1. Can……………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 80
3.1.2. May………………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 81
3.1.3. Have To………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 82
3.1.4. Must…………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 84
3.1.5. Should………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 85
3.1.6. Be Able To……………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 87
3.1.7. Had To…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 88
3.1.8. Must Not/ Don’t Have To…………………………………………………………….. Pág. 89
3.1.9. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 90
3.2. PAST FORM OF MODALS

3.2.1. Should/ Could Have……………………………………………………………………… Pág. 95
3.2.2. Might/ May/ Must Have………………………………………………………………. Pág. 96
3.2.3. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 97
3.3. WILL VS WOULD

3.3.1. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 97
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3.4. INFINITIVES
3.4.1. After Adjectives…………………………………………………………………………... Pág. 101
3.4.2. After Verbs………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 101
3.4.3. After Objects……………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 102
3.4.4. Other Uses………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 102
3.4.5. Review………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 103
3.5. MORE INFINITIVES

3.5.1. Perfect……………………………………………………………………………………….... Pág. 104
3.5.2. After Passive………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 105
3.5.3. As Connectors……………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 106
3.5.4. Other Uses…………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 106
3.5.5. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 107
3.6. GERUNDS
3.6.1. After Verbs…………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 108
3.6.2. As Subjects…………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 109
3.6.3. As Objects……………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 109
3.6.4. After Prepositions…………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 109
3.6.5. Gerunds or Infinitive…………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 110
3.6.6. Review………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 112
3.7. PHRASAL VERBS

3.7.1. Review………………………………………………………………………………………….... Pág. 115
4. CLAUSES
4.1. CLAUSES
4.1.1. Nouns Clauses………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 118
4.1.2. Review……………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 120
4.2. RELATIVE CLAUSES

4.2.1. Subject Clauses………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 121
4.2.2. Object Clauses…………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 121
4.2.3. With or without Relative Pronouns…………………………………………………. Pág. 122
4.2.4. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 122
4.3. MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES

4.3.1. Whose and Where……………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 124
4.3.2. Whoever, Wherever, Etc………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 125
4.3.3. Non Restrictive…………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 126
4.3.4. Review……………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 127
4.4. CLAUSES OF RESULT

4.4.1. Review……………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 127
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4.5. CONDITIONALS
4.5.1. Real……………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 129
4.5.2. Unreal……………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 130
4.5.3. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 131
4.6. MORE CONDITIONALS

4.6.1. Past Conditionals…………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 133
4.6.2. Mixed Time Conditionals………………………………………………………………… Pág. 134
4.6.3. Review……………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 134
4.7. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

4.7.1. After Verbs……………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 135
4.7.2. After Adjectives………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 136
4.7.3. Review……………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 137
5. MORE GRAMMAR POINTS

5.1. REPORTED SPEECH
5.1.1. Statements and Questions…………………………………………………………….. Pág. 138
5.1.2. Time aspects………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 139
5.1.3. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 141
5.2. PASSIVE VOICE

5.2.1. With or Without Agent………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 143
5.2.2. Modals………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 145
5.2.3. Indirect form…………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 146
5.2.4. Review………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 147
5.3. CAUSATIVES OR PERMISSIVES

5.3.1. Active………………………………………………………………………………………….... Pág. 148
5.3.2. Passive………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 149
5.3.3. Review………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 150
5.4. CONJUNCTIONS
5.4.1. Pairs……………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 152
5.4.2. In Short Answers………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 153
5.4.3. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 156
5.5. LOGICAL CONNECTORS

5.5.1. Contrast…………………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 156
5.5.2. Sequence……………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 157
5.5.3. Purpose and Condition…………………………………………………………………… Pág. 157
5.5.4. Cause and Effect…………………………………………………………………………….. Pág 158
5.6. NEGATION
5.6.1. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 159
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5.7. IMPERSONAL STATEMENTS
5.7.1. Empty Subject……………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 161
5.8. COMMON ERRORS

5.8.1. Had Better vs. Would Rather…………………………………………………………. Pág. 162
5.8.2. There vs. It……………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 162
5.8.3. Order of Adjectives……………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 163
5.8.4. Do vs. Make…………………………………………………………………………………… Pág. 164
5.8.5. Review…………………………………………………………………………………………... Pág. 165
5.9. MORE COMMON ERRORS

5.9.1. Like vs. Mind…………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 167
5.9.2. So vs. Such……………………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 167
5.9.3. Parallel Structures…………………………………………………………………………. Pág. 168
5.9.4. Prepositions After Verbs & Adjectives…………………………………………… Pág. 168
5.9.5. Review………………………………………………………………………………………….. Pág. 171
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QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions about actions in general time that need an answer of "yes" or "no".
FORM:
Put DO or DOES in front of the subject.
[DO/DOES + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
Does he/she/it like milk?

Do I know him?
AFFIRMATIVE: She likes milk.

YES/NO QUESTION: Does she like milk?
ANSWERS
USE:
To answer a yes/no question.
FORM:
[YES, SUBJECT + DO/DOES]
Yes, I/you/we/they do.
Yes, he/she/it does.
[NO, SUBJECT + DON'T/DOESN'T]
No, I/you/we/they don't.
No, he/she/it doesn't.
EXAMPLES:
"Do you work on Saturdays?"
"Yes, I do."
"Does he work on Saturdays?"

"No, he doesn't."
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USE:
To ask questions about actions in general time that begin with these questions words: WHAT, WHEN,
WHERE, WHO, WHY, HOW.
FORM:
Questions about the SUBJECT:
[WHO-WHAT + VERB + REST]

Who lives here?
Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:
[WH-WORD + DO/DOES... VERB...]

When do you go home?
Where does he live?
EXAMPLES:
"Who lives in that house?"
"The Porters."
"What does Jack want to do?"

"Go to the movies.
"Where do they work?"

"At the bank."
USE:
To ask a yes/no question when a certain answer is already expected.
FORM:
Add a short, two-word question-tag to the end of the statement.
If "yes" is expected:
[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + DON'T/DOESN'T + SUBJECT]
You drive, don't you?

Carl paints, doesn't he?
If "no" is expected:
[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + DO/DOES + SUBJECT]
You don't smoke, Do you?

Mary doesn't drive, does she?
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EXAMPLES:
"You like coffee, don't you?"
"Yes, I do." (Expect the answer to be "yes".)
"She doesn't work here, does she?"

"No, she doesn't."(Expect the answer to be "no".)
USE:
The Present Simple is used to talk about general time, states, and repeated actions.
The Present Progressive is used to talk about more temporary situations and actions which are going on
at the present moment.
EXAMPLES:
Present Simple: "She plays tennis every Friday."
Present Progressive: "Pat is playing tennis now."
Present Simple: "Hans speaks very good English."

Present Progressive: "Now he's speaking English to that customer."
NOTE: Some verbs are used only in simple tenses: Want, Like, Love, Hate, Need, Think, Know,
Understand, Believe, Mean.
USE:
To talk about actions, states or events which happen at any time, repeatedly, or all the time.
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
Verbs take an -s ending in third person singular.
[SUBJECT + VERB(s) + REST OF SENTENCE]
I/You/We/They work in a bank.

He/She/It Has brown eyes.
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SPELLING
Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, o take -esin third person singular: kisses,matches, goes, watches
For verbs ending in consonant + y,drop the y and add -ies: carry/carries,try/tries, copy/copies
NOTE: The Present Simple is often used with adverbs and adverb phrases: Always, Never, Often,
Sometimes, Usually, Every day/week, On Sundays, Twice a month, year, etc.
EXAMPLES:
"I often go to basketball games."
"He never watches TV."
"My brother goes to the health club twice a week."
"I always have coffee for breakfast."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT+ DO NOT/DON'T+ VERB+ REST OF SENTENCE]
I/You/We/They don't drive in the city.

He/She/It doesn't have brown eyes.
EXAMPLE:
"Bill calls Mary, but he doesn't call me."
USE:
To talk about actions, states or events which happen at any time, repeatedly, or all the time.
STATEMENTS
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
Verbs take an -s ending in third person singular.
[SUBJECT + VERB(s) + REST OF SENTENCE]
I/You/We/They Work in a bank.

He/She/It Has brown eyes.
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SPELLING
Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, o take -es in third person

singular: kisses, matches, goes, watches
For verbs ending in consonant + y, drop the y and add -ies:

carry/carries, try/tries, copy/copies
NOTE: The Present Simple is often used with adverbs and adverb phrases that indicate frequency:
Always, Never, Often, Sometimes, Usually, Every day/week, On Sundays, Twice a month, year, etc.
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + DO NOT/DON'T + VERB + REST]
I/You/We/They don't drive in the city.

He/She/It doesn't have brown eyes.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[DO + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]
Do I/you/we/they know them?
[DOES + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]
Does he/she/it like milk?
WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
[WH-WORD + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]

Who lives here?
[WH-WORD + DO/DOES... VERB...]

Where does he live?
When do you go home?
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ANSWERS
FORM:
[YES, SUBJECT + DO/DOES]

Yes, I do.
Yes, he does.
[NO, SUBJECT + DON'T/DOESN'T]
No, we don't
No, she doesn't.
TAG QUESTIONS
[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + DON'T/DOESN'T + SUBJECT]

You drive, don't you?
Carl paints, doesn't he?
[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + DO/DOES + SUBJECT]

You don't smoke, do you?
Mary doesn't drive, does she?
vs. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
USE:
The Present Simple is used to talk about general time, states, and repeated actions. The Present
Progressive is used to talk about more temporary situations and actions which are going on around the
present moment.
EXAMPLES:
Present Simple: "Pat plays tennis every Friday."
Present Progressive: "She is playing tennis now."
Present Simple: "Hans speaks very good English."

Present Progressive: "Now he is speaking English to that tourist."
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USE:
To connect the subject with the rest of the sentence.
FORM:
am, is, are (in the Present Tense)
[SUBJECT + BE + REST OF SENTENCE]
I am
You are
He is
She is
It is
We are
You are
They are
EXAMPLES:
"My name is Maurice."
"I am your waiter."
"We are hungry."
USE:
To make a sentence negative.
FORM:
Add "not" after the verb "BE".
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + REST OF SENTENCE]
I am not
You are not
She is not
He is not
It is not
We are not
You are not
They are not
EXAMPLES:
"This dress is not my size."
"They are not happy."
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USE:
To ask questions that begin with these question words:
WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY, HOW.
FORM:
[QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + REST]
NOTE: The subject and the verb change places.
They are at work.

Are they at work?
Where are they? (Wh-Question)
EXAMPLES:
"Who is she?"
"Where are they?"
"When are they leaving?"
"What is your cat's name?"
"Why is Carol smiling?"
USE:
To ask questions that need an answer of "yes" or "no".
FORM:
The subject and the verb change places.
Affirmative: They are at work.

Yes/No Question: Are they at work?
Affirmative: That store is expensive.

Yes/No Question: Is that store expensive?
EXAMPLES:
"Are you angry?"
"Is Bob in France?"
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USE:
To join the subject and the form of "BE" and make them one word. Used in conversation.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE FORMS
Regular Form Contracted Form

I am I'm
You are You're
He is He's
She is She's
It is It's
We are We're
You are You're
They are They're
NEGATIVE FORMS

I am not I'm not
You are not You're not You aren't
He is not He's not He isn't
She is not She's not She isn't
It is not It's not It isn't
We are not We're not We aren't

You are not You're not You aren't
They are not They're not They aren't
EXAMPLES:
"Who's next?"
"I'm next!"
"No, you aren't. We'renext!"
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USE:
FORM:
[YES + SUBJECT + BE]

(never with contractions)
[NO + SUBJECT + BE + NOT]

(often with contractions)
AFFIRMATIVE
Yes, I am.
Yes, you are.
Yes, he is.
Yes, she is.
Yes, it is.
Yes, we are.
Yes, you are.
Yes, they are.
NEGATIVE
No, I'm not.
No, you're not. No, you aren't.
No, he's not. No, he isn't.
No, it's not. No, it isn't.
No, we're not. No, we aren't.

No, they're not. No, they aren't.
EXAMPLES:
"Is this your dog?"
"Yes, it is."
"Is this your dog?"

"No, it isn't."
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USE:
To ask a yes/no question when a certain answer is already expected.
FORM:
[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + BE + N'T + SUBJECT]
[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + BE + SUBJECT]
EXAMPLES:
"Today is your birthday, isn't it?"
"Yes, it is." (Expect the answer to be "yes".)
"Today isn't your birthday, is it?"

"No, it isn't." (Expect the answer to be "no".)
USE:
To connect the subject with the rest of the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"Are you the manager?"
"No, I'm not. She's the manager."
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + REST OF SENTENCE]
I am at home.
You are pretty.
He/She/It is here.
We/You/They are at school.
EXAMPLE:
"I am tired."
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NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT+ REST OF SENTENCE]
I am not tired.
You are not nice.
She/He/It is not here.
We/You/They are not at work.
EXAMPLE:
"We are not hungry."
POSITIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm here.
You're here.
He's/She's/It's here.
We're/You're/They're here.
NEGATIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm not here.

You're not here. You arn't here.
He's not here. He isn't here.
She's not here. She isn't here.
It's not here. It isn't here.
We're not here. We aren't here.

You're not here. You aren't here.
They're not here. They aren't here.
EXAMPLE:
Frank isn't at home today.
Frank's not at work today.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that need an answer of "yes" or "no". The subject and the verb "BE" change places.
Statement: He is at home.
Yes/No Question: Is heat home?
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Statement: They are at work now.
Yes/No Question: Are they at work now?
EXAMPLE:
"Are you in the living room?"
POSITIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To give a positive answer to a yes/no question (never used with contractions).
FORM:
Yes, I am.
Yes, you are.
Yes, he/she/it is.
Yes, we/you/they are.
NEGATIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To give a negative answer to a yes/no question (often used with contractions).
FORM:
[NO + SUBJECT + BE + N'T]
No, I'm not


EXAMPLE:
"Are you tired today?"
"No, I'm not."
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WH-QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that begin with these question words:
FORM: [QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + REST]
NOTE: The subject and verb change places.
They are at work now.

Are they at work now?
Where are they now? (WH-Question)
EXAMPLE: "What is his name?"
TAG QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask a yes/no question when a certain answer is already expected. Add a short, two-word question-
tag to the end of the statement.
FORM:
EXAMPLES:
"You are tired, aren't you?"
"Yes, I am."
"He isn't at work, is he?"

"No, he isn't."
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USE:
To describe actions that are happening now or in the future.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + VERBing + REST OF SENTENCE]
I am waiting for you.
You are eating my cake.
He/She/It is sleeping now.
We are going tomorrow.
You are walking too fast.
They are studying English this year.
EXAMPLES:
"I am trying to study."
"He is eating an apple."
"Our secretary is eating lunch."
"We are meeting them tonight."
USE:
To describe an action that isn't happening now or in the future.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + VERB+ing (+ REST)]
I am not driving.
You are not listening.
She is not working.
He is not working.
It is not working.
We are not studying.

You are not waiting.
They are not talking.
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EXAMPLES:
"It is not raining anymore."
"I am not going to the party tonight."
USE:
To ask questions that begin with the following question words: WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY,
HOW
FORM:
[QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + VERBing + REST]
NOTE:
The subject and the form of "BE" change places.
They are working at home now.

Are they working at home now?
Where are they working now? (Wh-Question)
EXAMPLE:
"What are you doing now?"
"I'm watching a movie on TV."
USE:
FORM:
The subject and the form of "BE" change places.
Statement: He is sleeping.
Yes/No Question: Is he sleeping?
Statement: They are working now.

Yes/No Question: Are they working now?
EXAMPLES:
"Are you listening to me?"
"Is your sister moving to New York?"
22
USE:
FORM:
[YES + SUBJECT + BE] (never used with contractions)
[NO + SUBJECT + BE + NOT] (often used with contractions)
AFFIRMATIVE
Yes, I am.
Yes, you are.
Yes, he is.
Yes, she is.
Yes, it is.
Yes, we are.
Yes, you are.
Yes, they are.
NEGATIVE
No, I'm not.


EXAMPLES:
"Marie, are you enjoying the party?"
"Yes, I am."
"Are we leaving now?"
"No, we aren't."
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USE:
To join the subject and the form of "BE" and make them one word. Used in conversation.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE FORMS

I am going. I'm going.
You are going. You're going.
He is going. He's going.
She is going. She's going.
It is going. It's going.
We are going. We're going.
You are going. You're going.
They are going. They're going.
EXAMPLES:
He is taking the bus.
He's taking the bus.
NEGATIVE FORMS
I'm not working.

You're not working. You aren't working.
He's not working. He isn't working.
She's not working. She isn't working.
It's not working It isn't working.
We're not working. We aren't working.

They're not working. They aren't working.
EXAMPLES:
"Frank is not driving to work today."
"Frank isn't driving to work today."
"Frank's not driving to work today."
24
USE:
The spelling of some verbs changes when "ing" is added.
FORM:
For most verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant, double the last letter:
stop - stopping
For verbs that end in "e", drop the "e" before adding "ing":
have - having
give – giving
EXAMPLES:
"I'm having a great time in Paris."
"The bus driver is stopping the bus."
USE:
To ask yes/no questions when a certain answer is already expected.
FORM:
EXAMPLES:
"That man is following us, isn't he?"
"Yes, he is." (Expect the answer to be "yes".)
"You aren't leaving, are you?"

"No, I'm not." (Expect the answer to be "no".)
25
USE:
To describe actions that are happening now or in the future.
EXAMPLES:
"That man is following us, isn't he?"
"Yes, he is."
"You aren't leaving, are you?"

"No, I'm not."
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + VERB+ing+ REST]
I am waiting for Sam.

You are eating my cake.
He/She/It is sleeping now.
We/You/They are going tomorrow.
EXAMPLE:
"I am trying to study."
SPELLING CHANGES
USE:
The spelling of some verbs changes when "ing" is added. For most verbs that end in consonant-vowel-
consonant, double the last letter:
stop, stopping
For verbs that end in "e", drop the "e" before adding "ing":
have, having give, giving live, living
EXAMPLE:
"I'm having fun in Paris."
26
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT+ VERB+ing(+ REST)]
I am not driving.
You are not listening.
He/She/It is not working.
We/You/They are not studying.
EXAMPLE:
"It is not raining anymore."
POSITIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm going.
You're going.
He's/She's/It's going.
We're/You're/They're going.
NEGATIVE CONTRACTIONS
I'm not working.

He's not working. He isn't working.
She's not working. She isn't working.
It's not working. It isn't working.
We're not working. You aren't working.

They're not working. They aren't working.
EXAMPLES:
"Frank isn't driving to work today."
"Frank's not driving to work today."
27
YES/NO QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that need an answer of "yes" or "no". The subject and the form of the verb "BE"
change places."
Statement: He is sleeping.
Yes/No Question: Is he sleeping?
Statement: They are working now.

Yes/No Question: Are they working now?
EXAMPLE:
POSITIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To respond to a question that requires a "yes" answer (never used with contractions).
FORM:
Yes, I am.
Yes, You are.
Yes, he/she/it is.
Yes, we/you/they are.
EXAMPLE:
"Yes I am."
NEGATIVE SHORT ANSWERS
USE:
To respond to a question that requires a "no" answer (often used with contractions).
FORM:
[NO+ SUBJECT + BE+ NOT

No, I'm not.

28
EXAMPLE:
"Marie, are you enjoying the party?"
"No, I'm not."
WH-QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that begin with the following question words:
FORM:
[QUESTION WORD + BE + SUBJECT + VERBing + REST]
NOTE: The subject and the form of the verb "BE" change places.
They are working at home now.

Are they working at home now?
Where are they working now?(Wh-Question)
EXAMPLE:
"What are you doing now?"
TAG QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask a yes/no question when a certain answer is already expected. Add a short, two-word question-
tag to the end of the statement.
FORM:
EXAMPLES:
"He's leaving, isn't he?" "Yes, he is."
"You aren't going, are you?" "No, I'm not."
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USE:
To talk about past events and actions.
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
Regular verbs in the Past Simple end in -ed.
[SUBJECT + VERB+ed + REST]
EXAMPLES:
"Joe Walked home alone last night."
"We Played football last week."
SPELLING
Verbs ending in -e, take only -d: live/ lived.
With verbs ending in consonant+y, change the y to i:

carry / carried try/ tried
NOTE: Past Simple is often used with adverbs: Yesterday, Last week/month/year, A... ago.
NEGATIVE
FORM:
Put did not (didn't) in front of the verb.
[SUBJECT+ DID NOT+ VERB+ REST OF SENTENCE]
/DIDN'T
They did not call me last week.

Ruth didn't study last night.
EXAMPLES:
"He didn't work at all last week."
"I didn't like the movie last night."
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FORM:
Some verbs have irregular forms in the Past Simple.You will have to learn them by heart.
Here is a list of some of the most frequent verbs:
come - came put - Put

do - did read - Read
drink - drank say - Said
eat - ate sell - Sold
find - found sit - Sat
get - got sleep - Slept

drive - drove speak - spoke
go - went take - Took
have - had tell - Told
hear - heard think - thought
know - knew understand - understood

leave - left wear - Wore
make - made write - Wrote
meet - met
YES/NO QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions about past actions/events that need an answer of "yes" or "no".
FORM:
Put DID / DIDN'T in front of the subject.
[DID / DIDN'T + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
Did you walk yesterday?

Didn't they buy the book last week?
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WH-QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions about the past that begin with these question words: WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO,
WHY, HOW.
FORM:
[WHO/WHAT + PAST VERB + REST]
Who Told him?
What Made that noise?

[WH-WORD + DID + VERB...]
When did you leave school?
Where did they buy that?
EXAMPLES:
John: "Did you ask the boss about money?"
Rose: "Yes, I did."
John: "Well, what did she say?"
Rose: "She said no."
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
Regular verbs in the Past Simple end in -ed.
[SUBJECT + VERB+ed + REST OF SENTENCE]
Joe walked home last night.

We played tennis yesterday
SPELLING
Verbs ending in -e, take only -d: live / lived.

With verbs ending in consonant+y, change the y to i:
carry / carriedtry / tried
NOTE: Past Simple is often used with adverbs: Yesterday, Last week/month/year, A... ago
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NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + DID NOT / DIDN'T + VERB + REST]
They did not Call me yesterday.

Ruth didn't Study before the test.
IRREGULAR FORMS
Here is a list of some of the most frequent irregular verbs:

come -came put - Put
do - did read - Read
drink - drank say - Said
eat - ate sell - Sold
find - found sit - Sat
get - got sleep - Slept
drive - drove speak - spoke
go - went take - Took
have - had tell - Told
hear - heard think - thought
know - knew understand - understood
leave - left wear - Wore
make -made write - Wrote
meet - met
QUESTIONS
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[DID/DIDN'T + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]

Did you walk yesterday?
Didn't theybuy the book last week?
SHORT ANSWERS
FORM:
[YES, SUBJECT + DID]
Yes, they did.
[NO, SUBJECT + DID + NOT / DIDN'T]

No, they didn't..
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WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
[WHO/WHAT + PAST VERB+REST]
Who told him?

What made that noise?

[WH-WORD + DID + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
When did you leave school?

Where did they Buy that?
USE:
To connect the subject with the rest of the sentence and talk about the past.
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + REST]
I/She/He/It was in the kitchen.

You/We/They were late.
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT + REST]

WASN'T/WEREN'T
I/She/He/It was not angry.
I/She/He/It wasn't here.
You/We/They were not early.

You/We/They weren't on time.
EXAMPLES:
"Diana was at home yesterday."
"She wasn't at school."
"They were late to work."
"They weren't early."
34
YES/NO QUESTIONS
USE:
FORM:
The subject and the verb change places.
Affirmative: They were at home.
Yes/No Question: Were they at home?
Negative: He wasn't at school.
Yes/No Question: Wasn't he at school? (Always use contractions.)
Answers: Yes, I was.

No, I wasn't.
WH-QUESTIONS
USE:
To ask questions that begin with these question words:WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, WHO, WHY, HOW.
FORM:
[WH-WORD + BE PAST + REST OF SENTENCE]

Affirmative: Juan was at home.
Wh-Question: Who was at home?
[WH-WORD + BE PAST + SUBJECT + REST OF SENTENCE]

Affirmative: He was in Philadelphia.
Wh-Question: Where was he?
Affirmative: He was there in 1990.

Wh-Question: When was he there?
EXAMPLES:
Police: "Where were you last nightat 9:30?"
Man: "I was at home all night."
Police: "Was Big Bob with you?"
Man: "No, he wasn't. I was alone."
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STATEMENTS
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + REST]
I/She/He/It was in the kitchen.

You/We/They were late.
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT + REST]
WASN'T/WEREN'T
I/She/He/It was not angry.

I/She/He/It wasn't here.
You/We/They were not early.

You/We/They weren't on time.
QUESTIONS
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[WAS/WERE + SUBJECT + REST OF SENTENCE]
WASN'T/WEREN'T
Were they at home?

Wasn't he your neighbor?
NOTE: Use only contractions with negative questions.
SHORT ANSWERS
[YES, SUBJECT + WAS/WERE]

Yes, I was
[NO, SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT]

No, they were not/weren't
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WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:

[WHO/WHAT + BE PAST + REST]
Who was at home?

[WH-WORD + BE PAST + SUBJECT + REST]
Where were you?
When was he there ?
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + VERB + ing...]
He was waiting for the bus when it started to rain.

They were waiting for the bus when it started to rain.
EXAMPLES:
"She was eating when I arrived."
"We were sleeping at 3:OO a.m."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT + VERB + ing...]
I was not (wasn't) waiting for the bus.

They were not (weren't) waiting for the bus.
EXAMPLES:
"He wasn't sleeping when the phone rang."
"They weren't watching TV when the news was on."
37
YES/NO QUESTIONS and ANSWERS
FORM:
[Q: WAS/WERE+ SUBJECT+ VERB + ing...]

Was she waiting for the train?
Were you waiting for the train?
[A: YES/NO + SUBJECT+ BE(NOT)]

Yes, it was.
No, she wasn't.
Yes, we were.
No, you weren't.
EXAMPLES:
"Were the children playing in the garden when you came in?"
"Yes, they were."
"Were you working in Tokyo in1991?"

"No, I wasn't."
WH-QUESTIONS
Questions about the SUBJECT of the sentence.
FORM:
[WHO/WHAT + WAS/WERE + VERB + ing...]
EXAMPLES:
"Who was watching the baby last night?"
"What was playing at the Cineplex last night?"

[WH-WORD + WAS/WERE + SUBJECT + VERB + ing...]
EXAMPLES:
"What were you doing at 10 o'clock?"
"I was walking the dog."
"Who was Pat looking at?"

"She was looking at Kim."
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USE:
We use the Past Simple to talk about a completed action in the past. We use the Past Progressive to talk
about an action that continued over a period of time in the past.
We can also use the Past Simple and the Past Progressive together in the same sentence, to show that
one short action or event happened during a longer action or event. If we mention the shorter action
first, we usually join the two parts of the sentence together with WHILE.
EXAMPLES:
"Tom arrived while we were talking about him."
"She came in while I was doing my homework."
If we mention the longer action first, we usually join the two parts of the sentence together with WHEN.
EXAMPLES:
"We were talking about Tom when he arrived."
"I was doing my homework when she came in."
USE:
We use Past Progressive to talk about a continuous action or event which was happening at a particular
time in the past.
EXAMPLES:
"Weren't you studying with Linda last night?"
"No, I wasn't. I was shopping for Joe's birthday present."
"What were you doing when he phoned?"

"I was sleeping."
STATEMENTS
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + VERB + ing...]
I was waiting for the bus when it started to rain.

We were waiting for the bus when it started to rain.
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NEGATIVE:
[SUBJECT + WAS/WERE + NOT + VERB + ing...]
She was not (wasn't) waiting for the bus.

They were not (weren't) waiting for the bus.
YES/NO QUESTIONS and ANSWERS
FORM:
[WAS/WERE + SUBJECT + VERB+ing...?]
Was she waiting for the train?

Were you waiting for the train?
[YES/NO + SUBJECT + BE (NOT)]
Yes, I was.
No, it wasn't.
Yes, they were.

No, you weren't.
PAST PROGRESSIVE vs. PAST SIMPLE
USE:
We use the Past Simple to talk about a completed action in the past. We use the Past Progressive to talk
about an action that continued over a period of time in the past.
We can also use the Past Simple and the Past Progressive together in the same sentence, to show that
one short action or event happened during a longer action or event. If we mention the shorter action
first, we usually join the two parts of the sentence together with WHILE.
EXAMPLES:
"The phone rang while she was taking a shower."
"The car broke down while Bill was driving home."If we mention the longer action first, we usually join
the two parts of the sentence together with 'WHEN'.
EXAMPLES:
"She was taking a shower when the phone rang."
"Bill was driving home when the car broke down."
40
USE:
WILL is used to express a subjective opinion, or to express a decision, a promise,a belief, or a threat, etc.
about the future. This is why WILL often follows expressions like "I hope...", "Do you think...", etc.
EXAMPLE:
"Do you think she will like these flowers?"
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + WILL + VERB...]
NOTE: We often shorten WILL to "-'ll" and pronounce it together with the subject.
EXAMPLE:
"I think he will (he'll) fix the car tomorrow."
NEGATIVE
[SUBJECT + WILL + NOT + VERB...]
NOTE: We often shorten WILL NOT to "WON'T".
EXAMPLE:
"I'm afraid we won't finish the job today."
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
YES/NO QUESTIONS
USE:
In the interrogative form, WILL often introduces a request.
FORM:
[Q: WILL + SUBJECT + VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT + WILL
No, + SUBJECT + WILL NOT(WON'T).]
EXAMPLES:
"Will you open the window, please?"
"Yes, of course I will."
41
"Will you buy me an ice cream, please?"
"No, I won't!"
WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
Questions about the subject of the sentence:
[Q: WHO/WHAT + WILL + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"Who'll be there tonight?"
"Liz will go for sure. And maybe Tom will be there too."
Questions about the rest of the sentence:

[Q: Wh-word + WILL + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"When will we get home tonight?"
"I think we'll get home at around 10."
GOING TO
USE:
GOING TO is used to talk about definite, objective facts and plans in the future.
EXAMPLE:
"Look at those clouds! It's going to rain!"
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + BE + GOING TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"I'm going to study Chinese History next semester."
"Look out! That car's going to hit us!"
NEGATIVE
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + GOING TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"We aren't going to make a profit this year."
"I know I'm not going to pass this exam!"
42
QUESTIONS and ANSWERS
YES/NO QUESTIONS
[Q: BE + SUBJECT + GOING TO + VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + BE.]
or:
[No, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + BE + NOT.]
EXAMPLE:
"Is this train going to arrive on time?"
"No, it isn't. It's going to be late."
WH-QUESTIONS
Questions about the subject of the sentence:

[Q: WHO/WHAT + BE + GOING TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLE:
"Who's going to finish this?"
"I am."
Questions about the rest of the sentence:

[Q: WH-WORD + BE + SUBJECT + GOING TO + VERB...?]
[A: Affirmative sentence with GOING TO.]
EXAMPLE:
"Who are you going to vote for?"
"I'm going to vote for Tom Baxter."
NOTE: We often find both WILL and GOING TO in the same conversation.In the following dialogue, the
patient wants a definite answer to his question,but the nurse replies with only a promise:
"Is this injection going to hurt?"

"Don't worry, it will only hurt a little and it won't take long!"
USE:
We often use the Present Progressive (see Basic 1) to talk about plans and decisions for the near future.
It is most commonly used with verbs expressing movement (e.g. arrive, come, go, leave, sail, visit, etc.)
EXAMPLES:
"I'm leaving early today; I have a headache."
"Are you visiting your mother tonight?"
"I'm not waiting any longer; he's half an hour late already!"
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USE:
We sometimes use the Simple Present (see Basic 2) to talk about 'definite' future actions and events
that are already fixed or arranged on an official timetable.
EXAMPLES:
"The President leaves for Japan on Monday."
"When does the next bus arrive?"
USE:
We use the Future to talk about actions and states in the future. We can use various verb forms to talk
about the future.
EXAMPLES:
"What time are you leaving for the station?"
"Well, my train leaves at ten, so I'll leave here at about nine. That will give me time. But you're going to
give me a ride, aren't you?"
Four of the most important future verb forms are:
WILL
EXAMPLE:
"I will go home at six o'clock."
GOING TO
EXAMPLE:
"It's going to rain soon."
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
EXAMPLE:
"We're spending Christmas with my parents."
SIMPLE PRESENT
EXAMPLE:
"The next train to Oxford leaves at 2:45."
Each form carries a slightly different meaning.
44
USE:
To talk about actions or events which will be completed before a certain time in the future.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE and NEGATIVE
[SUBJECT + WILL (+ NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE...]
Notice that WILL NOT is often abbreviated to WON'T.
I/You/We will (not) have gone...

He/She/It won't have gone...
The verb is normally followed by a time adverbial which begins with WHEN, BEFORE, or BY.
BY means NOT LATER THAN... and is followed by a time expression such as TEN O'CLOCK, NEXT
MONDAY, THE END OF THE YEAR, etc.
BEFORE can be followed by a time expression or by a clause (subject + verb) such as WE ARRIVE, THE
JOB IS FINISHED, etc. Notice that the verb in these clauses is normally in the present form, never in the
future form.
WHEN is followed by a clause, in the same way as BEFORE.
The verb can also be followed by the expression BY THE TIME which is followed by a clause
(subject+verb) in which the verb is in the Present Simple.
EXAMPLES:
"Have you finished typing that letter yet?
"Don't worry, I'm typing it now; I'll have finished it by 3 o'clock."
"I'll have corrected all the homework by tomorrow morning."
"They won't have built the new road before next summer."
"She'll have made dinner before we arrive."
"The film will have started when we get to the theater."
"I will have finished cleaning my room by the time you return."
45
QUESTIONS
[(Wh-Word) + WILL + SUBJECT + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE...]

(What) will he/you/we have done...
(Where) will he/she/it have gone...
(When) will they have been...
ANSWERS TO YES/NO QUESTIONS
[YES, + SUBJECT-PRONOUN + WILL.]

[NO, + SUBJECT-PRONOUN + WON'T.]
EXAMPLES:
"How many letters will you have written by this evening?"
"Will the rain have stopped before we get to the beach? What do you think?"
"Yes, I think it will."
"Will Dad have repaired my bike by tomorrow?"

"Yes, I'm sure he will."
"Will Paul and Mary have finished their exams before the summer?"
"No, they won't."
"When will you have finished the work?"

"By two o'clock."
"How many students will they have tested before lunch?"

"About five."
USE:
To talk about continuous actions or states which occur at a specific time in the future or during a specific
period in the future.
We do not normally use the FUTURE PROGRESSIVE to talk about personal characteristics (TO HAVE RED
HAIR, etc.) or temporary physical or mental states (TO BE HAPPY/ILL/TIRED, TO HAVE A HEADACHE,
etc.).
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FORM:
[SUBJECT + WILL ( + NOT) + BE + VERB + ing...]
Notice that WILL NOT is often abbreviated to WON'T I/You/We will (not) be doing... He/She/It will (not)
be going...
EXAMPLES:
"She'll be lying in the sun this time next week!"
"I'll be working in London all next month."
"We'll be staying at the Star Hotel from May 1st to May 10th."
"Patrick won't be watching television this evening; he'll be doing his homework."
QUESTIONS and ANSWERS
[(Wh-Word) + WILL + SUBJECT + BE + VERB + ing...]
(What) will I/you/we be doing...

(Where) will he/she/it be going...
(When) will they be eating...
ANSWERS TO YES/NO QUESTIONS
[YES, + SUBJECT-PRONOUN + WILL.]

[NO, + SUBJECT-PRONOUN + WON'T.]
Wh-Questions can be answered with a complete sentence using the FUTURE PROGRESSIVE tense, but a
short expression corresponding to the Wh-word is often sufficient.
EXAMPLES:
"What will you be doing tomorrow afternoon?"
"I'll be driving to Boston."
"Where will you be studying next semester?"

"In New York."
"Will you be living with us next year?"

"No, I won't."
"Where will you be living then?"
"I'll be staying with my family in Bogota."
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USE:
These tenses are used to talk about actions which will take place at or during a particular time period in
the future (FUTURE PROGRESSIVE) and about actions and events which will be completed by a certain
time in the future (FUTURE PERFECT).
EXAMPLES:
"Could I borrow the car tomorrow, Dad?"
"Well, I'll be using it all day tomorrow;when do you want to borrow it?"
"In the evening, after dinner."
"That's okay; I'll have finished with it by then."
STATEMENTS, Q and A
USE:
To talk about actions or states which began in the past and are still relevant in the present. The Present
Perfect is often used with expressions starting with FOR and SINCE, to talk about actions or states which
began in the past and are true up until the present time. It is also used with the adverbs JUST, ALREADY,
and YET to talk about actions or events which took place at an indefinite time in the past. The Present
Perfect is also used to talk about recent actions or events ("news").
FORM:
The Present Perfect is made up of HAVE/HAS and the Past Participle (the third form of the verb [V3]).
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + (just/already) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]... (for/since...)]
EXAMPLES:
"I've lived here for two years."
"You've already lost one key. I can't believe you can't find the second."
"Whose package is this? It's been here since 4 p.m."
"We've already met them."
"They're not hungry. They've just eaten their dinner."
NOTE: In positive sentences, JUST and ALREADY usually go immediately before the past participle.
Phrases with FOR and SINCE go at the end of the sentence.
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NEGATIVE
[SUBJECT + HAVE NOT/HAVEN'T + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]..] HAS NOT/HASN'T
EXAMPLES:
"I haven't met her yet."
"It hasn't begun to rain yet."
"We haven't had lunch yet."
"You haven't said a word for 2 hours."
"They haven't finished their breakfast."
NOTE: In negative sentences, YET and phrases with FOR and SINCE usually go at the end of the sentence.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
[HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT +...PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"Have you already finished your work?"
"Has she finished painting the room?"
WH-QUESTIONS
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE SUBJECT
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS +...PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLE:
"Who has just eaten the candy?"
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE REST OF THE SENTENCE
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT +...PAST PARTICIPLE (V3)]
EXAMPLES:
"Where has he put my coat?"
"What have you done with the money?"
NOTE: In questions, JUST and ALREADY usually go before the Past Participle [V3]; YET and phrases with
FOR and SINCE usually go at the end of the sentence.
49
CONTRAST WITH OTHER TENSES
USE:
We use the Present Perfect to talk about actions or events that happened during a period which in some
way includes or is connected to the present, when the exact time is not given.
EXAMPLE:
"Peter Parker has written five books."
The "period" in this sentence is Parker's life. By using the Present Perfect, we show that he is still alive
and still writing books.
BUT -
"John Craig wrote five books."
In this case, the Past Simple is used, showing that the "period" is finished, probably because Craig is
dead.
We also use the Present Perfect to talk about recent actions or events which are "news" to the listener,
often with the adverbs JUST and ALREADY and YET in negative sentences and questions.
EXAMPLES:
"The results have just come in; and here they are..."
"I don't want to go to that movie: I've already seen it."
"Have you typed that letter yet?"
NOTE: In American English, the simple past form is often used:

"The election results just came in: here they are..."
"I don't want to go to that movie; I already saw it."
"Did you type that letter yet?"
We often use the Present Perfect with certain expressions:
FOR or SINCE
We can use FOR or SINCE at the beginning of the time expression. If we say how long the action or state
lasted, we use FOR:
"...for ten minutes."
"...for twenty years."
"...for two centuries."
"...for a very long time." etc.
If we say when the action or state began, we use SINCE, followed by the time or another expression
which indicates the time:
"...since 2 o'clock."
"...since last Monday."
"...since 1975."
"...since the end of the war."
"...since I was a baby." etc.
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HOW LONG
We start a question to ask about the duration of an activity or state with HOW LONG:
EXAMPLES:
"How long have you had that sweater?"
"About six months."
"How long have you been an actor?"

"Since I left school."
EVER
If we want to know if something has happened, but not when, we often put the adverb EVER before the
verb in the question.
EXAMPLES:
"Have you ever eaten octopus?"
"Yes, I have."
"Have you ever been in an accident?"

"No, I haven't."
JUST, ALREADY or YET

JUST (=a short time ago), ALREADY (=before now) and YET (=before/until now) are used in Present
Perfect sentences that talk about recent actions or events ("news"). JUST and ALREADY usually go
immediately before the third form of the verb and YET is often used at the end of a negative sentence or
question.
EXAMPLES:
"I have already seen that movie. Let's stay home!"
"But I haven't seen it yet!"
"Here we are at the Indy 500 with Mike Rhodes. Mike, have you ever driven in an Indy race?"
"No, I haven't. But I've been a race driver in Europe for ten years."
"Well, Good Luck to you!"
USE:
To talk about a continuous or repeated action which began in the past and continues up to the present,
or which finished very recently and still has an effect. We do not normally use the Present Perfect
Progressive with stative verbs (TO HAVE RED HAIR, TO BE HAPPY/ILL/TIRED, TO KNOW THE ANSWER,
etc.).
EXAMPLES:
"Betty and Joe have been working all night: they're exhausted!"
"Ted, I've been telling you to make your bed for two hours!"
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FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + BEEN + VERB+ing ]
EXAMPLES:
"I've been sitting here for an hour."
"She's been hiding in the garage."
NEGATIVE
[SUBJECT+ HAS/HAVE + NOT+ BEEN + VERB+ing...]

HASN'T/HAVEN'T
EXAMPLES:
"You have not (haven't) been working all week."
"He has not (hasn't) been living here very long."
The expressions FOR and SINCE are used with the Present Perfect Progressive in the same way
NOTE: as with the Present Perfect Simple.
EXAMPLES:
"They have been studying French for three years."
"She has been living here since 1987."
USE:
Unlike the Present Perfect, the Simple Past or Past Progressive are used to talk about an action or event
which happened during a period that does not include the present.
EXAMPLES:
"Have you seen Pat this week?"
"No, but I saw her last week."
"Have you talked to Sharon?"

"No. I haven't talked to her since she came back from France."
Sometimes, a conversation begins in the Present Perfect and continues in the Simple Past: when the first
question ["Have you ever...?" or "How long have you...?"] covers a long period (including the present),
while the rest of the conversation deals with a particular action or event in the past.
EXAMPLES:
"Have you ever been to New York?"
"Yes, I have. I went in 1989. I loved it."
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"How long have you had that car?"
"We've had it for five years."
"How much did you pay for it?"
"Not much, but we had to do a lot of work on it...
USE:
To talk about actions or states which began in the past and are still relevant in the present. The Present
Perfect is often used with expressions starting with FOR and SINCE, to talk about actions or states which
began in the past and are true up until the present time. It is also used with the adverbs JUST, ALREADY,
and YET to talk about actions or events which took place at an indefinite time in the past. The Present
Perfect is also used to talk about recent actions or events ("news").
EXAMPLES:
"Hi, Karla! I haven't seen you lately. Where have you been?"
"I've been really busy. I've been playing with a band called "Wild Thing." Have you heard of us?"
"No, I haven't."
"Well, come and see us on Saturday night!"
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
Simple:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + (JUST/ALREADY) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] + (FOR/SINCE...)]
Progressive:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS + (JUST/ALREADY) + BEEN + VERB + ing + (FOR/SINCE...)]
EXAMPLES:
"They've lived here for two years."
"She's been here since 4 p.m."
"I've already swept the floor."
"They've been working all night."
NEGATIVE
Simple:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS NOT / HAVEN'T/HASN'T + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...]
Progressive:
[SUBJECT + HAVE/HAS NOT / HAVEN'T/HASN'T + BEEN + VERB + ing...]
EXAMPLES:
"We haven't met her yet."
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"He hasn't made a sound."
"You haven't been doing your homework."
YES/NO QUESTIONS
Simple:
[HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...?]
Progressive:
[HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + BEEN + VERB + ing...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Have you finished your work yet?"
"Has Peter come home yet?"
"Have they been living here long?"
WH-QUESTIONS
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE SUBJECT
Simple:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + PAST PARTICIPLE[V3]...]
Progressive:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + BEEN + VERB + ing]
EXAMPLES:
"Who's eaten all the candy?"
"Who's been sleeping in my bed?"
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT THE REST OF THE SENTENCE
Simple:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE[V3]...]
Progressive:
[WH-WORD + HAVE/HAS + SUBJECT + BEEN + VERB + ing]
EXAMPLES:
"Where has he put my coat?"
"Why have you done that?"
"What have you been doing?"
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TIME EXPRESSIONS
FOR or SINCE are used at the beginning of a time expression. To say how long the action or state lasted,
we use FOR:"...for ten minutes." "...for twenty years," "...for two centuries," "...for a very long time,"
etc.
To say when the action or state began, we use SINCE: "...since 2 o'clock," "...since last Monday," "...since
1975," "...since the end of the war," etc.
HOW LONG is used to start a question about duration.
EXAMPLES:
"How long have you had that sweater?"
"About six months."
"How long have you been living here?"

"For two years." EVER is used before the verb, to ask if something has happened, but not when.
EXAMPLE:
"Have you ever eaten octopus?"
"Yes, I have."
JUST, ALREADY, and YET are used to talk about actions or events which took place at an indefinite time
in the past, or recent actions or events ("news"). JUST (= a short time ago) and ALREADY (= before now)
usually go immediately before the Past Participle [V3], and YET (before/until now) is often used at the
end of a negative sentence or question.
EXAMPLES:
"I have already seen that movie. Let's stay home!"
"But I haven't seen it yet!"
USE:
To emphasize that one event happened before another (connected by conjunctions like WHEN/BEFORE)
or in reported speech, when the "reporting verb" is in the Past Tense and the "original" statement or
idea was in the Past or Present Perfect Tense.
We also use the Past Perfect to interrupt a story (in the Past Tense) with a reference to an earlier time
(before the story began).
EXAMPLE:
"I went home. I was very tired and I wanted my supper. But when I arrived I couldn't get into my house
because I had left the key in my office!"
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FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT+ HAD... + Past Participle.[V3]..]

HAD NOT/HADN'T
EXAMPLES:
"She had just arrived when he came in."
"We had already eaten by the time she arrived."
"The opera had just begun when we arrived."
"I had never been in love until I met you!"
REPORTED SPEECH
[PAST TENSE + (THAT) + PAST PERFECT]
EXAMPLES:
"I thought (that) you had already seen this."
"She said (that) she had never met me before."
USE:
To talk about continuous actions or states which continued up to a point in the past.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + HAD/HAD NOT + BEEN + VERB+ING...]
EXAMPLES:
"I'd been waiting for an hour when the train pulled in."
"He hadn't been studying much until he failed his first exam."
Describing Two Events:

"They'd been waiting for two hours when the bus finally arrived."
USE of FOR and SINCE
If we want to say how long the action or state lasted, we generally use FOR at the beginning of the "time
expression": "... for ten minutes." "... for twenty years." "... for two centuries." "... for a very long time.",
etc.
If we want to say when the action or state began, we use SINCE, followed by the time or another
expression which indicates the time: "... since two o'clock." "... since the previous Monday." "... since
1975." "... since the end of the war." "... since I was a baby.", etc.
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EXAMPLE:
The two scientists had been working for fifty years (since 1945) when they finally discovered the Youth
Drug.
USE:
To emphasize the difference in time between two states, actions, or events in the past which are
mentioned in the same sentence. We generally use the Past Perfect Tense when we want to emphasize
that one event or state happened before another.
EXAMPLE:
"I was really surprised when I met Fred at Jill's party last week. I hadn't seen him for five years, and he
looked really different. I asked him what he'd been doing since we left school, but he didn't tell me.
Then somebody told me he'd been in prison..."
PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
USE:
To emphasize that one event happened before another (connected by conjunctions like WHEN/BEFORE)
or in reported speech, when the "reporting verb" is in the Past Tense and the "original" statement or
idea was in the Past Simple, Present Perfect, or Past Perfect.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT+ HAD (+Adverb) + Past Participle[V3]...]

HAD NOT/HADN'T
EXAMPLES:
"She had just arrived when he came in."
"We had already eaten by the time they arrived."
"The opera had just begun when we arrived."
"I had never been in love until I met you!"
REPORTED SPEECH
[PAST TENSE + (THAT) + PAST PERFECT]
EXAMPLES:
"I thought (that) you'd already seen this."
"She said (that) she'd never met me before."
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PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
USE:
To talk about continuous actions or states which continued up to a point in the past.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + HAD/HAD NOT + BEEN + VERB + ING...](HADN'T)
EXAMPLES:
"I'd been waiting for an hour when the train pulled in."
"He hadn't been studying much until he failed his first exam."
"They'd been waiting for two hours when the bus finally arrived."
USE:
To indicate two or more of the same object.
FORM:
Add an "s" to the noun.
a dollar two dollars
a guitar many guitars
Many nouns have spelling changes in their plural forms.
When a noun ends in "s", "ss", "x", "sh", or "ch", add "es".
a watch watches
NOTE: "es" is pronounced "ez"
When a noun ends in a consonant + "y" change the "y" to "i" and add "es".
a baby babies
When a noun ends in "o", sometimes add "es".

a potato potatoes
BUT
a radio radios
When a noun ends in "f" or "fe", change the "f" to "v" and add "es" or "s".
a shelf shelves
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Sometimes the noun plural looks completely different:
a foot / feet
a woman / women
a man / men
a mouse / mice
a person / people
a child / children
USE:
To show who/what a thing belongs to.
FORM:
Add " 's " to the name of the person, place or thing that the noun belongs to. For plural nouns, put the
" ' " after the "s".
EXAMPLES:
"The boy's pizza."
(The pizza belongs to the boy.)
"The boys' pizza."

(The pizza belongs to the boys.)
USE:
"a" or "an" is used with all singular nouns that can be counted.
"the" is used to refer to a specific noun, singular or plural.
FORM:
Words that begin with a consonant take "a". Words that begin with a vowel take "an".
EXAMPLES:
"Give me a sandwich please."
(Sandwich is singular and can be counted.)
"This is a dog."
(Dog begins with "d", a consonant.)
"This is an orange."
(Orange begins with "o", a vowel.)
"I want the English book."

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"I want the English books."
("the" is used with both singular and plural nouns.)
"I want water, please."

"I want the water, please."
(Water cannot be counted so only "the" can be used and not "a".)
USE:
To state that something exists or is present.
FORM:
Singular: [THERE IS + REST OF SENTENCE]
Plural: [THERE ARE + REST OF SENTENCE]
Questions: [IS/ARE THERE + REST OF SENTENCE?]
EXAMPLES:
"Are there any cookies left?"
"There is one more left."
USE:
To indicate specific nouns.
FORM:
"This"/"That" used with singular nouns
"These"/"Those" used with plural nouns
"This"/"These" for nouns near the speaker
"That"/"Those" for nouns not near the speaker
EXAMPLES:
"Is this your hat?"
(A specific hat that is near the speaker.)
"No, that is my hat."

(A specific hat that is further away.)
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"Are these your gloves?"
(Specific gloves nearby.)
"No, those are my gloves."

(Specific gloves further away.)
"I'm going to visit friends this Friday."

(The specific Friday, nearest in time.)
USE:
Nouns are the names of people, places, and things.
EXAMPLE:
"These men buy their watches in New York."
men (person)
watches (thing)
New York (place)
SINGULAR/PLURAL
USE:
To make a noun plural.
FORM: Add an "s" to the noun.
a dollar two dollars

a guitar many guitars
Many nouns have spelling changes in their plural form.
When a noun ends in "s", "ss", "x", "sh" or "ch", add "es":
a watch/watches
When a noun ends in a consonant + "y", change the "y" to "i" and add "es": a baby/babies
When a noun ends in "o", sometimes add "es"

a potato/potatoes
BUT: a radio/radios
When a noun ends in "f" or "fe", change the "f" to "v" and add "es" or "s":
a shelf/shelves
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Sometimes the noun plural looks completely different.
foot / feet
a woman / women
a man / men
a mouse / mice
a person / people
a child / children
POSSESSIVE
USE:
To show who/what a thing belongs to.
FORM:
Add " 's " to the name of the person or thing that the noun belongs to. For plural nouns, put the " ' "
after the "s".
EXAMPLE:
"The boy's pizza. The boys' pizza."
USE:
Quantifiers are words or phrases which show the number or amount of some object. Some quantifiers
are used with both count and non-count nouns. Some other quantifiers are only used with count or non-
count nouns, but not with both.
USED WITH BOTH COUNT AND NON-COUNT NOUNS:
some (statements):
"There are some books on the shelf." (COUNT)
"There is some fruit on the table." (NON-COUNT)
any (questions and negative sentences):

"Are there any girls in your class?" (COUNT)
"There aren't any onions in the salad." (COUNT)
"Is there any butter?" (NON-COUNT)
"There isn't any homework today." (NON-COUNT)
a lot of
"There are a lot of red apples." (COUNT)
"There is a lot of noise in here." (NON-COUNT)
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USED WITH COUNT NOUNS ONLY:
many
"I haven't got many friends."
"How many chairs are in that classroom?"
a few
"He has a few books."
USED WITH NON-COUNT NOUNS ONLY:
much
"I haven't got much time."
"How much milk do you want?"
a little
"I only want a little juice."
USE:
Quantifiers are words or phrases which show the number or amount of an object. Some quantifiers are
used with both count and non-count nouns. Some other quantifiers are used only with either non-count
nouns or count nouns, but not with both.
some (statements):
"There are some books on the shelf."

"Are there any girls in your class?"
"There aren't any onions in the salad."
a lot of
"There are a lot of red apples."
many
"I haven't got many friends."
"How many chairs are in that classroom?"
a few
"He has a few books."
EXAMPLE:
"Are there any small nails down there, Harry?"
"Sorry, there aren't any, but I have some big nails.
Is that OK?"
63
USE:
Quantifiers are words or phrases which show the number or amount of an object. Some quantifiers are
used with both count and non-count nouns. Some other quantifiers are used only with either non-count
nouns or count nouns, but not with both.
REMEMBER: Non-count nouns take only the singular form of the verb!
some (statements):
"There is some water in your glass."

"Is there any money in the handbag?"
"There isn't any time left."
a lot of
"There is a lot of butter on your bread."
much
"I haven't got much money."
"How much milk do you want?"
a little
"I only want a little juice."
USE:
Count and non-count nouns have special articles and quantifiers.
COUNT NOUNS
These are the names of objects, people, ideas, etc. which we can count. Count nouns have a singular
and plural form:
a dog - dogs the man - men
With count nouns, we can use a/an, the, and numbers.

a dog - two dogs the boy - the boys
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NON-COUNT NOUNS
These are the names of materials, liquids, or other things which we do not see as separate,countable
objects: health, love, nature, water, light, music, cheese, money
Non-count nouns only have a singular form:
The water is cold.
With Non-count nouns, we cannot use a/an or numbers. We can use the and other quantifiers:
"The music is too loud."
"We have some cheese."
"How much money do you have?"
USE:
To compare two persons or things that are alike.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE:
[AS + ADJECTIVE + AS]
Bob is as tall as Marty.
NEGATIVE:
[NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS]
Her hair is not as long as mine.
USE:
To compare one or more people/things to other people/things.
FORM:
[COMPARATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVE + THAN]
John is older than Bart.

Betty is more beautiful than Barbara.
Most adjectives take -er:

long/longer, old/older, tall/taller
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Adjectives ending in -e take -r:
nice/nicer, late/later
Adjectives ending in vowel + consonant

double the consonant:
fat/fatter, big/bigger, hot/hotter
With adjectives ending in y, drop the y; add -ier:

happy/happier, easy/easier
With most two-syllable adjectives and longer adjectives form the comparative with more:
intelligent - more intelligent
beautiful - more beautiful
The adjectives "good" and "bad" have anirregular comparative form:

good - better
bad - worse
EXAMPLES:
Todd: "Samurai Sam is winning. He's stronger than Viking Vick."
Ron: "Yes, and he's more popular, too!"
USE:
To compare one or more person or thing with a whole group.
FORM:
[THE + SUPERLATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVE]

John is the tallest boy in the class.
They are the most beautiful shoes in the store.
Most adjectives take -est: long/longest, old/oldest
Adjectives ending in -e take -st: nice/nicest, late/latest
Adjectives ending in a vowel + consonant double the consonant: fat/fattest, big/biggest, hot/hottest
With adjectives ending in y, drop the y; add -iest: happy/happiest, easy/easiest
With most two-syllable adjectives and longer

adjectives form the superlative with most:
honest - most honest
beautiful - most beautiful
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The adjectives "good" and "bad" have an irregular superlative form:
good - best
bad - worst
EXAMPLES:
"Come to Mad Mo's. We have the cheapest,
the biggest, the most terrific store in New York! We are the best!"
USE:
To compare two persons or things.
EQUALITY
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE:
[AS + ADJECTIVE + AS]
Bob is as tall as Marty.
NEGATIVE:
[NOT AS + ADJECTIVE + AS]
Her hair is not as long as mine.
COMPARATIVES
FORM:
[COMPARATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVE + THAN]
John is older than Bart.

Betty is more beautiful than Barbara.
NOTE:
Most adjectives take -er:
long/longer, old/older, tall/taller
Adjectives ending in -e take -r:

nice/nicer, late/later
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Adjectives ending in vowel + consonant double the consonant:
fat/fatter, big/bigger, hot/hotter
With adjectives ending in y, drop the y and add -ier:

happy/happier, easy/easier
With most two-syllable adjectives and longer adjectives the comparative is formed with more:
intelligent - more intelligent
beautiful - more beautiful
The adjectives "good" and "bad" have an irregular comparative form:

good - better
bad - worse
SUPERLATIVES
FORM:
[SUPERLATIVE FORM OF ADJECTIVE]
John is the tallest boy in the class.

They are the most beautiful shoes in the store.
NOTE:
Most adjectives take -est:
long/longest, old/oldest
Adjectives ending in -e take -st:

nice/nicest, late/latest
Adjectives ending in vowel + consonant double the consonant:

fat/fattest, big/biggest, hot/hottest
With adjectives ending in y, drop the y and add -iest:

happy/happiest, easy/easiest
Long adjectives form the superlative with most:

intelligent - most intelligent
beautiful - most beautiful
The adjectives "good" and "bad" have an irregular superlative form:

good - best
bad - worst
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USE:
To refer to the object of a sentence instead of using a proper name.
FORM:
To refer to people: me, you, him, her, us, them
To refer to things: it, them
EXAMPLES:
"Do you know him?"
"No, but I know her; she's my boss!"
USE:
To refer to the subject of a sentence instead of using proper names.
FORM:
To refer to people: I, you, he, she, we, they
To refer to things: it, they
EXAMPLE:
"I am Mack."
"She is Matilda."
"He is little Spike."
"We are your new neighbors."
USE:
To show belonging without using the name of the owner.
FORM:
ADJECTIVE
Always followed by the noun it describes: my, your, his,
her, its, our, their
NOUN
Used without the noun it describes: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
EXAMPLES:
"Is it your turn?"
"No, it's his."
"It's not my turn, it's hers."
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USE:
To refer to specific or general nouns without using proper names.
EXAMPLES:
"Is this your bag?"
"Yes, it's mine."
"Give it to me please."
SUBJECT PRONOUNS
USE:
To refer to the subject of a sentence instead of using proper names.
To refer to people:I, you, he, she, we, they
To refer to things: it, they
EXAMPLE:
"I am Mack. She is Matilda."
OBJECT PRONOUNS
USE:
To refer to the object (direct and indirect) of a sentence instead of using proper names.
To refer to people: me, you, him, her, us, them
To refer to things: it, them
EXAMPLE:
"Do you know him?"
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
USE:
To show belonging without using the names of the owners.
ADJECTIVE
Always followed by the noun it describes:
my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
NOUN
Used without the noun it describes:
mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.
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EXAMPLE:
"Is it your turn?" "No, it's his."
USE:
(a) to talk about actions where the subject and the object of the verb are the same person.
(b) to mean "that person/thing and nobody/nothing else".
FORM:
Singular Plural
MYSELF OURSELVES
YOURSELF YOURSELVES
HIMSELF THEMSELVES
HERSELF
ITSELF
ONESELF
EXAMPLES:
"How did you hurt yourself?"
"I decided to teach myself to ski."
"The manager spoke to me himself!"
NOTE: We do not usually use reflexive pronouns with WASH, DRESS, SHAVE, FEEL or after prepositions,
when it is clear who we are talking about.
"I don't feel very well." (NOT "feel myself")
Notice the important difference between reflexive pronouns and the expressions EACH OTHER/ONE
ANOTHER.
"Mary looked at Tom and Tom looked at Mary."

= "Mary and Tom looked at each other/one another."
Compare to: "Mary and Tom stood in front of the mirror and looked at themselves."
The expression BY + Reflexive Pronoun (BY MYSELF, BY HIMSELF etc.) means "alone" or "without help".
"Fred loves company; he hates being by himself."

"The baby climbed the stairs by herself."
EXAMPLES:
"Be careful with that razor: you'll cut yourself!"
"I myself checked the figures; I'm sure they're right."
"Sharon looked at herself in the mirror."
"Nobody helped me; I wrote the book by myself."
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Most adverbs are formed by adding "-ly" to the end of an adjective:
clear/clearly,
wonderful/wonderfully,
clever/cleverly,
stupid/stupidly,
interesting/interestingly,
close/closely,
dangerous/dangerously,
bad/badly.
If an adjective already ends in "-ly" (e.g. FRIENDLY, LONELY) it cannot be made into an adverb. In this
case, we have to make an adverbial phrase.
EXAMPLES:
"She spoke to me in a friendly way."
"He sat there looking lonely."
In a few cases, the adverb is exactly the same as its corresponding adjective: EARLY, LATE, FAST, HARD,
LEFT, RIGHT, WRONG, HIGH, LONG.
EXAMPLES:
"I'm afraid the train will leave late."
"He runs very fast."
"Why do you work so hard?"
"Turn right at the next corner!"
The adverb form of the adjective GOOD is WELL.
"Michael is a very good cook. He makes cakes particularly well."
USE:
Used to talk about adjectives or adverbs in terms of excess (TOO), adequacy(ENOUGH), or inadequacy
(NOT.. ENOUGH).
FORM + MEANING:
[TOO + Adjective or Adverb] (=EXCESS)
EXAMPLES:
"This restaurant is too expensive. I'm not coming here again!"
"I'm too fat; I must lose weight!"
FORM + MEANING:
[Adjective or Adverb + ENOUGH] (=ADEQUACY)
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EXAMPLE:
"Can you lift that case?"
"Sure, I'm strong enough."
FORM + MEANING:
[NOT (-N'T) + Adjective/Adverb + ENOUGH]
(=INADEQUACY)
EXAMPLE:
"Don't go skating there; the ice isn't thick enough!"
"We lost the match because we didn't play well
enough."
USE:
Used to compare two subjects performing the same action. The comparative and superlative forms of
most adverbs are made in the same way as long adjectives:
COMPARATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB + MORE + Adverb + THAN + SUBJECT 2 (+DOES/CAN etc)...]
EXAMPLES:
"I can sing more beautifully than you (can)."
"Ted writes more slowly than Brenda (does)."
SUPERLATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB + THE MOST + Adverb (OF ALL)]
EXAMPLES:
"Of all the students in her class, Sarah does her homework the most carefully."
"Jimmy behaves the most childishly of anyone in the class."
Adverbs which have the same base form as adjectives also have the same comparative and superlative
forms. These are constructed by adding-er (for the comparative) and -est (for the superlative) to the
base form.
EXAMPLES:
"Fred can run faster than Martin can, but Sharon runs the fastest."
"My wife got up earlier than I did this morning, but our daughter got up the earliest."
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IRREGULAR COMPARATIVES and SUPERLATIVE FORMS
There are also a small number of irregular comparative and superlative forms of adverbs:
Base form Comparative Superlative

WELL BETTER THE BEST
BADLY WORSE THE WORST
LITTLE LESS THE LEAST
MUCH MORE THE MOST
USE:
Used to talk about how often or how rarely something happens. The most important adverbs of
frequency are ALWAYS, GENERALLY, NORMALLY, USUALLY, FREQUENTLY, OFTEN, SOMETIMES, EVER,
OCCASIONALLY, SELDOM, RARELY, and NEVER.
FORM:
Adverbs of frequency normally come immediately before the verb in affirmative sentences, but after the
verb "BE". In negative sentences, adverbs of frequency normally come immediately after the word NOT.
In questions, adverbs of frequency normally come immediately after the subject.
AFFIRMATIVE
[ADVERB + VERB]
EXAMPLE:
"I always drink champagne with my supper."
[BE + ADVERB]
EXAMPLE:
"Peter is sometimes late for lessons."
NEGATIVE
[NOT + ADVERB]
EXAMPLES:
"We don't often go to the theater."
"My sister isn't usually so quiet."
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QUESTIONS
[SUBJECT + ADVERB]
EXAMPLES:
"What do you usually have for breakfast?"
"Do you always eat a sandwich for lunch?"
"Are you ever going to finish that book?"
"We sometimes take the car and sometimes walk."
"Bill is rarely late."
"Jessica doesn't ever call me at work."
"Why don't Pam and Jim ever speak to Michael?"
USE:
An adverb often contains the answer to the question: "How does the subject perform the verb?".
EXAMPLES:
"He plays the trumpet beautifully, but he plays baseball very badly."
"John walked towards me very slowly. Then he spoke quietly."
Some adverbs (e.g. EXTREMELY, TERRIBLY, REMARKABLY, UNUSUALLY, ESPECIALLY, and several others)
are also used to strengthen adjectives or other adverbs.
EXAMPLES:
"Fred was extremely angry when you said that."
"That's a lovely hat, but it's terribly expensive!"
FORMATION
Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the end of an

adjective: clear/clearly, wonderful/wonderfully, clever/cleverly, stupid/stupidly, interesting/interestingly
, close/closely, dangerous/dangerously, bad/badly.
If an adjective already ends in -ly (e.g. FRIENDLY, LONELY) it cannot be made into an adverb. In this case
we have to make an adverbial phrase.
EXAMPLES:
"She spoke to me in a friendly way."
"He sat there looking lonely." In a few cases, the adverb is exactly the same as its corresponding
adjective: EARLY, LATE, FAST, HARD, LEFT, RIGHT, WRONG, HIGH, LONG.
EXAMPLES:
"I'm afraid the train will leave late."
"He runs very fast."
"Why do you work so hard?"
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"Turn right at the next corner!"
The adverb form of the adjective GOOD is WELL.
"Michael is a very good cook. He makes cakes particularly well."
ADVERBS and ADJECTIVES: TOO and ENOUGH
USE:
Used to talk about adjectives or adverbs in terms of excess (TOO), adequacy (ENOUGH), or inadequacy
(NOT... ENOUGH).
FORM + MEANING:
[TOO + Adjective or Adverb] (=EXCESS)
EXAMPLES:
"This restaurant is too expensive. I'm not coming here again!"
"I'm too fat; I must lose weight!"
FORM + MEANING:
[Adjective or Adverb + ENOUGH] (=ADEQUACY)
EXAMPLE:
"Can you lift that case?"
"Sure, I'm strong enough."
FORM + MEANING:
[NOT (-N'T) + Adjective/Adverb + ENOUGH](=INADEQUACY)
EXAMPLES:
"Don't go skating there. The ice isn't thick enough!"
"We lost the match because we didn't play well
enough."
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
USE:
Used to compare two subjects performing the same action.
COMPARATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB + MORE + Adverb + THAN + SUBJECT 2 (+DOES/CAN etc)...]
EXAMPLE:
"I can sing more beautifully than you (can)."
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SUPERLATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB + THE MOST + Adverb (OF ALL)]
EXAMPLE:
"Of all the students in her class, Sarah does her homework the most carefully."
ADVERBS WITH THE SAME BASE FORM AS ADJECTIVES
FORM:
Comparison: Add -er
EXAMPLE:
"Fred can run faster than Martin can, but Sharon runs the fastest."
FORM:
Superlative: Add -est
EXAMPLE:
"My wife got up earlier than I did this morning, but our daughter got up the earliest."
IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE FORMS
Base form Comparative Superlative

WELL BETTER THE BEST
BADLY WORSE THE WORST
LITTLE LESS THE LEAST
MUCH MORE THE MOST
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
USE:
Used to talk about how often or how rarely something happens. The most important adverbs of
frequency are ALWAYS, GENERALLY, NORMALLY, USUALLY, FREQUENTLY, OFTEN, SOMETIMES, EVER,
OCCASIONALLY, SELDOM, RARELY, and NEVER.
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[ADVERB + VERB...]
EXAMPLE:
"I always drink champagne with my supper."
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FORM:
[BE + ADVERB]
EXAMPLE:
"Peter is sometimes late for lessons."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[NOT + ADVERB]
EXAMPLES:
"We don't often go to the theater."
"My sister isn't usually so quiet."
QUESTIONS
FORM:
[SUBJECT + ADVERB]
EXAMPLES:
"What do you usually have for breakfast?"
"Do you always eat a sandwich for lunch?"
"Are you ever going to finish that book?"
USE:
Participial adjectives are used with verbs which describe the subject's state, such as BE, GET, or
BECOME. A Present Participle generally refers to the state or condition of the noun it modifies.
EXAMPLES:
"That film was boring."
"The political situation in Japan is very interesting this year."
"Fred's work is very tiring."
Past Participles generally refer to a "passive" state sometimes caused by something else. Frequently
these participles are followed by words like BY, AT, OF, WITH, etc., or by a phrase which shows the cause
of the state.
EXAMPLES:
"John was tired of his mother's constant complaining."
"Felicity was excited when she heard about the party."
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USE:
The PRESENT PARTICIPLES of many verbs can be used as adjectives before nouns. In this case they often
replace a relative clause containing an active verb.
EXAMPLES:
"There was a sleeping dog on the floor."
(In other words, "...a dog which was sleeping...")
"He has a working model of the locomotive."
(In other words "...a model that works...")
The PAST PARTICIPLES of many verbs can be used in the same way, but in this case they replace a
relative clause containing a passive verb.
EXAMPLES:
"He gave me a broken pencil."
(In other words "...a pencil which was broken.")
"The floor was made of varnished wood."
(In other words "...wood which was varnished.")
PRESENT PARTICIPLES can also be used with certain verbs in clauses which include nouns or pronouns.
In this case the noun or pronoun acts as the object of the first verb and as the subject of the participle.
EXAMPLE:
"I saw Fred walking along the road."
This sentence contains two ideas: "I saw Fred" and "Fred was walking along the road". It is the same as a
single sentence containing a main clause "I saw Fred..." and the adverbial clause "...while he was walking
along the road."
This structure is often used with other "verbs of perception," such as HEAR, SMELL, FEEL, NOTICE,
OBSERVE, FIND, and CATCH, etc.
EXAMPLES:
"She heard him singing in the shower."
"Mike noticed Pat looking at him."
"I found this cat sleeping on my chair."
"They caught the thief stealing a VCR."
Other verbs used in this structure include HAVE and GET. In this case the subject of the first verb
controls or causes the action described by the participle.
EXAMPLE:
"They had me working all night." (In other words, "They forced/persuaded me to work all night.")
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USE:
A PARTICIPLE is a verb form which can be used like an adjective in a sentence. All verbs, except Modals
such as MUST, MAY, CAN, WILL, SHALL, and SHOULD, have participial forms.
FORM:
The Present Participle is formed by adding "-ING" to the base form. It is used to express an active
meaning: it describes what the noun "is doing/does." The Past Participle is formed by adding "-ED" to
the verb in regular verbs. The irregular verbs have special forms.
The Past Participle expresses a passive meaning: it describes the effect something has on the person or
thing, or what the person feels.
EXAMPLES:
Present Participle Past Participle

confusing Confused
exciting Excited
pleasing Pleased
worrying Worried
"Jean is such an annoying person. She never has anything nice to say about anyone. I get annoyed every
time she opens her mouth!"
USE:
The Modal CAN is used with verbs and adds a special meaning. Like most Modals, CAN has more than
one meaning.
MEANING:
"Joe can speak French." (ABILITY)
"You can leave early." (PERMISSION)
"It can be hot here." (POSSIBILITY)
FORM:
Like other Modals, CAN goes before the verb and only has one form.
AFFIRMATIVE
[CAN + VERB]
John can swim quickly.

You can go to the movies with your friends.
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NEGATIVE
[CAN + NOT + VERB]
Diane can't swim.

Beth cannot meet us tonight.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
[CAN + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]
Can you help me?

Can I leave now?
Answers:
Yes, you can.
No, you cannot/can't.
WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + CAN... VERB...]

When can you help me?
EXAMPLES:
Danny: "Can you open it?"
Keith: "No, I can't. I can't open it."
Danny: "Let's ask Butch. He can do it."
USE:
The Modal MAY is used with verbs and adds a special meaning. Like most Modals, MAY has more than
one meaning.
MEANING:
"You may leave early."(PERMISSION)
"They may buy a new house." (POSSIBILITY)
FORM:
Like other Modals, MAY goes before the verb and only has one form.
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AFFIRMATIVE
[MAY + VERB]
John may go with you.

They may visit us later.
NEGATIVE
[MAY + NOT + VERB]
You may not leave the table.

We may not go to the party later.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
[MAY + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
May we leave now?

May I help me?
Answers:
Yes, you may.
No, you may not.
WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + MAY... VERB...]
When may we leave?
EXAMPLES:
Girl: "Mom, may I have a cookie?"
"Okay, but only one. Your brother may
Mother: want one, too."
USE:
The Semi-modal HAVE TO is used with verbs and adds a special meaning.
MEANING:
"He has to leave early." (OBLIGATION).
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FORM:
Like other Modals and Semi-modals, HAVE TO goes before the verb. It has the same form as regular
verbs.
AFFIRMATIVE:
[HAVE TO + VERB + REST]
He has to leave early.

They have to do their homework.
NEGATIVE:
[DO/DOES (NOT) + SEMI-MODAL + VERB + REST]
The boys don't have to work today.
YES/NO QUESTIONS:
[DO/DOES(NOT) + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB + REST]
Do I have to leave now?

Doesn't she have to study for her test?
Answers:
Yes, I do.
No, she doesn't.
WH-QUESTIONS:
[WH-WORD + (DO/DOES + SUBJECT) + HAVE TO + VERB + REST]
Who has to leave?

When do you have to call your parents?
EXAMPLES:
Mother: "It's time for bed, Michael."
Rick: "Aw, Mom. Do I have to go to bed now?"
Mother: "Yes, you do. It's late and you have to goto school tomorrow."
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USE:
Used to talk about a strong necessity, obligation, or duty to do something. There is often very little
difference between MUST and HAVE TO. In formal, written English, MUST is used for public notices
about official rules and regulations. MUST can also be used to express a strong opinion about a situation
based on existing facts or circumstances.
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + MUST + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"I have a terrible toothache; I must go to the dentist."
"We must try to help Nicky; she's our oldest friend."
"All workers must wear safety helmets in work areas!"
"Jack must be on his way. There was no one home when I called his apartment."
NEGATIVE
USE:
In both formal and informal English we use the negative form MUST NOT (often shortened to MUSTN'T)
to talk about something which is wrong or forbidden. Note that this is not the same as the negative form
of HAVE TO, which only means that something is not necessary.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + MUST + NOT (MUSTN'T) + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"You mustn't pull the dog's tail, dear; he'll bite you."
"We mustn't forget to pay back that loan."
"Workers must not smoke in work areas!"
USE:
Used to ask whether something is necessary or obligatory. The interrogative form of HAVE TO has the
same meaning and is more common.
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YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[Q: MUST+ SUBJECT+ VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT+ MUST
No, + SUBJECT+ NEEDN'T]
EXAMPLE:
"Must I go to school today, Mom?"
"Yes, you must."
WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
About the SUBJECT of the sentence:
[Wh-Word + MUST + VERB...?]
ABOUT REST OF SENTENCE:

[WH-WORD + MUST + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"What must happen before we can leave?"
"When must you take the test?"

"Next Friday."
AFFIRMATIVE
USE:
Used to talk about a duty or obligation which is much weaker than MUST or HAVE TO. It is also used to
give somebody advice.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + SHOULD + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"You should study for your test tonight instead of watching TV." (duty)
"I'm terribly tired."

"You should work less!" (advice)
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NEGATIVE
USE:
We can use SHOULD NOT (SHOULDN'T) as a weaker form of MUSTN'T, to warn people or advise them
not to do something.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + SHOULD NOT (SHOULDN'T) + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"You shouldn't eat so much candy. It'll make you fat!"
"You shouldn't throw candy wrappers on the street. Put them in the trash can instead."
USE:
Used to ask whether something is necessary, right, or useful, or to ask people for advice.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[Q: Should + SUBJECT+ VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT+ SHOULD
No, + SUBJECT+ SHOULDN'T]
EXAMPLE:
"Should I answer Peter's letter?"
"Yes, you should!"
WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
About the SUBJECT of the sentence
[WH-WORD + SHOULD + VERB...?]
About the REST of the sentence

[WH-WORD + SHOULD + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Who should bring the drinks?"
"Where should we go to buy the local pottery?"

"Well, don't go to the big tourist shops. You should go to the small shops in the villages."
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AFFIRMATIVE
USE:
Used to talk about ability in the present, future, and past. It is very similar in meaning to the Modals
CAN and COULD.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE(present/past/future) + ABLE TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"He worked hard and was able to pass the exam."
"Mary broke her leg just two months ago but she's already able to walk again."
"She needs time to decide, but she'll be able to give you an answer tomorrow."
NEGATIVE
USE:
Used to talk about inability or failure to do something in the past, present, or future.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE (present/past/future)
+ NOT + ABLE TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"The store was closed, so I wasn't able to buy the book."
"Sorry, we won't be able to fix your car until next week."
USE:
Used to ask questions about ability in the present, past, and future.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[Q: BE (all tenses) + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?]
[A: Yes, + SUBJECT+ BE.
No, + SUBJECT+ BE NOT.]
EXAMPLES:
"Were you able to buy that book for me?"
"Yes I was. Here it is!
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WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
About the SUBJECT of the sentence

[WH-WORD + BE ABLE TO+ VERB...?]
About the REST of the sentence

[WH-WORD + BE + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Who was able to finish their homework on time?"
"When will you be able to pay back the loan?"

"We'll be able to pay you next month."
AFFIRMATIVE
USE:
Used to talk about necessity, obligation, and duty in the past. HAD TO is the past form of both HAVE TO
and MUST.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + HAD TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"I had to stay up all night to write this paper!"
"We had to run to catch the train."
NEGATIVE
USE:
Used to talk about something that was not necessary or not obligatory in the past.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + DID NOT (DIDN'T) + HAVE TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Monday was a holiday, so I didn't have to go to work."
"I didn't have to study Latin in high school."
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USE:
Used to ask questions about duties and obligations in the past.
YES/NO QUESTIONS
[Q: DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]

[A: Yes, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + DID.
No, + SUBJECT (pronoun) + DIDN'T]
EXAMPLE:
"Did you have to borrow money to buy the car?"
"Yes, we did."
WH-QUESTIONS
About the SUBJECT of the sentence:

[WH-WORD + HAS/HAD/HAD TO+ VERB...?]
About the REST of the sentence:

[WH-WORD + DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Who had to wash the car this week?"
"What did you have to do to get the loan?"

"I had to fill out a form for the bank."
USE:
While MUST and HAVE TO have similar meanings in the affirmative, they cannot be used
interchangeably in the negative.
MUST NOT (MUSTN'T) is used to show that something is prohibited or forbidden.
DON'T HAVE TO means "it's not necessary to do something".
EXAMPLES:
"You mustn't run in here; this is a hospital."
"You don't have to run; the bus is waiting for you."
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USE:
Modals and Semi-modals are words that are used with verbs and add a special meaning. Most modals
have more than one meaning.
FORM:
Modals go before the verb and have only one form.
AFFIRMATIVE
[MODAL + VERB]
John can swim quickly.
Bill and Mary may visit us later.
NEGATIVE
[MODAL + NOT + VERB]

Diane can't swim.
Beth cannot meet us tonight.
Semi-modals also go before the verb, but have the same form as regular verbs.
AFFIRMATIVE
[SEMI-MODAL + VERB]
He has to leave early.
They have to do their homework.
NEGATIVE
[(DO/DOES NOT) + SEMI-MODAL + VERB]

The boys don't have to work today. Three of the most common Modals/Semi-modals are:
CAN (MODAL):
Joe can speak French. (ABILITY)
You can leave early. (PERMISSION)
It can be hot here. (POSSIBILITY)
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MAY (MODAL):
You may leave early. (PERMISSION)
They may visit later. (POSSIBILITY)
HAVE TO (SEMI-MODAL):
He has to leave early. (OBLIGATION)
QUESTIONS
FORM:
MODALS - YES/NO QUESTIONS
[MODAL + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]
Can you help me?

May I leave now?
Answers:
Yes, you can.
No, you cannot/can't.
MODALS - WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + MODAL... VERB...]

When can you help me?
SEMI-MODALS - YES/NO QUESTIONS
[DO/DOES(NOT) + SUBJECT + SEMI-MODAL + VERB + REST]

Do I have to leave now?
Doesn't she have to study for her test?
Answers:
Yes, I do.
No, she doesn't.
SEMI-MODALS - WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + (DO/DOES+SUBJECT) + SEMI-MODAL + VERB + REST]
Who has to leave?

When do you have to call your parents?
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USE:
Modals and Semi-modals are words that are used with verbs and add a special meaning. Most Modals
have more than one meaning.
MUST
Modal showing strong necessity, obligation, or duty to do something. There is very little difference
between MUST and HAVE TO. However, in formal English, MUST is used for public notices about official
rules and regulations. MUST can also be used to express a strong opinion about a situation based on
existing facts or circumstances.
SHOULD
Modal used to talk about a duty or obligation (weaker than MUST or HAVE TO) or give somebody advice.
HAD TO
Semi-modal used to talk about necessity, obligation, or duty in the past. It is the past form of both HAVE
TO and MUST.
BE ABLE TO
Semi-modal used to talk about ability in the present, future, and past. It is similar in meaning to CAN and
COULD.
AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
MUST, SHOULD
Note that there is no final -s on modal forms in the third person singular.
[SUBJECT + MODAL + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"We should invite Paul to the party."
"Bob must be home by now. Let's call him."
"You must have a license to drive."
BE ABLE TO, HAD TO
[SUBJECT + SEMI MODAL + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Paul isn't able to come to the party."
"Barbara has/had to babysit tonight."
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WITH ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Note that adverbs of frequency (never, often, sometimes, etc.) can be placed immediately after the
Modal in affirmative sentences.
EXAMPLE:
"You must always remember your boss's birthday."
Adverbs of frequency are placed immediately before HAD TO in affirmative sentences.
EXAMPLE:
"Bob always had to work after school."
With BE ABLE TO, adverbs of frequency are placed after BE.
EXAMPLE:
"She is never able to understand the homework."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + MODAL + NOT + VERB...]
NOTE: NOT is usually shortened to '-n't' and pronounced together with the Modal (except for might).
EXAMPLES:
"We must not (mustn't) be late."
"You should not (shouldn't) open that box!"
[SUBJECT + DO/DOES/DID + NOT + HAVE TO+ VERB...]
EXAMPLE:
"They didn't have to clean the yard yesterday."
[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + ABLE TO + VERB...]

"Peter isn't able to come to our party."
YES/NO QUESTIONS
FORM:
[MODAL + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Must we invite Paul?"
"Should we ask someone to help us?"
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[DO/DOES/DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"Did he have to leave so early?"
[BE + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"Is he able to fix the TV?"
WH-QUESTIONS
FORM:
ABOUT THE SUBJECT

[WH-WORD + MODAL/SEMI-MODAL + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Who must we speak to?"
"Who had to help her yesterday?"
"Who is able to understand that question?"
WH-QUESTIONS ABOUT REST OF SENTENCE

[Wh-Word + MODAL + SUBJECT + VERB...?]
EXAMPLES:
"Why must we invite Paul?"
"When could you type that letter for me?"
[WH-WORD + DO/DOES/DID + SUBJECT + HAVE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"What did Bradley have to do yesterday?"
[WH-WORD + BE + SUBJECT + ABLE TO + VERB...?]
EXAMPLE:
"How is Sarah able to buy such an expensive sweater?"
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USE:
We use SHOULD HAVE to talk about an expectation, supposition or unfulfilled obligation in the past. This
may be something which was not done, although it was necessary, or something which was done but
was either wrong or regretted.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + SHOULD (+ NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"Our exam results should have arrived by now. Let's check the mailbox."
"I should have thanked Mary for her help, but I completely forgot."
"We shouldn't have invited James to the party; he behaved very badly."
QUESTIONS
FORM:
[(Wh-Word) + SHOULD(N'T) + SUBJECT + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"Shouldn't the bride have arrived by now? It's very late."
"Should we have waited for the next train?"
"What should I have done when the fire started?"
"Why shouldn't I have read that letter?"
NOTE: All the above questions imply that the opposite actually happened: the package hasn't arrived
yet, we didn't wait for the next train, I did nothing (or I did the wrong thing) when the fire started, and I
read the letter.
COULD HAVE
USE:
We use COULD HAVE to talk about an action or event which was possible, but did not happen, or
(negative form) which was impossible, in the past. We often use COULD HAVE in the result clause of
Unreal Past Conditionals.
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FORM:
[SUBJECT + COULD (+NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]..]
EXAMPLES:
"I could have done well on the test, but I was too lazy to study."
"That couldn't have been Sarah you saw at the party. She's out of town."
"If I'd known your address, I could have written to you."
QUESTIONS
FORM:
[(Wh-Word) + COULD + SUBJECT + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"Couldn't he have arrived earlier?"
"What could we have done to prevent the disaster?"
"How could she have known the way?"
USE:
We use MIGHT/MAY HAVE to speculate or form opinions about possible events in the past. MAY
suggests a stronger probability than MIGHT.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + MAY/MIGHT (+ NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]..]
EXAMPLES:
"She might have been the thief, but I don't think she was."
"I may have met him before, or I may have seen his photograph; I really can't remember."
"They might not have gone without us."
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MUST HAVE
USE:
We use MUST HAVE to express deductions about past actions or events, when the speaker uses logic to
decide what happened.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + MUST (NOT) + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"The roads are all wet this morning; it must have rained last night."
"The office is empty; everybody must have gone home."
"The papers are still here; he must not have finished the report."
Since MUST HAVE expresses a logical deduction, it is almost never used in questions.
USE:
The Modals COULD, MAY, and MIGHT are used with HAVE and the Past Participle [V3] of verbs to
speculate or form opinions about possible events in the past. MUST HAVE is used in the same way to
express logical deductions about the past. SHOULD HAVE is used to talk about expectations,
suppositions, and obligation in the past.
EXAMPLES:
"I'm worried. Jack should have been on that train, but he wasn't."
"I'm sure it's OK; he must have taken a later train."
"I don't know. He may have decided to come by car. He might have had an accident; you know how
badly he drives."
USE:
We use WILL and/or WOULD to talk about a subject's willingness or capacity to perform an action, to
describe habits, and to make requests and offers. WILL and/or WOULD can also be used to talk about
future and hypothetical actions, states, and events.
EXAMPLES:
"I'll help you with your homework."
"My first car would run for 30 miles on one gallon of gasoline."
"Cats will often play with mice for hours before killing them."
"Jack, would you please stop making that noise!"
"Don't worry; I'll explain the contract if you don't understand it."
"The President's helicopter will land at 2:15."
"I wouldn't open that box if I were you."
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FORM:
[SUBJECT + WILL/WOULD (+NOT) + VERB [Base Form]...]
WILL + NOT is often abbreviated to WON'T and WOULD + NOT is often abbreviated to WOULDN'T
QUESTIONS
[(Wh Word +) WILL/WOULD + SUBJECT + VERB...]
USE:
WILL is often used to make an offer or to ask somebody if they are willing to do something.
EXAMPLES:
"I'll help you with your homework."
"Will you lend me a thousand dollars so that I can go on vacation?"
WOULD is used as the past form of WILL, and to ask somebody very politely if they are willing to do
something.
EXAMPLES:
"He told me that he would give me some money."
"Excuse me, would you stop smoking, please?"
WON'T and WOULDN'T are often used to describe a refusal.
EXAMPLES:
"Mary won't clean her room even when I ask her politely."
"James wouldn't lend me his pen, although I asked him several times if I could."
USE:
WILL is used in the affirmative, negative and interrogative to talk about the subject's capacity or ability
to do something. In this case we are normally talking about a machine or other object.
EXAMPLES:
"This tank will hold 500 liters of water."
"My car has broken down; it won't start."
"Will this camera work under water?"
We use WOULD in the same way to talk about the past.

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EXAMPLES:
"My first car would run for 30 miles on one gallon of gasoline."
"When I tried to open the door, my key wouldn't fit the lock."
USE:
We use WILL in the affirmative and negative to talk about present habits.
EXAMPLE:
"John will often put something down, and then immediately forget where he put it."
When the subject of the verb is a person, the use of WILL often suggests that the speaker is slightly
irritated by the action.
EXAMPLE:
"He's a clever boy, but he will frequently interrupt my lessons with annoying questions."
We use WOULD in the affirmative and negative to talk about past habits and customs.
EXAMPLES:
"When I was a child, I would beg my father to tell me stories."
"The ancient Britons would paint themselves blue before battle."
The interrogative forms of WILL and WOULD are used to make requests.
EXAMPLES:
"Will you open the window, please?"
"Jack, will you be quiet!"
"Excuse me, would you tell me the time, please?"
Notice that WOULD is far more polite than WILL, and is normally used when we speak to strangers.
WOULD YOU MIND + VERB + ing is an even politer way of asking somebody to do something.
EXAMPLE:
"Excuse me, would you mind opening the window?"
WOULD YOU MIND IF + SUBJECT + VERB [Past Form]..? is a very polite way of asking for permission to do
something.
EXAMPLE:
"Excuse me, would you mind if I borrowed your newspaper?"
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USE:
WILL and WON'T are used to talk about states or events at some time in the future.
EXAMPLES:
"How will you open the door without a key?"
"John won't be in the office next week."
"I will never forget you."
In spoken English, WILL and WON'T are often used in a subordinate clause, when the main clause
describes the subject's attitude or beliefs about the future state or event.
EXAMPLES:
"He hopes (that) you won't be angry with him."
"I'm sure she'll get here soon."
WOULD and WOULDN'T are used in reported speech when we are repeating something that was said
about the future.
EXAMPLES:
"Mary kissed me and told me (that) she would never forget me."
"Did he tell you what time he would arrive?"
"Last week she told me that she wouldn't be at yesterday's meeting."
WILL and WON'T are used in subordinate clauses to talk about the results of possible present or future
conditions which are described in the main clause. The main clause normally begins with IF or UNLESS,
and contains a verb which takes a present form, even when it refers to the future.
EXAMPLES:
"If I win the lottery next month, I'll buy you a diamond ring."
"We won't hurt the hostages unless the police attack us."
"What will you do if you lose the next match?"

"I'll give up tennis and play chess instead."
WOULD and WOULDN'T are used to describe the results of impossible, unreal, and very unlikely present
or future conditions which are described in the main clause. The verb in the main clause normally takes
a past form, although it refers to the present or future.
EXAMPLE:
"I hate you! I wouldn't marry you if you were the last man on earth!"
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USE:
Used to say how somebody thinks or feels about an action or event.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + ADJECTIVE + TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Mike was very surprised to see Ted with Laura."
"We were delighted to see Fred at the party."
USE:
When two verbs in the same clause have the same subject, the second acts as the object of the first.
Depending on the first verb, the second may be in the infinitive form.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB 1 + (NOT) + Infinitive...]
EXAMPLE:
"Tina decided to study Russian."
There are two main groups of verbs which can be followed by an Infinitive:
SUBJECT'S ATTITUDE: Agree, Choose, Decide, Hope, Offer, Promise, Refuse, etc.
EXAMPLES:
"Patrick agreed to cook dinner."
"Jane chose to stay at home."
"We decided not to buy a new house."
"I hope to win first prize next year."
SUBJECT'S ABILITY: Attempt, Fail, Learn, Manage, Try, Be able to, etc.
EXAMPLES:
"Ben attempted to start the car."
"Anne failed to finish her paper on time."
"We learned to ski when we were on vacation."
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USE:
When there are two verbs with different subjects in the same clause, the second is sometimes an
Infinitive. This structure is often used to talk about the first subject's attitude towards or influence on
the second subject.
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB 1 + SUBJECT 2 + Infinitive]
EXAMPLES:
"I told Maggie to write that letter last week."
"The teacher allowed the students to go home early."
"Fred asked me to lend him some money."
"I expected them to answer my letter immediately."
"They invited Sarah to go on vacation with them."
"We'd like you to work with us."
"I need you to sign this paper, please."
"The general ordered his men to retreat."
"Janet paid the mechanic to fix her car."
"David reminded her to feed the cat."
"Mary teaches people to read."
"The boss told me to work harder."
"Angela wants Paul to marry her."
USE:
The Infinitive is used instead of a noun clause starting with one of the following WHO, WHAT, WHICH,
WHEN, WHERE, WHOSE, HOW, HOW MUCH, HOW MANY, or WHETHER, when the subject of the first
verb is also responsible for the second action.
FORM:
[MAIN CLAUSE + WHO, WHAT, etc. + Infinitive]
EXAMPLES:
"Mike doesn't know where to buy a ticket."
(Mike doesn't know where he should buy a ticket.)
"Laura can't decide whether to stop smoking or not."

(Laura can't decide whether she should stop smoking or not.)
We also use the Infinitive to replace noun clauses which begin with SO THAT and have the same subject
as the main clause. In this case the conjunction is omitted.
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EXAMPLE:
"I went to the store to buy some milk."
(I went to the store so that I could buy some milk.)
EXAMPLES:
"I don't know how to get home from here."
"I've no idea who to ask for advice."
"I called him to make an appointment for tomorrow."
USE:
Used to refer to a state or action. The Infinitive is the base form of a verb, preceded by TO.
EXAMPLES:
"Sheila! I'm so happy to see you! I don't know what to say!"
"I know you didn't expect me to come. I didn't have to work so I came to help you."
"Great! The party is going to be fantastic!"
AFTER ADJECTIVES
USE:
Used to say how somebody thinks or feels about an action or event.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + ADJECTIVE + TO + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Mike was very surprised to see Ted with Laura."
"We were delighted to see Fred at the party."
AFTER VERBS
USE:
When the subject of a clause is followed by two verbs, the second verb is usually in the infinitive.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB 1 + (NOT) + Infinitive...]
EXAMPLE:
"Tina decided to study Russian."
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AFTER VERB + OBJECT
When there are two verbs with different subjects in the same clause, the second is sometimes an
infinitive.
FORM:
[SUBJECT 1 + VERB 1 + SUBJECT 2 + Infinitive]
EXAMPLE:
"I told Maggie to write that letter last week."
INSTEAD OF NOUN CLAUSES
USE:
Used in place of a noun clause starting with one of the following: WHO, WHAT, WHICH, WHEN, WHERE,
WHOSE, HOW, HOW MUCH, HOW MANY, or WHETHER.
FORM:
[MAIN CLAUSE + WHO, WHAT, etc. + Infinitive]
EXAMPLES:
"I don't know how to get home from here."
(I don't know how I can get home from here.)
"I've no idea who to ask for advice."

(I've no idea who I should ask for advice.)
USE:
To talk about a past action or state. The PERFECT INFINITIVE is sometimes used after the passive form of
verbs such as KNOW, THINK, SAY, REPORT, and BELIEVE.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE + TO HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE...]
or in the passive form:

[SUBJECT + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE + TO HAVE BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE]
EXAMPLES:
"Nobody knows for sure where the escaped criminal
is now, but he is thought to have left the San Francisco area."
"Leonardo da Vinci is thought to have painted this picture."

104
"The plane is reported to have crashed somewhere in the rainforest."
"The poem is believed to have been written in about 1650."
"Modern Rock and Roll is said to have been based on the Blues music of the American South."
AFTER SEEM and APPEAR
USE:
The Perfect Infinitive is often used to speculate about actions and states in the past, with the verbs
SEEM and APPEAR. These verbs have very similar meanings, but SEEM is more common in informal
speech.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + SEEM/APPEAR + INFINITIVE...]
EXAMPLES:
"Michael appears to have lost his memory."
"Isabel's car seems to have been damaged in the accident."
USE:
To describe a general opinion or belief. Instead of a sentence containing two clauses ("People think that
John is crazy.") we make the subject of the subordinate clause into the subject of a passive verb (JOHN
IS THOUGHT) and add an Infinitive (TO BE CRAZY).
The following verbs are commonly used in this way: AGREE, ALLEGE, ASSUME, BELIEVE, CONSIDER,
KNOW, REPORT, SAY, THINK.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + Past Participle + INFINITIVE...]
EXAMPLES:
"Fred is known to love fishing."
"Janet is said to speak five languages."
We can also use the progressive, past, and passive forms of the Infinitive in this way.
EXAMPLES:
"Draconia is reported to be building a new type of bomb."
"Queen Victoria is said to have liked children."
"This language is believed to be spoken by an African tribe."
"She is reported to have been kidnapped by her ex-husband."
105
USE:
Infinitives are often used to replace clauses which explain the subject's reason for performing an action.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB... + INFINITIVE.]
EXAMPLES:
"I went to the kitchen to get some food."
"Mary opened the window to let some air into the room."
Simple Present Infinitives can also be used to replace a second main clause, connected to the first by
AND or THEN, without any idea of reason or cause. In this case, the second (infinitive) verb is normally
BE TOLD, DISCOVER, FIND, HEAR, LEARN, etc. The Infinitive is often preceded by ONLY; this indicates an
irritating or disappointing end to the sentence.
FORM:
[MAIN CLAUSE (+ ONLY) + INFINITIVE...]
EXAMPLES:
"They arrived home to find another car parked in their parking space."
"They reached the top of the mountain at last, only to discover that the other climbers had got there
first."
"We walked all the way to the station, only to be told that the engineers were on strike."
The various forms of the Passive Infinitive are used to emphasize the receiver of the action.
AFTER ADJECTIVES
The adjective generally describes the subject's attitude towards or feelings about the action. The
following adjectives are often used in this way: HAPPY, DELIGHTED, WILLING, PREPARED, SURPRISED,
SHOCKED, ANGRY.
FORM:
[... ADJECTIVE + TO + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE...]
EXAMPLES:
"I am always happy to be invited to parties."
"Jo was very surprised to be offered the job."
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AFTER VERBS
The verb generally describes the subject's attitude towards or feelings about the action. The following
verbs are often used in this way: LOVE, LIKE, WANT, EXPECT, AGREE, REFUSE, HATE.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB + TO + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE...]
EXAMPLES:
"Frank hates to be criticized."
"We would like to be told the reason for the delay."
Notice that in the above examples the subject of the first verb is the same person as the receiver of the
action of the Passive Infinitive. We can use a similar construction with two different subjects, as follows:
[SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + TO + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE...]
EXAMPLES:
"We expect Jones to be elected President next year."
"I don't want my parents to be worried."
If we want to mention the person who performs the action, we use the preposition BY after the verb as
we do in other passive forms.
EXAMPLES:
"She was surprised to be criticized by her husband."
"I hope to be invited by the Princess."
"He wanted the portrait to be painted by Piero."
USE:
INFINITIVES take various forms which are related to tense and voice, including Perfect and Passive. The
Perfect Infinitive is used to talk about a past action or state. It is often used after the passive form of
verbs such as KNOW, THINK, SAY, REPORT, and BELIEVE. It is also used after the verbs SEEM and APPEAR
to speculate about actions and states in the past. Passive Infinitives are often used after adjectives and
verbs in the same way as Active Infinitives to refer to an action when the object (or receiver) of the
action is more important than the subject (or doer).
EXAMPLES:
"Nobody knows for sure where the escaped criminal is now, but he is thought to have left the San
Francisco area."
"May I ask you a few questions?"

"Sure! I'd be happy to be interviewed... and I'd love to be photographed, too."
"Mary seems to be angry, but I don't know why."
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USE:
Infinitives can be used in various ways to replace longer clauses in a sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"He is generally thought to be a genius."
( = Most people think that he is a genius.)
"John went home early to watch the match on TV."

( = John went home early because he wanted to watch the match on TV.)
"Agnes opened her bag, only to find that she had forgotten the key."
( = Agnes opened her bag, and was disappointed when she found that she had forgotten the key.)
USE:
GERUNDS are used as the object of most transitive verbs, instead of a noun or pronoun. In some cases
an object-verb takes the infinitive form, but normally it is a Gerund. Note that a Gerund can also follow
"BE".
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB + GERUND]
EXAMPLES:
"Smith admitted stealing the jewels, but denied killing the security guard."
"I avoid arguing with my boss."
"Frank enjoys watching horror movies."
"We must finish painting this wall today."
"I can't imagine eating snails."
"Cats don't like swimming."
"Do you mind waiting for me?"
"Sam remembers meeting you last year.
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USE:
A GERUND can act as the subject of any verb, instead of a noun or pronoun. We often use Gerunds in
this way to make generalizations. The Gerund can stand alone, be followed by a complement (i.e. an
object or an adverbial) or by an adverbial clause.
FORM:
[GERUND + (Complement/Adverb Clause) + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Smoking is dangerous."
"Eating always makes me sleepy."
"Smoking cigars is very dangerous." (with Complement)
"Playing football makes me thirsty." (with Complement)
"Smoking when you are in a crowded room is inconsiderate." (with Adverbial Clause)
"Not brushing your teeth before you go to bed is bad for your teeth." (with Adverbial Clause)
USE:
The object of the verb is normally a noun or a pronoun. The objects of some verbs, however, can be
GERUNDS. These verbs include: ENJOY, ALLOW, LIKE, FINISH, HATE, LOVE, and PREFER.
EXAMPLES:
"Eric loves collecting comic books."
"Sandy prefers buying only fresh meat and vegetables."
"She enjoys meeting new people."
"John dislikes going to big parties."
"We do not allow smoking in our office."
"I hate getting lost in foreign cities."
USE:
A preposition is normally followed by a noun or a pronoun. If it is followed by a verb, the verb is a
GERUND.
EXAMPLES:
"Mary left without saying goodbye."
"James had an accident after drinking too much."
"Always lock the door before going to bed."
"He read the newspaper while having breakfast."
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USE:
Several verbs can be followed by either GERUNDS or INFINITIVES. In some cases, such as REMEMBER,
FORGET, STOP, and USE, this changes the meaning of the sentence completely.
FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + GERUND - memories of the past]
EXAMPLES:
"I remember seeing the Beatles in 1970."
"I'll never forget meeting you in Rome last year."
FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + INFINITIVE - actions in the future]
EXAMPLES:
"I'll remember to give him the message tomorrow."
"Don't forget to feed the chickens this evening!"
FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + GERUND - to finish or abandon an action]
EXAMPLE:
"We stopped dancing because we were tired."
FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + INFINITIVE - to start a new action]
EXAMPLE:
"I stopped to tie my shoelace."
FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + GERUND - to experiment; to perform an action to see what the result will be.]
EXAMPLE:
"If you want to make perfect tea, try heating the pot with some boiling water before putting in the tea."
FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + INFINITIVE - to attempt something; to find out whether it is possible]
EXAMPLE:
"I tried to stroke the cat, but she ran away before I could touch her.
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FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + GERUND - to enjoy something]
EXAMPLES:
"I like eating chocolate."
"I like reading novels."
FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + INFINITIVE - to think that something is wise, right, or enjoyable]
EXAMPLES:
"I like to brush my teeth after meals."
"I like to answer business letters immediately."
Note the difference between USE TO + INFINITIVE and BE/GET USED TO + GERUND:
FORM + MEANING:
[USED TO (past) + INFINITIVE - refers to a past habit or state which has now stopped or changed]
EXAMPLES:
"I used to smoke 50 cigarettes a day, before I stopped."
"We used to live in Washington; now we live in Montreal."
"My father used to have brown hair, but now he is bald."
FORM + MEANING:
[BE or GET USED TO + GERUND - means to consider something normal or become accustomed to
something]
EXAMPLES:
"I'm used to driving on the left now, but when I first came to Britain it felt very strange!"
"I can't get used to being a grandmother; I feel so old!"

"Don't worry; you'll get used to having grandchildren."
With some verbs (e.g. START, BEGIN, CONTINUE), it makes very little difference whether they are
followed by GERUND or an INFINITIVE, although one form may be slightly more common than the other.
In the following examples the more common form comes first.
EXAMPLES:
"We started traveling/to travel at 6 o'clock."
"Pat began swimming/to swim when she was six."
"Joe continued writing/to write to me for years."
111
USE:
When a sentence contains a verb which has a function normally fulfilled by a noun (e.g., as the subject
or object), that verb is usually a GERUND. A Gerund can also follow "BE".
EXAMPLES:
"Harry loves eating ice cream."
"Smoking is very bad for you."
"I traveled around the world after leaving school."
"My hobby is collecting stamps."
AFTER VERBS
USE:
Gerunds are used as the object of most transitive verbs, instead of a noun or pronoun. In some cases, an
object verb takes the infinitive form, but normally it is a GERUND. A Gerund can also follow "BE".
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB + GERUND]
EXAMPLES:
"Smith admitted stealing the jewels, but deniedkilling the security guard."
"I avoid arguing with my boss."
"Frank enjoys watching horror movies."
AS SUBJECTS
USE:
A GERUND can act as the subject of any verb, instead of a noun or pronoun. We often use Gerunds in
this way to make generalizations. The Gerund can stand alone, be followed by a complement (i.e. an
object or an adverb) or an adverbial clause.
FORM:
[GERUND + (Complement/Adverb Clause) + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Smoking is dangerous."
"Eating always makes me sleepy."
"Smoking cigars is very dangerous." (with Complement)
"Playing football makes me thirsty." (with Complement)
"Smoking when you are in a crowded room is
inconsiderate." (with Adverbial Clause)
"Eating cheese before you go to bed can give you indigestion." (with Adverbial Clause)
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AFTER PREPOSITIONS
USE:
A preposition is normally followed by a noun or a pronoun. If it is followed by a verb, the verb is a
GERUND.
EXAMPLES:
"Mary left without saying goodbye."
"James had an accident after drinking too much."
GERUNDS OR INFINITIVES AFTER VERBS
USE:
Several verbs can be followed by either GERUNDS or Infinitives. In some cases, such as REMEMBER,
FORGET, STOP, and USE, this changes the meaning of the sentence completely.
FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + GERUND - memories of the past]
EXAMPLES:
"I remember seeing the Beatles in 1970."
"I'll never forget meeting you in Rome last year."
FORM + MEANING:
[REMEMBER/FORGET + INFINITIVE - actions in the future]
EXAMPLES:
"I'll remember to give him the message tomorrow."
"Don't forget to feed the chickens this evening!"
FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + GERUND - to finish or abandon an action]
EXAMPLE:
"We stopped dancing because we were tired."
FORM + MEANING:
[STOP + INFINITIVE - to start a new action]
EXAMPLE:
"I stopped to tie my shoelace."
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FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + GERUND - to experiment; to perform an action to see what the result will be]
EXAMPLE:
"If you want to make perfect tea, try heating the pot with some boiling water before putting in the tea."
FORM + MEANING:
[TRY + INFINITIVE - to attempt something; to find out whether it is possible]
EXAMPLE:
"I tried to stroke the cat, but she ran away before I could touch her."
FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + GERUND - to enjoy something you are doing]
EXAMPLES:
"I like eating chocolate."
"I like reading novels."
FORM + MEANING:
[LIKE + INFINITIVE - to think that something is wise, right, or enjoyable]
EXAMPLES:
"I like to brush my teeth after meals."
"I like to answer business letters immediately." Note the difference between USED TO + INFINITIVE and
BE/GET USED TO + GERUND:
FORM + MEANING:
[USED TO (past) + INFINITIVE - refers to a past habit or state which has now stopped or changed]
EXAMPLES:
"I used to smoke 50 cigarettes a day before I stopped."
"We used to live in Washington. Now we live in Montreal."
"My father used to have brown hair, but now he is bald."
FORM + MEANING:
[BE or GET USED TO + GERUND - means to consider something normal or become accustomed to
something]
EXAMPLES:
"I'm used to driving on the left now, but when I first came to Britain it felt very strange!"
"I can't get used to being a grandmother. I feel so old!"

"Don't worry. You'll get used to having grandchildren."
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With some verbs (e.g. START, BEGIN, CONTINUE), it makes very little difference whether they are
followed by a Gerund or an Infinitive, although one form may be slightly more common than the other.
In the following examples, the more common form comes first.
EXAMPLES:
"We started traveling/to travel at 6 o'clock."
"Pat began swimming/to swim when she was six."
"Joe continued writing/to write to me for years."
Many English verbs, like TAKE or GET, can have a large number of different meanings. Some of them can
be followed by a short word (a preposition like TO or FOR or an adverb like AWAY or OUT) which gives
the verb a relatively precise meaning. The combination of VERB + PREPOSITION/ADVERB is called a
PHRASAL VERB.
EXAMPLE:
"I'm always putting clothes on and taking them off again."
Some PHRASAL VERBS have no common non-phrasal equivalent:
PUT ON or TAKE OFF clothes

LOOK UP words in a dictionary
Others are used in informal spoken English instead of longer, more formal expressions:
GO ON Continue
CALL OFF Cancel
BLOW UP destroy with explosive
TAKE IN deceive
FORM:
Most phrasal verbs are transitive; in other words they normally take a direct object. In many cases, the
object comes between the verb and the preposition or adverb. Such verbs are called SEPARABLE
PHRASAL VERBS. Notice the following two possible constructions:
[SUBJECT + PREP/ADVERB + OBJECT...]
"The soldiers blew up the bridge yesterday."
[SUBJECT + VERB + OBJECT + PREP/ADVERB...]
"The soldiers blew the bridge up yesterday."
Notice that if the object is a noun, it can come either before or after the preposition/adverb. But if the
object is a pronoun, it must come before the preposition/adverb:
"The soldiers blew it up yesterday."

115
The following list includes common separable phrasal verbs which follow this rule followed by examples
of them in use.
BACK UP (give support to)

"He always backs up his employees. (...backs them up)."
BLOW OUT (extinguish)

"The wind blew out the candle (...blew it out)."
BLOW UP (destroy with explosives)

"The soldiers blew up the bridge (...blew it up)."
BREAK UP (dismantle, destroy)

"They're going to break up the company structure (...break it up)."
BREAK OFF (snap or interrupt)

"They decided to break off the negotiations (...break them off)."
BRING UP (look after and educate children)

"They brought up the boy (...brought him up) very strictly."
CALL IN (ask/tell somebody to visit)

"We called in an engineer (...called him in) as soon as we discovered the fault."
CARRY OUT (perform)

"I carried out his instructions (...carried them out) immediately."
CLEAR UP (remove disorder, make tidy)

"We cleared up the office (...cleared it up) after the Christmas party."
CUT OFF (remove part of something)

"He cut off the corner of the book (...cut it off)."
FILL OUT (complete a printed form)

"Please fill out this form (...fill it out) in ink."
FILL UP (make full)

"She filled up my cup (...filled it up) with coffee."
FIND OUT (discover)

"He found out the cause of the fault (...found it out) by examining the wiring."
FIX UP (organize, arrange, repair)

They fixed up a venue (...fixed it up) in time for the conference."
GET BACK (obtain in return)

"Mr. Holden never got back the stolen disks (...got them back)."
GIVE BACK (return)

"When are you going to give back the pen I lent you (...give it back)?"
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GIVE UP (stop, abandon)
"I gave up smoking (...gave it up) five years ago."
HAND IN (give)
"They handed in their questionnaires (...handed them in) at the end of the session."
HOLD UP (delay)
"The strike held up the project (...held it up) for six months."
KEEP UP (continue, maintain)

"The audience kept up their applause (...kept it up) for ten minutes."
KNOCK OUT (make unconscious)

"The machinery knocked out the operator (...knocked him out) when it malfunctioned."
LET DOWN (disappoint)

"She forgot about the appointment and let down the client (...let him down)."
LET OUT (allow to go out)

"Don't forget to let out the cat (...let it out) after dinner."
LOOK UP (find in a dictionary, phone directory, etc.)

"You must look up those words (...look them up) in the dictionary."
PAY BACK (repay a debt)

"They promised to pay back the money (...pay it back) within three months."
PICK UP (lift)
"I saw you pick up your glasses (...pick them up) in the canteen."
PUT DOWN (replace on a surface)

"Put down the computer (...put it down) here."
PUT OFF (postpone)

"We'll have to put off the meeting (...put it off) until next week."
PUT ON (start to wear)

"I pu on my coveralls (...put them on) this morning."
SET UP (start, establish)

"They set up the company (...set it up) in 1978."
SWITCH ON/OFF (start/stop an appliance)

"Please switch off the radio (...switch it off); it's distracting me."
TAKE OFF (remove clothes, etc.)

"He took off his shoes (...took them off) before going into the Japanese restaurant."
TAKE OVER (take control of)

"The bank took over my farm (...took it over) in 1980."
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TALK OVER (discuss)
"I want to talk over your proposal (...talk it over) with my manager before we decide."
THINK OVER (consider carefully)

"I thought over the plan (...thought it over) for several hours."
TRY OUT (test)

"We're going to try out the product (...try it out) before we market it."
TURN ON/OFF (open/close a supply of water, gas, etc.)

"I forgot to turn off the machine (...turn it off); the supervisor will be furious!"
WIPE OUT (destroy, annihilate)

"This disastrous project has wiped out our profits for this quarter (...has wiped them out)."
USE:
Used to talk about a piece of information which we have, don't have, or would like to have.
FORM:
[MAIN CLAUSE + CONJUNCTION + NOUN CLAUSE.]
EXAMPLES:
"I have no idea where the castle is."
"I wonder who that girl is."
"I'm sure that Klaus is Austrian."
PROVIDING INFORMATION
If the speaker is providing information, he/she will use an expression like "I know...", "I'm sure...", "I
think...", "I expect..." and either the conjunction THAT or Wh-Question words.
EXAMPLES:
"I know that he loves me."
"I am not sure where Mary went."
Notice that the word THAT is often omitted.
"I'm sure (that) Mike will arrive later."
Notice that the Wh-Question words are not followed by the normal question form.
"I know when he is going to arrive."
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ASKING FOR INFORMATION - with IF and WHETHER
If the information requested is unknown, we use an expression like "I don't know...", "I've no idea...", "I
can't imagine...", "I wonder..."together with IF or WHETHER.
EXAMPLES:
"Do you know if John is at home?"
"No, I don't know whether he is at home or at work."
"I wonder if Bill has cleaned the kitchen."
ASKING FOR INFORMATION - with WH-QUESTION WORDS
If the speaker wants to find out some information, he or she will often use an expression like "Do you
know...", "Can you tell me..." or "I wonder...", etc. followed by the appropriate Wh-Question word. The
noun clause does not take the normal question form.
EXAMPLES:
"Excuse me, can you tell me what time it is?"
"Can you tell me which bus goes to Maine?"
"Do you know whose book this is?"
"I wonder where my new sweater is."
GIVING INFORMATION - with WH-QUESTION WORDS
If the information is the answer to a Wh-Question, the appropriate Wh-Question word becomes the
conjunction: WHEN, WHERE, WHY, HOW, WHO, WHAT, WHICH,WHOSE, HOW MUCH, and HOW MANY.
The noun clause does not take the normal question form.
EXAMPLES:
"I have no idea when the letter will arrive."
"I can't imagine where Mary's husband is."
"I don't know why Pat said that to you."
"I've no idea how we can solve this problem."
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USE:
When a sentence contains more than one finite verb (i.e. verb with its own subject),it is divided into
CLAUSES. Each clause contains a subject and a verb. The first clause in a sentence is usually the MAIN
CLAUSE, the others are SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.Two common types of SUBORDINATE CLAUSES are
NOUN CLAUSES and ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.
EXAMPLES:
"I think that your new dress is beautiful."
"Why don't you call when you're late?"
"I have to go home after I finish work."
NOUN CLAUSES
USE:
A NOUN CLAUSE usually provides or asks for information about a person or an object that is introduced
in the main clause.
EXAMPLES:
"I think that your sister is lovely!"
"I don't know who she is."
Notice that the Wh-Question words are not followed by the normal question form.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
USE:
An ADVERBIAL CLAUSE usually contains information about the verb in the main clause.Often it explains
the main clause or tells when it happens.
EXAMPLES:
"He drank water because he was thirsty."
"She spoke slowly so that I could understand."
"I always worry when my kids come home late."
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USE:
When the subject of the verb in the relative clause is the same as the noun we are talking about.
FORM:
These Relative Clauses begin with relative pronouns:
WHO (for people),
WHICH (for animals or things),
THAT (for people, animals, or things; for the words EVERYTHING, NOTHING, SOMETHING, or ANYTHING).
[...NOUN + RELATIVE PRONOUN + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"He's the man who/that wrote this book."
"Let's see the movie which/that won the prize."
"I've forgotten everything that happened."
"Bill's the man who called me last night."
"Where is the factory that makes those chairs?"
Remember that the relative clause always contains a verb.
USE:
When the subject of the verb in the relative clause is not the same as the noun we are talking about.
FORM:
These relative clauses begin with relative pronouns:
WHO (for people)
WHOM (in very formal English)
THAT (for people, animals, or things and for the words EVERYTHING, NOTHING, SOMETHING, or
ANYTHING)
We can choose to leave out the relative pronoun if it is not the subject of the verb in the relative clause,
except when the relative clause begins with a preposition (in formal English), or if it follows a comma.
[...NOUN + (RELATIVE PRONOUN) + SENTENCE...]
EXAMPLES:
"Frederick is the man (who/that/whom) I work with."
"Here's the book (which/that) you lent me."
"Tell me everything (that) you remember."
If there is a preposition at the beginning of the relative clause we must use the relative pronouns
WHOM or WHICH unless we move the prepositionto the end of the clause.
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EXAMPLES:
"The lady with whom you were dancing is my wife."
OR
"The lady (that) you were dancing with is my wife."
"The company for which you work is responsible for your pension."
OR
"The company (that) you work for is responsible for your pension."
We can also replace IN WHICH,AT WHICH, and ON WHICH by WHERE or WHEN.
EXAMPLES:
"That's the house where Shakespeare lived."
"1492 was the year when Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic."
EXAMPLES:
That's the man I spoke to.
BUT
That's the man to whom I spoke.
USE:
To provide information which helps to identify one of the nouns in a sentence. The relative clause
immediately follows the noun it describes.
EXAMPLES:
"He's the man who's wearing a black hat."
"The dress which you wore yesterday was beautiful."
"The apples that you brought are wonderful."
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SUBJECT RELATIVE CLAUSES
USE:
When the subject of the verb in the relative clause is the same as the noun we are talking about.
FORM:
WHO (for people),
THAT (for people, animals, or things; for the words EVERYTHING, NOTHING, SOMETHING, or ANYTHING)
WHOSE (for possessives).
[...NOUN + RELATIVE PRONOUN + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"He's the man who/that wrote this book."
"Let's see the movie which/that won the prize."
"I've forgotten everything that happened."
"Bill's the man who called me last night."
"Where is the factory that makes those chairs?"
Remember that the relative clause always contains a verb.
OBJECT RELATIVE CLAUSES
USE:
When the subject of the verb in the relative clause is not the same as the noun we are talking about.
FORM:
WHO (for people)/WHOM (in very formal English)
THAT (for people, animals, or things and for the words EVERYTHING, NOTHING, SOMETHING, or
ANYTHING).
[...NOUN + (RELATIVE PRONOUN) + SENTENCE...]
EXAMPLES:
"Frederick is the man (who/that/whom) I work with."
"Here's the book (which/that) you lent me."
"Tell me everything (that) you remember."
If there is a preposition at the beginning of the relative clause we must use the relative
pronouns WHOM or WHICH unless we move the preposition to the end of the clause.
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EXAMPLES:
"The lady with whom you were dancing is my wife."
OR
"The lady (that) you were dancing with is my wife."
"The company for which you work is responsible for your pension."
OR
"The company (that) you work for is responsible for your pension." We can also replace IN WHICH, AT
WHICHand ON WHICH by WHERE or WHEN.
EXAMPLES:
"That's the house where Shakespeare lived."
"1492 was the year when Christopher Columbus crossed the Atlantic."
WHOSE
USE:
WHOSE is a relative pronoun which shows possession. It can refer to people or things.
FORM:
WHOSE is used together with nouns in the same way as HIS, HERS, etc.
[NOUN + WHOSE + SUBJECT + VERB...]

EXAMPLE:
"My Uncle Jack, whose house burned down last week, is living with us now."
WHERE
USE:
A relative clause which describes a place can begin with WHERE.
FORM:
[NOUN + WHERE + SUBJECT + VERB...]
EXAMPLE:
"This is a photograph of my first school, where I studied until I was twelve."
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USE:
WHOEVER, WHENEVER, etc. may be used as either the subject or object in noun clauses to describe or
define a whole class of people, objects, places etc. WHOEVER... is used with the same meaning as: ALL
THE PEOPLE WHO... or WHATEVER... means ALL THE THINGS THAT... or EVERYTHING THAT... WHOEVER
and WHATEVER can also mean ANYTHING THAT...
EXAMPLE:
"Anna is an obedient child. She does whatever her parents tell her to do."
FORM:
WHOEVER and WHATEVER can act as the subject or the object of the verb in the relative clause.
As SUBJECT OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE:
[...WHOEVER/WHATEVER + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Please tell whoever calls that I'll be back by noon."
"I hope to be back sooner, but I'll be back by noon, whatever happens."
Notice that WHOEVER and WHATEVER are always singular and take the normal 3rd person singular "-s"
with Simple Present Tense verbs.
As OBJECT OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE:
[...WHOEVER/WHATEVER + SUBJECT + VERB]
EXAMPLES:
"Tom's very friendly. He says hello to whoever he meets."
"Whatever Sally does she does well."
WHOEVER and WHATEVER can act as the subject or the object of the main clause.
As SUBJECT:
[WHOEVER/WHATEVER (+ SUBJECT) + VERB... + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"Whatever arrives by post comes to this office first."
As OBJECT:
[SUBJECT + VERB + WHOEVER/WHATEVER (+SUBJECT) + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"The police questioned whoever arrived atthe house."
"Some people believe whatever they readin the newspapers."
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WHEREVER... means ALL THE PLACES WHERE... or EVERY PLACE WHERE... or ANY PLACE WHERE... and
WHENEVER means EVERY TIME WHEN... or ANY TIME WHEN...
FORM:
Clauses containing WHEREVER or WHENEVER are normally used like adverbs, to provide information
about the verb in the main clause.
EXAMPLE:
"I will always think of you, wherever I am."
[MAIN CLAUSE + WHEREVER/WHENEVER + SUBJECT + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"You can find plenty of parking wherever you go in the city."
"I think of Julia whenever I hear that song."
USE:
To provide "extra" information about the NOUN, which is not needed to define it. We often use them to
combine two statements in one sentence.
EXAMPLES:
(1) "My mother is a doctor. "
(2) "My mother works in Paris."
(1+2) "My mother, who is a doctor, works in Paris."
FORM:
Non-restrictive relative clauses are formed in the same way as restrictive relative clauses (see
Intermediate 1), but they always contain a relative pronoun, and they are always separated from the
rest of the sentence by commas.
When the pronoun is the subject of the verb in the relative clause, we use pronouns WHO for people
and WHICH for animals, things, or a whole idea.
FORM:
[NOUN, + WHO/WHICH + VERB...]
EXAMPLES:
"My father, who lives in England, is an artist."
"The Empire State Building, which used to be the tallest skyscraper in the world, is in New York."
"I threw away all my History notes, which I regret now."
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USE:
Some relative clauses are used to provide information about one of the nouns in a sentence (see
Intermediate 1 for RELATIVE CLAUSES).
When the relative clause contains information about possession and place, the relative pronouns used
are WHOSE and WHERE.
When the NOUN is EVERYTHING THAT or EVERYBODY THAT or ANYTHING THAT, we can replace it with
WHATEVER or WHOEVER.
EXAMPLES:
"Here comes Mr. Chang. He's the teacher whose car was stolen from the school parking lot."
"Look, kids! There's the house where your father grew up."
"Whatever you decide, I will support you."
"Please tell whoever it is you are speaking to that you will call back later."
NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES contain additional information which is not needed to identify the
NOUN. They appear set off from the rest of the sentence by commas, or between a comma and the
period at the end of the sentence.
EXAMPLE:
"My brother, who is a writer, hates using computers."
NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES with WHICH can contain additional information about a particular
noun in the sentence, or relate to the entire idea being expressed by the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"The company, which was formed three years ago, develops computer programs."
"John believes that computers will replace books, which I think is impossible."
USE:
To talk about the reasons for or the results of an action or event.
FORM:
We use SO and SUCH in the main clause to explain a result in the subordinate clause beginning with
THAT. We use SINCE, AS LONG AS, and NOW THAT to introduce a subordinate clause which explains the
verb in the main clause.
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EXAMPLES:
"Mike is so clever that he always gets good grades ."
"Dora is such a good teacher that everybody admires her."
"We decided to stop, since it was dark and we didn't know the road very well."
"As long as Fred agrees to help me, I'll help him."
"I think I'll go home, now that the party is over."
SUCH... THAT and SO... THAT
USE:
These are used in the main clause to explain the reason for an action or event. We use SO... THAT with
adjectives or adverbs and SUCH... THAT with adjectives and nouns.
FORM:
WITH ADJECTIVES
[SUBJECT + BE + SO + ADJECTIVE + THAT + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE]
EXAMPLES:
"Mike is so clever that he always gets good grades."
"I am so tired that I can't stay awake."
WITH ADVERBS
[SUBJECT + VERB (+ OBJECT) + SO + ADVERB + THAT + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE]
EXAMPLES:
"He walked so slowly that he missed the bus."
"John tells jokes so well that everybody likes him."
WITH ADJECTIVE + NOUN
[SUBJECT + BE + SUCH (+ A) + ADJECTIVE + NOUN + THAT + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE]
Notice that we use the indefinite article A(N) before the adjective with singular countable nouns.
EXAMPLES:
"Dora is such a good teacher that everybody admires her."
"This is such good wine that I'm going to buy ten cases."
"Pat and Jo are such good friends that they do everything together."
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SINCE/NOW THAT/AS LONG AS
All of these expressions are used as conjunctions at the beginning of subordinate clauses. The two
clauses are normally separated by a comma (,).
[CONJUNCTION + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE, + MAIN CLAUSE]
or
[MAIN CLAUSE, + CONJUNCTION + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE]
SINCE introduces a reason for the action, state, or event described in the main clause.
EXAMPLES:
"Since you speak perfect English, I want you to translate for me."
"We decided to stop, since it was dark and we didn't know the road very well."
NOW THAT introduces a new or recent condition which explains the action, state, or event described in
the main clause.
EXAMPLES:
"Now that she is sixty years old, she may decide to stop working."
"I think I'll go home, now that the party is over."
AS LONG AS introduces a necessary condition for the action, state, or event described in the main
clause.
EXAMPLES:
"As long as Fred agrees to help me, I'll help him."
"You can drink the water, as long as you boil it first."
USE:
To talk about real possibilities in "general time" and uncertain but possible events in the future.
FORM:
The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS).The verb is usually in the present.
The result clause usually contains Present Tense verbs (to talk about possibilities in "general time") or
Future Tense verbs and Modals such as CAN, MAY, MUST, or SHOULD (to talk about uncertain events in
the future).
You can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result clause.
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POSSIBILITIES IN GENERAL TIME
(Verb in result clause is in the Present.)
EXAMPLES:
CONDITION CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE

Unless you give
plants enough water, they die."
If it isn't cold enough, it doesn't snow."
RESULT CLAUSE CONDITION CLAUSE

"It's time to eat unless you are not hungry."
"Talk to your plants if you want them to grow."
UNCERTAIN EVENTS IN THE FUTURE

(The result clause has Future verb or Modal.)
EXAMPLES:

"If you say that again, I'm going to hit you!"
"If it rains, I'll take an umbrella."
"If she doesn't study, she may fail the exam."

They will come to the
"party if they find a baby-sitter."
I'm going to buy a new
"dress if I get paid today."
"He won't wash the car unless you pay him."
USE:
To talk about unreal, impossible, or very improbable hypotheses in the present and future.
The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS).
The verb can take the Past of "BE", the Past Simple/Past Progressive (to talk about a hypothetical fact),
or the Modal COULD (to talk about a hypothetical ability).
NOTE: If we use the verb "BE" as the main verb, or in the past progressive form, we use WERE instead of
WAS.
The verb in the RESULT CLAUSE always has a Modal, usually WOULD/'D (to express a certainty), MIGHT
(to express a possibility), or COULD (to express ability).
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We can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result clause.

"If I had a new car, I'd be very happy."
"If she weren't so tired, she'd go to the party."
"If he asked him nicely, he might agree."
"If we could meet tomorrow, we could finish the project."
"If I had enough money, I wouldn't be working."

"I might pass English if I studied more."
"They'd tell me if they knew."
"He'd answer the phone if he were at home."
"We might go swimming if we weren't studying."
USE:
To talk about real possibilities in "general time," possible events in the future, unreal/impossible
situations and results in the present or future.
FORM:
Statements and questions of this type often have two parts: a "condition" (the hypothesis), usually a
subordinate clause beginning with IF, and a "result," described in the main clause of a sentence.
[IF (Condition) Clause, + RESULT CLAUSE] or
[RESULT CLAUSE + IF (Condition) Clause]
EXAMPLES:
"What would you do if you won a million dollars?"
"If I won that much money, I'd stop working tomorrow."
USE:
To talk about real possibilities in "general time" and uncertain but possible events in the future.
FORM:
The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS). The verb is in the Present.
The result clause usually contains Present Tense verbs (to talk about possibilities in "general time") or
Future Tense verbs and Modals such as CAN, MAY, MUST, or SHOULD (to talk about uncertain events in
the future).
You can begin a sentence with either a condition or a result clause.

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POSSIBILITIES IN GENERAL TIME
(Verb in result clause is in the Present.)
EXAMPLES:

"If it's two in New York it's nine o'clock in Paris."
"If it isn't cold enough it doesn't snow."

"It's time to eat unless you are not hungry."
"Talk to your plants if you want them to grow."
UNCERTAIN EVENTS IN THE FUTURE

(The result clause has Future verb or Modal.)
EXAMPLES:

"If you say that again, I'm going to hit you!"
"If she doesn't study, she may fail the exam."

"They will come to the party if they find a baby-sitter."
"I'm going to buy a dress if I get paid today."
USE:
To talk about unreal, impossible, or very improbable hypotheses in the present and future.
The CONDITION CLAUSE begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS).
The verb can take the Past of "BE", the Past Simple/Past Progressive (to talk about a hypothetical fact),
or the Modal COULD (to talk about a hypothetical ability).
NOTE: If we use the verb "BE" as the main verb, or in the past progressive form, we use WERE instead of
WAS.The verb in the result clause always has a Modal, usually WOULD/'D (to express a certainty),
MIGHT (to express a possibility), or COULD (to express ability).

"If I had a new car, I'd be very happy."
"If he weren't so tired, he'd go to the party."

"I might pass English if I studied more."
"They'd tell me if they knew."
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USE:
Past Conditionals are used to describe conditions that will never be fulfilled because the time in which
they would have occurred has ended.
FORM:
The condition clause begins with IF/IF... NOT (or sometimes UNLESS). The verb in the condition clause is
either Past Perfect or Past Perfect Progressive:
[IF + SUBJECT + HAD (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERB + ING)...]
The verb in the result (main) clause is in the Past Conditional:

[SUBJECT + WOULD/COULD/MIGHT + (NOT) HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERB + ING)...]
CONDITION CLAUSE / RESULT (MAIN) CLAUSE
If I had seen him, (CONDITION CLAUSE)

I would have told him the news. (RESULT CLAUSE)
If the girl had been listening, (CONDITION CLAUSE)

she would have known the answer. (RESULT CLAUSE)
RESULT (MAIN) CLAUSE / CONDITION CLAUSE
I would have been swimming (RESULT CLAUSE)

if it hadn't rained. (CONDITION CLAUSE)
They couldn't have succeeded (RESULT CLAUSE)

if they hadn't been trying. (CONDITION CLAUSE)
Questions are generally made from the result clause:
EXAMPLES:
"What would you have eaten if she hadn't brought home dinner?"
"Where could he have gone if you had been out?"
"What might have happened if they had lost the war?"
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USE:
Mixed Time Conditionals are used to talk about the present results of past conditions.
FORM:
either Past Perfect or Past Perfect Progressive.
[IF + SUBJECT + HAD (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] + (VERB + ING)...]
The result (main) clause contains a Modal (i.e. WOULD, MIGHT, COULD) and the base form of a verb, or
the progressive form of the verb.
[SUBJECT + WOULDCOULDMIGHT + (NOT) HAVE + BASE FORM (VERB + ING)...]
CONDITION CLAUSE / RESULT CLAUSE
If I had passed the exam, (CONDITION CLAUSE)

I would be in tenth grade now. (RESULT CLAUSE)
If you'd cleaned your room, (CONDITION CLAUSE)

it wouldn't be messy now. (RESULT CLAUSE)
RESULT CLAUSE / CONDITION CLAUSE
I would be rich (RESULT CLAUSE)

if I had saved my money. (CONDITION CLAUSE)
They would be getting married now (RESULT CLAUSE)

if they had taken my advice. (CONDITION CLAUSE)
USE:
There are Conditionals which refer to conditions which existed or could have existed in the past. These
are Past Conditionals and Mixed Time Conditionals. Past Conditionals are used to describe conditions
that will never be fulfilled because the time in which they would have occurred has ended. Mixed Time
Conditionals are used to talk about the present results of past conditions.
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FORM:
either Past Perfect or Past Perfect Progressive:
[IF + SUBJECT + HAD (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERB + ING)...]
The verb in the result (main) clause is in the Past Conditional:

[SUBJECT + WOULD/COULD/MIGHT + (NOT) HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]+ (VERB + ING)...]
EXAMPLES:
"If I had known you were sick, I would have made you some soup."
"If Laura had been taller, she could have been a model."
"If I hadn't broken my leg last week, I would be dancing in the competition tonight."
"If she had dressed warmly lastnight, she wouldn't be sick today."
USE:
When the main verb in the sentence indicates the subject's opinion about, or wish or intention for the
action of a second subject, or of an event described in the subordinate clause.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + VERB + THAT + SUBJECT + VERB (Base Form) ]
The SUBJUNCTIVE usually accompanies a change in subject in the subordinate clause.
The following are some of the verbs that may appear in the main clause for this construction: ADVISE,
AGREE, DECIDE, INSIST, PROPOSE, RECOMMEND, SUGGEST.
It is also possible to express the SUBJUNCTIVE using SHOULD + BASE VERB. This form is more formal and
less common.
EXAMPLES:
"The doctor suggested that I live near the sea."
"We agreed that the report never be published."
"Charles proposed that the prisoners be released immediately."
"They insisted that we should stay the night."
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USE:
When an adjective in the main clause indicates the speaker's (or another subject's) reaction to the verb
in the subordinate clause.
FORM:
[SUBJECT + BE + ADJECTIVE (+ THAT) + SUBJECT

(+ SHOULD) + VERB (Base Form)...]
If the event or state is past, SHOULD is followed by HAVE + VERB (Past Participle)
The following adjectives are often used in the main clause: AMAZED, AMUSED, ANGRY, ANNOYED,
ASHAMED, DELIGHTED, DETERMINED, DISAPPOINTED, EMBARRASSED, HAPPY, HORRIFIED, PLEASED,
RELIEVED, SAD, SORRY, SHOCKED, SURPRISED, UPSET, WORRIED.
EXAMPLES:
"Fred was determined that the party continue."
"We were horrified that the bridge should have
collapsed."
"We were relieved that so many people should
have been saved after the crash."
A more general statement, intended to describe "public opinion" rather than the speaker's personal
view, may begin with:
[IT + BE + ADJECTIVE + THAT...]
The following adjectives are often used in the main clause: AMAZING, ALARMING, AMUSING,
ANNOYING, DELIGHTFUL, DISAPPOINTING, EMBARRASSING, EXTRAORDINARY, HORRIFYING,
INTERESTING, ODD, SAD, SHAMEFUL, SHOCKING, STRANGE, SURPRISING, WORRYING, ESSENTIAL,
IMPORTANT, VITAL, URGENT.
EXAMPLES:
"It is interesting that so many people agree with you."
"It was annoying that the train should be late again."
"It is vital that we receive this information."
"It is amusing that we should have decided to wear exactly the same dress."
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USE:
The SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD is used for a number of purposes, including:
talking about wishes, hopes, doubts, desires or actions which we want to happen;
expressing preference or emphasizing the importance of something.
AFTER VERBS
USE:
When the main verb in the sentence indicates the subject's opinion about, or wish or intention for the
action of a second subject, or of an event described in the subordinate clause.
FORM:
The SUBJUNCTIVE usually accompanies a change in subject in the subordinate clause. The verb in the
subordinate clause is in the base form.
EXAMPLES:
"We insist that he stay for dinner."
"The doctor advised that she lose weight."
AFTER ADJECTIVES
USE:
When an adjective in the main clause indicates the speaker's (or another subject's) reaction to the verb
in the subordinate clause.
FORM:
The SUBJUNCTIVE is used following certain adjective phrases, when these phrases are followed by a new
sentence. The verb in the subordinate clause is in the base form.
EXAMPLES:
"It is essential that she have the operation."
"It is important that we be there on time."
AFTER OTHER EXPRESSIONS
USE:
The SUBJUNCTIVE can be used after other expressions, such as IF, UNLESS, I'D RATHER, IT'S TIME, I
WISH, IF ONLY, to describe states or events which are impossible or hypothetical, and therefore unreal.
FORM:
We use the normal SIMPLE PAST form, affirmative and negative (see Basic 2), to form the Past
Subjunctive. When the verb is BE, WAS is replaced by WERE, especially in formal and written English.
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EXAMPLES:
"I'd rather you didn't go out tonight."
"I wish she were here."
"It's time we went home."
"If she weren't so sensitive, I would tell her the truth."
"If only he were here with us now."
NOTE: The Subjunctive can also be formed with SHOULD + BASE FORM. This form is less common and
more formal, however.
EXAMPLES:
"He insists that we should leave immediately." (instead of "He insists that we leave...")
"She recommended that I should take an extra blanket." (instead of "She recommended that I take...")
USE:
To report or describe statements/ideas or questions without using the speaker's exact words.
FORM:
The main clause contains the "reporting or question verb":
REPORTING VERBS: SAY, TELL, PROMISE, KNOW, BELIEVE, THINK, CLAIM, etc.
QUESTION VERBS: ASK, WONDER, WANT/WOULD LIKE TO KNOW
The noun clause contains the statement or question which is being reported.
For statements, we use the conjunction THAT, which is omitted in informal English.
[MAIN CLAUSE + (THAT) + NOUN CLAUSE]
EXAMPLES:
"Mr. Jones says (that) he'll call later."
"She said (that) she was leaving."
"I'm sorry, Mr. Jones says (that) he is too busy to talk to you."
"Everybody tells me (that) I should stop smoking."
For questions, we use IF (Yes/No questions) or WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHY, WHERE, HOW, HOW MUCH,
or HOW MANY (Wh-Questions).
Notice that the verb in the noun clause takes the normal affirmative or negative form and not the
question form.
We often use "double questions" with ASK, TELL, or KNOW to make a polite request for information.
"May I ask what your name is?" is politer than "What's your name?"
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[MAIN CLAUSE + IF or WH-WORD + NOUN CLAUSE]
EXAMPLES:
"He's asking you if you like chocolate."
"Please ask him who that boy is."
"I wonder why the President didn't go to Rome."
"Do you know how many windows were broken."
"Could you tell me where the station is?"
When the reporting VERB (SAY, THINK, ASK, etc.) is in the Past Tense, the "original" statement/idea or
question may be modified.
VERB IN REPORTED NOUN CLAUSE

When the reporting verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense, the verb in the noun clause is usually
also in the Past Tense, even when the original statement or idea was in the Present Tense.
Here are some examples to show the differences between direct speech/quotation and
indirect/reported speech.
DIRECT SPEECH / INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH
Present Tense / Past Tense
Ann: "I'm happy." (DIRECT SPEECH)

She told me she was happy. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)
Tom: "I like bananas." (DIRECT SPEECH)

He said he liked bananas. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)
The Browns: "We're enjoying the concert." (DIRECT SPEECH)

They said they were enjoying the concert. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)
Ann: "Where do you live?" (DIRECT SPEECH)
She asked me where Ilived (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH).
Past Simple/Present-Past Perfect / Past Perfect
Frank: "She went home." (DIRECT SPEECH)

He said she had gone home. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)
Jane: "He's been arrested." (DIRECT SPEECH)

She said he had been arrested. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)
Mr. Selden: "Why had they invited me?" (DIRECT SPEECH)

He asked why they had invited him. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)
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Modals / Past Modals
Tim: "I can't swim." (DIRECT SPEECH)

He said he couldn't swim. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)
Marsha: "I may be late." (DIRECT SPEECH)

She said she might be late. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)
Paul: "Will you try to do it?" (DIRECT SPEECH)

He asked if I would try to do it. (INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH)
PRONOUNS
Pronouns must be changed to fit the reported statement.
EXAMPLES:
Tom: "I bought my girlfriend a pin for her birthday."
Tom said that he'd bought his girlfriend a pin for her birthday.
Alice: "Can I borrow your car?"

Alice asked me if she could borrow my car.
TIME ADVERBIALS
When the reporting verb is in the Past Tense "time adverbials" may also change.
DIRECT - INDIRECT/REPORTED
NOW - THEN/AT THAT TIME

Ali: "I live in Paris now."
He said he lived in Paris then/at that time.
TODAY - THAT DAY/THE SAME DAY

The Workers: "We're going to finish the job today."
They told us they were going to finish the job that day/the same day.
TOMORROW - THE NEXT/FOLLOWING DAY

Toshio and Kumi: "We'll see you tomorrow."
They said they'd see us the next/following day.
NEXT WEEK, etc. - THE NEXT/FOLLOWING WEEK, etc.

Mr. Edison: "We can go to Rio next year."
He said they could go to Rio the following year.
YESTERDAY - THE DAY BEFORE

Ada: "I couldn't come yesterday."
She said she hadn't been able to come the day before.
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LAST WEEK, etc. - THE WEEK, etc. BEFORE
Alex: "I sent you that letter last month."
He claimed he'd sent us the letter the month before.
THE/THIS/THESE - THAT/THOSE
Maria: "I can't believe these stories."
She told us she couldn't believe those stories.
Pedro: "I like that picture near this window."
He said he liked the picture near that window.
HERE - THERE
Paul: "I'm going to wait here."
He said he was going to wait there.
USE:
To report what somebody says or thinks without using their exact words.
FORM:
The main clause contains the "reporting or question verb":
REPORTING VERBS: SAY, TELL, PROMISE, KNOW, BELIEVE, THINK, CLAIM, etc.
QUESTION VERBS: ASK, WONDER, WANT/WOULD LIKE TO KNOW
The noun clause contains the statement or question which is being reported.
EXAMPLES:
"I asked Smith why he'd robbed that bank."
"He told me that he needed money."
"He said he'd never had any luck."
"He wanted to know if I would help him."
STATEMENTS and QUESTIONS
For statements, we use the conjunction THAT, which is omitted in informal English.
[MAIN CLAUSE + (THAT) + NOUN CLAUSE]
EXAMPLES:
"Mr. Jones says (that) he'll call later."
"She said (that) she was leaving."
For questions, we use IF (Yes/No Questions) or WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHY, WHERE, HOW, HOW MUCH,
or HOW MANY (Wh-Questions). Notice that the verb in the noun clause takes the normal affirmative or
negative form and not the question form.
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We often use "double questions" with ASK, TELL, or KNOW to make a polite request for information.
"May I ask what your name is?" is politer than "What's your name?"
[MAIN CLAUSE + IF or WH-WORD + NOUN CLAUSE]
EXAMPLES:
"He's asking you if you like chocolate."
"Please ask him who that boy is."
TIME ASPECTS
When the reporting verb (SAY, THINK, ASK, etc.) is in the Past Tense, the "original" statement/idea or
question may be modified.
VERB IN REPORTED NOUN CLAUSE

When the reporting verb in the main clause is in the Past Tense,the verb in the noun clause is usually
also in the Past Tense, even when theoriginal statement or idea was in the Present Tense.
DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH
Be Present Be Past
Present Simple Past Simple
Present Progressive Past Progressive
Past Simple Past Perfect
Present/Past Perfect Past Perfect
Modals Past Modals
EXAMPLES:
Mary: "I want to go alone."
Mary said she wanted to go alone.
Tony: "I'll pay you when I see you."

Tony said he'd pay me when he saw me.
PRONOUNS:
Pronouns must also be changed to fit the reported statement.
EXAMPLES:
Tom:"I bought my girlfriend a pin for her birthday."
Tom said that he'd bought his girlfrienda pin for her birthday.
Alice: "Can I borrow your car?"

Alice asked me if she could borrow my car.
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TIME ADVERBIALS
When the reporting verb is in the Past Tense, "time adverbials" may also change.
Here are some possible changes:
DIRECT INDIRECT/REPORTED
Now Then/At that time
Today That day/The same day
Tomorrow The next/following day
Next week, etc. The next/following week, etc.
Yesterday The day before
Last week, etc. The week before
This That
These Those
Here There
USE:
To talk about actions or events in which the agent, or the "doer" of the action, is obvious, unknown or
unimportant, or to emphasize the action, the results of the action, or the receiver of the action. The
Passive is also used to stress a process or event.
FORM:
["BE" + Past Participle [V3]]
NOTE: The verb "BE" varies according to the tense of the sentence. It can take any form, including
progressives.
EXAMPLES:
"The castle was built in 1543."
"It has been rebuilt twice since then."
(Agent unknown/unimportant)
"English is spoken here."

(Agent is obvious or understood)
"The game is played until there are no more players on the field."
(Process is stressed)
NOTE: We can include the agent after the verb in a Passive sentence, using the preposition BY.
EXAMPLES:
"My lunch was stolen by a gorilla from the circus!"
"The new hospital is going to be opened by the Queen herself."
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AFFIRMATIVE/NEGATIVE
PRESENT/PAST SIMPLE
[OBJECT + Present/Past Form of BE (NOT) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by SUBJECT)...]
EXAMPLES:
"These socks weren't made in Japan."
PRESENT/PAST PROGRESSIVE
[OBJECT + Present/Past Form of BE (NOT) + BEING + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by SUBJECT)]
EXAMPLES:
"The house is being painted (by John)."
"Our car wasn't being used yesterday."
PRESENT PERFECT
[OBJECT + HAVE (NOT)/HAS (NOT) + BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3] (by SUBJECT)]
EXAMPLES:
"The house has been rented (by Bob Tell)."
"We haven't been invited to the party."
YES/NO QUESTIONS
[BE/HAVE + SUBJECT (BE) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"Was the letter sent?" (SIMPLE)
"Is it being ordered?" (PROGRESSIVE)
"Have they been asked?" (PERFECT)
WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + BE/HAVE + (SUBJECT) (BE) + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...]
EXAMPLES:
"Who was told about this?"
"When was John invited to the wedding?"
"Where was it being shown?"
"Why has Bill been fired?
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OTHER EXAMPLES:
"The car wasn't being repaired when we arrived."

"The election results have just been announced."
"George has been caught by the police."
"Are we going to be invited to Joe's party?"
"Why has Betty been arrested?"
"Who was that movie made by?

"It was made by DeMille, I think."
USE:
To express various degrees of possibility, probability and obligation, in the passive. We can use all the
Modals WILL, MUST, HAVE TO, CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, NEED, SHOULD with "BE" and the Past
Participle [V3] of the original verb.
AFFIRMATIVE/NEGATIVE
[OBJECT + MODAL (NOT) + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]... (by SUBJECT)]
EXAMPLES:
"The project can't be finished on time."
"We will be met at 8 p.m. (by Mr. Sills)."
YES/NO QUESTIONS
[MODAL + SUBJECT + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]...]
EXAMPLES:
"Should Tina be invited to the party?"
"Must it be done by 7 p.m.?"
WH-QUESTIONS
[WH-WORD + MODAL + (SUBJECT) + BE + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"Where can it be seen?"
"When will she be told about her brother?"
"What may be eaten?"
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OTHER EXAMPLES:
OBLIGATION / NECESSITY
"The doctor's instructions must be followed exactly."
"The police have sealed that door; it mustn't be opened."
"The bridge was badly damaged, so it had to be repaired."
"I can fix your watch for you; it needn't be taken to the watchmaker."
"Private cars shouldn't be allowed to enter the city center."
POSSIBILITY / PROBABILITY
"On a clear day, the mountains can be seen from the top of this building."
"Ten years ago, objects like this could be bought for a few dollars."
"Mike's taking a big risk: he could be sent to prison if someone checks that signature."
"Smith has been a very unsuccessful mayor; he may not be re-elected next year."
Some verbs, such as GIVE, ASK, TELL, OFFER, PROMISE, SEND, SHOW, TEACH, and PAY, can have two
objects: one DIRECT and one INDIRECT. Either the direct object or the indirect object can become the
subject in a passive sentence:
"My grandmother gave me a watch for my birthday."
"The watch was given to me for my birthday."

(direct object)
"I was given the watch for my birthday."

(indirect object)
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USE:
To talk about actions or events in which the agent, or the "doer" of the action, is obvious, unknown or
unimportant, or to emphasize the action, the results of the action, or the receiver of the action. The
Passive is also used to stress a process or event.
FORM:
["BE" + Past Participle [V3]]
NOTE: The verb "BE" varies according to the tense of the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"The house was built in 1925."
"The new hospital will be opened by the Queen."
"Private cars shouldn't be allowed to enter the city center."
"John was asked several questions by the police."
"He was hit by a car."
"The chocolate was melted over a low flame."
NOTE: Although we generally use the Passive without the agent, it can be included by using the
preposition BY.
EXAMPLES:
"The money was stolen by Bugsy this morning."
"'Romeo and Juliet' was written by Shakespeare."
INDIRECT FORM
Some verbs, such as GIVE, ASK, TELL, OFFER, PROMISE, SEND, SHOW, TEACH, and PAY, can have two
objects: one DIRECT and one INDIRECT. Either the direct object or the indirect object can become the
subject in a passive sentence:
"My grandmother gave me a watch."

"The watch was given to me for my birthday."
(direct object)
"I was given the watch for my birthday."

(indirect object)
NOTE: We usually use the indirect object as the subject of a passive sentence in the indirect form.
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USE:
To describe when one person allows another person to perform an action (LET) or when one person
obliges or persuades another person to perform an action (HAVE, MAKE, or GET).
We generally use the following verbs in Active Causatives (in all forms including Modals):
LET
HAVE
MAKE
GET
(Also PAY, BRIBE, PERSUADE, FORCE, OBLIGE, ASK, BEG, and EXPECT.)
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + LET/HAVE/MAKE + Object + VERB (base)...]
EXAMPLES:
"I'll have her call home. "
"You're making him get angry."
"She lets them stay up late."
[SUBJECT + GET + OBJECT + INFINITIVE...]
"We'll get him to finish it on time."

"She got him to wash the floor."
NEGATIVE and QUESTIONS
We can use LET, HAVE, MAKE, and GET in their normal negative and question forms.
EXAMPLES:
"The boss didn't let me go home early."
"They're not having their house painted this year."
"He couldn't get them to clean their room."
"When will you let me use your computer?"
"Can't you get him to apologize?"
"Where are you getting him to take you tonight?"
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USE:
The PASSIVE form is used with Causatives as with other verbs to emphasize the receiver of the action.
We use it when we want something done to someone or something.
FORM:
We generally use the following verbs in Passive Causatives:
WANT
WOULD LIKE/'D LIKE (More formal than WANT)
HAVE
GET (Less formal than HAVE)
The verb which expresses the action is in the past participle [V3] form.
If we want to mention the agent (the person who performs the action), we use the preposition BY after
the verb.
NOTE: WANT does not usually take perfect or progressive forms.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + CAUSATIVE + Object + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"I want the dishes washed."
"You are getting your car fixed by the best mechanic in town!"
"He would like his eggs cooked for 3 minutes."
"We are having a new house built next year."
We can use WANT, WOULD LIKE, HAVE, and GET in their normal negative and question forms.
EXAMPLES:
"I don't want the house painted blue!"
"I won't have my hair cut today."
"She didn't get the computer fixed last week."
"How would you like your steak cooked, madam?"
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USE:
To describe when one person allows, asks, obliges or wants another person to perform an action.
EXAMPLES:
"My father never let me drive the car when I was a teenager. He had my brother drive me everywhere."
"Gee, the car's filthy; I must get it washed.

Janice! I want you to wash the car for me."
"Get Frank to do it!"
ACTIVE CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES
USE:
To describe when one person allows another person to perform an action (LET) or when one person
obliges or persuades another person to perform an action (HAVE, MAKE, or GET).
FORM:
We generally use the following verbs in Active Causatives (in all forms including Modals):
LET
HAVE
MAKE
GET
(Also PAY, BRIBE, PERSUADE, FORCE, OBLIGE, ASK, BEG, and EXPECT.)
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + LET, HAVE, MAKE + Object + VERB (base)...]
EXAMPLES:
"I'll have her call home."
"You're making him get angry."
"She lets them stay up late."
[SUBJECT + GET + Object + INFINITIVE...]

EXAMPLES:
"We'll get him to finish it on time."
"She got him to wash the floor."
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We can use LET, HAVE, MAKE, and GET in their normal negative and question forms.
EXAMPLES:
"The boss didn't let me go home early."
"They are not having their house painted this year."
"He couldn't get them to clean their room."
"When will you let me use your computer?"

"Can't you get him to apologize?"
"Where are you getting him to take you tonight?"
PASSIVE CAUSATIVES and PERMISSIVES
USE:
The passive form is used with Causatives as with other verbs to emphasize the receiver of the action.
We use it when we want something done to someone or something.
FORM:
We generally use the following verbs in PASSIVE CAUSATIVES:
WANT
WOULD LIKE/'D LIKE
(More formal than WANT)
HAVE
GET (Less formal than HAVE) The verb which expresses the action is in the past participle [V3] form.
If we want to mention the agent (the person who performs the action), we use the preposition BY after
the verb.
NOTE: WANT does not usually take perfect or progressive forms.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
[SUBJECT + CAUSATIVE + Object + PAST PARTICIPLE [V3]]
EXAMPLES:
"I want the dishes washed!"
"You're getting your car fixed by the best mechanic in town!"
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We can use WANT, WOULD LIKE, HAVE, and GET in their normal negative and question forms.
EXAMPLES:
"I don't want the house painted blue!"
"I won't have my hair cut today."
"She didn't get the computer fixed last week."
"How would you like your steak cooked, madam?"
USE:
If the idea expressed by the combination of clauses in a sentence is unusual or surprising, we can
emphasize this by putting NOT ONLY immediately before the verb in the first clause and BUT ALSO at
the beginning of the second clause.
FORM:
[SUBJECT (+ MODAL/AUXILIARY) + NOT ONLY + VERB... + BUT ALSO...]
EXAMPLES:
"The firm not only fired him, but also accused him of stealing."
"She has not only apologized for causing the accident, but also paid for all the damage."
EITHER... OR
USE:
If the two clauses express alternative possibilities, we can put the adverb EITHER immediately before
the verb in the first clause, and use the conjunction OR at the beginning of the second clause.
FORM:
[SUBJECT (+ MODAL/AUXILIARY) + EITHER + Verb... + OR + CLAUSE 2]
EXAMPLES:
"He's a terrible cook: he either burns the food or serves it uncooked!"
"We will either return your money or give you a new suit."
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NEITHER... NOR
USE:
To emphasize that both clauses are negative, we can put the negative adverb NEITHER immediately
before the verb in the main clause and use the conjunction NOR.
FORM:
[SUBJECT (+ MODAL/AUXILIARY) + NEITHER + Verb... + NOR + CLAUSE 2]
EXAMPLE:
"She neither telephoned me nor wrote to me for two months."
USE:
We can give SHORT ANSWERS to Yes/No questions by using SO instead of repeating the clause from the
question. These short answers can be affirmative or negative.
FORM:
AFFIRMATIVE
There are four common short affirmative answers:
I THINK SO. (neutral)

I GUESS SO. (usually neutral, but can express regret or displeasure)
I HOPE SO. (expresses hope)
I'M AFRAID SO. (expresses regret or displeasure)
EXAMPLES:
"Is that John over there?"
"I think so."
"Will you have to join the army after college?"
"I guess so. There doesn't seem to be any way out of it."
"Is it going to stop raining soon, Mom?"
"I hope so. Then you'll be able to play baseball."
"Was anybody killed in the accident?"
"I'm afraid so. The driver of the car is dead."
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NEGATIVE
Each of the four expressions listed above has a negative equivalent:
I DON'T THINK SO. (the negative form I THINK NOT is more formal and not used very much)
I GUESS NOT.
I HOPE NOT.
I'M AFRAID NOT.
EXAMPLES:
"Do cats like to swim?"
"I don't think so. They usually hate to go near water."
"It's so late now. You're not going to the movies, are you?"
"I guess not. I'd probably fall asleep."
"Will your parents be angry that you stayed out late?"
"I hope not. If they are, I'll be stuck at home for a month!"
"Did I get a high mark on the exam?"
"I'm afraid not. You almost failed."
NOTE: There are also short replies to positive or negative statements which express agreement (THE
SAME IS TRUE FOR ME). They may refer to the speaker or to another subject (THE SAME IS TRUE FOR
FRED, etc.).
EXAMPLES:
"Mary loves the rain."
"Isn't that odd. The same is true for Tom. He loves to go out in the rain."
...TOO., ...SO.
USE:
Instead of repeating the verb in the original statement, we use the appropriate Auxiliary or Modal, as
follows, together with the adverbs SO or TOO.
FORM:
Statement Short Answer
SIMPLE PRESENT DO/DOES

SIMPLE PAST DID
PRESENT PERFECT HAVE/HAS
PAST PERFECT HAD
PRESENT PROGRESSIVE AM/IS/ARE
PAST PROGRESSIVE WAS/WERE
WILL/WOULD WILL/WOULD
CAN/COULD CAN/COULD
MUST/SHOULD MUST/SHOULD
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AFFIRMATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + AUXILIARY/MODAL + TOO]
or
[SO + AUXILIARY/MODAL + SUBJECT]
EXAMPLES:
"I live in New York."
"I do, too."OR: "So do I."
"I went home at 3 o'clock."
"Mike did, too."OR: "So did Mike."
"Pat has had the flu."
"Ted has, too."OR: "So has Ted."
"James can sing well."
"His wife can, too."OR: "So can his wife."
"I must find a taxi."
"We must, too."OR: "So must we."
NEGATIVE
FORM:
[SUBJECT + AUXILIARY/MODAL + NOT + EITHER]
or
[NOR/NEITHER + AUXILIARY/MODAL + SUBJECT]
EXAMPLES:
"I don't like fish."
"I don't, either."OR: "Neither do I."
"Joe doesn't dance."
"Sam doesn't, either."OR: "Neither does Sam."
"They won't help him."
"We won't, either."OR: "Nor will we."
"You shouldn't wait."
"You shouldn't, either."OR: "Neither should you."
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USE:
To connect two clauses of equal importance.
EXAMPLE:
"At Paradise Travel we do everything for you! You neither have to organize your journey, nor worry
about accommodations. We both buy your tickets and book your hotel. We guarantee that you
will not only enjoy your holiday but also remember it for the rest of your life!"
Conjunctions are also used to make short "echo" answers to statements and Yes/No questions.
EXAMPLES:
"I remember that holiday very well."
"So do I. It was terrible."
"But I can't remember the name of our hotel."
"I can't either, and I don't want to remember it."
"Well, do you think we'll be luckier this year?"
"I hope so!"
We can express a contrast between two ideas by using the connector ALTHOUGH.
EXAMPLES:
"The children watched television although I wanted them to go to bed."
"Although it was very cold, it was a beautiful day."
NOTE: The connector THOUGH is sometimes used as an alternative to ALTHOUGH.
EXAMPLE:
"She decided to go though the doctor had advised against it."
We can introduce a contrasting phrase (but not a clause) with the connectors DESPITE and IN SPITE OF.
EXAMPLES:
"She dances wonderfully in spite of her age."
"Frank decided to marry Elaine despite his parents' objections."
NOTE: Clauses contain a subject and a verb and function as a member of a compound or complex
sentence while phrases are groups of two or more grammatically related words which together have a
modifying or coordinating function.
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USE:
In order to describe a sequence of events, we can join two or more clauses with the connectors FIRST
and THEN, or with the ordinals FIRST, SECOND, THIRD, etc. We can use FINALLY to introduce the last
element of the sequence.
EXAMPLES:
"First, they asked me about my qualifications, then they asked about my previous experience,
and finally, they offered me the job."
"First, plug in the hair dryer; second, attach the diffuser; third, switch the dryer on."
We can express an unexpected change or contrast in the sequence by using AT FIRST and BUT THEN or
BUT LATER.
EXAMPLES:
"At first, he refused to lend us the money, but then he changed his mind."
"At first, I really liked her, but later, I discovered that she was terribly dishonest."
USE:
When the subordinate clause describes the purpose or intended result of the action described in the
main clause, we use the connector SO THAT.
EXAMPLES:
"The thief shone a bright light in my eyes so that I couldn't see him."
"The teacher speaks slowly so that everybody can understand."
When the subordinate clause prescribes the necessary conditions for the state or event described in the
main clause, we use the connectors IF, ON (THE) CONDITION THAT, and PROVIDED THAT.
EXAMPLES:
"I'll cook the dinner provided that you do the shopping."
"Fred will lend you his car on (the) condition that you drive very carefully."
"The bank will take away our house if we don't pay back the loan."
The negative equivalent of IF ( = IF + NOT) is UNLESS.
EXAMPLE:
"The bank will take away our house unless we pay back the loan."
When the subordinate clause describes a possible (but uncertain) event which explains the action
described in the main clause, we use the connector IN CASE.
EXAMPLE:
"I'm taking my umbrella in case it rains."
157
USE:
When the subordinate clause describes the cause or reason for the event or state which is described in
the main clause, we can use the connectors BECAUSE or SINCE.
EXAMPLES:
"I arrived late because I missed the train."
"John got up early because he wanted to watch the sunrise."
"Mary knew London well since she had lived there as a child."
We can give extra emphasis to the cause by putting the subordinate clause at the beginning of the
sentence. In this case we normally separate the two clauses with a comma.
EXAMPLE:
"Because I missed the train, I arrived late."
We use the connector SEEING THAT at the beginning of a sentence to explain a decision or action which
is described in the main clause.
EXAMPLES:
"Seeing that the car wouldn't start, she decided to go by bus."
Seeing that I couldn't persuade Frank to help, I asked his sister."
We use the connector NOW THAT to introduce a new condition which explains a decision about a future
action.
EXAMPLE:
"Now that I've got lots of money, I'm going to buy you a sports car!"
When the subordinate clause describes the effect or result of the event or state described in the main
clause, we use the connectors SO and THEREFORE. Both words are often preceded by a comma; they
never begin the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"Nobody invited Jane to the party, so she didn't go."
"I do not know Smith personally, therefore I cannot describe his character."
158
USE:
English, unlike many other languages, normally allows only one negative expression in a negative
sentence. A sentence with two negative expressions has a positive meaning, because one negative
cancels out the other. Thus the sentence "Nobody does not like John." means "Everybody likes John."
NEGATION OF NOUNS
Both the subject and the object of sentences can be preceded by the negative quantifiers NO (the
negative equivalent of A or SOME) or NEITHER (when there are only two).
EXAMPLES:
"No dogs are allowed in the house."
"Neither of the twins likes vegetables."
"Neither half of the audience could see the other."
"We've found no signs of life on Mars."
The subject can be preceded by the negative quantifiers NOT MANY or NOT MUCH.
EXAMPLES:
"Not many children learn Latin these days."
"Not much snow fell yesterday."
If the noun is preceded by the article THE or by a possessive (MY, YOUR, HIS, etc. or JOHN's, PETER's,
etc.) we use the negative quantifiers NONE OF or NEITHER OF.
EXAMPLES:
"None of my friends eats garlic."
"Until they got married, she had met none of his brothers or sisters."
"Neither of my parents can speak English."
"Since the accident, she can use neither of her hands."
NEGATIVE PRONOUNS
USE:
The negative pronouns NOBODY, NO ONE, and NOTHING can act as the subject or object of a sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"Nobody liked my new dress."
"No one wanted to be the first to leave the party."
"Nothing is impossible."
"I saw nobody, I heard no one, and I felt nothing."
159
NEGATION OF VERBS
FORM:
Negative verbs are usually formed by adding the adverbial NOT (often abbreviated to N'T) to the end of
BE, HAVE, and all Modals.
EXAMPLES:
"We are not (aren't) afraid."
"Fred is not (isn't) sleeping."
"James has not (hasn't) got any money."
"I have not (haven't) seen that film."
"You cannot (can't) come in here."
"You must not (mustn't) believe her."
"Louis should not (shouldn't) be late."
"Jack will not (won't) help us."
The auxiliary DO + NOT (DOES + NOT for 3rd Person Singular) is used to negate Simple Present Tense
verbs.
EXAMPLES:
"I do not (don't) believe you."
"Pat does not (doesn't) live here."
The auxiliary DID + NOT is used to negate Simple Past verbs.
EXAMPLES:
"Geoff did not (didn't) enjoy the play."
"Peter did not (didn't) drive home."
Verbs can also be negated by using the adverbs EVER, HARDLY EVER ( = ALMOST NEVER), and NEITHER...
NOR. These adverbs are normally placed immediately before the main verb.
EXAMPLES:
"I never drink alcohol."
"John has never seen that picture."
"Mary has hardly ever scolded the child."
"Fred hardly ever smokes cigars."
"I neither like nor understand his jokes."
"Tom neither drives a car nor rides a bicycle."
Notice that when we use NEITHER...NOR we do not have to repeat the subject before the second verb.
When the verb has three or more elements (e.g., SHOULD HAVE BEEN DONE or MAY HAVE BEEN
DOING), the negative adverb is placed between the two first elements.
EXAMPLES:
"They should never have released that film."
"He may not have been working for long."
160
In most cases we can emphasize the negation of a verb by adding AT ALL to the end of the sentence.
EXAMPLES:
"I don't like fish at all."
"We couldn't understand him at all."
In very formal English, NEVER and HARDLY EVER can be placed at the beginning of the sentence for extra
emphasis. In this case the verb takes the interrogative form (including inversion).
EXAMPLES:
"Never will I enter this house again!"
"Never have I seen such an extraordinary painting!"
OBJECTS OF NEGATIVE VERBS
USE:
Since two negative expressions in the same sentence give that sentence a positive meaning, we do not
normally use a negative quantifier (NO, NONE OF, etc.) with the object of a negative verb (I DON'T LIKE,
etc.), or with the object of a verb with a negative subject (NOBODY LIKES, etc.). In this case we normally
use ANY.
EXAMPLES:
"We didn't buy any bread."
"Janet couldn't see any clouds."
"Nobody gave me any money."
We use the pronouns ANYBODY, ANYONE, and ANYTHING in the same way.
EXAMPLES:
"Paula won't speak to anybody."
"He didn't like anyone in the school."
"Nobody sent Fred anything."
USE:
These are used to talk about time, place, weather, and other conditions in expressions where the verb
"BE" has no real subject.
FORM:
[IT + BE + Time expression/adjective + REST]
EXAMPLES:
"It's 1 o'clock in Miami when it's 7 o'clock in Rome."
"It's warm and sunny today in Washington."
"It's too late to get tickets for the 4 o'clock show."
"It's time to start cooking dinner."
"Come and swim; it's lovely in the water!"
"It's very dusty up in our attic."
161
Confusion between these two expressions can lead to sentences which are correctly formed but do not
express the intended meaning.
HAD BETTER (often abbreviated to 'D BETTER) is normally used to express strong advice about how the
subject should behave.
EXAMPLES:
"If you want to pass that exam, you'd better start studying now."
"You'd better not eat that chicken; it smells bad."
WOULD RATHER (often abbreviated to 'D RATHER) is normally used to describe the subject's personal
choice or preference.
EXAMPLES:
"Shall we go to the cinema or the theater?"
"I'd rather go to the cinema."
"Would you like some tea?"

"I'd rather have some coffee, thanks!"
When the preference expressed refers to the speaker (i.e. there is only one subject), WOULD RATHER is
followed by the base form of the verb. When the speaker is expressing his preference for someone else
(i.e. there is a change of subject), WOULD RATHER is followed by the past tense of the verb. In both
cases, however, the reference is to the present or the future.
EXAMPLES:
"I'd rather go by plane."
"I'd rather she went by plane."
NOTE: In such cases where there is a change of subject, the past form of "BE" used is WERE.
In English, all verbs except for non-finite forms,such as Infinitives, Gerunds, and Participles, must have
grammatical subjects. Where there is no obvious "agent" for the verb, we normally use either IT or
THERE as a "dummy subject".
FORM:
[IT + the verb BE...]
EXAMPLES:
"It is difficult learning to drive."
(instead of "Learning to drive is difficult.")
"It was impossible to understand him."
(instead of "To understand him was impossible.")
162
"It will be easy for you to learn Spanish."
(instead of "For you to learn Spanish will be easy.")
"It was kind of them to invite Joe."
(instead of "For them to invite Joe was kind.")
"It was Michael who woke up first."
(instead of "Who woke up first was Michael.")
We also use IT to make tentative statements with SEEM, LOOK, and APPEAR in the following impersonal
expressions:
EXAMPLES:
"It seems that the letter was stolen."
"It looks as though we've lost the match."
"It appears that they missed the train."
THERE is normally used only with BE + NOUN; "THERE IS X" is roughly equivalent to "X EXISTS" or "X CAN
BE FOUND".
EXAMPLES:
"There is some beer in the refrigerator."
"Are there any penguins in Scotland?"
Adjectives which describe the nature or the properties of something (such as BIG, YELLOW, STRONG,
DULL, etc.) are known as ADJECTIVES of QUALITY. When a single noun is preceded by several adjectives
of quality, they must appear in the correct order.
In many cases it is sufficient to observe the simple rule that "the most objective adjective stays closest
to the noun".
If we want to say that a book is both "in English" and "interesting", we note that "interesting" is a
relatively subjective adjective (I find the book interesting, somebody else might find it boring), while
"English" is relatively objective (nobody can deny that the book is English). Thus we say "an interesting
English book," and not "an English interesting book".
EXAMPLES:
"a beautiful Chinese doll"
"an old wooden table"
"an ugly old man"
When there are several equally objective adjectives, they normally come in the following order, with 8
being the one closest to the noun:
1. NUMBER (AN, FIVE, A HUNDRED, etc.)

2. SIZE (LARGE, SMALL, HUGE, etc.)
3. AGE (NEW, OLD, etc.)
4. SHAPE (LONG, OVAL, SQUARE, etc.)
163
5. COLOR (LIGHT, BLACK, RED, etc.)
6. MATERIAL (STEEL, CANVAS, etc.)
7. ORIGIN (FRENCH, AFRICAN, etc.)
8. PURPOSE (COOKING, HUNTING, etc.)
EXAMPLES:
"an enormous brown leather chair"
"a pair of new French riding boots"
"three tiny round copper coins"
These two verbs are often confused by speakers of languages which have only one word to translate
both.
In general, it is a good idea to remember that MAKE has a similar meaning to CREATE, CONSTRUCT, or
INVENT: the normal object of the verb is a thing.
EXAMPLES:
"What are you making?"
"I'm making a dress."
"I've made a cake; would you like a piece?"

"This chair was made two hundred years ago."
DO is more similar in meaning to PERFORM or CARRY OUT; the normal object of the verb is an action.
EXAMPLES:
"What are you doing?"
"I'm thinking."
"Janet does a lot of swimming."

"My husband always does the ironing."
There are many "special cases" of standard expressions using MAKE or DO.
EXAMPLES:
"I'll do my best." (I'll work as well as I can.)
"This medicine will do you good."
(This medicine will make you feel better.)
"I can't do without books." (I need books very much.)
"What do you do?" (What is your profession?)
"I must do my hair." (I must fix my hair.)
"We've done up the bedroom."
(We've decorated the bedroom.)
"The thieves made off with the money."
(The thieves escaped with the money.)
"Can you make out this signature?"
164
(Can you read/understand this signature?)
"She made up a clever excuse."
(She created a clever excuse.)
There are also a number of standard collocations: nouns which are normally associated with either
MAKE or DO. The following nouns are normally objects of DO:
DAMAGE, A DUTY, AN EXAMINATION, AN EXERCISE, A FAVOR, HARM, HOMEWORK, HOUSEWORK, A

JOB, A TEST, WORK.
The following nouns are normally objects of MAKE:
ARRANGEMENTS, A CHOICE, A COMPLAINT, A DECISION, A DISCOVERY, AN EFFORT, AN INQUIRY, AN

EXCUSE, FUN (OF SOMEBODY), LOVE, A MISTAKE, MONEY, AN OFFER, A PROFIT, A SUGGESTION, SURE,
ROOM (FOR SOMEBODY), USE (OF SOMETHING), WAR.
There are various different types of commonly made errors in English. Three of the most common are
GRAMMATICAL (badly-formed sentences), LEXICAL (wrongly-chosen words), and SEMANTIC (correct
language, wrong meaning or usage). In this lesson, we focus on the errors involving HAD BETTER vs.
WOULD RATHER, THERE vs. IT, DO vs. MAKE, and ORDER OF ADJECTIVES.
HAD BETTER vs. WOULD RATHER
These two expressions are commonly confused. HAD BETTER is normally used to express strong advice
about how a subject should behave. WOULD RATHER is normally used to describe a subject's personal
choice or preference.
EXAMPLES:
"A: You had better bring your car in to the repair shop."
"B: I'd rather buy a new car."
THERE vs. IT
We normally use IT or THERE as "dummy subjects" when there is no obvious "agent" for a verb. IT is also
used when the agent or real subject of the sentence is awkward.
EXAMPLES:
"It isn't that difficult learning to read."
(instead of "Learning to read isn't that difficult.")
"It was a mistake to bring him."
(instead of "To bring him was a mistake.")
"There is some ice cream in the freezer."
NOTE: "THERE IS X" is roughly equivalent to "X EXISTS" or "X CAN BE FOUND".
165
DO vs. MAKE
These two verbs are often confused by speakers of languages which have only one word to translate
both. MAKE has a similar meaning to CREATE, CONSTRUCT, or INVENT: the normal object of the verb is a
thing. DO is more similar in meaning to PERFORM or CARRY OUT; the normal object of the verb is an
action.
EXAMPLES:
"What are you making?"
"I'm making a model airplane."

"I'm resting." There are many special expressions using MAKE or DO.
EXAMPLES:
"I am doing my homework."
"I am making my bed."
"Your behavior just won't do."

( = is not acceptable)
"Don't make up any more excuses."
( = create)
ORDER OF ADJECTIVES
When a single noun is preceded by several adjectives of quality, they must appear in the correct order.
In many cases it is sufficient to observe the simple rule that "the most objective adjective stays closest
to the noun".
EXAMPLES:
"an expensive Oriental rug"
"a hand-made woolen sweater"
When there are several equally objective adjectives, they normally come in the following order:
1. NUMBER (AN, FIVE, etc.)
2. SIZE (LARGE, SMALL, etc.)
3. AGE (NEW, OLD, etc.)
4. SHAPE (LONG, SQUARE, etc.)
5. COLOR (LIGHT, RED, etc.)
6. MATERIAL (STEEL, CANVAS, etc.)
7. ORIGIN (FRENCH, AFRICAN, etc.)
8. PURPOSE (COOKING, HUNTING, etc.)
EXAMPLES:
"a large old brown German hunting dog"
"five small wooden African statues"
166
A common semantic error is caused by confusion between the words LIKE and MIND, especially when
they are used in their interrogative forms with the Modal WOULD.
WOULD YOU LIKE (+NOUN) + INFINITIVE...? and WOULD YOU LIKE + NOUN? are normally used to make
an offer or an invitation.
EXAMPLES:
"Would you like a banana?"
"Would you like to dance?"
"Would you like me to help you?"
[WOULD YOU MIND + VERB + ing?] and

[WOULD YOU MIND IF I + VERB [Past Form]?]
are normally used to make a polite request for action or for permission.
EXAMPLES:
"Would you mind opening the window for me?"
"Would you mind if I smoked here?"
It is easy to confuse SO with SUCH when they are used with adjectives and nouns. The normal
constructions are as follows:
FORM:
[... SO + ADJECTIVE + THAT...]
EXAMPLES:
"She was so kind that everybody loved her."
"The book was so boring that I fell asleep while reading it."
FORM:
[...SUCH (+ A/AN) + NOUN (+ THAT...)]
EXAMPLES:
"His last concert was such a disaster that he never played piano again."
"I have never seen such courage."
167
FORM:
[SUCH (+ A/AN) + ADJECTIVE + NOUN (+ THAT...)]
EXAMPLES:
"It was such a strange noise that he was frightened."
"We were surprised he turned out to be such a fine scholar."
An alternative to the last structure is:
[SO + ADJECTIVE + A/AN + NOUN (+ THAT...)]
EXAMPLE:
"It was so horrible a film that we left before the end."
NOTE: this structure can only be used when the noun has the indefinite article A(N). It is seldom used
except in formal English.
When several subordinate phrases or clauses in a sentence are governed by the same verb they should
all take the same form. Failure to observe this rule (e.g., by mixing up finite verbs, infinitives, and -ing
forms) often leads to grammatical error.
EXAMPLES:
"I like swimming, riding and studying languages." (NOT: I like swimming, riding, and to study languages.)
"I want you to sweep the floor, wash the dishes, make the bed, and feed the canary." (NOT: I want you
to sweep the floor, wash the dishes, make the bed, and feeding the canary.)
Many verbs and adjectives are normally used with particular prepositions. A common lexical error
consists of using the wrong preposition.
PREPOSITIONS FOLLOWING VERBS
For a list of Phrasal Verbs (verbs which have a special meaning when used with particular prepositions),
see Intermediate 3. The following list includes some other common verbs with their associated
prepositions. Notice that some of the verbs can take an object before the preposition.
ACCUSE + (OBJECT +) OF
"He was accused of stealing the necklace." OR
"They accused him of stealing the necklace."
168
APOLOGIZE + FOR
"Andrew apologized for his bad behavior."
ASK + FOR
"We asked for another plate of french fries."
BELIEVE + IN
"Some people don't believe in democracy."
BLAME + (OBJECT +) FOR

"Tom was blamed for starting the fire."
"I blame the weather for my failure to win the race."
BORROW + (OBJECT +) FROM

"Jane wants to borrow fifty dollars from me."
"Please return the book you borrowed from Dan."
COMPARE +(OBJECT +) WITH/TO

"It isn't fair to compare him with a professional athlete."
"The prices here are low, compared to the first place we tried."
CONSIST + OF
"A rugby team consists of fifteen players."
DEPEND + ON
"His success in the exams will depend on how hard he works."
FEEL + LIKE
"His handshake feels like a dead fish."
HOPE + FOR
"She hopes for better luck next year."
INSIST + ON
"The angry customer insisted on a complete refund."
LIVE + ON
"He found it hard to live on his salary as a teacher."
LOOK + AT
"Look at me when I speak to you!"
OBJECT + TO
"I strongly object to being called a liar."
PAY + FOR
"George never offers to pay for the meal."
169
PREFER + (OBJECT +) TO
"John prefers to eat meat when he's in a restaurant."
"John prefers meat to fish."
PREPARE + FOR
"Susan needed more time to prepare for the party."
QUARREL + ABOUT
"We often quarrel about stupid little things."
REFER + TO
"His last letter referred to his promotion at work."
RELY + ON
"You shouldn't rely on him; he's always late."
REMIND + (OBJECT +) OF
"Mike was reminded of his mother when he saw the photo."
"The photo reminded Sam of his old girlfriend."
SUCCEED + IN
"He finally succeeded in persuading her to marry him."
SUSPECT + (OBJECT +) OF
"I was suspected of being a spy."
"The police suspected me of being a spy."
THINK + OF/ABOUT
"I suddenly thought of the answer."
"We thought about the problem for hours."
WAIT + FOR
"I've been waiting for Joe for twenty minutes."
WARN + (OBJECT +) ABOUT

"I was warned about the dog."
"They warned me about the dog next door."
WISH + FOR
"Most people wish for health and happiness."
170
PREPOSITIONS FOLLOWING ADJECTIVES
Some of the common adjective + preposition combinations in English are:
OF usually follows: afraid, ashamed, aware, certain, (un)conscious, jealous, proud, and sure.
EXAMPLES:
"Michael is afraid of being alone."
"The teacher is aware of her students' individual needs."
"Susan is jealous of all the attention her new baby brother is getting from their parents."
AT usually follows: clever, good, and talented.
EXAMPLE:
"Robert is very good at math."
OF or TO usually follow: kind, nice, (im)polite, and rude.
EXAMPLES:
"How kind of you to make me dinner!"
"Please be nice to Aunt Fanny. She's a very sick woman."
Other common adjective/preposition combinations include: anxious ABOUT, different FROM, bored
BY/WITH, and interested IN.
EXAMPLES:
"I am very anxious about the exams. I'm worried I will fail everything."
"Gary is very different from his brother Frank."
"I'm interested in modern art. How about you?"
There are various types of errors. Three of the most common types are GRAMMATICAL (badly-formed
sentences), LEXICAL (wrongly-chosen words), and SEMANTIC (correct language, wrong meaning or
usage). The common errors covered in this lesson include:
Like vs. Mind

Prepositions following verbs and adjectives
Parallel Structures
So vs. Such
171
LIKE vs. MIND
A common semantic error is caused by confusion between the words LIKE and MIND, especially when
they are used in their interrogative forms with the Modal WOULD.
WOULD + SUBJECT + LIKE +...? is used to make an offer or an invitation, while WOULD + SUBJECT +
MIND +...? is used to make a polite request for action or permission.
EXAMPLES:
"Would you like to go for a walk?"
"Would Danny like a piece of cake?"
"Would you mind turning off the air-conditioner?"
"Would you mind if I borrowed this book?"
PREPOSITIONS FOLLOWING VERBS AND ADJECTIVES
Many verbs and adjectives are normally used with particular prepositions. A common lexical error
consists of using the wrong preposition.
EXAMPLES - VERBS:
"He was accused of murder."
"I believe in free speech."
"He insisted on speaking to the manager."
EXAMPLES - ADJECTIVES:
"You should be ashamed of yourself for saying it!"
"Tom is always kind to animals."
NOTE: For a more complete list of verb + preposition and adjective + preposition combinations, see the
separate Language Index on this subject.
PARALLEL STRUCTURES
A common grammatical error occurs when language users mix up finite verbs, infinitives, and -ing forms
within the same sentence. All the verbs of a particular subject must be in the same form.
EXAMPLE:
"I like reading, dancing and listening to music."
(NOT: I like reading, dancing, and to listen to music.)
172
SO vs. SUCH
Another easily confused pair of words is SO and SUCH.
FORMS:
[...SO + ADJECTIVE + THAT...]
[...SUCH (+ A/AN) + NOUN (+ THAT...)]
EXAMPLES:
"She was so happy that she'd passed the test."
"I didn't realize that this was going to be such a
problem."
173

Grammar Tenses and Parts of Speech Guide

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GRAMMAR BOOK

1.3. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

1.4. PAST SIMPLE

1.7. THE FUTURE

1.8. MORE FUTURE

1.9. PRESENT PERFECT

1.10. PAST PERFECT

2.2. NOUNS AND QUANTIFIERS

2.5. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

3.2. PAST FORM OF MODALS

3.3. WILL VS WOULD

3.5. MORE INFINITIVES

3.7. PHRASAL VERBS

4.2. RELATIVE CLAUSES

4.3. MORE RELATIVE CLAUSES

4.4. CLAUSES OF RESULT

4.6. MORE CONDITIONALS

4.7. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

5. MORE GRAMMAR POINTS

5.2. PASSIVE VOICE

5.3. CAUSATIVES OR PERMISSIVES

5.5. LOGICAL CONNECTORS

5.8. COMMON ERRORS

5.9. MORE COMMON ERRORS

Put DO or DOES in front of the subject.

[DO/DOES + SUBJECT + VERB + REST]

Does he/she/it like milk?

AFFIRMATIVE: She likes milk.

"Does he work on Saturdays?"

Questions about the SUBJECT:

[WHO-WHAT + VERB + REST]

Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:

[WH-WORD + DO/DOES... VERB...]

"What does Jack want to do?"

"Where do they work?"

You drive, don't you?

You don't smoke, Do you?

"She doesn't work here, does she?"

Present Simple: "Hans speaks very good English."

[SUBJECT + VERB(s) + REST OF SENTENCE]

I/You/We/They work in a bank.

[SUBJECT+ DO NOT/DON'T+ VERB+ REST OF SENTENCE]

I/You/We/They don't drive in the city.

[SUBJECT + VERB(s) + REST OF SENTENCE]

I/You/We/They Work in a bank.

Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, o take -es in third person

For verbs ending in consonant + y, drop the y and add -ies:

[SUBJECT + DO NOT/DON'T + VERB + REST]

I/You/We/They don't drive in the city.

[DO + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]

Do I/you/we/they know them?

[DOES + SUBJECT + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]

Does he/she/it like milk?

[WH-WORD + VERB + REST OF SENTENCE]

Questions about the REST OF THE SENTENCE:

[WH-WORD + DO/DOES... VERB...]

[YES, SUBJECT + DO/DOES]

[AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE + DON'T/DOESN'T + SUBJECT]

[NEGATIVE SENTENCE + DO/DOES + SUBJECT]

vs. PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

Present Simple: "Hans speaks very good English."

[SUBJECT + BE + NOT + REST OF SENTENCE]