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TWI Tuition Notes For 3.2U Course (DIS 2)
TWI Tuition Notes For 3.2U Course (DIS 2)
Table of Contents
TWI TUITION NOTES FOR 3.2U COURSE (DIS 2)........................................................................... 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS........................................................................................................................... 2
PREFACE................................................................................................................................................... 8
THE CERTIFICATION SCHEME FOR WELDMENT INSPECTION PERSONNEL – ORGANISATION AND
EXAMINATION.......................................................................................................................................... 8
1 Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)......................................... 8
2 TWI...................................................................................................................................................... 8
2.1 Company Profile .................................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.1 Single Source of Expertise ........................................................................................................ 8
2.1.2 Non-profit Company ................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.3 Global Benefits.......................................................................................................................... 8
2.1.4 Confidential Consultancy .......................................................................................................... 9
3 TWI Certification Ltd................................................................................................................ 9
3.1 Certification Management Board......................................................................................................... 9
3.1.1 Responsibilities of the Board..................................................................................................... 9
3.1.2 The Management Committees:................................................................................................ 10
4 CSWIP Certification for Underwater Inspectors .................................................................... 12
4.1 Inspector Categories........................................................................................................................... 12
4.2 The CSWIP 3.2U Examination .......................................................................................................... 12
4.2.1 The Theory Examination......................................................................................................... 12
4.2.2 Practical Examination.............................................................................................................. 12
CHAPTER 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 15
INSPECTION METHODS AVAILABLE TO ASSESS UNDERWATER STRUCTURES ......................................... 15
1 Visual Inspection..................................................................................................................... 15
2 Video ....................................................................................................................................... 16
3 Photography............................................................................................................................ 16
4 Cathodic Potential Readings .................................................................................................. 16
5 Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques........................................................................................... 16
6 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) ....................................................................................... 16
7 Radiography............................................................................................................................ 17
8 Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD).......................................................................... 17
9 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)........................................................ 17
10 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) .................................................................. 17
11 Flooded Member Detection (FMD) ........................................................................................ 17
12 Summary of Inspection Methods and Their Use ..................................................................... 18
13 Taking Measurements ............................................................................................................. 18
14 Linear Measurement ............................................................................................................... 19
14.1 Ruler ............................................................................................................................................. 19
14.2 Magnetic Tape .............................................................................................................................. 19
14.3 Flexible Tape Measures................................................................................................................ 19
14.4 Electronic Methods....................................................................................................................... 19
15 Circular Measurements........................................................................................................... 19
15.1 Callipers........................................................................................................................................ 19
15.2 Vernier Gauges ............................................................................................................................. 20
15.3 Specialist Jigs ............................................................................................................................... 20
16 Angular Measurements ........................................................................................................... 20
16.1 Protractor ...................................................................................................................................... 20
16.2 Pendulum Gauges ......................................................................................................................... 20
17 Dents and Deformations ......................................................................................................... 20
17.1 Profile Gauges .............................................................................................................................. 20
17.2 Pit Gauge ...................................................................................................................................... 21
17.3 Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge ............................................................................... 21
17.4 Casts ............................................................................................................................................. 22
17.5 Straight Edge ................................................................................................................................ 22
CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................................. 25
CORROSION ............................................................................................................................................ 25
1 Energy Considerations in Corrosion ...................................................................................... 25
2 The Corrosion Process ........................................................................................................... 26
2.1 The Anodic Reaction ......................................................................................................................... 27
2.2 The Cathodic Reaction....................................................................................................................... 28
2.3 Seawater Corrosion............................................................................................................................ 30
2.4 Electrochemical Aspects of Corrosion............................................................................................... 30
3 Electrical Theory .................................................................................................................... 31
CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................................. 35
TYPES OF CORROSION ............................................................................................................................ 35
1 Corrosion Cells....................................................................................................................... 35
2 Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell ............................................................................................ 35
2.1 The Electrochemical Force Series...................................................................................................... 35
3 Concentration Cell Corrosion ................................................................................................ 38
4 Pitting...................................................................................................................................... 39
5 Inter-granular Corrosion........................................................................................................ 42
6 Grain Boundary Corrosion..................................................................................................... 43
7 Stress Corrosion Cracking...................................................................................................... 44
8 Fretting Corrosion .................................................................................................................. 45
9 Erosion Corrosion .................................................................................................................. 47
10 Corrosion Fatigue................................................................................................................... 48
11 Biological Corrosion .............................................................................................................. 49
CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................................. 52
FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION RATES .............................................................................................. 52
1 Polarisation and Corrosion Rate ............................................................................................ 52
2 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates ................................................................. 53
2.1 Temperature ....................................................................................................................................... 53
2.2 Water Flow Rate ................................................................................................................................ 54
2.3 The pH Value of the Water ................................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER 5 ............................................................................................................................................. 59
CORROSION PROTECTION ....................................................................................................................... 59
1 Corrosion Protection .............................................................................................................. 59
2 Cathodic Protection ................................................................................................................ 60
2.1 Cathodic Protection: The Sacrificial Anode Method ......................................................................... 61
2.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode Systems ................................................ 62
2.2 Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method ............................................................................... 62
2.2.1 Practical Considerations for Installing ICCP Systems............................................................. 64
2.2.2 Reference or Control Electrodes.............................................................................................. 67
3 Using Coatings to Protect the Structure ................................................................................. 68
3.1 Paints ................................................................................................................................................. 68
4 Inhibitors (Controlling the Electrolyte) .................................................................................. 70
4.1 Anodic Inhibitors ............................................................................................................................... 71
4.2 Cathodic Inhibitors............................................................................................................................. 71
4.3 Adsorption Inhibitors ......................................................................................................................... 72
5 Corrosion Protection by Design ............................................................................................. 72
6 Anodic Protection ................................................................................................................... 72
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................................................. 75
CORROSION PROTECTION MONITORING ................................................................................................. 75
1 Monitoring Corrosion Protection ........................................................................................... 75
1.1 Inspection Requirements.................................................................................................................... 75
2 Cathode Potential Measurement............................................................................................. 76
2.1 High Purity Zinc Electrodes (ZRE).................................................................................................... 76
2.2 CP Readings Utilising Silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) Electrodes.................................................. 77
3 Current Density Measurements .............................................................................................. 78
4 Calibration Procedures for Hand-held CP Meters................................................................. 79
4.1 Necessary Equipment......................................................................................................................... 79
4.2 Procedure ........................................................................................................................................... 80
PREFACE
The Certification Scheme for Weldment
Inspection Personnel – Organisation and
Examination
1 Certification Scheme for Weldment Inspection Personnel (CSWIP)
CSWIP is an accreditation body approved by the UK Government’s Board of
Trade and Industry. CSWIP is a subsidiary of TWI Certification, which is
incorporated into The Welding Institute (TWI).
2 TWI
Is a world centre for materials joining technology and is the parent organisation
for TWI Certification.
2.1 Company Profile
TWI Ltd, the operating arm of The Welding Institute, is one of the world's
foremost independent research and technology organisations. Based at Great
Abington near Cambridge since 1946, TWI provides industry with engineering
solutions in structures incorporating welding and associated technologies
(surfacing, coating, cutting, etc.) through -
Information
Advice and technology transfer
Consultancy and project support
Contract R&D
Training and qualification
Personal membership
2.1.1 Single Source of Expertise
TWI Ltd is the only single source of expertise in every aspect of joining
technology for engineering materials - metals, plastics, ceramics and
composites.
2.1.2 Non-profit Company
TWI is a non-profit distributing company, limited by guarantee and owned by its
Members; it is therefore able to offer independent advice. It is internationally
renowned for bringing together multidisciplinary teams to implement established
or advanced joining technology or to solve problems arising at any stage - from
initial design, materials selection, production and quality assurance, through to
service performance and repair.
2.1.3 Global Benefits
Over 450 skilled staff are dedicated to helping industry apply all forms of joining
technology safely and efficiently. Some 3200 companies and organisations -
CSWIP Welding
Specialists & Practitioners
Management Committee
Welding Fabricator
Certification Management Committee
CHAPTER 1
Inspection Methods Available to Assess
Underwater Structures
1 Visual Inspection
There are a number of methods used to conduct an inspection or damage
survey but the prime method is visual inspection because it has a number of
advantages over other methods. Table 1.1 refers
The object can be viewed in three The brain interprets what is seen and
dimensions this interpretation affects how any object
is “seen”
The object is viewed in colour Only those indications that can be seen
on the surface of the component being
inspected can be assessed
Table 1.1
A visual inspection will be completed before any other inspection method or
non-destructive test is undertaken to identify any features or areas of concern
that may impact on the quality of these other methods.
To properly assess the extent of any defects identified during a CVI it will be
necessary to measure the flaws. Comments on standard measurements are
contained in paragraph 13.
Advantages Disadvantages
Video shows real time pictures Cannot freeze fast movement
Video recording is a permanent record Poor resolution compared to
photography
Additional information can be included Gives a two dimensional image
in the picture, CP readings, depth etc.
Instant playback When diver deployed can cause
diver fatigue
Safety When diver hat-mounted deployed
parallax must be considered
A commentary can be given
Table 1.2
3 Photography
This method of recording inspection information is widely used. With digital
cameras photographs can be obtained in real time and be viewed immediately.
Stereo-photography is also possible as is photogrammetry.
4 Cathodic Potential Readings
This method is extensively used to monitor the corrosion protection coverage of
offshore structures. The methods are fully explained in Chapter 4. It should be
remembered that this is not a defect detection method. It is used to monitor the
entire structure and data obtained is analysed to determine whether some other
inspection or action needs to be taken.
5 Ultrasonic Inspection Techniques
These techniques are fully explained in Chapter 8. Ultrasonic digital thickness
meters are widely used as another means of monitoring corrosion. A-scan
instruments can find and size internal defects in welds or the parent plate
although this application of the method is much less widely used.
6 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
This technique is explained in Chapter 9. It is widely used to inspect for fine
surface breaking and slightly sub-surface discontinuities in Ferro-magnetic
materials.
7 Radiography
This method is explained in Chapter 11. The method is widely used in pipeline
survey and occasionally for platform inspection. It is used in specialised
applications.
8 Alternating Current Potential Drop (ACPD)
This method is explained in Chapter 11. It is not widely used but can be
deployed to measure the depth of surface breaking crack-like features. It is not
used as a detection method.
9 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)
These methods are fully explained in Chapter 11. These methods are being
more widely deployed and in some cases are superseding MPI. The method
can identify surface breaking crack-like features even under non-conductive
coatings and can size them for length and depth. A permanent record is made
at the time of the inspection
10 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
This method is fully explained in Chapter 11. The method is a variation of the
EMD technique and is employed in the same manner. The method can also be
used to measure the thickness of coatings, which may be useful offshore.
11 Flooded Member Detection (FMD)
This method is fully explained in Chapter 11. The method is used to assess the
integrity of the structural members in a batch-testing manner. The method is a
go/no go technique that is quickly applied and gains results quite fast. However,
when results indicate a loss of member integrity follow up inspections with other
methods must be deployed to identify the cause of the lack of integrity.
13 Taking Measurements
All the methods outlined in this chapter are useful for identifying some in-service
defects or damage, some are better than others for certain types of damage
and some will record dimensions when defects are identified while others,
especially CVI will not. It is, of course, essential that any defect be measured as
accurately as possible so that the actual risk of failure posed by it may be
accurately assessed.
The major reasons for taking measurements are: -
Figure 1.3
Pendulum Gauge
17 Dents and Deformations
Impact damage can be measured either directly, or by photogrammetry or
electronically.
17.1 Profile Gauges
If the damaged area is less that 300mm profile gauges may be used. They are
a comparison method and the accuracy will be ± 0.5mm. Care must be taken
not to disturb the setting of the pins once the profile is obtained. See Figure 1.4
Figure 1.4
Profile Gauge
17.2 Pit Gauge
Small corrosion pits or similar may be measured with a pit gauge that consists
of a calibrated plunger that is pushed into the pit and the depth read off from the
calibrated part.
17.3 Linear Angular Measurement (LAM) Gauge
The LAM is an accurate measuring device specifically designed to take angular
and depth measurements. It can effectively measure:
Pit depth
Misalignment
Weld leg length
Weld throat thickness
Excessive weld metal
Undercut
All the weld profile angles and measurements
The gauge can take measurements from flat or curved surfaces. Figure 1.5
refers.
Figure 1.5
LAM Gauge
17.4 Casts
A cast may be made of any depression to accurately mimic the exact shape.
Several materials may be used.
Plasticine
Putty
Two part compounds (e.g. Microset)
There are a number of problems that may occur when using casting materials: -
The cast may be difficult to remove without distortion
The cast may be deformed or damaged during transfer to the surface
The cast is a negative image
The casting material may be difficult to apply. In cold seawater two part
compounds may not flow and malleable materials do not mould easily. A
hot water box may be required
17.5 Straight Edge
This method may also be used for small deformations. Holding the straight edge
over the area and using a ruler to measure vertically down at small increments
obtains a profile of the damage. The accuracy may be ± 0.5mm.
Taut Wire
This method may be used for any size deformation. A wire is stretched over the
deformed area and vertical measurements taken at small increments obtain the
profile.
The wire should be set up in two planes at 90o to each other to ensure that any
out of straightness of the member is measured. Accuracy of ± 0.5mm may be
achieved with care. Figure 1.6 illustrates the method.
Figure 1.6
Taut Wire
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
CHAPTER 2
Corrosion
1 Energy Considerations in Corrosion
With time most materials react with their environment to change their structure.
The reaction in metals is called corrosion, in polymers (plastics) degradation
and in concrete weathering.
Corrosion in metals is defined as the chemical or electrochemical reaction
between a metal and its environment, which leads to one of three
consequences:
The removal of the metal
The formation of an oxide
The formation of another chemical compound
This change in the metal will be expected if the thermodynamics (energy state)
of the system is considered.
The FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS states:
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
As a direct consequence of this Law when spontaneous changes occur they
must follow a rule, which is:
Whenever a spontaneous change occurs it must release free energy
from the system to the surrounding at constant temperature and pressure
Which is a way of stating the SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS When
corrosion occurs naturally it releases free energy, as it is a spontaneous
process.
Take the case of a metal such as iron or aluminium as an example; both are
fund in nature as ores which, when analysed, are found to be a chemical
compound including oxygen and carbon amongst other elements. This
necessitates the extraction of the metal itself from the other elements before it
can be used in fabrication. The process whereby the metal is extracted requires
either the smelting of the ore or an electrolysis process. The final metal
produced is therefore at a higher energy level than the ore from which it was
extracted i.e. energy is added to the system.
One of the fundamental laws of equilibrium is that all systems try to reduce their
energy level to a minimum. This is why water runs downhill thus reducing its
potential energy level as it flows. In similar fashion metals tend to reduce their
energy and therefore the rule imposed by the second Law. Thus free energy is
released.
There are numerous forms of energy but the energy causing corrosion is
chemical energy that is utilised to form lower energy chemical compounds, like
the metal oxide, which resemble the original ore. Because steel (iron alloys of
Figure 2.1
Changes in Energy Levels of
a Typical Metal Extracted From Ore
2 The Corrosion Process
Knowing there is a driving force for the process it is necessary to consider the
mechanism by which corrosion can take place.
Firstly a reminder of the basic structure of the atom will assist in the
understanding to the topic. In its simplest form an atom is a positive nucleus
surrounded by negatively charged electrons. Figure 2.2 shows a simplified
diagram of the structure of an atom that is adequate for the purposes of this
discussion.
Figure 2.2
Simple Structure of an Atom
The overall charge on the atom is zero and an atom is so composed that the
negative charge of the electrons is equal to the positive charge of the nucleus.
However, electrons can be added to or taken from the group that surrounds
each atom. When this happens, the overall charge on the atom is no longer
zero. This condition of the atom is called ‘ionic’.
Thus if the atom loses an electron it becomes a positive ion, which means that
the atom now has a positive charge. This may be referred to as a cation.
If the atom gains an electron it becomes a negative ion and now has a negative
charge. This may be referred to as an anion.
The first step in the corrosion process is that metal atoms change their state
from being metallic (that is no charge on the atom) to being ionic (that is having
a charge on the atom) by losing at least one electron from the outer shell.
The process of corrosion then goes on at the atomic level, each atom losing
one or more (usually no more than 3) electrons to become an ion.
2.1 The Anodic Reaction
The reaction in which the metal is changed from its metallic state into its ionic
state is known as an anodic reaction that is part of an overall reaction involving
the metal and other species present in the environment. This process is also
called oxidation. The overall reaction may be summarised by a chemical
equation thus:
M Mz+ + ze-
Z may be 1, 2 or 3. Higher values are possible but rare. Reaction such as those
indicated by this equation that produce electrons are known as oxidation Figure
2.3 illustrates this anodic reaction diagrammatically.
Figure 2.3
Anodic Reaction
The site at which it takes place is the anode, which is positive using
conventional notation. The anodic reaction for iron releases two electrons. This
Figure 2.4
Anodic Sites on Surface of
Iron Exposed To Seawater
This is one part of the reaction in electrochemical corrosion that takes place in
the presence of an electrolyte that is often water or a water-based solution of
ionic compounds such as acids, bases or salts. The metal ion passes into
solution and the electron passes through the metal that is not actually being
corroded, that is, an electric current flows as indicated in Figure 2.4
2.2 The Cathodic Reaction
These ‘free’ electrons formed in the anode reaction must be ‘used up’ if the
reaction is to proceed. This part of the reaction in the electrochemical corrosion
process therefore takes place at the site where the free electrons are
neutralised and is known as the cathodic reaction. Alternatively reactions such
as this that consume electrons are also known as reduction reactions. A part
reaction is illustrated in Figure 2.5
Figure 2.5
Cathodic Reaction
Typically a complete reaction is for the free electrons to be taken up by positive
ions and atoms of oxygen in the electrolyte. This gives the oxygen a negative
charge. Oxygen, however, readily accepts the free electrons because for its
electron stability it needs eight electrons in its outer valence shell yet occurs
naturally with only 6. Figure 6.6 refers.
Figure 2.6
Cathode Reaction
Free electrons move through the metal cathode to its surface where negative
ions form and subsequently emit free electrons into the electrolyte where they
combine with elements creating different compounds. The site of this reaction is
known as the cathode, which conventionally is negative.
The actual reduction reaction at the cathode will vary according to the
composition of the electrolyte. Some common frequent recurring reactions in
metallic corrosion are:
Hydrogen evolution 2H+ + 2e H2
+
Oxygen reduction (acid solutions) O2 + 4H + 4e 2H2O
Oxygen reduction (neutral or basic
solutions) O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH-
Metal ion reduction M3+ + e M2+
Hydrogen evolution is a common reaction when the electrolyte is acidic while
oxygen reduction is very common since any aqueous solution in contact with air
is capable of producing this reaction. It is, of course, the reaction encountered in
seawater. Metal ion reduction is less common and is normally found in chemical
process streams. The common denominator with all these reactions is that they
consume electrons and this is the most important point to note.
2.3 Seawater Corrosion
These partial reactions are included here because they can be used to interpret
virtually all corrosion problems. For example, consider iron in seawater;
corrosion occurs.
The anodic reaction is: Fe Fe2+ + 2e-
The seawater contains dissolved oxygen and therefore: -
The cathodic reaction is: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- 4OH-
The effective overall reaction can be found by adding these two equations thus:
2Fe + 2H2O + O2 2Fe2+ + 4OH- 2Fe(OH)2
This is ferrous hydroxide precipitate from solution. This compound is unstable in
oxygenated solutions and it oxidises to ferric salt:
2Fe(OH)2 + H2O + ½ O2 2Fe(OH)3
This final product is the familiar rust.
2.4 Electrochemical Aspects of Corrosion
A fundamental definition for corrosion is:
CORROSION IS THE DEGRADATION OF A METAL BY AN
ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION WITH ITS ENVIRONMENT
For corrosion to take place four criterions must apply:
There must be an anode. This normally corrodes by loss of electrons
There must be a cathode. This does not normally corrode
There must be an electrolyte. This is the name given to the solution that
conducts electricity. Pure distilled water is not an electrolyte while
seawater is
There must be an electrical connection between the anode and the
cathode
These four elements are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.7 and all
electrochemical corrosion takes place by setting up cells like this.
Figure 2.7
Corrosion Circuit
As this is an electrochemical reaction and the chemistry has been touched on
already a few basic electrical definitions will round off this section.
3 Electrical Theory
Electricity is the passage of electrons between two defined points. This normally
occurs through a metal wire connecting the two points and is called a current.
Electricity can also pass through suitable aqueous solutions, but the electrical
charge is then carried by ions.
The amount of charge carried by an electron is known and when a given
electron flow is passed at a constant rate it is measured in amperes and
is given the symbol I.
o In the MKS system one ampere is defined as that constant current
which, if maintained in each of two infinitely long straight parallel
wires of negligible cross-section placed 1 m apart, in a vacuum,
will produce between the wires a force of 2 x 10-7 Newtons per m
length
The driving force causing this current to flow is the potential difference
between two points and is measured in volts, which has the symbol V.
o In the MKS system this is defined as that difference of electrical
potential between two points of a wire carrying a constant current
Figure 2.8
Conventional and Electron Flow
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
CHAPTER 3
Types of Corrosion
1 Corrosion Cells
Corrosion cells, using the corrosion process outlined in Chapter 2, can be set
up by many different means, but they all operate because there is some
dissimilarity between the anode and the cathode, such as:
Dissimilar metals
Dissimilar phases in the grains of the metal
Dissimilar energy levels between the grain and the grain boundary of the
metal
Dissimilar ion concentrations
Dissimilar oxygen concentrations
2 Dissimilar Metal Corrosion Cell
It is found that when dissimilar metals are placed in the same fluid (electrolyte)
a potential difference (voltage) exists between them.
This can be demonstrated easily by placing two rods of different metals in water
and connecting a voltmeter between them. The voltmeter measures a voltage
and current flows from the anode to the cathode via the outside connection.
The cell acts as a very basic, low powered battery and in battery terms the
anode is the negative and the cathode the positive. Electrons flow from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal in the external circuit. Figure 7.7
refers.
It is possible to determine which of the two metals will be the cathode and which
the anode by reference to an Electrochemical Force Series.
2.1 The Electrochemical Force Series
Under standard conditions, where the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid at a
temperature of 25oC, the potential of various metals is measured and given in a
table known as the Electrochemical Force Series, or Electromotive Series, (see
Table 3.1). From the table, it will be seen that any metal will be anodic to any
metal lower in the table and cathodic to any metal higher in the series. It must
be remembered, however, that the table only applies under the standard
conditions stated.
Table 3.1
Electrochemical Force Series
Similar tables are produced for metals under actual conditions and these are
called Galvanic Series. Table 3.2 give the series for seawater. The same rule
applies to the Galvanic Series as for the foregoing table, i.e. metals found
higher in the series are cathodic to any metal below them. For example, zinc is
higher in the series than mild steel; therefore, if zinc is connected to mild steel
and immersed in seawater zinc will be the anode and corrode and mild steel will
be the cathode and not corrode. If on the other hand mild steel, in the form of a
ship’s hull is connected to manganese bronze, the ship’s propeller, the mild
steel now becomes the anode and corrodes and the manganese bronze
propeller is the cathode, which does not corrode.
Magnesium
Magnesium Alloys
Zinc
Galvanised Iron
Aluminium 52Sh
Alcad
Cadmium
Mild Steel
Wrought Iron
Cast Iron
50-50 Lead-Tin Solder
18-8 Stainless (Active)
Lead
Manganese Bronze
Nickel (Active)
Yellow Brass
Admiralty Brass
Aluminium Bronze
Red Brass
Copper
Nickel (Passive)
70% Ni, 30% Cu (Monel)
18-8 (3%Mo) Stainless steel (Passive)
Silver
Gold
Table 3.2
Galvanic Series in Seawater
Figure 3.3
Crevice Corrosion
4 Pitting
Pitting is localised corrosion that selectively attacks areas of a metal surface.
The point of initiation may be:
A compositional heterogeneity such as an inclusion or segregate of
precipitate
A surface scratch or any similar blemish in an otherwise perfect film
Or it may be an emerging dislocation or a slip step caused by applied or
residual tensile stresses.
o All metals have crystal lattice structures but these are never defect
free. All metals contain imperfections in their lattice structures, and
these are known as defects, these may occur in a number of
ways:
Vacancies This is where there is an atom missing from
the lattice site
Substitutional Defects This is where a foreign atom
occupies a lattice site that would have been occupied by a
host atom
Interstitial Defects This is where an atom occupies a site
that is not a normal lattice site and it is squeezed in
Figure 3.4
Point Defects in a
Crystal Lattice
These point defects are very significant in the theory of alloying where
they cause a significant improvement in mechanical properties of metals.
They also play a role in some corrosion mechanisms, notably hydrogen
embrittlement, selective attack, oxidation and hot corrosion, that all rely
on the diffusion of species through the metal lattice
Another type of defect occurs within the grain structure when planes of
atoms are not perfectly fitted into the lattice. These are known as line
defects. An example of this type of defect is the dislocation and a specific
example of this type of dislocation is:
o Edge Dislocations
This is where an “unfinished” plane of atoms is present between two
other planes. Figure 3.5a refers
o Screw Dislocations
This is where a plane is skewed to give it a different alignment to its
immediate neighbour. Figure 3.5b refers
Figure 3.5
(a) Edge Dislocation (b) Screw Dislocation
Corrosion pits once formed propagate in the same way as crevice corrosion; it
is the initiation phase that is different. In the case of corrosion pits the initiation
is dependant on metallurgical factors alone.
Now consider the case of a water drop laying on the surface of a sheet of
clean mild steel
o The corrosion process initiates uniformly on the surface of the
steel under the water. This consumes oxygen by the normal
cathode reaction in what is a neutral solution at this stage
o This causes an oxygen gradient to form within the water drop. It is
obvious that the wetted area around the water/air interface has
more oxygen diffusion from the air that the centre of the drop
o This concentration gradient anodically polarises the central region
which dissolves
o The hydroxyl ions generated in the centre of the drop at the
cathode diffuse inwards and react with iron ions diffusing
outwards, causing the deposition of insoluble corrosion product
around the depression, or pit
Figure 3.6
The Mechanism of Pitting Because Of
Differential-aeration Beneath a Water Drop
As the process continues the corrosion products accumulate over the pit and its
immediate surroundings, forming a scab or tubercle and isolating the
environment within the pit from the bulk electrolyte. It is thought that the
autocatalytic process is assisted by an increased concentration of chloride ions
within the pit. This type of corrosion would be possible in the splash zone of a
structure if it were not protected with a coating such as paint
5 Inter-granular Corrosion
Intergranular corrosion occurs between the grain boundaries because of
precipitates in these regions. This is primarily because grain boundaries are the
preferred sites for the precipitation and segregation processes which occur in
many alloys. These intrusions are of two types:
Intermetallic (Intermediate Constituents)
These are species formed from metal atoms and having identifiable
chemical formulae. They can be either anodic or cathodic to the metal
Compounds
These are formed between metals and non-metallic elements, such as;
hydrogen, carbon, silicon, nitrogen and oxygen
o Iron carbide and manganese sulphide, which are both important
constituents of steel, are both cathodic to ferrite
In principle any metal that has intermetallics or compounds at grain boundaries
will be susceptible to Intergranular corrosion. For example, it has most
frequently been found in austenitic stainless steels but it may occur in ferric and
two-phase stainless steels and nickel base corrosion resistant alloys.
Plain carbon steel is a two phase metal and some grains are cathodic while
others are anodic and Intergranular corrosion initiates as indicated in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7
Corrosion in Two Phase Metal
In the Galvanic Series the α phase is above the β phase and will therefore
corrode
6 Grain Boundary Corrosion
The driving force behind grain boundary corrosion is the area of higher energy
found at the grain boundary itself. These higher energy regions become the
anodic sites while the bulk of the grain itself becomes the cathode.
This situation results in the loss of material in the anodic reaction at the grain
boundaries themselves in the form of a line.
Figure 3.8
Grain Boundary Corrosion
Weld decay or preferential corrosion is an example of this type of decay.
In this case the boundary is the fusion boundary that forms along the toe
of the weld and is a region of higher energy. This region becomes the
anode and corrosion sets in, often giving quite significant visual
indications of its presence. Figure 3.9 refers
Figure 3.9
Weld Decay or Preferential Corrosion
7 Stress Corrosion Cracking
This type of corrosion is a form of Intergranular corrosion that increases in
severity when the material is subjected to a tensile load and a specific
environment.
The effects are to concentrate the corrosion on a limited number of grain
boundaries that are at right angles to the direction of loading.
Figure 3.10
Schematic Illustration of the
Wear-oxidation Theory of
Fretting Corrosion
The wear-oxidation mechanism is based on the concept that cold welding or
fusion occurs at the interface between metal surfaces under pressure and,
during the subsequent relative motion, these contact points are ruptured and
fragments of metal are removed.
These fragments, because of their small diameter and the heat due to friction
are immediately oxidized. This process is repeated resulting in the loss of metal
and accumulation of oxide residue.
Figure 3.11
Schematic Illustration of the
Oxidation-wear Theory of
Fretting Corrosion
The oxidation-wear concept is based on the hypothesis that most metal
surfaces are protected from atmospheric oxidation by a thin, adherent oxide
layer.
When metals are placed in contact under load and subjected to repeated
relative motion, the oxide layer is ruptured at high points and results in oxide
debris. It is assumed that the exposed metal re-oxidizes and the process is
repeated.
This type of corrosion could occur in the metal adjacent to clamps and collars of
risers, conductors and caissons if there is the slightest movement underneath
them. See Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12
Possible Fretting Corrosion
between Riser and Riser Clamp
9 Erosion Corrosion
This is a self-explanatory name for a form of corrosion that results from a metal
being attacked because of the relative motion between an electrolyte and a
metal surface. Examples of this type of corrosion are attributable to mechanical
effects, such as, wear, abrasion and scouring.
Soft metals such as, copper, brass, pure aluminium and lead are particularly
vulnerable.
Two main forms of erosion corrosion are:
Corrosion associated with laminar flow
Damage caused by impingement in turbulent conditions
A laminar flow will cause several effects:
The ionic distribution in the double layer is carried away by the flow and
equilibrium cannot be established which leads to an increased rate of
dissolution. Figure 4.1 Chapter 4 refers
Where the increased flow replenishes aggressive ions such as chloride
and sulphide this has a detrimental effect and corrosion rates increase
If the flow contains any solid particles protective layers may be scoured
away causing excessive corrosion
Figure 3.13
Effects of Flow in Pipes
10 Corrosion Fatigue
There are many similarities between corrosion fatigue and stress corrosion
cracking but the most significant difference is that corrosion fatigue is extremely
non-specific.
As detailed in Chapter 4 fatigue affects all metals causing failure at stress levels
well below the UTS.
In aqueous environments it is frequently found that a metal’s fatigue resistance
is reduced, or even that it no longer has a fatigue limit.
Summarising the stages in the development of a fatigue crack as discussed in
Chapter 4 yields: -
Firstly the formation of slip bands
Next the nucleations of an embryo crack in the order of 10 µm long
Then the extension of this crack along favourable paths
Finally macroscopic, 0.1 to 1 mm, crack propagation in a direction at right
angles to the maximum principal stress that leads to failure
Corrosion fatigue can occur in any of the three corrosion states indicated by the
Pourbaix diagram as shown in Chapter 10, Figure 10.1, it can also occur at
stress levels much lower than those for stress corrosion cracking (SCC). It is
also true that while SCC growth rates are independent of the stress intensity
factor during much of the crack growth, fatigue crack growth is always affected
by it.
It is thought that the use of cathodic protection systems that place the metal in
the immune state and over time cause calcareous deposits to form that tend to
inhibit crack growth ensure that the structures are resistant to corrosion fatigue.
11 Biological Corrosion
Corrosion by marine biological action can be initiated in various ways:
By the production of corrosive substances like hydrogen sulphide or
ammonia, which result in direct chemical attack on the metal
By producing or actually being a catalyst in the corrosive action
By the reaction of sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRBs) under anaerobic
conditions
o The most important of these are the bacteria Sporovibrio
desulfuricans. These thrive in the reduced oxygen conditions
created under heavy accumulations of marine growth, under thick
deposits of corrosion products, or under mud
o There are indications that because oxygen is unable to diffuse
through the heavy marine growth the effect of this organism is to
take the place of oxygen in the usual cathodic reaction
By the formation of concentration cells around and under the organisms
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
CHAPTER 4
Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
1 Polarisation and Corrosion Rate
When a metal is exposed to an aqueous solution containing ions of that metal,
both oxidation of metal atoms to ions and reduction of metal ions to atoms
occurs on its surface according to the formula: -
Men+ + ne- Me-
This means that there are two reactions involving the flow of electrons and the
rate at which these reactions occur can be given by two current densities.
The necessity for using current density as a measurement of corrosion currents
can be demonstrated by considering two pieces of metal; one say, of 10 mm2,
the other of 1 mm2 and suppose they both corrode such that the current flow is
10 electrons per second. The smaller piece will obviously corrode 10 times
faster than the larger piece. Thus the surface area of the corroding metal must
be taken into account when measuring current.
The unit of current density is Am-2 (amps per square meter)
The corrosion rate and the current density are directly related; which makes
the topic quite important when considering the long-term deterioration of metals
in aqueous solution
These two current densities can be indicated as forward and reverse reaction
currents thus: -
i and i and at equilibrium (Eo) i = i = io and io is known
as the exchange current density.
If a net current (i) is applied to the surface i ≠ I this applied net current will be
the difference between the forward and reverse currents. This difference in
current changes the electrode potential and this new potential is given the value
Ei and the electrode is said to be polarized. The change in electrode potential
is called polarization and is given the Greek letter η (eta).
η = Ei - Eo
There are two main polarization components to consider.
Concentration Polarization
Caused by the difference in concentration between the layer of electrolyte
nearest the electrode surface and the bulk of the electrolyte.
o The initial polarization at the anode produces a surfeit of positive
cations that in turn causes a non-homogeneous distribution of ions
with the most densely populated layer nearest to the electrode
being the Helmholtz and the second more diffuse being the Guoy-
Chapman. In this layer the potential changes exponentially. This
Figure 4.1
Concentration Polarization (The Double Layer)
Activation Polarization
Caused by a retardation of the electrode reaction. The polarization of an
anode is always positive and that of a cathode always negative.
Later in these notes the monitoring of corrosion in a seawater environment will
be discussed and reference will be made there to measuring both potential and
current density
2 Environmental Factors Affecting Corrosion Rates
The corrosion rate is predictable within certain parameters and corrosion
engineers work this out when designing a protection system. There are
however, environmental factors that effect the overall corrosion reaction and
these will be indicated here. Specifically the factors considered will be:
Temperature
Water Flow Rate
The pH of the Water
2.1 Temperature
Most chemical reactions are speeded up by an increase in temperature. Thus
temperature cycling and temperature differences will also have this effect.
Hot risers, exhaust and cooling water dumps are all sites that can and do
corrode more quickly than the remainder of typical offshore structures.
Studies undertaken by the Dow Chemical Company showed that the corrosion
rate of mild steel and a selected low alloy steel, in a standard brine solution at a
pH of 4.4, approximately doubled as the temperature was increased from 180o
F (82o C) to 250o F (121o C).
Therefore, components like cooling water outlets and hot risers are particularly
susceptible to corrosion and must be inspected regularly.
The effect of seawater temperature is illustrated by the graph in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2
The Effect of Temperature on
Corrosion of Steel in Seawater
2.2 Water Flow Rate
In general if the flow rate is increased the rate at which metal is removed is also
increased.
If there is impingement of the flow on the metal or aeration takes place in the
region of the surface, then a very much larger rate of metal removal is
experienced locally. The pitting of ships propellers and pump and dredger
impellers are general examples of this.
Tests carried out by P Ffield show how the corrosion of steel pipes carrying
seawater is effected in a straightforward way by increasing the velocity of the
flow. Figure 4.3 illustrates his findings.
Figure 4.3
Effect of Seawater Velocity on Corrosion
of Steel at Ambient Temperature Exposed 38 Days
2.3 The pH Value of the Water
The corrosion rate of metals in directly affected by the pH value of the
electrolyte. Steel for example corrodes least when in a solution that has a pH
between 11 and 12. A resume of the pH system is laid out below. The resume
starts by considering water, which is neutral.
Water is a neutral molecule in which two atoms of hydrogen combine with one
of oxygen, there is a limited amount of dissociation into hydrogen ions and
hydroxyl ions in the normal course of events and this can be noted in the form
of an equilibrium thus: -
H2O H+ + OH-
The Law of Mass Action can be applied to this equilibrium process and
assuming the concentration of water in dilute solution is constant given
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) a new equation for water can be
written thus: -
[H+]. [OH-] = constant (I)
This constant has been measured experimentally as 10-14 (STP) and this value
and the relationship equation form the basis of a scale of acidity.
All acids have one common property that is the presence in aqueous solution of
the hydrogen ion.
The opposite of acid is alkali or basic, which means that acids are neutralised
by alkalis and that alkalinity, is associated with hydroxyl ions.
Figure 4.4
pH Scale
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
CHAPTER 5
Corrosion Protection
1 Corrosion Protection
There are numerous methods for preventing corrosion including, coatings,
inhibitors (controlling the electrolyte), selective design, anodic protection and
cathodic protection. Before considering these methods a brief examination of
the way in which the corrosion process is influenced by the two main variables;
the electrode potential and the pH value will assist in understanding the various
protection methods.
These data are often presented in diagrammatic form known as Pourbaix
diagrams. These diagrams are obtained from laboratory tests carried out under
controlled conditions of constant temperature and no flow.
Figure 5.1
Pourbaix Diagram for
Iron in Water
It can be seen from Figure 5.1 that there are three distinct possible states of
corrosion depending on electrode potentials and pH values:
Figure 5.2
Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection
The anode must be picked from the appropriate galvanic series. The most
appropriate metals are zinc, aluminium and magnesium.
This method of corrosion protection is almost as straightforward as that. The
main question is how much anode material will be required?
This question has two parts:
How large a surface area must the anodes protect?
How long will the protection last?
To answer the question an example will be given:
An uncoated steel offshore drilling platform has a sacrificial anode
cathodic protection system installed designed to last for 10 years. What
anode material should be used and how many anodes are required?
o Total wetted surface area of structure = 2500 m2
Minimum number of anodes required = 2510
Anode material should be zinc or aluminium, as magnesium would react
to quickly
Aluminium anodes will last longer and may be chosen because of this
Table 5.3
Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anodes
2.2 Cathodic Protection: Impressed Current Method
An Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) system works on the same
principal as the sacrificial system in that the structure is made to be the
cathode. However in the case of the ICCP system the necessary potential and
current flow is provided by a DC generator rather than by a galvanic coupling.
This system can be made to be self-adjusting by incorporating reference
electrodes into the circuit that measure potential. The potential can vary
depending on the circumstances; if the structure has a coating initially that in
subsequent service becomes damaged this will increase the exposed surface
area needing to be protected. The control unit can deal with this by increasing
the current density. If on the other hand there were a reduction in the surface
area; as for instance a calcareous deposit building up, there would be less
surface area exposed and the current requirement would be less.
In both cases the reference electrode provides the means of monitoring the
potential, which varies proportionally according to the current. Figure 5.4 shows
the system diagrammatically.
Figure 5.4
The Principle of Impressed Current
Cathodic Protection Using a Potentiostat
The anode material is selected from the top of the galvanic series not the
bottom. Materials such as titanium, Platonised niobium and lead/silver alloys
are used. The anode and supply cables are insulated from the structure to
prevent any of the problems associated with over-protection.
Noble metals, virtually non-consumable anodes, can be used in this system
because in electrolytes of pH 7 or less the anode reaction is the oxidation of
water, rather than metal dissolution: -
2H2O O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
In electrolytes of pH values greater than 7 (alkaline solutions) the reaction is the
oxidation of hydroxyl ions: -
4OH- O2 + 2H2O + 4e-
In seawater the reaction is usually the oxidation of chloride ions to chloride gas:
-
2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-
Table 5.5 lists some properties of impressed current anode materials.
Figure 5.6
Diagrammatic Layout of an
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System
Figure 5.7
Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
Distribution of Anodes and Dielectric Shield
As indicated in paragraph 2.2.1 the actual distribution of the anodes on any
structure may be either: -
Platform Based
Here numerous anodes are attached to the structure at intervals around
it in similar fashion to sacrificial anodes but ensuring that they are
insulated from the structure. Figure 5.8 refers.
o Two problems are associated with this method. One is the
possibility of ‘shadow’ areas where inadequate protection is
provided. This problem can be solved by the use of sacrificial
anodes complementing the ICCP system as indicated earlier. The
second problem is the possibility of current flowing directly from
the anode to the adjacent structure. This could cause
embrittlement as discussed earlier and to avoid this dielectric
shields are employed to insulate the structure electrically. Also the
current is limited by design because each anode is positioned to
provide adequate protection for the local area only. This limits as
well the possibility of embrittlement and coating damage. See
Figure 5.7
o There is also a diver safety consideration in that these anodes are
at about 80 V potential with some 1000 A current. If divers are
employed adjacent to any of the anodes they should be isolated
from the system
Remote from the Structure
A number of anodes may be placed on the seabed at a designated
distance from the structure.
Figure 5.8
Diagram of ICCP System
with Anodes Remote from Structure
2.2.2 Reference or Control Electrodes
These electrodes are commonly zinc, silver/silver-chloride (Ag/AgCl) or (SCC)
or copper/copper-sulphate (CSE). CSE is favoured in applications with
reinforced concrete.
Reference or control electrodes are vital components of any ICCP system. They
determine the current required from the power source, without these items the
system cannot provide a quantifiable degree of protection. Figure 5.9 refers.
Figure 5.9
Zinc Reference Electrode Installed
On an Offshore Structure
3 Using Coatings to Protect the Structure
Coatings form a barrier between the electrolyte and the surface of the protected
structure. They may be paints, organic films, varnishes, metal coatings or
enamels and even sheathing. It is surprising how effective coatings can be
when consideration is given to the thickness of a typical paint coat. This may be
only in the order of 25 to 100 microns thick for some applications.
3.1 Paints
When paint is applied to a metal surface it presents a barrier to air, moisture
and ions aggressive to the metal. However, paint cannot provide a complete
barrier to oxygen or water. In time these will penetrate through to the surface of
the metal. Any paint system used underwater must have a strong bond onto the
metal surface and therefore high quality metal surface preparation is required
such as SA 3. The bonding between successive coats must also be strong and
the topcoats must provide as impervious a barrier to the electrolyte as is
possible. This last is achieved by ensuring the constituents making up the
topcoats have very low water absorption and transmission coefficients.
Coal Tar Epoxides are used extensively on offshore structures. They
consist of coal tar and epoxide resin for the binder. These coatings are
highly impermeable to water and resistant to attack by most chemicals
and hydroxyl ions (that are produced by the cathodic reaction)
Figure 5.10
Galvanising
Spray coats utilise a specialised torch that is fed with wires of the coating
metal that are melted and blown out by it. The molten metal is expressed
in the form of droplets travelling at 100 to 150 m s-1 that flatten and
adhere on impact with the component
Cladding uses metal skins laminated onto the component. The skin can
be applied by
o Rolling
o Explosive welding
Figure 5.11
Monel Cladding on
an Offshore Riser
Diffusion requires the component to be heated to just below the melting
point of the coating metal in the presence of the coating in powder form
and in an inert atmosphere. The component is allowed to ‘baste’ for
several hours and the coating diffuses into the surface of the component.
4 Inhibitors (Controlling the Electrolyte)
Remember the Pourbaix diagram indicates three methods for preventing
corrosion: -
Making the electrode more positive
Making the electrode more negative
Changing the electrolyte pH
This section will outline methods for changing the electrolyte.
Also remember there are four processes in metal corrosion: -
The anodic reaction
Figure 5.12
Anodic Inhibitor
4.2 Cathodic Inhibitors
Cathodic inhibitors affect both normal reactions
In one effect the inhibitor reacts with hydroxyl ions to precipitate insoluble
compounds on the cathodic site thus blanketing the cathode from the
electrolyte and preventing access of oxygen to the site.
In the other reaction increasing the polarisation of the system controls
the evolution of hydrogen. This forms a layer of adsorbed hydrogen on
the surface of the cathode. This type of inhibitor may allow hydrogen
atoms to diffuse into steel and cause hydrogen embrittlement
4.3 Adsorption Inhibitors
Adsorption inhibitors interrupt the ion flow from the metal surface by forming
long organic molecules with side chains that are adsorbed and desorbed from
the metal surface. These bulky molecules can limit the diffusion of oxygen to the
surface, or trap the metal ions on the surface, stabilise the double layer and
reduce the rate of dissolution
In general anodic inhibitors are more efficient than cathodic ones.
5 Corrosion Protection by Design
This aspect of corrosion protection has been indicated earlier in this chapter.
The methods employed to protect structures from corrosion can be summarised
thus: -
Avoid all unnecessary bimetallic corrosion cells
Avoid differential-aeration cells (crevices, debris traps, inadequate
drainage, etc.)
Avoid stray currents from electrical machinery or conductors
Choose the material with the best properties for the environment
6 Anodic Protection
In this method of corrosion protection a potential is applied to the anode that
maintains it in the passive range of the Pourbaix diagram. This allows the
formation of a passive film that is robust enough to provide a barrier to the
normal corrosion process. However, this film is unreliable for steel in aqueous
solutions and therefore is not used on offshore structures. Aluminium does form
such a film naturally and some types of aluminium can benefit from this
because the passive layer is sufficiently robust to be relied upon.
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
CHAPTER 6
Corrosion Protection Monitoring
1 Monitoring Corrosion Protection
It has been indicated several times during this discussion on corrosion that
there are variables presented in-service that cannot be adequately predicted.
Therefore a monitoring regime is necessary to ensure that the designed
corrosion protection system is operating to its design specifications and that
there are no in-service effects interfering with this.
The amount of current from sacrificial anodes or from an impressed current
system required for protection varies:
From metal to metal
With the geometry of the structure
With differences in sea water environment (temperature, pH value etc.)
With any other factors that affects the resistance of the circuit
Since the amount for current required for protection of any structure cannot be
accurately predicted or distributed evenly through the structure, the method of
checking for adequate protection is to measure the potential and current density
of the structure at various places.
1.1 Inspection Requirements
Monitoring or inspection requirements for corrosion protection systems are
therefore as follows: -
Visual inspection of the anode (both sacrificial and impressed current
nodes) for wear
Visual inspection of electrical connections of the sacrificial system to see
that it is intact and of the impressed current system to ensure that there
are no breaks in the insulation of the supply cables
Potential measurements on the structure to confirm that it is still the
cathode by confirming the readings obtained are in the immunity range of
the Pourbaix diagram
Current density measurements to confirm that the impressed current
system is providing adequate protection
Visual and ultrasonic inspection for corrosion damage including pitting
and loss of wall thickness
The ultrasonic requirements are covered in Chapter 8
The potential measurements usually referred to as Cathode Potential (CP)
readings are obtained by:
Taking contact readings with a CP meter
Figure 6.1
High Purity Zinc Electrode (ZRE)
Figure 6.2
Diver-held CP Meter
(Bathycorrometer or similar)
Figure 6.3
Contact CP Reading Taken By an ROV
Figure 6.4
Proximity CP Measurement
3 Current Density Measurements
Current density may be measured using a specialised probe mounted on an
ROV. This type of inspection would be undertaken for a specific purpose such
as investigating a particular area of the structure that was suspected of being
under-protected or following up a visual inspection that had identified more
corrosion than was anticipated. Specific procedures will be provided for this
type of survey.
As stated earlier impressed current systems may have reference electrodes
installed to monitor current flow and potential. Figure 5.10 shows a ZRE
monitoring potential and Figure 6.5 illustrates a monitored anode.
A monitored anode is a sacrificial anode that is isolated electrically from the
structure and is connected via an insulated cable to the surface control room.
Thus the current can be constantly monitored.
Figure 6.5
Monitored Electrode
4 Calibration Procedures for Hand-held CP Meters
It is necessary to calibrate CP meters to ensure that the readings obtained are
accurate and comparable with other and previous readings. A standard method
of calibration has been adopted in the offshore industry for this purpose that is
detailed here.
4.1 Necessary Equipment
Three Calomel Electrodes complete with electrical connectors, or three screw-
on calomel cells for hand-held CP meters (these are available for the
Bathycorrometer and can be provided with screw in electrical connectors, which
should be specified. The electric connector is provided so that the cells can be
proven as described below.)
High impedance (10 ΜΩ) voltmeter
Zinc (99.9% pure) block with clamp and electrical connector
Plastic bucket filled with fresh seawater (not from fire main which may contain
inhibitors)
Log sheets
4.2 Procedure
The first part of the procedure proves that the calomel cells are chemically
saturated and sufficiently stable enough to be used as reference cells.
There are different types of cells available. One type is specifically designed for
use with a Bathycorrometer. This type has a solid polymer body protecting the
calomel cell. The procedure outlined below also applies to this type of cell;
however it is not possible to visually confirm they are fully saturated with
solution. They are sealed, and to confirm they are saturated it is necessary to
unscrew a sealing cap to gain access to the solution reservoir.
Visually inspect the electrodes to ensure they are undamaged and full of
solution. The solution is potassium chloride (K Cl) and if the solution is
saturated or supersaturated solid crystals may be seen in the phial.
(Commonly the phials are glass or clear plastic)
Label the electrodes 1,2 and 3
Soak the electrodes in the bucket for 24 hours, being careful to immerse
each one only as far as the filling hole in the phial
While the electrodes continue to soak connect electrode 1 to the
negative terminal of the voltmeter and electrode 2 to the positive terminal
and record the reading
Repeat the test with each permutation of electrodes
–1 and 3
–2 and 3
o Acceptable readings between any pair of electrodes is 0 ± 2 mv
Figure 6.6
Proving Calomel Reference Cells
If all the readings are within this range any electrode may be used
If one reading is out of this range the electrode not in that pair is the one
to use
If one reading is in range either of the electrodes in that pair can be used
If all of the readings are either replace all the calomel cells or flush out
the phials with pure distilled water, obtain a new saturated solution of
potassium chloride, refill the phials and re-test
On completion of the entire procedure rinse the electrodes in fresh water.
Figure 6.6 refers.
The second part of the procedure confirms the calibration of the CP meter.
4.2.1 Calibration of the Meter
The calibration procedure for a contact CP meter is basically the same whether
it is diver hand-held or ROV deployed.
4.2.2 Calibration of a Bathycorrometer
There is slight difference in the application if the meter is a Bathycorrometer
being calibrated with the specifically designed screw-on cells. In this case the
following procedure applies.
Fully charge the CP meter batteries and soak in fresh seawater (not
drawn from the fire main)
Remove the contact probe tip from the meter
Screw the calomel reference electrode onto the Bathycorrometer instead
of the tip
Immerse the meter in the bucket at least far enough to submerge the
semi-permeable membrane. (The meter display may be left out of the
water to assist taking readings.)
Allow time for the meter to stabilise (approximately 10 minutes
maximum)
The voltage potential between the reference electrode and the meter’s
own Ag/AgCl cell is read off the meter display directly.
Record the reading on the log
o Acceptable readings are between 0 to -10 mV. (The reading will
be negative as the Ag/AgCl cell built into the hand-held meter is
connected to the positive terminal of the meter).
The calibration of other types of contact CP meters is by comparison. The
procedure is outlined under paragraph 4.3 below.
4.3 Overall Calibration of any CP Meter
Select the proven calomel electrode and immerse the tip for 30 minutes into a
plastic bucket on deck
Take a zinc block, attach a clamp and electric wire and place the block
into the same bucket
Connect the calomel electrode to the negative terminal of a high
resistance voltmeter via the electric cable attached to the electrode
Connect the zinc block to the positive terminal of the voltmeter via its
electric connector. (Immerse only the zinc, not the clamp or connector)
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Corrosion for Students of Science and Engineering
K R Trethewey & J Chamberlain
Longman Scientific & Technical
CHAPTER 7
Welding and Welding Defects
1 Joining Metal Components
In considering joining, forming or shaping metal components there are four
ways in which they can be formed into shape. By machining, when the material
is cut away; by casting, where the metal is moulded to shape in the first place;
by forging, where the material is worked into shape; and by fabricating, where
the component is built up a bit at a time from different parts.
The components that are inspected underwater are almost all formed by
fabrication. This being the case, a closer look at this process is in order.
Fabrication can be accomplished by mechanical fastenings, for example bolting
or riveting components together; by welding, where parts are joined together by
metallurgical bond; by brazing, where a metal of a different composition from
the pieces to be joined is melted between them to solidify and thus make a
bond (a stronger version of soldering); or by adhesive bonding, where parts are
glued together. The most important technique for consideration here is welding.
2 Fabricating Offshore Structures
Steel fabricated structures are used extensively offshore as has been indicated
in previous chapters. In fabricating the structures the designers choose to use
welding as the prime means of joining the various parts together. However, it is
extremely difficult indeed to guarantee that any particular weld is free from all
faults and because of this welds are constantly inspected to ensure they are not
about to fail. The knowledge of how the welding was achieved in the first place
is of great assistance when inspecting welded joints because all techniques
have certain faults that are common to that technique. It is therefore important
to have some knowledge of the main type of welding.
3 Welding Processes
Currently there are more than thirty-five different welding processes used in
industry. These different welding processes can be classified into seven major
groups. All processes within each group have similar characteristics and thus
similar effects on the parent metals. The seven groups are:
Solid phase welding
Thermo-chemical welding
Electric-resistance welding
Unshielded arc welding
Radiant energy welding
Flux-shielded arc welding
Gas-shielded arc welding
From the point of view of offshore structures and underwater inspection, the
following welding process is the most widely used.
3.1 Flux Shielded Arc Welding
This is the most widely used of all the welding processes. An arc is formed
between a consumable electrode and the work, the heat thus formed melts and
fuses the joint together. The electrode provides the filler metal and the flux is
used to prevent contamination. For example:
Manual Metal Arc (MMA) Welding
This is the most widely used technique. In this process, heat to melt the
work piece is supplied by an electric arc; the electrode is covered by flux and
melts down forming small drops, which are transferred to the weld pool; the
flux forms molten slag that protects the weld together with protective gases
formed at the same time. See Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Common faults associated with MMA are:
Overlap
Porosity
Slag inclusion
Excessive spatter
Lack of fusion
Crater cracks
Arc strike
Incomplete penetration
Undercut
Excessive penetration
Figure 7.2
Butt Joint
4.2 ‘T’ Joint
The two components are fitted together at an angle of 5o to 90o. This
configuration is found on offshore jackets at nodes and in numerous other
areas. See Figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3
‘T’ Joint
4.3 Lap Joint
The two components are fitted one on top of the other. The angle between them
is 0o to 5o. See Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4
Lap Joint
4.4 Corner Joint
The two components are connected at the ends to make a joint at an angle
between 30o and 135o. See Figure 7.5
Figure 7.5
Corner Joint
4.5 Cruciform Joint
A joint made by welding two components to a third at right angles, on the same
axis, on opposite sides of the third component to form the shape of a cross. See
Figure 7.6.
Figure 7.6
Cruciform Joint
5 Types of Weld
The two types of weld most frequently inspected on offshore structures are the
butt and the fillet.
A butt weld is defined as: -
“A tension resisting weld in which the bulk of the weld metal is contained within
the planes of thickness of the joined parent metals”.
A fillet weld is defined as: -
“The bulk of a fillet weld is contained outside the parent metal planes or
thickness”.
The fillet weld has less strength than the butt weld. See Figure 7.7
Figure 7.7
Types of Weld
Butt and Fillet Welds
As fillet welds are not used for structural joints that must withstand high stresses
the butt weld will be the type of weld most frequently inspected offshore. All
nodes including any Safety Critical Nodes on the structure will be constructed
with butt welds.
6 Welding Metallurgy
The welding processes outlined in paragraph 2 and the types of joint and types
of weld specified in paragraphs 3 and 4 are all designed for the purpose of
fixing components together safely for the entire duration of the design life of the
structure. In order that this prime aim may be achieved the mechanism by which
welding takes place must be understood. The prime factor in welding is
temperature. The various welding processes, types of weld and types of joint
are all designed so that the heat generated during the welding process can be
dissipated uniformly as the molten metal cools once the weld metal is
deposited. To form an appreciation of how this occurs consider Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8
Temperature Variation in a Butt Weld
At point 1 within the molten weld pool, the temperature will be above the melting
point of the filler rod metal. The welding current and technique of the welder
determine this temperature. The main heat flow away from the weld pool will be
along the parent plate. Between point 1 and 2, the temperature must raise
above the parent metal melting temperature so that fusion (i.e. melting the
parent plate and mixing with the weld pool metal) occurs. This region (between
point 1 and 2) is known as the fusion zone and can be readily seen if a sample
of the weld is sectioned, polished and etched. The temperature then reduces
from point 2 to 3, which is a region of the parent metal that has sufficient heat
input to cause grain structure modification, known as the heat affected zone
(HAZ).
HAZ
One of the means of making a material softer (often called “annealing”) is
to heat it up and allow it to cool slowly. A common example of this is
copper pipes for domestic water systems that are softened in this way in
order to bend them to required shapes. To achieve this softening effect a
material has to be heated above its re-crystallisation temperature (Trecry).
Above this temperature, grains in the material will reform and grow.
In the diagram of the weld, Figure 7.8 this temperature is reached at point 3 so
that the material between point 2 and 3 that has been raised above the re-
Figure 7.9
Weld Regions or Zones
This temperature management is as important for cooling as it is for heat
energy input into the weld. The cooling rate must be as controlled as the heat
flow during the actual welding. In general, fast cooling rates (often referred to as
“quenching”) make the material harder. In steel, this comes about by the
formation of a structure known as ‘martinsite’. Martinsitic steel has a grain
structure arranged in a regular lattice, which makes the steel hard and less
tough (i.e. less able to withstand crack propagation).
Note that if the cooling rate is not properly controlled and the material is allowed
to quench it has the opposite effect to annealing outlined above.
6.1 Further Considerations for Weld Control
While heat input and cooling rate control may be of paramount importance to
the finished quality of a weld there are several other factors that must also be
considered. Defects, for example porosity, often arise in welds due to gas
penetrating the weld pool protection. Gases that are likely to be present in the
weld are hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. These are derived from the
atmosphere, water, hydrocarbons (usually in the form of grease and oil) and
other oxides present in the vicinity of the weld because of a lack of care in
preparation to see that the weld area is clean and dry. These products get into
the arc and provide a supply of gas that can be dissolved in the liquid metal of
the weld pool. On cooling, the solubility of the dissolved gas in metal reduces
and the gas comes out of solution to form bubbles trapped in the weld metal; or
sometimes the gas diffuses into the parent metal. Hydrogen diffusing into the
HAZ will cause hydrogen embrittlement, which may lead to cracking.
The different temperatures in the regions around the weld will cause differential
expansion. On cooling, if cracking does not immediately occur in the weld or in
the HAZ, the material is put under a permanent stress, unless a stress relieving
procedure is specified. This state of stress is referred to as a residual stress, so
that the normal working stress in imposed on top of and added to this residual
stress, thus giving an in-service stress that is higher that the normal design
working stress. The effect of residual stresses will be at the very least that the
fatigue life is shortened. At the moment, there is no way that these residual
stresses can be measured during the course of a routine inspection. (ACFM
may be developed for this purpose).
7 Welding Terms
There are a number of standard, defined, welding terms and also symbols that
are used internationally to define different parts or elements of welds. These
terms and symbols are defined in several international standards.
BS EN 24063:1992, ISO 4063:1990: Welding, brazing, soldering and
braze welding of metals. Nomenclature of processes and reference
numbers for symbolic representation on drawings
BS EN 22553:1995: Welded, brazed and soldered joints. Symbolic
representation on drawings
BS EN ISO 5817:2003: Welding. Fusion-welded joints in steel, nickel,
titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded). Quality levels for
imperfections
BS EN 13622:2002: Gas welding equipment. Terminology. Terms
used for gas welding equipment
BS 499-1:1991: Welding terms and symbols. Glossary for welding,
brazing and thermal cutting
(This standard has the status of being current, partially replaced by BS EN 13622:2002)
A list of extracts from these standards that may apply to in-service inspection is
compiled below.
7.1 Plate Preparation Terms
Double V butt weld
A butt weld in which the prepared faces will form two opposing V’s in
section, welded from both sides
Included angle of a butt weld
The angle between the prepared faces
Included angle of a fillet weld
The angle between the parent plates
Parent plate
The metals that are to be joined by the weld
Prepared angle, weld prep
The angle of bevel between the prepared face and the perpendicular
Prepared face
Figure 7.10
Standard Weld Terms for Plate Preparation
7.2 Terms Defining Weld Features
Cap, Face of the weld
The visible face of the completed weld
Excess weld metal
The weld metal lying outside the line joining the weld toes
Toe of the weld
The junction between the cap and the parent plate
Root
The point where the back of the weld intersects the back face of the parent
plate
Weld zone
The area containing the weld and both heat affected zones
Heat affected zone (HAZ)
The part of the parent plate that has been affected by heat from the welding
process but which has not melted
Throat thickness
The total thickness of the weld metal
Effective throat thickness (design throat thickness)
Weld thickness for design purposes, usually a line between both toes and
the root
Weld width
The shortest distance between the toes of the weld
Toe blend
The transition between the weld material and the parent plate
Leg (of a fillet weld)
The distance from the root of the weld to the toe of the weld
Figure 7.11 refers
Figure 7.11
Weld Feature Terminology
7.3 Welding Process Terminology
Filler rod
The filler metal for a weld in the form of a rod 440 mm long used in MMA
welding
Filler bead
When the weld is made up of more than one pass of a filler rod the
successive passes are called filler beads
Run or pass
The weld metal laid down in a single pass from a filler rod
Weldment
An alternative term to describe the weld zone
Fusion zone
The edge of the parent plate along the prepared face and the root face along
which the weld metal fuses with the parent plate
Root bead
Weld bead laid into the root that protrudes beyond the back wall of the
parent plate
Figure 7.12
Weld Process Terminology
7.4 Welded Nodes and Nozzles
Underwater in-service inspection of offshore oil platforms is almost exclusively
on pipe work and will involve inspection of pipe joints. These will be nodes or
nozzles.
Node
A node is a T or cruciform joint between two pipes that only has preparation
on the minor member, a single bevel weld. The minor tubular is called the
brace and it is this member that has the preparation. The major tubular is
known as the chord. In joints where both members are the same size the
through tubular is the chord.
Nozzle
Both tubular members have preparation, which also means that the chord
has a hole to match the brace. This is a full penetration butt-welded joint.
This type of joint is commonly found in pipelines and where fluid flow is
required.
Figure 7.13 refers.
Figure 7.13
Nodes and Nozzles
8 Weld Defect Terminology
An inspector must be capable of not only recognising a fault in a weld but
subsequently be able to describe this fault accurately. In common with welding
terminology this aspect of welding also has internationally agreed and defined
terms. In this case the International Institute of Welding (IIW) and BS EN ISO
5817:2003 apply. In the same way that welding terms are defined in this
standard weld defect terminology is also defined. The different types of defect
are listed in 6 categories.
Cracks
Cavities
Solid inclusions
Lack of fusion and penetration
Imperfect shape
Miscellaneous
Only a certain number of these standard terms apply to defects that may be
found on the surface of the weld accessible to the underwater inspector but
knowledge of a representative sample of standard terms from all categories will
assist any inspector when reporting findings and conversing with other
engineers.
8.1 Cracks
These are linear discontinuities produced by fracture, cracks may be; -
Longitudinal
Transverse
Crater
Centreline
Toe
HAZ
Figure 12.14 and 12.15 refer.
Figure 12.14
Cracks
Figure 12.15
HAZ Cracking
8.2 Cavities
There are a number of flaws that are covered by this category.
Porosity
Gas pores that may be located in different locations
Elongated cavities
A string of gas pores parallel to the weld axis
Shrinkage cavity
A cavity cause by shrinkage of the weld metal while it is in a plastic state
Crater
A depression caused by shrinkage at the end of a run if the heat is removed
quickly
Crater pipe
A hole in the centre of a crater again caused by shrinkage
See Figure 12.16
Figure 12.16
Cavities
8.3 Solid Inclusions
These are volumetric defects that are caused by solids trapped in the weld pool
before it solidifies.
Figure 12.17
Slag Inclusions
8.4 Lack of Fusion and Penetration
Lack of fusion
The weld metal has not bonded
Lack of sidewall fusion
No union between the weld metal and the parent plate. See Figure 12.17
Lack of root fusion
No bonding at the root of the weld joint
Incomplete root penetration
No weld metal extending into the root of the weld
Figure 12.18 refers
Figure 12.18
Weld metal spilled over from the cap onto the parent plate outside the line of
the toe that has not fused with the parent metal
Burn through
A collapse in the weld pool caused by excessive penetration resulting in a
hole in the weld
Unequal leg length
(Not a standard term but internationally understood), describing different leg
lengths on a fillet weld, usually a T joint
Poor restart
(Not a standard term but internationally understood), an irregular start or
pick-up after one bead is ended or interrupted and the next arc strike is
imperfectly aligned with the previous bead
Misalignment
(Not a standard term but internationally understood), poor fit-up resulting in
the parent plates being out of alignment either laterally or angularly
See Figure 12.19 and 12.20
Figure 12.19
Imperfect shape
8.6 Miscellaneous
Stray flash, or arc strike
Burn marks on the parent metal caused by striking arcs with the welding rod
off the line of the weld
Excessive dressing
Grinding away too much weld metal and leaving the weld below the depth of
the parent plate
Grinding mark
Groves or marks on the parent plate caused by poorly controlled grinding or
surfacing tools
Tool mark
Marks indented into the parent plate caused by chipping hammers or similar
hand tools
Hammer mark
Obvious damage caused by a hammer blow
Torn surface
Surface irregularity caused by breaking off temporary attachments
Surface pitting
Small depressions on the parent plate
Spatter
Spots of weld metal thrown out from the weld pool and attaching themselves
to the parent plate
Dog scar
A welding scar left over after removal of a dog, which is a temporary metal
fixing used to stabilise the parent plates during the welding process
See Figure 12.20
Figure 12.20
Miscellaneous Defects
Welding inspectors will confirm that the welds meet these requirements and for
the visual elements of the inspection requirements there are a number of
measuring gauges, templates and devices that are employed. These
instruments are available for in-service inspections a review of a selection will
be of interest for underwater applications.
9.2.1 The Welding Institute Measuring Gauge
This is a gauge specially designed to accurately measure weld reinforcement
height, leg length, throat thickness and depth of lack of fill. Figure 12.21 refers
Figure 12.21
Welding Institute Gauge
Measuring Various Weld Parameters
9.2.2 Welding Institute Leg Length Gauge
This gauge is specially designed for measuring T joint leg length as indicated in
Figure 12.22
Figure 12.22
Welding Institute
Leg Length Gauge
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
Mel Bayliss
David Short
Mary Bax
Principles of welding technology
L M Gourd
CHAPTER 8
Ultrasonic Inspection
1 Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection is based on the behaviour of an ultrasonic sound wave as
it passes through the material under inspection. The ultrasonic wave is a stress
pulse travelling at the speed of sound within the material under test. Such a
wave travels in straight lines and will be partially reflected from any interface in
its path. Measurements of the time interval between the transmitted wave and
the reflected wave will give information about the length of the wave’s path
through the material. From this information the thickness of materials can be
measured and the presence of flaws can be detected. For offshore applications
this NDT method is used regularly for corrosion monitoring and occasionally for
weld inspection.
2 Producing Ultrasound
Ultrasonic testing depends on the manner in which sound waves pass through
the material under test. Ultrasonic sound waves are used because it has been
determined that at frequencies in this part of the frequency spectrum sound
waves travel furthest with the minimum loss of energy. Thus the greatest
penetration into solid materials is achieved by this selection. Table 8.1 refers.
2.1 What Is Ultrasonic?
Ultrasound is sound waves at a frequency beyond the range of human hearing.
The frequency spectrum at Figure 8.1 refers.
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM
Velocity of a wave = Frequency x wavelength (f x λ) Speed of sound in air = 330 m sec-1
Speed of light in a vacuum = 3 x 108 m sec-1
Sound Waves Frequency Electro-magnetic Waves
(Travelling at the speed of sound) (kHz) (Travelling at the speed of light)
-3
Infrasound 10
10
21
Cosmic radiation
22
10
23
10
Table 8.1
The Frequency Spectrum
The time for one cycle is known as the periodic time (P) and is measured in
seconds. Therefore: -
Figure 8.2
Graph of a Signal with a Frequency of 1 Hertz (Hz)
Considering a sound wave it can be compared with Figure 8.2 in that as the
sound wave train passes through a material it propagates a stress front that
causes the atoms within the crystal lattice structure of the material to be
alternatively tensile and compressively stressed and relaxed.
Figure 8.3
The Stress Variation with Time at a
Point in a Solid Subjected To Ultrasonic Impulse
from an Ultrasonic Transducer
The frequency of the signal shown in Figure 8.3 may be calculated thus: -
The periodic time (the time taken for one cycle) is calculated hence: -
It is not usual to include all the zeros with the numbers related to frequency.
Normally the writing is reduced by the use of prefixes thus: -
Figure 8.5
Longitudinal or Compression Wave
2.4.1.2 Shear or Transverse Waves
Shear or transverse waves are denoted by the symbol T. Thus VT is the velocity
of propagation of these waves. The direction of oscillation of the atoms in this
mode of travel is at right angles to the direction of motion of the propagating
wave. Figure 8.6 refers.
Figure 8.6
Transverse or Shear Wave
Figure 8.7
Diagrammatic Representation of the Movement of the
Atoms as a Shear Wave Passes through the Material
If Figure 8.7 is compared with Figure 8.5 it may be seen that both diagrams
represent the wave at a given instant in time. The main difference is in the
movement of the atoms. Whereas in the compression wave the atoms are
compressed and ‘pulled apart’ in the direction that the wave is moving, the
shear wave atoms are displaced pass each other – that is sheared.
2.4.2 Surface Waves
Of the three types of surface wave used in ultrasonic testing none have uses in
underwater inspection.
Raleigh Waves
The Raleigh Wave is the main type of surface wave. These waves travel
only on the surface of the material. The atomic motion of the wave is
elliptical, with the major axis of the ellipse perpendicular to the surface, thus
resembling a surface wave on water. The wave can be easily damped out if
the surface is in contact with either a solid or a fluid. This mode of travel is
not used underwater.
Lamb Waves
These waves are generated when the thickness of the material is
comparable with the wavelength of the Lamb wave. There are two main
types of Lamb waves, symmetrical and asymmetrical. Each has a series of
modes of travel. In this respect they differ from the wave trains mentioned so
far that only propagate in one mode. On land, Lamb waves are applied for
testing thin wall tubing and for laminar defects, which lie very close to the
surface of the part. They are also used to test the quality of bond in laminate
materials.
Love Waves
Love waves travel on the surface of the material without a vertical
component of displacement, which makes them analogous to a surface
compression wave motion.
Table 8.7 summarises properties of these modes of propagation.
Type of Symbol Condition Atomic Motion Single Comments on
Wave Velocity Underwater Use
Table 8.7
Properties of Ultrasonic Waves
3 Velocity of Ultrasonic Waves
In order that ultrasonic waves can be used to measure depths and sizes within
any material it is a fundamental principal that the velocity of the sound wave
remains constant for different samples of the same material. This is in fact the
case; furthermore the ultrasonic wave obeys the laws of light and can therefore
be used with confidence for inspection tasks.
A summary of wave velocities of the various waves discussed here in a
selection of materials is shown in Table 8.8.
VL VT VS VO ρ E G
Air 333 1
Table 8.8
Acoustic Velocities for Different Modes
in Selected Materials
4 Ultrasonic Wavelength
A further property of the ultrasonic wave is its wavelength. This property
indicates how far the ultrasonic stress wave moves forward during one
complete stress cycle and has to be considered when the maximum sensitivity
of any ultrasonic test is being assessed.
The method of calculation is shown in the following equations.
Figure 8.9
Compression Wave Passing From One
Material (Perspex) Into another (Steel)
Figure 8.10
Power in the Ultrasonic Signal
Will Decrease With Distance into the Material
The amount of signal attenuation is given by the curve that joins up the peaks of
the graphs and the attenuation in decibels (dB) is given by
Figure 8.11
Attenuation of the Ultrasonic Signal
between the First and Second Echoes
= 20 log10 (1.5)
= 20 x 0.1761
= 3.52 dB
What would the attenuation be if V2 were exactly half V1 and what would
it be if V2 were one-tenth V1?
(Answer 6 dB and 20 dB)
The last two calculated results are most important, as they are both utilised in
practical material testing. It should be remembered that if the signal is halved
that is a 6 dB drop and if the signal is one tenth that is a 20 dB drop. A table
showing the ratios associated with gains of 0 to 20 dB is shown as Table 8.12.
Figure 8.13
Reflection of an Ultrasound
Wave from an Interface
When the angle of incidence is 0o the reflected angle is also 0o so the wave is
reflected back along the incident direction. The wave is travelling in the same
material therefore there will be no change in wavelength of the signal or the
mode of travel of the wave. This is the ideal condition for thickness
measurement using ultrasonic compression waves.
5.4.2 Law of Refraction
At an interface, part of the ultrasonic wave is reflected and the rest will pass into
the second material. The path in the second material will still be a straight line,
but the direction of this wave will not be continuous with the direction of the
incident wave, as it will have been turned through an angle that can be
determined by Snell’s Law.
Snell’s Law of Refraction states that: -
Angle β need not be larger than α as shown in Figure 8.14. The value of β is
determined by the properties of material 1 and material 2. The wavelength will
always change between the two materials.
Figure 8.14
Snell’s Law
The constant in Snell’s Law is the ratio of the velocity of sound in the two
materials, so that Snell’s Law can be written: -
As there are two velocities of sound in a material, VL and VT, if the incident
wave can cause these then there will be two resulting refracted waves.
Now an incident compression (longitudinal) wave at an angle can produce two
stress waves, or forces, at the interface, as it has a component parallel to the
interface given by sine α that will produce a shear wave in material 2 and a
normal component given by cos α that will produce a compression wave in
material 2. See Figure 8.15.
Figure 8.15
Force Exerted by the Incident
Wave on the Interface
Both these resulting waves in material 2 will be turned from the incident
direction by an angle determined by Snell’s Law and the velocity of sound in the
two materials. Figure 8.16 refers.
Figure 8.16
Reflected and Refracted Shear Wave and
Compression Wave at an Interface of Two Materials
The angle that the compression wave makes with the normal in material 2 is
determined from Snell’s Law, which gives: -
The angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in material 2 is
again determined using Snell’s Law, except that this time the velocity of sound
of the shear wave VT2 is used in the equation, so that: -
Thus the angle that the resulting shear wave makes with the normal in material
2 (βT) is the angle whose sine is: -
Example: -
Figure 8.17
Diagram of Wave Configuration
from a Perspex Block at 10o
5.4.2.1 The Reflected Compression Wave in the Perspex
The law of reflection tells us that the angle of reflection equals the angle of
incidence, so that the reflected wave makes an angle of 10o to the normal.
The wavelength of the reflected wave will be the same as the incident wave, as
they are both compressive and travelling at the same speed. The wavelength is
calculated from the equation: -
Figure 8.19
Basic Arrangement of a
Single Crystal Transducer
7.1 Types of Transducers (Probes)
There are a number of different types of probes some designed for specific
tasks. However, in the sphere of underwater inspection and NDT it is only
necessary to be familiar with the main types.
All probes are designed to transmit an ultrasonic signal into the test specimen
with maximum efficiency. The configuration of any probe is dependant on the
actual task it is designed for. There are broadly four types of probe.
Single Crystal Probes
Twin Crystal Probes
Compression or Zero Degree Probes
Angle Probes
7.1.1 Single Crystal Probes
These probes are designed to utilise a single Piezo electric crystal that both
transmits and receives the ultrasonic signal. The acoustic characteristics of this
transducer are quite specific and the selected crystals possess particular
characteristics. The crystal must transmit the signal, stop ringing, ring down to
rest, pick up any reflected signal, ring up to produce electrical energy that is
passed onto the receiver amplifier.
So, the natural frequency of the crystal needs to be very widely separated from
the ultrasonic frequency being used for the test. Figure 8.19 indicates the main
design features of a single crystal compression probe.
Figure 8.20
Twin Crystal Compression Probe
7.1.3 Compression or Zero Degree Probes
This type of probe transmits longitudinal waves that are transmitted into the test
specimen at the normal angle. Thus there is no refraction and the signal passes
directly through the specimen at the normal. This type of probe may be single or
twin crystal. Figures 8.19 and 8.20 refer
7.1.4 Angle Probes
Angle probes produce an ultrasonic beam that is introduced into the material at
an angle to the interface, and not perpendicular, as is the case of normal angle
probes. The angle is determined to either match the weld angle of preparation
or to introduce the beam at an angle most propitious to reflect from internal
defects. As has been shown this type of probe, in accordance with Snell’s Law,
can produce shear and compression waves, purely shear waves or surface
waves depending on the probe angle. Figure 8.21 refers.
Figure 8.21
Single Crystal Angle Probe Using a Piezo electric
Crystal in Compression Mode, The Angle on the Wedge
Producing a Shear Wave in the Material
7.2 Probe Selection
Ultrasonic probes are selected depending on their output characteristics. Single
crystal probes have:
Advantages
Good power output
Greater penetration
Disadvantages
Poor near zone resolution
Cannot measure thin plate accurately
Twin crystal probes:
Advantages
Good near zone resolution
Initial pulse and dead zone are contained in the shoe
Can be focused to any depth
Can measure thin plate
Disadvantages
Less power output
Less penetration
8 Couplant
Ultrasonic testing cannot be carried out in air without the use of a suitable
coupling agent between the transducer and the test surface. This is because
the small mechanical pulses cannot travel across the small air gap that exists
between the two surfaces, because of the mismatch in acoustic impedance
between the shoe of the transducer and the air. For land-based tests, liquids,
greases or pastes are therefore used. Under the sea, the equivalent of the land
based immersion technique exists and transmission across the gap between
the work piece and the probe is not a problem. The surface of the work piece
must, of course, be free from marine fouling or other detritus on the surface as
this would attenuate and scatter the ultrasonic signal to such an extent that it
would not enter the work piece.
9 The Ultrasonic Beam
In order to use the passage of the ultrasonic wave through the material to
search for defects, it is necessary that the effective volume of the material
covered by the beam be visualised. An easy analogy for this is to visualise a
beam of light from a hand torch (flashlight) as this illustrates an ultrasonic beam
exactly.
The shape of the beam can be considered as a short cylindrical portion
containing the Dead Zone and Near Zone followed by a conically shaped Far
Zone (or Far Region).
9.1 The Dead Zone
This is the region immediately ahead of the crystal face. It is a zone that cannot
differentiate reflected signals from defects due to the interference caused by
ringing the crystal to produce the initial pulse. This interference is due to the
crystal vibrations taking time to reach resonance and then taking time to return
to rest. During this ringing period spurious harmonic frequencies are produced
and while the crystal is being stimulated electrically it cannot simultaneously be
stimulated mechanically. The volume of this region is extremely dependant
upon the electronic circuitry that governs pulse length, amplifier recovery time
gain setting and selection of the crystal itself.
This region is usually of the order of 1 to 3 wavelengths in depth and the probe
designer will normally construct the probe so that it is contained within the
dimensions of the shoe. This region of the beam cannot be used for testing.
9.2 The Near Zone
This is the name given to the cylindrical portion of the beam that extends from
the face of the crystal to a predictable depth. As it commences at the crystal
face it includes the dead zone. The depth or length of the near zone is
calculated using the expression: -
D = crystal diameter
4 = constant
λ= wavelength
This equation calculates the length of the near zone from the crystal face in one
material. If, however, the near zone is not contained within the shoe, an
allowance must be made for the change in near zone length as the ultrasonic
beam travels from one material into another with a consequent change in
wavelength.
It is possible to identify reflectors in the near zone but it is not possible to size
defects because of the variations in signal intensity that is a characteristic of this
region.
9.3 The Far Zone
In the far zone (or region) the ultrasonic beam spreads from a cylindrical shape
to a cone, as can be visualised by considering a torch of flashlight beam. The
boundary of the cone is defined by the degree of attenuation of the maximum
power at any cross-section of the cone to a given level of reduced power, either
a 6 dB or 20 dB drop.
The angle of spread of the cone is defined as θ, (in Figure 8.22 the cone angle
is indicated as being θ/2, which shows the actual angle of spread from the edge
of the cylindrical region of the beam. This angle subtends angle θ at the face of
the crystal) the following equation is used to calculate the angle of spread of the
far zone from the boundary of the near zone, which is θ/2: -
λ = wavelength
D = diameter of the crystal
k = constant (for 6 dB drop k = 0.56 for 20 dB drop k = 1.06)
This region of the beam is generally the part used for thickness measurement,
flaw detection and flaw measurement as the ultrasonic energy of the beam
decays exponentially according to an inverse square rule and is therefore
predictable. Furthermore there are no discernable interfering signals in this
region to confuse the interpretation of the reflected signal. Figure 8.22 refers.
Figure 8.22
The Shape of the Ultrasonic Beam and the Beam Energy Envelope
Figure 8.23
Flaw Detection by Decrease in
Energy of the Ultrasonic Wave
The second principle of ultrasonic testing is based on the reflection of energy
from a flaw or interface. This is the method used in underwater ultrasonic
inspection and it is the basis of a majority of ultrasonic test systems. The
principle is illustrated in Figure 8.24
Figure 8.24
Flaw Detection by Reflection
of the Ultrasonic Wave
11 Ultrasonic Test Systems
From paragraph 10 it will be seen that an ultrasonic test system should be able
to measure either the amplitude of the signal if the through transmission type of
test is used or the time required for the ultrasonic signal to travel between
specific interfaces if the pulse/echo method is employed. A versatile test system
will measure both the parameters at the same time. For thickness measurement
the main use of ultrasonic testing sub-sea is for the measurement of the time
the ultrasonic signal takes to travel between specific interfaces, as Figure 8.24
illustrates.
A test system for ultrasonic thickness measurement is based on a pulse/echo
flaw detector circuit. A simple block diagram for this arrangement is shown in
Figure 8.25
Figure 8.25
Basic Block Diagram
of a Pulse Echo Ultrasonic System
The technique employed is to generate a short duration (up to about 15 cycles)
electrical pulse that is fed to the transmitting crystal, which then rings and
converts the electrical energy to mechanical vibrations because of the Piezo
electric effect. These pulses are produced cyclically so that a wave train is set
up in the test piece. As these pulses of ultrasound impact on reflecting surfaces
such as the back wall, a crack, an inclusion or a lack of fusion, the wave is
reflected back along the transmission path.
This reflected wave train is detected by the receiving crystal; which changes
these mechanical vibrations into pulses of electrical energy, which is then fed to
the amplifier and timing circuits. The circuits compare the time of transmission
with the time of reception to determine the period of time taken for the signal to
be reflected. This indicates the distance to this reflecting surface. This reflected
signal is finally displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) in the case of a flaw
detector and as a digital display in a digital thickness meter
The wave train set up by the pulses of energy effectively sets up a continuous
signal that is used to display information either on the CRT or the digital display
continuously. However electronically there is sufficient time between pulses to
allow the receive crystal to receive the reflected signal.
11.1 The Flaw Detector
There are several types of units that can be used in this system, depending on
the method employed for timing and indicating the pulses of energy. For
ultrasonic flaw detection the indicator is generally a CRT (or cathode ray
oscilloscope) as this presents all the information available in the echo system.
With this type of instrument there are four types of presentation.
A-scan
Shows real time depth of the defect, or distance along the beam path
B-scan
Holds the reflector and shows cross-sectional views
C-scan
Illustrates using a plan view and traces the defect
P-scan
Adds all of the above together and gives a three-dimensional computer
impression
The most commonly used diver deployed flaw detector is an A-scan instrument.
As an example of this type of instrument Figure 8.26 gives a drawing of the
control panel of a Baugh and Weedon PA 1011.
Figure 8.26
Drawing of a Baugh and Weedon
PA 1011 A-scan Flaw Detector Control Panel
Selects the mode of operation of the set for either single or twin crystal
probe operation
Receive Coaxial Connector
The coaxial connector to the receiving crystal in a twin crystal probe is
connected here
Charging Connection
The lead to the battery charger is connected here
11.2.1 A-scan Display
If a thickness measuring system using a twin crystal probe with the unit
displaying the information on a CRT is considered it will serve to illustrate how
this type of flaw detector works.
On the CRT a spot moves across the screen at a fixed speed set by the
controls. This has two effects; the first is that as the speed is constant the
distance measured across the screen represents time. The second is that the
phosphors coating the inside of the screen have an after-glow that persists in
between pulses to give an apparently constant display.
The signal processor via the control panel can adjust the speed of scanning of
the spot. Thus the display can be adjusted for different distances or thicknesses
of material.
The transmitted signal is indicated on the screen by the first rise or peak, and a
second peak indicates the reflected signal. This second peak should represent
the thickness of the material provided there is a clear defect free path as it will
be the reflection from the back wall.
If there is a defect inside the material this may present a reflecting
surface to the signal. This situation is discussed later in paragraphs 13 to
15.
Taking the second signal to be the reflection from the back wall the distance
between the two peaks is the time (t) taken for the ultrasonic wave to travel
across the material and return. The thickness of the material can then be
calculated in the following way.
Table 8.8 gives the speed of the longitudinal wave (VL) in a selection of
materials. For example, take the test material to be structural steel; the
velocity of the longitudinal wave (VL) is 5940 ms-1. The time taken for the
wave to cross this material and back is t seconds, measured from the
trace on the CRT screen. The product of VL and t then gives the distance
travelled by the ultrasonic wave in this test. This distance is twice the
thickness of the material as the wave has to travel there and back, so the
thickness of the material (d) is given by the following expression: -
d = ½ (VL x t)
If a through transmission method was used, see Figure 8.23, that is
where a receiver is placed on the opposite side from the transmitter, the
thickness of the material would be given by: -
d = VL x t
These expressions are based on Newton’s Laws of Motion and are the basis for
ultrasonic testing. However, as stated earlier A-scan instruments are provided
with controls to adjust the CRT display, which is part of a calibration procedure.
This procedure adjusts the instrument for time base and therefore electronically
adjusts the value of VL.
12 A-scan Calibration and Thickness Measurement
With any A-scan instrument the CRT display represent time on the base line or
X-axis, which is calibrated to represent distance, while the vertical or Y-axis
gives the amplitude of the returning signal; the higher the amplitude of this
signal the greater the strength of the reflected signal. Of course, in the case of
thickness measurements this signal will be the back wall echo.
A-scan types of ultrasonic instruments all require calibration before they can be
used for testing. Modern instruments incorporate computer chips that assist in
this process but following is outlined the procedure for a standard instrument so
as to illustrate the various stages that must be completed to ensure a valid test
is completed.
12.1 Calibration and Reference Blocks
Normally calibration will require the use of a calibration block, however a
reference block may be used if this is either specified or agreed by the
contracting party.
12.1.1 Reference Block
A reference block is produced to agreed measurements and specifications, is
manufactured to the same tolerances and surface finish as a calibration block
and is used in the same way. The difference between this and a calibration
block is that the reference block is intended to be used only for the specified
task and is not intended to be used for general work on any other components.
12.1.2 Calibration Block
There are several different calibration blocks available for ultrasonic testing. The
two most popular are the V1 and the V2 calibration blocks. A calibration block is
manufactured to standard specifications and to international standards. It is
produced from specified material and is machined to close tolerances and laid
down standard of surface finish. All the dimensions on the block are also
specified and it is used to calibrate ultrasonic flaw detectors in general. A sketch
of the V1 calibration block in Figure 8.27 shows all the major dimensions.
Figure 8.27
IIW V1 Block
12.2 Pre-calibration Checks
For portable sets check the power supply is fully charged
Switch on the set and allow it to warm up for 15 minutes, or the manufacturer’s
recommended time. This allows the CRT and other circuits to reach operating
temperature and stabilise.
12.2.1 CRT Display
Adjust the focus and brilliance of the spot on the CRT screen. The spot will
normally not be visible, but will, however, appear as a line across the screen
Use the delay control to adjust the time base to display the initial pulse (the first
transmitted pulse) on the screen
Position the course range control to the required range. (This may be between
10 mm and 1 m depending on the actual instrument).
Select and connect the required probe. (For thickness measurement and
lamination testing this will be a 0o or normal angle compression probe – either
single or twin crystal).
Figure 8.28
A-scan Flaw Detector
Calibrated to 100 mm
12.3.1 Setting Sensitivity
On completion of calibration it is necessary to adjust the sensitivity to conform
to the requirements for identifying and sizing the smallest specified flaw. This
may be, for example a flaw that is 2 or 3 λ in size, although this would be a very
sensitive setting as the minimum flaw size that may be achieved is of the order
of 1 to 2 λ.
Whatever the required sensitivity is should be detailed in the workbook or the
procedure agreed with the contracting party.
The procedure will require that the gains be adjusted so that a reflected signal
from the smallest identifiable defect is displayed discretely on the screen and is
not lost in background clutter.
The general practise for scanning with compression probes for laminations is to
adjust the gain setting so that the first back wall echo from the parent plate is
displayed at full screen height.
An alternative method is to adjust to full screen height the first back wall echo
from a specified (say 1.5 mm diameter) hole drilled horizontally into a reference
block at the maximum range for the test.
Figure 8.27 shows a diagram of the International Institute of Welding V1
calibration block. This block is an industry standard calibration block and
contains such a 1.5 mm diameter hole.
Figure 8.29
A Method For Setting
Resolution
13 The 6 dB Drop Method For Plotting Laminations
It is common for steel plate to be tested for laminations before structural welding
is undertaken. A normal angle probe will be used and the entire test surface will
be scanned, initially fairly quickly to get an impression of how the reflected
signals are displayed on the CRT display. This is followed by a detailed scan
based on a grid search to fully scan the entire test area.
If any laminations are discovered the initial reaction is to make temporary marks
with a paint stick or chinagraph pencil on the surface of the parent plate to give
a first impression of the size and shape of the defect. This is followed by a
careful scan employing the 6 dB drop method to accurately size the flaw and
determine its shape.
13.1 The 6 dB Drop Method Explained
The probe is manipulated over the defect area until a maximum amplitude
signal is displayed on the CRT. The height of this signal is noted or, if it is very
strong, the gains are adjusted to display this echo at full screen height.
The probe is then manipulated around the defect area until the signal displayed
on the screen reduces in amplitude.
The probe is manoeuvred to a position where the initial echo signal is reduced
to ½ the maximum that was obtained. This represents a 6 dB reduction in signal
strength, which gives this method its name. The reason for this reduction at this
point is that now only half the flaw echo signal is being reflected from the flaw
while the remainder of that signal is now not reflected but continues on its
transmission path through the material.
The centre point where the probe is now positioned is marked accurately on the
surface of the test piece and this procedure is continued until the entire outline
of the lamination is plotted on the surface of the plate.
The outline shape is recorded and measured as necessary. Figure 8.30 refers.
Figure 8.30
6 dB Drop Method
13.2 Lamination Plotting
Should there be any laminations in the scanning area the signal will be reflected
from these and not the flaw. To avoid this the entire area is scanned with a
compression probe prior to using the angle probe. The area may be marked out
in a grid pattern to ensure 100% coverage. See Figure 8.31
Figure 8.31
Scanning for Laminations
14 Digital Thickness Meters
Digital thickness meters measure the thickness of the material using
longitudinal waves propagated by a compression probe and transmitted into the
material under test at the normal angle.
The system method can be demonstrated by considering a thickness measuring
system using a twin crystal compression probe with the instrument having a
CRT display. The screen will display the initial pulse and the signal from the
BWE. The distance measured across the screen, the X-axis, represents the
time difference between these two signals. The thickness of the material can
then be calculated as shown in paragraph 11.2.1. A diagram of this system is
shown in Figure 8.33.
Figure 8.33
Schematic Block Diagram of
the Methodology for Digital Thickness Meters
Figure 8.34
Block Diagram of a Sea Probe
Digital Thickness Meter
If Figure 8.34 is compared with 8.25 it will be seen that the circuitry is exactly
similar except for the method of display.
The actual procedure for taking wall thickness readings will be: -
o Ensure the DTM is fully charged prior to use
o Ensure that a properly qualified inspector is available to conduct
the survey
o Take calibration readings and record these onto the appropriate
data sheet. (Strictly speaking this is a confirmation reading as the
type of instrument referred to here is factory calibrated)
o These readings are best done on a reference block in the form of
a step wedge to confirm the instrument is in calibration over its
entire test range
o Record the serial number of the instrument, and the calibration or
reference block
Figure 8.35
Typical Ultrasonic Inspection
Data Sheet
14.2 Accuracy of the Readings Obtained With a DTM
A DTM is only designed to give a single readout for each application of the
probe. This is different from an A-scan instrument, which is designed to display
multiple reflections simultaneously on the CRT screen.
It is therefore necessary to consider the effects on the ultrasonic beam
generated by a DTM as the beam propagates through the material under test.
The beam may reflect from an inclusion
The beam may reflect from an isolated corrosion pit
The beam might reflect from the sidewalls of a long narrow plate
If the back wall is very corroded the beam may be totally scattered
Poor probe contact will prevent the beam propagating into the material at
all
If the material under test is very hot a false reading may result due to
different sound velocities between the material and the calibration of the
DTM
Insufficient beam energy will be reflected from a small isolated corrosion
pit because the reflected energy from the BWE will swamp it and the
meter will only display the depth to the back wall
If the scanning surface of the plate is very corroded there may be so
much reflection of the beam that it will not propagate into the material at
all
Should the back wall of the plate be at an angle to the front wall the
reflected signal may not be directed back to the probe and no reading will
be displayed
All of these considerations may be summed up for a DTM by stating that the
major limiting factor with this instrument is that it can only display the depth of
the MAJOR REFLECTOR, It is not designed for any other purpose.
Figure 8.36 refers.
Figure 8.36
Possible Problems Associated With a DTM
Figure 8.37
Sea Probe SP 200
Underwater Digital Thickness Meter
15 Converting Underwater DTM Readings
With specially designed, underwater DTMs like the Sea Probe (see Figure 8.37)
and Cygnus meter the display gives a direct digital readout of thickness.
With these instruments this reading is based on the value of VL for structural
steel because the meter is designed with this velocity set into the circuits. In fact
the meter is factory calibrated for use specifically on structural steel
components. Therefore when these meters are used to test steel structures the
circuitry works out the distance electronically based on the expressions given
above. They will not give an accurate read-out for any other material
To convert readings obtained from materials other than structural steel simply
divide the meter reading by the value of VL for steel and multiply by the value of
VL for the new material.
For example, if a measurement is made on aluminium the reading
obtained is multiplied by 6350 and divided by 5940 to give the correct
thickness measurement for aluminium.
Say the meter indicates 30.5 mm.
Then the required thickness for aluminium is: -
Figure 8.38
Angle Probe Scanning
the Preparation Face of a Weld
The probe is traversed along the weld until the signal from the flaw is
maximised. Further traversing of the probe will drop the signal height on the
CRT in the same manner as for a 6 dB drop but with angle probes the signal is
reduced to 1/10th using a 20 dB drop. This point can be plotted and the defect
size obtained by numerous such manipulations of the probe.
17 Care and Maintenance of Equipment
The care of all ultrasonic equipment follows the same pattern.
Clean all terminations, plugs, leads and controls
Wash off all housings with potable water
Charge all batteries in accordance with manufacture’s recommendations
Do not overcharge (with some batteries this may evolve Hydrogen gas
and cause an explosive hazard)
Store equipment is a dry warm place
Be aware of the danger of electric shock from some components
CHAPTER 9
Magnetic Particle Inspection
1 History of Magnetism
Even in very early times, it was known that magnetite (an iron ore FE3O4)
attracted small pieces of iron. Also, if magnetite were shaped into a shaft and
suspended it would rotate and align its longest axis in a North-South direction.
This gave rise to its name ‘loadstone’, derived from an Anglo-Saxon word
meaning ‘way’ or ‘course’. The directive property of magnetite was utilised in
early navigational devices.
The Frenchman De Magnette discovered the first method of forming an
“artificial” magnet in 1600. He found that heating and hammering an iron bar
produced a ‘power’ in the bar that enabled it to attract pieces of iron. This
power, named after him, was called ‘magnetism’.
In 1819, the German Oested observed a relationship between electricity and
magnetism. He noticed that when a compass was placed near a current-
carrying wire, the compass needle showed a deflection. This phenomenon is
now known as ‘electro-magnetism’.
2 Types of Magnetism
There are three types of magnetism: -
Ferromagnetism
This is shown by materials which can be strongly magnetised and which
show good magnetic properties
Paramagnetism
This is shown by materials, which are weakly attracted by strong magnetic
fields
Diamagnetism
Materials that are repelled by a strong magnetic field show this type of
magnetism. Any externally applied magnetic field induces a ‘like’ magnetic
field within the material; hence repulsion occurs.
Table 9.1 lists some common materials and their magnetic properties.
3 Theory of Magnetism
In ferromagnetic materials, the atoms are gathered together in groups called
domains. These domains have a magnetic moment, one end acting as a north
pole, the other as a south pole. This magnetic moment is created by the
combined effort of the motion of electrons around the nucleus of the atom and
by electron ‘spin’, which is the rotation of the electron about its own axis.
When the material is un-magnetised, the domains lie distributed randomly and
their magnetic effects cancel each other. See Figure 9.2
Figure 9.2
Magnetic Domains
If an external magnetic field is applied to the material the domains are aligned
north to south in a common direction. Hence, one end of the material will be the
north pole and the other the south pole. Figure 9.3 refers.
Figure 9.3
Material in a Magnetised State
3.1 Polarity
When the material is magnetised it has a north and a south pole. These poles
are located at opposite ends of the material and magnetism seems to be
concentrated at these points. The ‘north’ or ‘north seeking’ pole of a magnet is
said to be the pole that points towards the earth’s North Pole; the south pole of
the magnet pointing towards the earth’s South Pole. Magnetic poles show
attraction and repulsion, like poles repelling and unlike poles attracting. See
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.4
Like Poles Repel Unlike Poles Attract
Figure 9.5
Magnetic Field Surrounding
a Bar Magnet
The magnetic field produced by a current-carrying conductor forms closed
circles perpendicular to the conductor, see Figure 9.6 and 9.7.
Figure 9.6
Magnetic Field Surrounding a Conductor
Figure 9.7
Diagram of a Magnetic Field
Surrounding a Conductor
(Figures 9.6, 9.7 and 9.8 attributed to University of Iowa)
is applied, lines of force of magnetism will be created within the specimen, the
number of lines depends on the size of the magnetising force. These lines
represent the magnetic force, and the flux density is the term applied to the
quantity of them that emerge per unit cross section of the specimen.
The unit of flux density is defined as the density of a magnetic field in which a
conductor carrying 1 ampere at right angles to that field has a force of 1 Newton
per metre acting on it. In the SI system this unit is called a Tesla (T). In the CGS
system of units, this was called a gauss (G) and 1 G = 10-4 T (1 T = 104 G). Flux
density is measured as B Tesla.
When a magnetic field is induced in a work piece by an electric current flowing
in a cable arranged either as a coil or parallel conductors the input electrical
force is called the magnetising force (H), and can be defined in the following
way. Consider a very long coil (like a solenoid) uniformly wound with N turns per
meter and let the current flowing in this coil be 1 ampere.
Then the magnetising force H in this coil is N x 1 ampere-turns per meter. (In
common practice the word “turns” is omitted so that the units H are Am-1. In the
CGS units this is called “Orsted” (Oe) and: -
This equation for the magnetising force is the basis of the calculations for how
much current to use to set up an adequate magnetic field for MPI.
In free space (vacuum, air or other non-magnetic material), B = µo H. The value
of µo is 4π x 10-7 (T Am-1) and represents the permeability of free space
(sometimes referred to as the magnetic space constant).
In a magnetic material, B and H can vary independently and the coefficient of
B/H is called the RELATIVE PERMEABILITY and is often given the symbol µr
(for air µr = 1 while for certain nickel-iron alloys it can be as high as 100,000).
Relative permeability is not a constant value; it varies with B and H. Figure 9.8
gives an indication of the relative permeability for a selection of ferromagnetic
materials, including steel.
Figure 9.8
Variation of Relative Permeability
With Magnetising Force
When magnetising a piece of steel using an electrical magnetising force, there
is not a uniform increase in flux density with a uniform increase in magnetising
force see Figure 9.9.
Figure 9.9
Induced Magnetic Field
The flux density rises rapidly to point A on the diagram and thereafter rises very
much less rapidly as the condition approaches saturation of the magnetic field;
i.e. there is a very small rise in flux density for a very large rise in magnetising
force.
The shape of this characteristic and the saturation value varies from material to
material.
The graph shown in Figure 9.10 shows flux density values for different
magnetising currents for a field being set up in one direction by a DC supply. If
the field is set up by an AC supply, then the magnetic field will experience a
complete reversal of direction for each cycle and successive cycles will trace
out a loop for the relationship between magnetising force and flux density. This
is known as the HYSTERESIS LOOP. Figure 9.11 refers.
Figure 9.10
Variation of Flux Density With
Magnetising Force
Figure 9.11
Hysteresis Loop
In Figure 9.11 OP is the initial magnetisation curve as seen in Figure 9.9. After
point P, the current reduces and the flux density reduces. The curve then
passes through Hc’ to Br’ then to P’, which is the maximum flux density for the
magnetic field in the opposite direction. The current now increases again and
the flux density reduces to Hc and as the current increases in the opposite
direction the curve climbs to point P at maximum H. Successive cycles trace out
the hysteresis loop P, Hc’, P’, Hc, P. The loop shows that energy is used up
each cycle and is dissipated in the form of heat and whilst this heating effect is
rapidly dissipated underwater, on land the material being magnetised will get
quite hot. The value of Br indicates that when the magnetising force is removed
the material will still be magnetic. The name for this is remanence (or residual
magnetism in the USA) and Hc is the magnetising force required to remove it.
This is known as coercivity. In practice, the residual magnetism is removed by
gradually reducing the magnetising force (lowering the current) so that the loops
get smaller, thus reducing the residual magnetism. Figure 9.15 following refers.
4.1 Remanence or Residual Magnetism
Remanence or residual magnetism is the magnetic flux density that remains in
a material when the magnetizing force is zero. (Note that residual magnetism and
retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to the saturation point.
However, the level of residual magnetism may be lower than the retentivity value when the
magnetizing force did not reach the saturation level.).
The terms retentivity and permeability have been used in connection with
magnetism and MPI for very many years and while they still remain in use the
Figure 9.13
Field Strength Indicator Diagram
Figure 9.14
Field Indicator
This residual field should be removed: -
Prior to MPI to prevent the possibility of magnetic vector fields that would
reduce the sensitivity of the inspection
o A vector is the result of two opposing forces that is orientated in a
different direction to either of them. With an unknown residual field
interacting or opposing the applied field the vector will be
unpredictable
On offshore structures before MPI as they are fixed in the earth’s
magnetic field subject to constant vibration and may be weakly magnetic
After the inspection so as not to interfere with any sensitive electronic or
electrical equipment
Prior to welding as residual magnetic fields may cause arc blow
As required before any other process is initiated that may be affected by
stray residual magnetic fields
The process is illustrated in Figure 9.15 and only requires that the hysteresis be
collapsed. This can be achieved most easily electrically by reducing the
magnetising force over a short period of time as indicated in the diagram.
Practically this may be accomplished by winding a coil around the site to be
demagnetised then using a rheostat to ‘wind down’ the current as opposed to
switching it off which would leave a residual field.
Figure 9.15
Collapsing the Hysteresis Loop
To Demagnetise a Material
There are other methods for demagnetising other than reducing the current with
a rheostat.
4.7 AC Aperture Coil
A pre-formed coil consisting of a large number of windings with internal
diameters up to approximately 1 m is connected to an AC supply. The supply is
switched on, which generates a strong magnetic field surrounding the coil. This
equipment is bench mounted. Any component that is to be demagnetised is
passed slowly through the coil along its axis and withdrawn approximately 1½ to
2 m. As the component is withdrawn it cuts fewer and fewer lines of flux, which
collapses the hysteresis. See Figure 9.16
Figure 9.16
AC Coil
Figure 9.17
Reversing DC Coil
4.9 AC Electromagnets
If an AC induced the residual field it can be removed by stroking with an
electromagnet. The stroking is accomplished in a circular manner ensuring the
return path is as far removed from the metal surface as possible. Figure 9.18
refers.
Figure 9.18
Demagnetising With an AC Yoke
(This method may also be applied with a permanent magnet.)
Figure 9.19
Permanent Magnets
Inducing Magnetic Flux
5.1.2 Strength Required for MPI Permanent Magnets
The strength for a permanent magnet used in MPI is stated in BS EN ISO 9934-
1:2001 (this replaces BS 6072:1981 which remains current).
The requirement is that the permanent magnet must be able to lift at least 18
kilograms with a pole spacing of between 75 to 150 mm. The area that can be
inspected lies between the poles and extends to half the pole spacing at right
angles to this dimension. If the magnet is too weak the field will be insufficient to
give a clear magnetic pattern, if too strong a dense accumulation of iron
particles from the detection medium will make the patterns difficult to interpret,
especially in the region of the pole pieces.
On straight work pieces like plates and cylinders good contact between the pole
pieces and the work pieces is easily obtained by having shaped pole pieces, flat
for plate and radiused for cylindrical-shaped work pieces. For more complicated
shapes, for example when examining the weld at 12 o’clock on the joint of a
vertical diagonal member on a node, the pole pieces need to rotate as well as
being shaped in order to make good contact. Figure 9.20 refers
Figure 9.20
Flexible Pole Electro-magnet
Electro-magnets have the advantage that they can be applied and removed
from the work piece easily when the current is off, but this system does need an
electrical supply.
5.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Permanent Magnets
Any system used for testing will have advantages and disadvantages and the
use of permanent magnets, as a system for MPI is no exception.
5.1.3.1 Advantages
Magnets are cheap and readily available
No power supply is required for permanent magnets
There are no contact problems with the poles and the work piece, thus arching
or damage to the surface is avoided
They will be self-supporting and can be used overhead easily
They are relatively lightweight
5.1.3.2 Disadvantages
All permanent magnets loose strength with age and each time a magnet is used
it will loose a small amount of its strength
They only produce a direct longitudinal field. There is no skin effect.
The magnet will have to be physically removed from the work piece which will
take some force if it is a 18 kg lift magnet or stronger.
There is no control over field strength; the magnet only has one value. This may
cause saturation in some circumstances.
The magnetic poles on the magnet may attract the iron particles in the
indicating medium and mask defect indications in the region adjacent to the
poles.
Good pole contact is extremely desirable to ensure maximum flux density in the
work piece.
5.2 Electromagnet (or ‘Yoke’)
Electromagnets are constructed of a soft iron laminated core around which is
wound very many turns of insulated copper wire thus forming a coil. The reason
for using a laminated core is to reduce inductance when the current is flowing.
If an AC electromagnet is used the induced magnetic field will exhibit the skin
effect.
The method of application is as shown for a permanent magnet.
5.2.1 Strength Required for MPI Electromagnets
The strength for an electromagnet used in MPI is stated in BS EN ISO 9934-
1:2001.
The requirement is that the electromagnet must be able to lift 4 ½ kilograms
with pole spacing up to 300 mm. As with permanent magnets the inspection
area should be between the poles. See Figures 9.20 and 9.21
Figure 9.21
Electromagnet
5.2.2 Advantages
Either AC or pulsed DC can be used to induce the magnetic field
The current can be adjusted thus controlling flux density
The magnetising current can be switched off for easy removal from the metal
surface
Figure 9.22
Magnetic Field Produced
by Current Flow Prods
When using this technique, care must be taken to ensure that the contact areas
are sufficiently clean to pass the current required without arching or burning.
To ensure that arching is avoided the following applies: -
Do not turn on the magnetising current until there is full and adequate
prod contact
Turn the power off before the prods are removed from the test surface
The prods should have soft tips to assist with good prod contact
Use only low voltage
The prods may be separate, when two hands are required, or mounted on a
bar, which allows one-handed operation.
Direct or alternating current (DC or AC) may be used. DC produces magnetic
fields that penetrate deeper into the work piece. AC produces a ‘skin effect’
which confines the current and therefore the magnetic field, to the surface skin
of the metal.
5.3.1 Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per
second. In the United States, 60 cycles current is the commercial norm but 50
cycles current is standard in the UK. Since AC is readily available in most
facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle inspection.
However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials
the magnetic field will be limited to narrow region at the surface of the
component. This phenomenon is known as “skin effect” and it occurs because
induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing current does
not allow the domains down in the material time to align. Therefore, it is
recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to surface
defects. See Figure 9.23
Figure 9.23
Skin Effect in a Circular Component
When the conductor is carrying alternating current, the internal magnetic field
strength rises from zero at the centre to a maximum at the surface. However,
the field is concentrated in a thin layer near the surface of the conductor. This is
the "skin effect." It should also be remembered that with AC the field is
constantly varying in strength and direction.
OIS of Great Yarmouth manufacture and supply a composite MPI unit that is
purpose designed and built for underwater use. See Figure 9.24.
Figure 9.24
OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit
and Current Flow Prods
In the case of prod testing the advantages and disadvantages are listed below
5.3.2 Advantages
Either AC or DC may be used
Low voltage may be used (typically 3 V)
Adjusting current output will control Field strength
There will be no collection of indicating medium around the prods
5.3.3 Disadvantages
Without good prod contact there will be no induced magnetic field
A heavy transformer must be used to drop the voltage
There is always the danger of arching on the metal surface
There is a danger of overheating the equipment
If arching does occur metal inclusions from the prod tips may result
5.4 Induced Magnetism Using a Coil
A conductor carrying a current induces a circular magnetic field around it as
shown with prods. Therefore, ferromagnetic materials near the conductor will be
in this magnetic field and lines of magnetic flux will be concentrated in them as
they have less magnetic resistance than air.
However, a different shaped magnetic field will be produced if the conductor is
wound in the form of a coil around the material to be tested. See Figure 9.25
Figure 9.25
Longitudinal Magnetisation Produced Inside a Coil
A ferromagnetic material placed in the coil, or outside parallel to and touching
the coil, will experience longitudinal magnetism.
This method is widely used offshore and two practical applications will serve to
show how the technique may be applied.
5.4.1 Evenly Spaced Coil
A flexible cable is wound around the test piece so that the area under inspection
is contained within the encircling coil with individual wraps of the coil being
evenly spaced equidistant to each other. Figure 9.26 refers.
Figure 9.26
Evenly Spaced Coil
The current requirement for this technique is determined from the formulas: -
Where
I = Required current (DC)
T = Wall thickness of the work piece
Y = Coil spacing
4 = Constant
7.5 = constant
If AC is to be used the formula is modified to: -
Where
I = Required current (AC)
10 = Constant
Y = Coil spacing
7.7 = Constant
As AC will produce magnetic flux only on the skin of the work piece the
thickness of the material is of no consequence therefore another constant 10
replaces T.
5.4.2 Close Wrapped Coil
In this technique the inspection area does not have to lie inside the encircling
coils. However, the test zone must still lie close enough to the ends of the coil to
ensure an adequate flux density in this area. Figure 9.27 refers.
Figure 9.27
Close Wrapped Coil
The current requirement for this technique is determined by the formula: -
Where
I peak = The peak current value (AC)
r = The radius of the coil (mm)
N = Number of turns in the coil (minimum 3)
16 = Constant
The distance either end of the coil where minimum field strength of 1.0 Tesla
should be present is given by the formula: -
Where
d = Width of the inspection area (where field strength = 1.0 T)
N = Number of turns in the coil
I = Peak current (Amps)
30 = Constant
It is also possible to produce a transverse magnetic field by looping the
conductor into a configuration called ‘parallel loops’, see Figure 9.28
Figure 9.28
Parallel Loops
This produces a transverse field between the two sides of the loop. The loop
has to be positioned so that the current in the two sides of it is moving in the
same direction or else the magnetic fields will tend to cancel instead of
reinforce. Furthermore the return cables not forming the parallel loops must be
a minimum of 10d away from the inspection area as shown in Figure 9.28. The
direction of the field may be ascertained by applying the “right hand rule”. The
required current may be found by applying the formula: -
I peak (ac) = 30 x d
It will be noted that this is the coil end effect formula transposed.
5.4.2.1 The Right Hand Rule
If the thumb of the right hand is extended in a ‘thumbs up’ gesture and the
fingers are loosely gripped the thumb indicates the conventional current flow
and the fingers indicate the direction of the circular magnetic field produced.
See Figure 9.29
Figure 9.29
The Right Hand Rule
The OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI unit may be used for this technique. Current up to
1000 Amps can be used. See Figure 9.30
Figure 9.31
OIS Mark 2 Sub-sea MPI Unit
Showing Flexible Cables Connected That May
be used as Parallel Conductors or Encircling Coils
Figure 9.31
Variation of Types of Defects Giving Indications
as the Field Strength Increases
5.5.2 Residual Magnetisation
In the residual technique the work piece is magnetised and the indicating
medium is still applied at the same time. However, the actual inspection is
completed with the magnetising force removed and the work piece is examined
with only any residual field producing the flux leakage at any discontinuities. As
these fields are much weaker than those produced by the continuous method
there is much lower sensitivity. Of course, the technique does eliminate
spurious or false indications.
Underwater it could be used re-inspect any suspect area where the suspicion is
that a false indication has been identified.
6 How Defects Interact With the Induced Magnetic Field
Surface breaking and near-surface indications are detectable by MPI because
of the way these discontinuities interact with the induced magnetic field.
The defect will cause a distortion of the magnetic field because either its
permeability is different to the surrounding metal or consequential poles are
formed at the parameters of surface breaking discontinuities. In either case the
flux density will increase. This is referred to as FLUX LEAKAGE.
With a distortion in the field the flux lines will be grouped together raising the
field strength while with consequential poles the tension in the lines of flux will
increase; there will be increased field density due to this, as with the poles of a
magnet. See Figure 9.32
Figure 9.33
Discontinuities Interacting
With the Magnetic Field
The orientation of the defect to the direction of flow of the lines of flux will
determine how strong an indication will be, or even if an indication will be seen
at all. The strongest indication will be given by discontinuities at 90o to the lines
of flux as it cuts through the maximum number and causes most distortion to
the field, if the orientation is at 45o the indication will be less strong because the
defect is cutting less flux lines. If the flaw is parallel with the lines of force it will
not cut any and will not be seen, as it gives no indication. Figure 9.34 refers.
Figure 9.34
Flaw Orientation
Because of the affect that defect orientation has on how strong an indication will
be given it is most important that the induced magnetic field be applied in two
directions, perpendicular to each other. This will ensure maximum sensitivity for
the test and should ensure that all defects are identified no matter what their
orientation within the magnetic field.
7 Detection of the Magnetic Field
In MPI it is essential that a diver inspector know that a magnetic field does
actually exist in the test area that has been set up. There are test devices;
called flux indicators available designed specifically to detect magnetic fields.
Those that are used underwater will be examined and explained. The minimum
flux density required in the test area for a valid inspection is 1Tesla.
7.1 Burmah Castrol Strips
This is a strip of steel that has 3 fine longitudinal cuts in it. This is completely
encased in two strips of brass. When this is placed in a magnetic field at 90o to
the expected orientation and indicating medium is applied, the cuts will appear
as crack indications provided the field is strong enough. These are available
with different degrees of sensitivity. See figure 9.34 and 9.39
Figure 9.34
Burmah Castrol Strip
7.2 Berthold Penetrameter
The Berthold Penetrameter is shown in Figure 9.35. When the Penetrameter is
placed on the work piece being magnetised, some of the induced flux is
‘shunted’ to two slits cut at right angles in the soft iron cylindrical stud that is the
test element. The flux leakage at these air gaps in the test element can be
detected by applying indicating medium to the thin plate that is held in place by
a screw thread and covers the test element. The indication is a thin line of
indicator where the iron particles have collected at the flux leakage. The
direction of the field can be deduced from which line of the cross is shown up.
The field lies at right angles to this line. Varying the distance between the test
element and the plate that covers it will control the sensitivity. Screwing or
unscrewing the cap and setting the calibration numbers against a datum mark
on the swivel holder achieves this.
Figure 9.36
Berthold Penetrameter
7.3 Gauss Meter
This is an electric powered meter that will read the field strength directly from
the input of a probe that is applied to the test area. The meter gives a digital
readout in Tesla. Figure 9.36 refers
Figure 9.36
Combined Gauss Meter
and White and Black Light Meter
Figure 9.37
Settlement Flask
The recommended concentrations for a valid result are different for different
inks.
8.2.2 Fluorescent Inks
Ferromagnetic particles 0.1% to 0.3% (0.6 – 2.4 gm l-1) by volume in the ink
Other solids 10% by weight
8.2.3 Non-fluorescent Inks
Ferromagnetic particles 1.25% to 3.5% (6 – 24 gm l-1) by volume in the ink
Other solids 10% by weight
8.2.4 Carrier Fluid
Water or paraffin
Soluble Additives no more than 10% by weight
9 Lighting and Viewing Conditions
As the chosen method for detecting MPI indications is vision the ambient light
conditions and the quality and quantity of ultraviolet light must be at correct
levels. The standards for adequate lighting is stated in BS EN ISO 3059:2001.
The minimum requirements for ambient and ultraviolet light as stated in the
standard are summarised below.
Figure 9.38
Testing Output From
A Black Light
Figure 9.39
OIS Underwater Black Light
With Castrol Strip Attached by Cord
10 Cleaning Standard
The inspection area must be cleaned to a minimum SA 2 ½ (for a weld this
must be for at least 75 mm either side of the weld). Additionally sufficient
general cleaning (SA 1) must be completed to allow intimate contact for
magnetising apparatus. See Chapter 10 Figure 10.3.
11 Alternative Forms of Electric Current Applied in MPI
Inducing a magnetic field into a work piece electrically was examined in
paragraph 5 where it was stated that either DC or AC might be used. The type
of current must be considered further as the induced magnetic field strength
and characteristics are determined by this current.
First consider measuring electricity. Either current or voltage may be measured.
For the purpose of inducing a magnetic field the amperage is the more
important value. In underwater inspection the voltage is kept as low as possible
for safety reasons and typically only about 4 volts potential is applied to the coils
or prods. However, up to 1000 A may well be used.
Direct Current
Considering DC firstly the actual current flow is in one direction only, from
positive to negative conventionally. This can be shown on a graph thus
Figure 9.40: -
Figure 9.40
Direct Current
Using DC to induce a magnetic field will produce a field that penetrates into
the work piece and will be a better method for discovering defects that are
just below the metal surface. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field
produced by DC generally penetrates the entire cross-section of the
component; whereas, the field produced using alternating current is
concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the component.
Alternating Current
AC reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 Hz. In the UK, 50 Hz current is
the commercial norm but 60 Hz current is common in many countries. Since
AC is readily available in most facilities, it is convenient to make use of it for
MPI. However, when AC is used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic
materials the magnetic field will be limited to a narrow region at the surface
of the component. This phenomenon is known as "skin effect" and it occurs
because induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the rapidly reversing
current does not allow the domains down in the material time to align.
Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is
limited to surface defects. See Figure 9.41
Figure 9.41
Alternating Current
Furthermore as the current is constantly reversing no single value for the
current can be measured. To determine a single measured value for an AC
the Root Mean Square (RMS) value is calculated. This is indicated on
Figure 9.41. To calculate the RMS value all that is required is to divide the
peak value by the constant 1.414. The normal situation is that an amperage
reading indicates the current being applied. The meter will be indicating an
RMS value. Therefore to obtain the peak value multiply the meter reading by
1.414. (This may be required if the applied current is close to the saturation
value for the work piece).
Rectified Alternating Current
Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since some inspection
applications may call for the detection of sub-surface defects. However, the
convenient access to AC drives its use beyond surface flaw inspections.
However, AC can easily be converted to current that is very much like DC
through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers, the reversing
AC can be converted to a one-directional current. The three commonly used
types of rectified current are described below. See Figure 9.42
Figure 9.42
Rectified Alternating Current
(Figures 9.30, and 9.43 attributed to University of Iowa)
Figure 9.43
Spurious or Non-relevant Indications
14 Reporting Indications
Any indications should be reported in a standard manner.
The distance from the datum mark
The length
The orientation and position relative to the weld
Whether the indication is strong or weak
Whether the indication is continuous or intermittent
Whether it branches or not with the orientation of any branches
Position of the indication, whether on the weld, toe, HAZ, parent plate
etc.
Always use the correct terminology.
An example of a report sheet is reproduced in Figure 9.44
Figure 9.44
Sample Data Report Sheet
15 Recording Indications
The actual MPI indications may be recorded in a number of ways.
15.1 Ultraviolet Photography
A conventional photograph can be taken using either: -
An ultraviolet lamp and a long exposure on the camera
An appropriate ultraviolet filter on the strobe and expose for the flash
15.2 Cast
This is used with dry powder not ink and therefore has no underwater
application. The indication is exposed with the dry powder and a cast such as
‘microset’ is applied. The dry powder particles are captured in the cast.
15.3 Foil Packets (‘Magfoil’)
These are supplied in ready-made packets that have two compartments that are
separated by an internal barrier that is ruptured when the packet is applied to
the test site. The two compartments contain magnetic particles and the mixing
liquid that are kept apart until the barrier is ruptured. A triangular wire flux
indicator is also mounted inside the packet.
The method of operation is to break the internal barrier and mix the contents by
manipulating the bag. This takes approximately 45 seconds and the contents
will take on a grey colour.
Apply the bag to the test site. The contents will remain liquid for 100
seconds.
Apply the magnetising force during this period
The defect indication will be recorded as a white mark in the packet
Leave the packet in place until the liquid sets (approximately 5 minutes)
The packet can then be removed and the indication length and breadth
can be measured. These dimensions will give an indication of defect
length and depth
15.4 Video
Some video cameras will capture the visible light of the fluorescent particles
when the ultraviolet light is directed on them. This signal can be recorded on
disc.
15.5 Rubberised Tape Transfer
An adhesive rubberised tape can be applied to a dry indication. The magnetic
particles adhere to the tape, which can then be peeled off. This cannot be
applied underwater. It may have a possible use in a welding habitat.
16 Factors Affecting MPI Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a magnetic particle inspection is the effectiveness with which
the test will discover defects and crack-like features in the material. This will
depend in the main on three factors: -
The diver inspector
The equipment being used
The conditions on site
For maximum efficiency of the operation, the diver inspector should, as well as
being comfortable and as well equipped for the dive as possible: -
Have confidence in his ability to use the equipment for a particular test
Be confident in his own ability to detect defects with it
Be sure of the value of his contribution to the efficiency and safety of the
plant or structure he is inspecting.
These last three points are obtained from the competence and confidence
imparted to the inspector by good training and an active involvement in the
inspection function.
The sensitivity of the magnetic particle test will depend on several factors, some
of which will be within the control of the inspector and others not. The sensitivity
of detection depends ultimately on the contrast that can be produced between
the defect and its surroundings and the definition, which tells the size, shape
and orientation of the defect.
Figure 9.45 shows some of the factors that will affect the performance. Like a
chain, it will only be as good as its weakest link.
Figure 9.45
Sensitivity of a Magnetic Particle Inspection
16.1 Factors Affecting Contrast
The following points should be considered in connection with the contrast of the
test.
16.1.1 Surface Condition (1)
The effectiveness of the cleaning processes to produce a bright finish is an
important factor here. A paint background would help if coloured magnetic
particles were being used.
16.1.2 Lighting (2)
If the ambient lighting is too high, for example because of bright sun near the
surface, the tests must be done at night when fluorescent inks are used. The
diver inspector should monitor regularly the intensity of the ultraviolet lamp to
detect any deterioration in brightness, which would decrease the efficiency of
detecting defects.
Figure 9.46
Field Strength
Flux: Lines of force in a magnetic field
Flux Density: The number of flux lines per unit area. The
unit is the Tesla (T), symbol B, 1.0 T is the
minimum flux density required for MPI.
Flux Indictor: An implement used to indicate the amount of
flux density produced by an external
magnetising force.
Flux Leakage: A point where a line of flux leaves a material
or the pole of a magnet.
Hysteresis: A diagram produced by plotting field
strength (H) against flux density (B).
Permeability (µ): The ease with which a material can be
magnetised.
Poles: The ends of a bar or horseshoe magnet
where flux leakage occurs.
Reluctance: The resistance to the flow of flux in a material,
equivalent to resistance in electricity.
Residual Magnetism: The amount of magnetism remaining in a
material after the external field is removed.
Retentivity: The point on the hysteresis loop that indicates
the residual magnetism in a material that
remains after the magnetising force is
removed.
Saturation: The point at which a material will not accept
any more lines of flux.
Vector Field: The resultant field orientation that is caused
by two fields simultaneously interacting with
each at different angles within a component.
Bibliography
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Iowa State University
Web site
CHAPTER 10
Cleaning for Inspection and Profile Grinding
1 General Comments
There are two prime reasons for cleaning areas of structures. The first is to
prepare the area for CVI, MPI or other NDT. The second is to remove excessive
marine growth, debris or other fouling. In either case only discrete areas of the
structure will be cleaned, not the entire jacket. A number of methods for
cleaning exist and are tabulated in Table 10.1
Table 10.1
1.1 HP Water Jets
HP water jets are widely used offshore as are the grit entrainment and LP grit
blasting systems. These methods of cleaning have potential to harm the
operator and therefore some safety considerations must be included with any
discussion as to their use. A Hughes standard system is shown in Figure 10.2
Figure 10.2
Hughes HP Water Jet
Safety considerations are:
Never block or wire the trigger open
When in use never point at anything other then the area to be cleaned
Keep clear of any retro-jets
Never get any part of the body in front of the jet
Ensure that all HP hoses, fittings and unions are in test, good condition
and are correctly fitted and tightened
If grit is used be aware of the grit entering the life-support system
because of circulation in the water
If grit penetrates the suit or gloves take medical advice immediately
Treat the equipment with respect, it is capable of maiming or even killing
if not handled correctly
All HP water jet or grit guns must be properly designed for underwater
use.
1.2 Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) Advice
The Diving Medical Advisory Committee (DMAC) has published the following
advice on managing any accident that might occur while using this type of
equipment.
The wound caused may appear insignificant and give little indication of the
extent of the injury beneath ant the damage to deeper tissue. Large quantities
of water may have punctured the skin, flesh and organs through a very small
hole that may not even bleed.
Initial mild damage to the wall of an organ may result in subsequent rupture,
particularly if infection has been introduced. The development of subsequent
infection is particularly important in abdominal injuries.
1.3 Management of any Injury
The outcome depends upon the extent of the initial injury and the presence or
absence of infection and even through the injury seems trivial on the surface
and the patient has no complaints, it is of great importance to arrange for
medical examination as quickly as possible. Where surgical examination is not
immediately possible in a remote situation, first aid measures are confined to
dressing the wound and observing the patient closely for the development of
further complaints over four or five days. The development of fever and a rising
pulse rate suggest the injury is serious together with persistence or occurrence
of pain. On evacuation, the diver should carry the following card, which outlines
the possible nature of the injury.
This man has been involved with high pressure water jetting up to 14,500
psi (100Mpa, 1000 bar, 1019 Kgcm-2) with a jet velocity of 900 mph (1440
Kmhr-1). Please take this into account when making your diagnosis.
Unusual infections with micro-aerophilic organism occurring at low
temperatures have been reported. These may be gram negative pathogens
such as are found in sewage, bacterial swabs and blood cultures may
therefore be helpful
2 Standard of Surface Finish
The standard of surface finish that is normally adopted in the North Sea was
originally a Swedish standard for specifying blast cleaning of steel prior to the
application of paint coatings. This standard in now incorporated into BS EN ISO
8501-1:2001, BS 7079-A1: 1989 and .BS EN ISO 8501-1: Supplement: 2001,
BS 7079-A1: Supplement 1: 1996 The specifications from these standard
normally applied offshore are:
SA 1
Light cleaning, removal of gross fouling (for general visual inspection)
SA 2
Cleaning to paint coat including removal of loose paint and corrosion
products
SA 2 ½
Very thorough blast cleaning with grit entrainment resulting in dull matt metal
finish. (This is the most widely adopted cleaning level applied offshore as it
leave a surface, sometimes referred to as stippled, that does not unduly
reflect light. It is an excellent surface for CVI, MPI Video, Photography and
all other NDT.)
SA 3
Thorough blast cleaning to bright shiny metal. This is good for most
inspection but will reflect light and is therefore not such a good surface if
Video and Photography are employed.
3 Area to Be Cleaned
The size of the cleaned area must be large enough to ensure that there is a
valid inspection but small enough to ensure that time is not wasted in un-
necessary cleaning.
For CVI and MPI the area cleaned to SA 2 ½ should include the weld and an
area 75mm wide either side of it. Also an area large enough to allow access for
inspection equipment and the diver inspector should be cleaned to SA 1 either
side of the weld. An area approximately 1m wide should be sufficient. See
Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3
Cleaned Area
4 Profile Grinding
Profile grinding may be required during the fabrication stage of the structure’s
life as a means of improving the profile of fabrication welds that may have
process faults such as, excessive weld metal, undercut, poor restart, stray arc,
spatter or any other fabrication flaws. If pressure vessels such as caissons and
conductors are constructed to PD 5500:2000 all welds should be dressed to
comply with the requirements of the standard. Profile grinding obviously has an
established place in welding fabrication.
Regarding the in-service stage for any structure the need to employ profile
grinding may be dictated by:
The need to establish whether or not any indications identified during
MPI or EMD investigations are actually cracks
The requirement to grind out any cracks that are actually confirmed
during inspection activities
The practice of removing identified notches and stress raisers discovered
during the normal IMR cycle
When profile or remedial grinding is undertaken it will be authorised either by
the CNC or by instructions from the Duty Holder’s engineering department via
the on site Client Representative. The actual parameters for the grinding will be
given in a written instruction.
4.1 Profile Grinding
The most common application of remedial grinding is when crack-like features
are identified during either MPI or EMD activities undertaken as part of the
annual IMR program.
A common inclusion in a typical CNC is the instruction to grind out any
indications to a maximum depth of 2mm in 0.5mm steps. There is normally a
requirement to re-inspect after each step to determine whether the indication
has been ground out or not.
The on-shore engineering department in accordance with their requirements
and procedures will initiate further follow up actions if the indication remains
after the full 2mm depth is reached. Figure 10.4 applies.
Figure 10.4
Remedial Grinding
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
CHAPTER 11
Other NDT Methods Used Offshore
1 Introduction
There are a number of non-destructive test methods employed for particular
inspection tasks on offshore structures. These methods may not be used so
frequently as the NDT techniques outlined in Chapter 1 but they are important
additions to the spread of techniques that can be employed to test structural
integrity. An outline of the methods, principles of operation, advantages,
disadvantages and uses are contained below.
2 Radiography
Radiography is a well-proven method of NDT that has been employed in
industry for many years to test welds and many other items. It is extensively
used in the Health Service as X-rays to enable health workers to see inside the
human body. Offshore radiography is used in pipeline survey, topside platform
inspections and occasionally underwater for specific tasks. The world’s Navies
employ radiography for specialist mine disposal activities. Table 18.2 indicates
the advantages and disadvantages of the method as a non-destructive test.
Advantages Disadvantages
Permanent records are produced as Safety requirements are very high
radiographs
The radiograph can be viewed by Storage and transport of the
many radioactive sources are expensive
due to the safety requirements
It is a well proven method In the UK Government approval is
required
Measurements can usually be taken The radiographers must be HSE
directly off the radiograph controlled and carry dosimeters
Cleaning standard is only SA 1 Costs are high because of the safety
requirements and the production
methods to produce radioactive
isotopes
Interpretation of the radiograph often
requires trained radiographic
interpreters
Table 18.2
Advantages and Disadvantages
of Radiography as an NDT Technique
3 Production of Radiation
Radiography employs two methods of producing radiation and two types of
radiation, X-rays and Gamma (γ) rays. X-rays are produced electronically and
therefore there is no storage of radioactive sources but the equipment is bulky
and heavy, γ rays are produced by radioactive isotopes that are always a
source of radiation and are therefore always potentially harmful to personnel
and storage must be extremely carefully controlled.
3.1 X-ray Production
X-rays can be produced within a thermionic valve where a stream of electrons
emitted from the cathode bombards an anode. The impact of the electrons on
the anode produces photons or X-rays. See Figure 11.2
Figure 11.2
Production of X-rays
As well as being bulky and heavy high voltages are required to produce the
electron stream and this presents a hazard to diver deployment. Commercially
this equipment is not used underwater.
4 Production of γ Rays
γ Radiation is produced by the spontaneous disintegration of the nuclei of an
unstable element as it emits particles thereby reducing to a lower energy state
to become stable. The units of measure of this radiation are the Curie (Ci).
Some radioactive isotopes exist naturally but they emit low levels of radiation
and bombarding certain elements, such as Iridium, with neutrons, produces
artificial isotopes. This changes the atomic structure of the element because the
neutrons are captured in its nucleus.
The most common source used offshore is Iridium 192 that has a radiation
output of some 480 Ci when first produced. This drops as the isotope ages.
Iridium 192 can penetrate approximately 90mm of steel but is normally limited to
Figure 11.3
Diver Deployed Radioactive Source in Housing
Figure 11.4
Source Placed at 12 O’clock
Setup for First Exposure
(Arrow indicates direction of 3 o’clock)
Figure 11.5
Source Connected to Surface Unlocked
with Key Removed Ready to be exposed
Figure 11.6
Placing Film Cassettes for Double Wall
Single Image Technique
4.1 Safety
It is imperative to maintain an 8m-exclusion zone at all times. The most
important factor when handling radioactive sources is safety; there can be no
compromise. The company supplying the source, equipment and radiographers
must be Home Office approved and the staff are all ‘badged’ and monitored.
5 How the Method Works
The radiation emitted from the source will cause silver halides contained in the
film emulsion to react in the same way that light causes a reaction in
photography. The more radiation falling on the film the darker it will appear
when developed. Figure 11.7 illustrates the method.
Figure 11.7
Radiation Exposing the Film
The preferred method of recording an image is the single wall, single image or
panoramic technique, which is illustrated in Figure 11.8. The alternative when
there is only access to one side is the double wall single image technique as
shown in Figure 11.6.
Figure 11.8
Single Wall Single Image or
Panoramic Technique
Figure 11.9
Image Quality Indicator
6 Electro Magnetic Detection Techniques (EMD or EMT)
Eddy current testing of welds is widespread offshore because developments
have taken place to improve the equipment design to better adapt it to the
environment. Eddy current techniques are used to: -
Detect and size for length and depth surface breaking cracks in
conducting materials whether magnetic or non-magnetic
Inspecting tubes and bar materials during production
Sorting pure metals and alloys
Taking coating thickness measurements
Figure 11.10
The Eddy Current Principle
These eddy currents will induce another magnetic field that is called the
secondary field, which has the opposite orientation to the primary field. These
two fields can be balanced via the instrumentation that can have a display that
would then read zero.
This would be the case with a plane conducting material with no discontinuities.
If there were a surface breaking crack in the plate this will cause the lines of
current flow to bunch together which in turn will cause the induced lines of
magnetic flux to bunch. As seen in Chapter 9 this increases the flux density, this
in turn increases the magnetic field strength in the secondary magnetic field.
This causes an imbalance between the two fields that will be indicated on the
instrument display, which is commonly a CRT. Figure 11.11 refers.
Figure 18.12
Effects of a Crack
Interacting With the
Eddy Currents
There are a number of factors that can affect the eddy currents apart from
surface breaking cracks: -
Probe lift off can cause spurious indications
Varying permeability can cause spurious indications
If the probe is close to the edge of a plate “edge effect” will cause
spurious indications
Differences in material thickness can cause spurious indications
Figure 11.12 refers
Figure 18.13
Spurious Indications
Can size a defect for length and Well proven industrial technique
depth
Lower cleaning standard required Better for use with remedial grinding
Table 11.13
Advantages of EMD/ACFM over MPI
Finally there are a number of important points to note that must apply during
any EMD or ACFM inspection.
The probe operation must be agreed between the surface technician and
the diver inspector
The terminology to be used during the dialogue between the technician
and the diver inspector must be agreed and understood by both
Cleaning standard must be a minimum of SA 2
Figure 11.14
Methodology for ACPD
To size the depth of the crack the two readings are compared and a simple
formula is applied to calculate the actual crack depth. A probe designed for
underwater deployment is shown in Figure 11.15.
Figure 11.15
ACPD Underwater Probe
8 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM)
ACFM will find and size surface-breaking defects in most metals even through
coatings up to 5mm thick. ACFM has largely replaced MPI offshore in the UK
sector of the North Sea. The method is applied by diver inspectors and may be
achievable by ROVs in the near future. The diver inspector manipulates the
probe and the surface technician interprets the results and records the data.
The minimum qualification for the diver inspector is 3.1U. A 3.2U diver inspector
is often specified; however as remedial grinding may be necessary. The
scanning techniques and terminology are as for the EMD techniques in
paragraph 7.1 above. ROV deployed probes will require 3.3U qualified
personnel.
Cleaning standard of SA 1 is required.
8.1 How the Method Works
The ACFM method was evolved to combine the ACPD technique of sizing with
a method that does not require surface contact. This is achieved by inducing an
electric field similar to EMD methods. With ACFM the induced electric field then
induces magnetic fields as with EMD methods and these magnetic fields are
measured electronically to determine crack length and depth. The fact that
electric fields exhibit the skin effect is utilised to confine the measurement of the
magnetic field to the crack area only. Figure 11.16 refers.
Figure 11.16
Principle of Operation of ACFM
Figure 11.17
Radiographic FMD
Figure 11.18
Radiographic FMD Mounted on ROV
10 Ultrasonic FMD
The ultrasonic technique uses a standoff ultrasonic method with an A-scan
display. The 500 kHz probe is mounted on a standoff frame which must be held
exactly at the normal to the surface of the member. The ultrasonic signal is
propagated through the water to the near wall of the member. If the member is
dry there is a reflected signal from the near wall only. If the member is flooded
there is a reflected signal from the near wall and from, either the far wall or the
surface of the internal water. It is a “go/no go” method the same as the
radiographic technique. Figure 11.19 refers.
Figure 11.19
Ultrasonic FMD
The cleaning standard is SA 2. As this method is diver deployed the necessary
cleaning can be accomplished by the diver prior to taking the reading.
11 General Point for all FMD Readings
All FMD readings must be taken at either the 6 o’clock position on any
horizontal members or as low as possible on any vertical or vertical diagonal
members. This is because this is the point where liquid will accumulate. It is
also vital to know the diameter and wall thickness of any member that is to be
tested.
Bibliography
A Handbook for Underwater Inspectors
L K Porter
HMSO
Underwater Inspection
M Bayliss, D Short, M Bax
E & F N Spon
Appendix 1
Extract of Offshore
Technology Report OTH 84 206
Category A (Defects)
Cracks
Cracks can be divided into three categories:
Fine cracks – not more than 1mm wide
Medium cracks – between 1mm and 2mm wide
Wide cracks – more than 2mm wide
The edges of the fracture are normally sharp and the aggregate may also be
fractured. The usual cause is structural movement. Although all concrete
structures have some cracks in them they will not become significant until they
are measurable, which usually only occurs in-service
Delamination
A Delamination is a thin sheet of concrete, which has become partially or
completely detached from the main structure. Beneath the Delamination the
surface of the structure is much rougher and shows aggregate. Delamination is
caused by corrosion of a layer of reinforcement or possibly impact damage and
is principally an in-service defect
Pop-out
A pop out is a small conical depression in the concrete surface, usually with a
piece of corroding reinforcement at its base. It is caused by the expansion of
isolated particles in the concrete or by corrosion of the ends of reinforcing bars.
This causes the surface of the concrete to be put under tension and will so
produce local failure in the form of a conical piece of the concrete popping out
from the structure. The edges will usually be sharp and well defined. Pop outs
are an in-service defect
Impact Damage
Impact damage is described as a rough area in which the smooth surface of the
concrete has been removed by means of a blow or impact. It is caused by a
blow from an object, which will dislodge part of the structure usually at the
edges or corners. Impact damage could occur either during the construction
phase or the installation phase. It should have been found and corrected
Tearing
Tearing is crack-like in its appearance but the width will vary and the edges are
often rough and indistinct. Coarse aggregate will not be broken. It will be widest
at the mid-length point and it will tend to taper towards the ends. There may be
some indications of rust staining. While the concrete was inside the slip form
Figure A1.1
Exposed Reinforcement
Faulty Repair
Any repair, which allows the ingress of seawater to the reinforcement cage,
should be described as faulty. Normally this will have the appearance of a
patch, which will be of different texture and colour to the surrounding concrete.
There may also be cracking around the edge of the repair and maybe a poor
porous surface to the repair. The cause is normally a defect, which has
occurred during the construction phase and ahs been repaired badly
Figure A1.2
Faulty repair
Variable Cover
Concrete protect the reinforcement cage by passivation but in order for this to
be effective then there must be a minimum thickness of concrete over the
reinforcement. This defect may not be visible but in extreme cases there may
be some rust staining seen. The cause is either due to the reinforcement cage
being displaced or the slip form shutter being dislodged. Variable cover is a
construction defect.
All of the above are defects primarily because they will allow a more or less
unrestricted flow of seawater to the reinforcement cage, thus allowing corrosion
to take place
Category B (Areas of Concern)
Embedded Objects
Consists of objects such as wire, nails, wood etc., which have been accidentally
dropped into the concrete while it is still wet and become embedded objects.
They will all have been included at the time of construction
Figure A1.3
Embedded Object
Cast in sockets
The visible description of cast in sockets is just a small hole, which may have
some threads visible inside. They will have been caused by the use of bolt
fixings during the construction phase. The bolts will have been removed leaving
the sockets still embedded in the concrete. They may well be filled with mortar.
Cast in sockets will have been included during the construction phase
Figure A1.4
Cast in Socket
Figure A1.5
Recessed Metal Plate
Water jet damage
Water jets can be used to cut through concrete, so great care must be taken in
order to prevent the damage of the surface of the concrete during cleaning
operations. If damage occurs it will form dark lines in an irregular pattern over
an area of concrete, which has been cleaned. Aggregate may be exposed and
the surface will feel rough to the touch.
The damage is caused by the use of pressures which are too high, or by the
use of a jet which is too small.
Water jet damage will occur in-service
Figure A1.6
Water Jet Damage
Abrasion
Abrasion can look similar to water jet damage but the surface will be smooth.
Although the aggregate may well be visible the edges will be well defined.
Abrasion will be caused by movement of hard objects against the concreter
wearing away (abrading) the surface of the concrete. This is normally an in-
service problem
Figure A1.7
Abrasion
Honeycombing
Honeycombing will appear as an area of coarse aggregate, which has little or
no grout around it. Voids will be apparent in the concrete. The course aggregate
will not be broken.
It is caused by insufficient compaction or vibration of the concrete during
construction, or maybe grout loss beneath a shutter. Also it can be caused by
the concrete not having sufficient fine material present.
Honeycombing occurs during the construction phase
Category C (Blemishes)
Construction joint
This will be a fairly straight line on the surface with irregular ridges and/or
depressions along its length. The edges may be indistinct and may be
accompanied by some tearing. The coarse aggregate will not be broken. The
colour or texture of the surface above and below the joint nay differ somewhat.
This blemish is formed at the end of one pour of concreter and beginning of
another pour where the formwork has not been tailored to fit the structure very
well.
It will occur during the construction phase and may be useful as a datum for the
location of defects etc.
Formwork misalignment
This will show as a step or a ridge on the surface of the concrete.
It is caused by the poor tailoring or fitting of shutters during the fabrication or the
structure.
It will occur during the construction phase
Figure A1.8
Formwork Misalignment
Figure A1.9
Blowholes
Scabbling
This will have a rough surface appearance due to the surface of the concrete
having been removed so exposing the course aggregate.
This is an intentional removal of the smooth surface, usually prior to placing
further concrete. It will normally be done at the construction phase
Figure A1.10
Scabbling
Rubbing down marks
Irregular marks on the surface of the concrete may have the appearance of
brush marks on wet concrete.
These are caused by the rubbing down of the concrete to remove surface
blemishes as they emerge from the formwork. It may indicate a repair.
Rubbing down marks will have been done at the construction phase
Good repair
This will be a repair, which has a smooth and complete appearance, which in
not likely to allow seawater ingress to the reinforcement cage.
This will have been done to repair a slight defect from the construction phase
Figure A1.11
Good Repair
Regular horizontal ridge
These are ridges formed on the surface of the concrete, which are spaced
regularly and will normally extend all around the structure.
As the slip form shutters rise the concrete should be self-supporting as it
emerges from the bottom of the shutter. The shutter will be jacked up
approximately once every hour and will then be stationary for the next hour.
While the shutter is stationary there is often some sagging of the concrete from
the base of the shutter, which will form a ridge.
This will be formed at the construction phase
Irregular horizontal ridge
Irregular horizontal ridges may be from 50mm to 250mm apart but will not
expose aggregate.
These ridges are a feature of slip forming. The shutters are tapered at the top
and the pressure of each pour of concrete may cause outward movement of the
shutters at the bottom allowing grout seepage below the shutters.
These are formed during the construction phase
Vertical drag marks
These are straight vertical marks with a coarse surface, sometimes referred to
as pebble runs.
The drag marks are normally caused by stones or pebbles being trapped
behind the slip form shutters and being dragged up the structure with them, so
causing indentation in the surface of the concrete. They can also be caused by
dents or deformations in the shutter itself.
Vertical drag marks are formed during the construction phase
Figure A1.12
Vertical Drag Marks
Resin mortar repair
This is a patchy of a plastic type of substance on the surface of the structure.
It indicates that a defect has been repaired, maybe in the service life of the
structure.
It can be an in-service blemish
Figure A1.13
Resin Mortar Repair
Curing compound
These are large areas of coloured coating, which may well be peeling off and
flaking.
Curing compounds are applied to concrete during the construction process to
reduce water loss by evaporation during the curing of the concrete.
Therefore curing compound will be applied during the construction phase
Figure A1.14
Curing Compound
Grout run
These will often be associated with a construction joint and will have the
appearance of ragged, irregular runs of grout, adhering to the surface of the
concrete.
They are formed by the leakage of concrete from the bottom of poorly fitting
shutters. The concrete underneath will be unaffected by the run and so it will not
pose a problem.
Grout runs will be formed during the construction phase
Figure A1.15
Grout Run
General Concrete Terms
Spalling
Spalling does not appear as a specific term, this is because spalling is
considered to be a symptom of something more serious. A spall is a loose piece
of concrete, which must have come from a spalled area. One of the Category A
defects will be the cause of the spall.
Grout
Grout is a semi-fluid slurry consisting of cement and water.
Gunite
Concrete sprayed by compressed air. Will have high strength and density, used
to repair walls and as weight coat on pipelines. It has a darker colourisation
than normal concrete.
Cable Duct
Cast tubular duct through which the pre-stressing tendons will run. Normally
grout filled after tensioning.
Prestressed concrete
Concrete that has all the tensile and shear stresses relieved by the introduction
of compressive stress on the structure.
Base Raft
The foundation slab bearing on the seabed.
Caisson
Large cylindrical structure often referred to as a cell.
Cell
Void bounded by diaphragm walls, term used synonymously with caisson for
the base cells of a structure.
Invert
The lowest point of an opening or tunnel.
Soffit
The underside of a concrete beam.
Jarlan Hole
Perforation in a breakwater wall, used to dissipate the forces from wave action,
some of the force will be repelled and some will be admitted through the wall
where the ventury principle dissipates the energy thus reducing the forces
acting on the wall.
Laitance
This is a fine powdery substance, which accumulates on the surface of concrete
as it sets; it will need to be removed prior to any new pour being applied.
Exudation
Exudation consists of salts, which dissolve, in the concrete when fluid is passing
through a crack; it shows on the surface of the concrete as a whitish semi-fluid,
which accumulates around the crack. Note that on the surface it will always run
downwards, however in water it may drift sideways or even upwards, owing to
the fact that its density may be less than the water around it.
Reporting
When inspecting concrete always report:
All defects using correct terminology
Length of defect
Width of defect
Depth of defect
Location on the structure
Any staining
As far as possible report all defects in three dimensions
Weathering
Weathering is the term used for the deterioration of concrete due to
environmental forces; this is the concrete equivalent of corrosion in steel.
Weathering may be caused by:
Erosion from water borne particles both in the splash zone and near the
seabed may be caused by cavitation in the water flow