http://www.usingenglish.

com/

Motivational Orientation in English

Language Learning
Share

Motivational Orientation in English Language Learning:

A Study of Iranian Undergraduate Students
By

Marjan Moiinvaziri M.A.

Islamic AzadUniversity: Sirjan Branch

Abstract
This paper analyzes and determines the various socio-psychological orientations of
undergraduate students studying General English in universities of Sirjan. The study focuses
on instrumental and integrative orientations of students in learning English as a foreign
language. In order to determine the students’ tendency towards the mentioned orientations a
population of 255 university students were given a questionnaire based on Gardner's
Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB). In effect, the research shows that contrary to some
researchers’ beliefs that in foreign language situations instrumental orientation is the
dominant orientation, students were highly motivated in both instrumental and integrative
orientations. This study of socio-psychological variables of the students will possibly provide
additional insights in better identifying existing motivational challenges and taking more
realistic perspectives about the ELT (English Language Teaching) situation in the country.
Finally, several suggestions for teachers and some recommendations regarding future
researches in this area in Iran have been highlighted.

Introduction
Motivation has been widely accepted by both teachers and researchers as one of the key
factors that influence the rate and success of second/foreign language learning. The original
impetus in second/foreign (L2) motivation research comes from the social psychology since
learning the language of another community simply cannot be separated from the learners’
social dispositions towards the speech community in question. Lambert (1963b) has proposed
a 'social psychological model' in which he has emphasized cognitive factors such as language
aptitudes and intelligence as well as affective factors such as attitudes and motivation. In his
model, he proposes that the extent to which an individual successfully acquires a second
language will depend upon ethnocentric tendencies, attitudes towards the other community,
orientation towards language learning and motivation. Another pioneer in this field, Gardner
(1985), defines L2 motivation as “the extent to which an individual works or strives to learn
the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity” (p:
10); more specifically, motivation is conceptualized to subsume three components,
motivational intensity, desire to learn the language, and an attitude towards the act of learning
the language. Motivation in Gardner’s theory does not contain any integrative or instrumental
elements. There does exist an integrative or instrumental dichotomy in Gardner’s model but
this is at the orientation (i.e. goal) level, and as such, is not part of the core motivation
component; rather, the two orientations function merely as motivational antecedents that help
to arouse motivation and direct it towards a set of goals, either with a strong interpersonal
quality (integrative) or a strong practical quality (instrumental). The present study intended to
highlight the extent of Iranian university students’ motivation in learning English as a foreign
language and their differences in instrumental and integrative orientations. Furthermore, the
findings of study may promise some improvements and changes regarding teaching and
learning L2.

Literature review
Status of English in Iran (a brief overview)

Considering the growth of international relations of our society with other nations and the
extended interest towards today’s growing technology and science throughout the world,
learning English language as an international language has found a greater importance
compared to previous years. Increase in the numbers of language institutes and their students
also increasing interest of parents for their children to learn English can be a good evidence
for the recent value of English language in our country. But unfortunately most of the students
are not satisfied with their abilities in English after studying it for seven years in their schools
and also passing some credits in universities. There are certainly different reasons for this
problem but one of the reasons which is the primary concern of this study is motivation. As it
was mentioned in the previous part motivation is classified into two parts: instrumental and
integrative. Having a greater knowledge of these subjects can help teachers, textbook
developers and the educational authorities to find new ways for improving the quality of
teaching and learning English in our educational system. The question addressed through this
study is: To what extent the university students of Iran are instrumentally or integratively
oriented towards English language learning?

Motivation, orientation and second language learning

A key framework that has driven much of the research on L2 motivation is Gardner's (1985,
1988; see also Gardner and Macintyre 1993) Socio-Educational Model of SLA, in which
motivation is conceptualized as a complex of variables, specifically, "the combination of
effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable attitudes towards
learning the language" (Gardner 1985: 10). Motivation is hypothesized to have a direct effect
on L2 achievement and is itself purportedly influenced by a number of other social-
psychological variables. One such variable that has received extensive attention in the L2
literature is the learner's orientation or reason for learning the L2 (Gardner 1985, 1988; see
also Gardner and Macintyre 1993). Brown (2001) states that:
Motivation refers to the intensity of one's impetus to learn. An integrative orientation simply
means the learner is pursuing a second language for social and/or cultural purposes, and
within that purpose, a learner could be driven by a high level of motivation or a low level.
Likewise, in an instrumental orientation, learners are studying a language in order to further a
career or academic goal. The intensity or motivation of a learner to attain that goal could be
high or low. (p.75)

Gardner and his colleagues found that integrative motivation, which refers to ‘a sincere and
personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other language group’ (Lambert,
1974, p.98), was a more powerful predictor of linguistic achievement as it was consistently
correlated with L2 linguistic achievement. Instrumental integration, which refers to ‘the
practical value and advantages of learning a new language’ (Lambert, 1974, p.98), was found
to be related to L2 linguistic achievement in some studies. One area where instrumental
motivation can prove to be successful is in the situation where the learner is provided with no
opportunity to use the target language and therefore, no chance to interact with members of
the target group. Lukmani (1972) found that an instrumental orientation was more important
than an integrative orientation in non-westernized female learners of L2 English in Bombay.
The social situation helps to determine both what kind of orientation learners have and what
kind is most important for language learning. Therefore, one concern of this study is to
investigate Iranian students’ motivational orientation to see in Iran as a country in which there
is no chance to use target language or interact with native speakers is the instrumental
orientation the dominant type of orientation?

English in universities of Sirjan

There are three major universities in Sirjan: Islamic Azad University, technological faculty
(under supervision of Bahonar university of Kerman) and Payame Noor University. Different
majors of these three universities have to pass a three credit course of General English. They
attend two class sessions a week (each 75 minutes) and the purpose of the course is mostly
reading comprehension. There is an average of 40 students in each class.

Research questions and hypothesis

Theoretical and experimental investigations show that in a foreign language context
instrumental orientation should have dominance but there was no practical work for proving
or rejecting this idea among Iranian students. More specifically, the following corresponding
directional hypotheses were formulated for the following study:

H1: Students are highly motivated in learning a foreign language.

H2: There is a significant difference among the integrative orientations of university students
of Sirjan. (Among students of each university and also among students of all three
universities)

H3: There is a significant difference among the instrumental orientations of university

students of Sirjan. (Among students of each university and also among students of all three
universities)
H4: There is a significant difference between the instrumental and integrative orientations of
university students of Sirjan.

H5: There is a significant difference between the instrumental and integrative orientations of
students of each university in Sirjan.

Methodology
Participants

In this study a sum of 255 university students (male and female students) were selected by
stratified random sampling from the total population of university students of Sirjan(758
students). The reason for selecting these universities (Islamic Azad University, Technological
faculty and Payame Noor University) is mainly twofold: firstly, these are the only universities
of the city and secondly university students seem to be a better choice for such an
investigation. Because of the difference in number of students in each university the number
of participants was separately computed for each one.

Percentage Frequency (f) University

69.4 177 Azad
Technological
9.8 25
faculty
20.8 53 Payame noor
100 255 Total

Table 1: Frequency and percentage of participants

Procedure and Instrumentation

The Integrative and Instrumental Orientation scales of the original 7-point Likert Scale format
of Gardner's Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) (Gardner, 1985) were adapted to a 5-
point scale, ranging from ‘Strongly Agree’ to ‘Strongly Disagree’. The AMTB is reported to
have good reliability and validity (Gardner, 1985; 1980; Gardner and Smythe, 1981) and the
internal consistency estimate of reliability for the modified questionnaire was calculated, and
Cronbach's Alpha was 0.7. Since the students came from different academic and socio-
economic backgrounds with different levels of proficiency in English, the questionnaire was
administered in the mother tongue along with the English original. The purpose and different
terms of the questionnaire were explained before the distribution. During the completion
process of the questionnaire, the researcher was present physically to monitor and also to help
the respondents to understand certain parts. Respondents were given 5 minutes to complete
the questionnaire and were informed that the information they gave would be kept
confidential and be used for research purposes only.

A sample of the questionnaire is provided in Appendix 1.

Design

In this study, the major focus was on various socio-psychological variables rather than
language proficiency levels which were not tested. The questionnaire as mentioned above was
adopted from Gardner’s AMTB (1985).

Followings are the variables that were assessed using Likert scale (modified 7 point to 5 scale
point) ranging from agreement to disagreement:

a. Integrative Orientation: The scale includes four items to find out how much the learners
learn English with a genuine interest to assimilate with the target language, culture
,community, their way of life, literature etc; this would show their Integrativeness towards the
target language.

b. Instrumental Orientation: On this scale, there are four items and the respondents are
asked to measure their utilitarian reason for learning English.

Results and discussions

The raw data was fed into the computer and then was analyzed by using SPSS. The results are
discussed below.

The respondents were asked to indicate on a five point scale how important each reason was
for their learning English as a foreign language. The focus was on two types of motivational
orientation: Integrative and Instrumental following Gardner and Lambert’s (1972) definition.
Eight statements were designed to find out the dominant reason for studying a foreign
language among undergraduate students of Iran in general and the students of universities of
Sirjan having the course General English in particular.

Descriptive statistics were carried out for all measures involved in this study. Comparison
between the mean scores of the three universities illustrated that students were highly
motivated in Q1, Q2, Q5, Q6 and Q7. Questions three, four and eight (Q3, Q4, Q8) showed
the students’ medial motivation and no lack of motivation was observed among these eight
questions.

Questions Mean score Questions Mean score

Q1:behave like Q5:English for
4.16 4.07
native speakers graduation
Q2: understand Q6:for higher
3.90 3.98
native life studies
Q3: appreciate Q7: to get high
3.43 4.19
literature ranking job
Q4:emulate native Q8:to receive
3.47 2.67
speakers people’s respect

Tables 2 & 3: Mean score of integrative motivation Table 3: Mean score of instrumental
motivation

Less desirable Desirable Highly desirable

1 2.3 3.7 5

Table 4: Desirable level of motivation among the university students of Sirjan

As it is shown in tables 1, 2 and 3 most of the university students are highly motivated in
learning a foreign language. In comparison to other questions, question number eight which
asked if people had a more respect for those who have knowledge of a foreign language,
showed the lowest level of motivation. It can be concluded that students’ language ego and
cultural factors might have prevented them from showing a higher motivation for this
question. Variables such as identity and social-cultural distance are significant in acquiring a
language in a foreign context.

But still this question along with the questions number 3 and 4 show a desirable amount of
motivation. No question is reported to show lack of motivation. The results show moderate to
high motivation toward foreign language learning. Therefore, the first hypothesis is approved.

In order to find the answer to the second question and investigate the second research
hypothesis, statistical method of one way analysis of variance (one way ANOVA) was
concluded.

Source of Sum of Mean

Df F Sig. of F
changes squares squares
Between
20.695 2 10.347 2.028 0.134
groups
Within
1285.643 252 5.102    
groups
Grand mean 1306.337 254      

Table5: F value for differences among integrative orientation of university students

As table 5 illustrates, there are no significant differences in integrative orientation of each

university’s students and also among the students of all three universities. This result rejects
the second hypothesis and confirms that university students are closely related in their
integrative orientation.

Table 6 illustrates the differences in instrumental orientations of each university’s students

and students of the three universities. No significant difference is observed in their level of
instrumental motivation. Therefore, the third hypothesis is rejected as well.

Source of Sum of Mean

Df F Sig. of F
changes squares squares
Between
13.444 2 6.722 0.88 0.41
groups
Within
1919.82 252 7.618    
groups
Grand mean 1933.271 254      

Table6: F value for differences among instrumental orientation of university students

Table 7 shows the differences between the instrumental and integrative orientations of
university students of Sirjan.

Variable Orientation Mean Std. T test Df Sig. of T N

Integrative 14.94 2.26 255
Motivational
0.14 508 0.88
orientation
Instrumental 14.91 2.75 255

Table7: T test for differences between integrative and instrumental orientations of

university students.

In order to determine this difference among the students T-test for independent groups has
been selected and the results do not show any meaningful differences in this regard. As a
result, the fourth hypothesis is not confirmed.

In the last table (table 8) a T- test was used to determine the difference between integrative
and instrumental orientations of each university. As the following results show there was no
significant difference between these two orientations and students are both instrumentally and
integratively motivated.

This means that the last hypothesis is also rejected.

University Orientation Mean Std. T Df Sig. of T N

Integrative 15.1 2.21
Azad 0.48 352 0.62 177
Instrumental 14.97 2.77
Integrative 14.16 2.39
Technological
1.95 48 0.056 25
faculty
Instrumental 14.16 2.39
Integrative 14.81 2.34
Payame Noor 0.53 104 0.59 53
Instrumental 14.52 3.04
Table 8: Differences between instrumental and integrative motivation of students of each
university

Conclusion
This study was conducted to probe the motivational orientations of Iranian university
students. The findings present a picture which establishes that Iranian university students are
both instrumentally and integratively oriented. This provides a sufficient answer to the
research questions addressed, and contradicts the opinion of some researchers who believe
that in a foreign language situation students are instrumentally oriented. Also it was shown
that students are highly motivated towards learning English.

An implication of the findings is that motivational orientation of students, as a significant

factor, should be considered in teaching and learning of a foreign language. Many teachers
believe that by sticking to the language materials and trying to discipline their refractory
students, they will manage to create a classroom environment that will be conductive to
learning. Nevertheless, these teachers seem to lose sight of the fact that, unless they accept
their students’ personalities and work on those minute details that constitute their social and
psychological make-up, they will fail to motivate them therefore teachers can improve their
methods of teaching by considering the domain of motivation. Furthermore, other related
researches regarding the relationship between these two orientations and students
achievements are considered to be useful.

The study did not aim to find out the link between varieties of motivational orientations and
the language proficiency of the learners. The future studies could aim at these issues and
could give more insights to the linguistic realities of Iran . The results of the present study
though show that university students are both instrumentally and integratively motivated, but
the limitation of participants to three universities of one city i.e. Sirjan do not allow one to
conclude that in general all students of Iran are purely instrumentally and integratively
motivated. More research in this area needs to be conducted.

Suggestions for Teachers

In order to make the language learning process a more motivating experience instructors need
to put a great deal of thought into developing programs which maintain student interest and
have obtainable short term goals. At university level this may include, as suggested by
Berwick et al. (1989), any number of foreign exchange programs with other universities,
overseas "homestay" programs, or any other activities which may help to motivate students to
improve their target language proficiency. At the secondary school level, and especially in the
senior years, this task may prove more difficult. For the foreign language teacher this may
result in a certain level of frustration due to the general lack of interest and commitment by
some students. Teachers need to create interesting lessons in which the students’ attention is
gained. This can sometimes be accomplished by the use of teaching strategies which are not
often called upon by other teachers in mainstream subject areas. Encouraging students to
become more active participants in a lesson can sometimes assist them to see a purpose for
improving their communication skills in the target language. Successful communication using
the target language should result in students feeling some sense of accomplishment. Research
in the area suggests L2 achievement strongly affects learner motivation (Strong 1983, cited in
Ellis 1997).
The use of an interesting text can also help to increase the motivation level of students in the
classroom. Many Iranian texts often contain material which fails to capture the interest of
students due to the heavy emphasis on vocabulary and grammar. Many foreign texts,
however, which have been designed for EFL, and specifically the Iranian market, often
contain topics which can create a great deal of classroom interaction and help to motivate
students to develop their language skills. It is important for the instructor to take advantage of
such discussion topics and help students to realize that, even though they may see no need to
become proficient in a second language, the study of another language and culture can only
enhance their perception and understanding of other cultures.

No matter what the underlying motivation to study a second language, what cannot be
disputed is the fact that motivation is an important variable when examining successful
second language acquisition. Iran is perhaps, a unique environment in which to learn English,
especially when taking into consideration the many factors which influence the manner in
which the language is taught. Although change may be slow to the education system, but
recent struggles for introducing the English language as a subject in elementary school,
changes made in methods of teaching and writing new textbooks can be really helpful for
further motivating students to achieve higher levels of proficiency in the future.

http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/motivationvariables

Motivation Variables and Second Language

Learning
 by R. Narayanan

Vinayaka Mission Research Foundation University, Aarupadai Veedu Institute of

Technology, Kanchipuram, India

This article is a theoretical study of the integrative and instrumental motivational

factors related to second language learning.   In addition, this article focuses on

four key questions: 

1.      What is meant by the term

motivation?

2.      What are different types of

motivation?

3.      What are the characteristics of

motivated learners?

4.      What is the role of the teacher in

English learning? 

      Finally, this theoretical study gives special emphasis to the role of the teacher in

the context of learners’ motivational levels.    

If asked to identify the most powerful influences on language learning,

motivation factors would probably be high on most teachers’ lists. Because of the

multifaceted nature of the concept of motivation, I shall begin this article by

discussing the four questions.

Krashen (1975) makes the connection between formal operations, the

‘personality changes occurring at puberty’ and language learning in the following

terms:

According to Elkind

((1970)), ‘the ability

to think abstractly, a

characteristic of

formal operation

(sic), leads the

adolescent to

conceptualize his

own thought….’

(p.66) ….. Another

consequence,

according to Elkind,

is that the adolescent

can now also

‘conceptualize  the

thoughts of other

people’ ……. The

adolescent’s

resulting self-

consciousness, his

reluctance to reveal

himself, his feeling of

 vulnerability, may

have a great effect on

second language

learning’.

                                                                       (Krashen 1975:220f.)          

1.      What is meant by the term motivation?

The term motivation in a second language learning context is seen according to

Gardner (1985) as ‘referring to the extent to which the individual works or strives

to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced

in this activity (p.10).’  

According to the Pocket Oxford English Dictionary (2004), motivation is '1. the

reason or reasons behind one’s actions or behaviour.  2. Enthusiasm.' (p.587).  

Hence, the abstract term ‘motivation’ on its own is rather difficult to define.  It is

easier and more useful to think in terms of the ‘motivated’ learner: one who is

willing or even eager to invest effort in learning activities and to progress.  

     2.  What are different types of motivation?

Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1972) have done pioneering work to explore the

nature of motivation specific to language study.  Gardner highlights two different

types of motivation:
       1)      Instrumental motivation: the desire to learn a

language because it would fulfill certain utilitarian goals,

such as getting a  job, passing an examination, etc.

      2)    Integrative motivation: the desire to learn a language

in order to communicate with people from another culture

that speak that language; the desire is also there to identify

closely with the target language group.

            Instrumental motivation vs integrative motivation

A distinction has been made in the literature between ‘integrative” and

‘instrumental’ motivation: the desire to identify with and integrate into the target-

language culture, contrasted with the wish to learn the language for the purpose

of study or career promotion.  Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1972) showed that

success in a foreign/second language is likely to be lower if the underlying

motivational orientation is instrumental rather than integrative.  But research

since then has cast doubt on the application of this claim to foreign language

learners in general.  In any case, at least one other study (Burstall et al., 1974) has

indicated that it may be impossible in practice to distinguish between the two.

(Penny Ur (2005) A course in Language Teaching: Practice and Theory,

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.p.276).

Another distinction, perhaps more useful for teachers, is that between ‘intrinsic’

motivation (the urge to engage in the learning activity for its own sake) and

‘extrinsic’ (motivation that is derived from external incentives).  

3.  What are characteristics of motivated learners?

     The author of a classic study of successful language learning (Naiman et al.,

1978) came to the conclusion that the most successful learners are not necessarily

those to whom a language comes very easily; they are those who display certain

typical characteristics, most of them clearly associated with motivation.:

 Positive task orientation

 Ego involvement

 Need for achievement

 High aspirations

 Goal orientation

 Perseverence

 Tolerance of ambiguity

4.      What is the role of the teacher in second language learning?

In the second language classroom environment, what undoubtedly influences

learners’ learning outcomes is their interpretation of interpersonal teacher

behaviour.  So, in language learning, the teacher plays the main role. 

According to Mickey Nasiri, General Manager at Cambridge Silicon Radio:

"For the drivers in my city, it is

obvious how bad the pedestrians
behave.  They walk on the roads,
slow down the traffic, and they don’t
even care about their own safety.

The drivers have to honk to make

the pedestrians aware of the danger
they put their lives in.  For the
pedestrians in my city, it is obvious
how bad the drivers behave. 
Drivers don’t let the pedestrians
cross the roads and they honk and
pollute the city.

A simple psychometric test shows

that hyped self-perception is a
widespread human trait.  A good
leader is aware of this myth and
surrenders to the belief that “people
are like me, and they try to do the
best job they can” which helps in
effective delegation.

This belief makes the good leader

wonder why one succeeds and the
other fails.

 If understanding the concept of

'hyped self-perception' is a
foundation for effective delegation,
the answer to the above question,
'condition', is the heart of
motivational skills.

Although everyone tries one’s best,

the conditions are different.  The
obstacles in one’s condition could
de-motivate the individual, and
demotivated people are normally
not successful.
  A good leader works for creating
the condition conducive to success
for people around him/her. 

People do the best they can; the

leader just need to remove the
biggest obstacles.  Now, if the good
leader’s belief in people would lead
to less honking cars, well, that is
also positive for the reduction of
noise pollution. "

(Leader speech motivating leaders,

Don’t honk!: The Hindu Business

Line Monday, August 14, 2006

p.11.)

The above-said words were meant not only for a good leader, but also for a good

teacher or facilitator - who helps to remove the biggest language learning

obstacles from his/her learners, and creates conditions conducive to language

learning success.

A successful facilitator should therefore ask questions such as these:

 What things puzzle my learners?

 What issues concern them?

 What problems or traits do they wish I could help them solve?

A good teacher or facilitator should listen to his/her students with empathy, and

provide them with the support that they so greatly need.

 References

 Burstall, C., Jamieson, M., Cohen, S. & Hargreaves, M. (1974). Primary French in the
balance. Slough: NFER Publishing Co.
 Elkind, D. 1970. Children and Adolescents: Interpretative Essays on Jean Piaget.
New York: OUP.(p.66)
 Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and language learning: The role of attitudes
and motivation. London: Edward Arnold (p.10).       
 Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second
language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
 Gardner, R.C., & Lambert, W.E. (1959).  Motivational variables in second language
acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology: 13.

 Krashen, S. (1975). The critical period for language acquisition and its possible bases.
In D. Aaronson and R. Reiber (Eds), Developmental psycholinguistics and
communicative disorders (P.66). New York: Newy York Academy of Sciences
(pp.220f).
 Mickey Nasiri (2006) The Hindu Business Line: Leader speech motivating leaders,
Don’t honk!, (p.11) Monday, August 14, 2006. 
 Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., Stern, H.H. and Todesco, A. (1978). The Good Language
Learner. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
 Soanes.C.( Ed) (2004) The New Pocket Oxford Dictionary ,New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.(pp.587)      
 Ur.P. ( 2005 ) A course in language teaching : practice and theory , Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press (pp.276).

Bio-data:

R. Narayanan works as an English lecturer  for VMRF-Deemed University,

Kanchipuram, India.  He is particularly interested in Indian writing in English
and English language teaching.  He has presented two papers, and holds an MA
 in English Literature, an MA in Linguistics, and an MPhil in Indian writing in
English.  Presently, he is doing research in the area of applied linguistics in the
Department of Linguistics at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, India.

http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/ass/article/viewFile/541/522

Motivation and Language Learning

Bo Wang
College of Foreign Languages
Daqing Petroleum Institute
DaQing 163318, China
Abstract
Motivation is one of the important factors that influences English learning achievement. So in order to help the
students
to maintain a proper strength in English learning motivation is very necessary for the teachers in the daily
teaching
procedure.
This paper discusses the issue of motivation in foreign language learning in four main sections .It starts with the
background information .Then it is concerned with the motivation issues in EFL in China, and finally, tries to
provide
some advices for teachers to enhance students’ motivation in English teaching for non-English majors at tertiary
level.
Keywords: Motivation, Language learning, EFL in China
1. Introduction
1.1 Background about motivation
With regard to research into motivation, numerous studies have been carried out by researchers as well as
language
teachers. The first one, by Gardner and Lambert (1972), is regarded as one of the well-known studies of
motivation in
language learning, and the other two, by Brown (1980) and Harmer (1983) respectively, also have received
widespread
attention.
As we all know, motivation is one of the most important factors that will influence students' English
achievements or
Performance. It has a close relationship with students' success or failure in English teaching in college.
Therefore,
Teachers must pay more attention to this aspect. As Gardner (1985) emphasized that the motivation constructed
the
primary factor to influence students on English learning. He believed that motivation for language learning can
not only
include goal orientation but the combination of effort, desire to achieve the goal of learning the language and
favorable
attitudes toward learning the language.
A number of studies conducted by Gardner and Lambert on instrumental and integrative motivation show how
each
appears to relate to language proficiency. Whereas in their earlier studies, it appeared that integrative motivation
was
superior to instrumental, their later investigations demonstrated that in situations where the practical value of the
second
language is necessary.
In addition to the study by Gardner and Lambert, several empirical studies by other researcher also proved that
both
types of motivation have positive effects on the level of proficiency achieved by different learners and one type
may be
more effective than the other under certain conditions. Nowadays in China, as English is viewed as a utilitarian
tool for
science, technology, national development and modernization as well as a key element in furthering a career,
even
though students approach the learning of English with instrumental motivation, many of them are very
successful in
developing proficiency in English .This indicates that the relative importance of instrumental or integrative
motivation
depends to a large extent on the context in which a new language is learned.
1.2 Task motivation
Another research on motivation was carried out by Brown, He especially identified one type of motivation--Task
motivation. Task motivation is drive for performing particular learning tasks, that is, if the teacher designs
appropriate
tasks which will lead students to successful performances, such constantly pleasant and rewarding experiences
will
provide students with increasing confidence and consequently, they will gradually develop a liking for second
language
learning. So learning a foreign language obviously requires some types of motivation.
Asian Social Science January, 2009
99
1.3 Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
Harmer (1983) categorized motivation into two major types; extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic
motivation
concerns the factors outside the classroom. It essentially consists of two sub –types: instrumental and integrative
motivation which corresponds to Gardner and Lamber’s sense of motivation .Intrinsic motivation, on the
contrary,
concerns the factors inside the classroom. To them, what happens in the classroom will be of vital importance in
developing their motivation, Intrinsic motivation is primarily made up of two parts; task and situational
motivation
which is as the same as Brown’s point of view.
However, no matter how motivation has been classified, all kinds of motivation work in the second language
learning
context, and each kind contributes to the learners’ progress in different ways and to different degree, It is hard to
say
which is the most effective since they are sometimes overlapping with one another.
2. Issues of motivation in EFL in China
It is well known that in China, there has also been an increasing awareness and interest among researchers and
teachers
alike in the role of motivation in foreign language learning, In 1989, Zhang Bensheng did research on 70
outstanding
students including English and non-English majors from seven key colleges and universities in Wuhan. The
results
showed that the achievements of the students had a close relationship with their motivation. All of the students
possessed some kind of motivation for learning English: some were intent on making a useful contribution to
society,
while others wanted to improve their professional prospects .Such students seemed to have instrumental
motivation.
Still others were interested in the learning environment or encouraged by their previous success. They had task
and
situational motivation. A few of them were attracted by the target culture; they were integrally motivated.
Nowadays, most students in key universities have high motivation to learn English well. because a good level of
English will help them more considerably to obtain better jobs, especially those in companies or joint ventures
which
have international connections; to read technical materials ,and to study abroad. At this point, a teacher should
intend to
suggest some principles we can make use of in foreign language teaching process.
3. Some ways to the enhancement of students’ motivation
3.1 The student-centered class
In China, college English teaching follows a prescribed syllabus, which consists of EGP (English for General
Purposes)
and ESP (English for Specific Purposes) stages. The EGP stage is divided into six bands, namely college English
Bands
1-6. In the ESP stage, students are required to read and comprehension books or articles related to their
specialties. In
each band, there are specific requirements for vocabulary, grammar knowledge and students’ reading skills.
After a careful consideration, we can see the actual reasons lying in our teaching method.􀀃 The classroom is the
place
where the learning process goes on. Only when students are involved in the class activities will they have the
interest in
learning the language. The teacher, instead of requiring students to recite language points and learn vocabulary
by heart,
should introduce some elements from communicative approach, that is, providing students with enough
opportunities to
practice the new language and learn how to use it in actual context. Rather than domination the class, the teacher
should
initiate some questions for students to discuss, encourage students to ask each other questions, or even to argue
about
with each other about some controversial issues. During the periods of teaching, the teacher should present an
element
of challenge to the students, and the challenge can lead to higher motivation and more effective results.
3.2 Developing Students Cultural Empathy
In our own teaching practice, we may find there is one point deserving our attention: some students with
instrumental
motivation may lose it when they consider what they have acquired to be sufficient to realize their goals. Since
students
of this kind usually have little or no personal interest in learning the language, they may have a negative attitude
about
learning the language.
As we all know that language and culture are so interlinked that they cannot be separated in the process of
foreign
language teaching. It seems reasonable to assume that development of positive attitudes toward the culture and
the
native speakers of the language we teach will carry over into integrative motivation for learning the language
3.3 Encouraging and praising students timely
Encouragement and praise should be seen as a reward. Learning English is a hard work needs reward. This
reward can
be successful communication or complement of a required task either .As we know, for the majority of students,
to learn
English well is no easy job, it requires countless practice and great effort .If students’ hard work and
progress are ignored by the teacher, they may feel disappointed, or even lose their heart. On the contrary, if
students’
efforts and progress are praised timely by the teacher, they will expend more efforts and consequently make
greater
progress in learning the language.
Nevertheless, excessive praise can cause uneasiness to the praised and constitute an implied criticism to the rest,
which
Vol. 5, No. 1 Asian Social Science
100
can do more harm than good. Proper praise and encouragement help students feel successful, gain confidence in
their
ability. Since praise costs nothing of the giver, it is a cheap, easy but effective way to foster and reinforce
students’
motivation for learning
4. Conclusion
From above we can see as a teacher, we should try our best to stimulate students' enthusiasm in learning English
in
order to improve teaching efficiency. As for students, a best choice for them is to follow the instructions and the
suggestions when they study, and they had better adjust their cognition, strategies to their studies.
Lastly, I want to stress the point that motivation is not the single factor influencing students’ foreign language
proficiency. Other factors, such as aptitude, attitude, learning cognitive style, and learning strategies, also play
important roles in foreign language learning process. In this paper, we have simply attempted to explore
motivation and
to provide teachers with some approaches to coping with studies. We hope that the discussion will help language
teachers have better and more effective approaches to classroom teaching in order to improve students’ foreign
language.
http://www.etni.org.il/etnirag/issue1/peggy_barzilay.htm

Why Readers have Problems:

Vowel Pronunciation and Syllable Types
and How They Relate to Reading
by Peggy Barzilay, PhD

Abstract:

As we begin each new school year, every English teacher is surprised to find a child who cannot read,
or one that isn't making progress. In this column, one of Israel's remedial reading experts ... Peggy
Barzilay, talks about one of the reasons why!

In this column:

 What is a syllable
 Short and long vowels
 Basic syllable types
  Table of of vowel combinations

The English vowel system can represent a major stumbling block to proficient reading. Despite this
fact, many teachers are unaware of the relationship between vowel pronunciation and syllable type
and therefore, seldom discuss this all-important subject with their students. This is unfortunate,
because knowledge of syllable types provides invaluable insights as to how vowels within words are
pronounced. Although there will also be exceptions to these insights, this does not detract from their
potential for making life immeasurably easier for beginning readers.

What is a syllable?

Before introducing the concept of syllable types, the concept of the syllable has to be discussed. Some
children may have problems with this. For them, it is best to present syllabification through rhythm and
clapping, using the names of the children themselves. Normally a quick demonstration is enough for
most pupils.

For example: Your name is Dan. Her name is Margalit. Dan has one syllable (Clap to illustrate.)
Margalit has three syllables,

For others, the following generalizations can be used:

1. A syllable is the smallest unit into which a word can be broken. Sometimes it forms a word in
itself (mar/ket, go, it, see).
2. A syllable has one vowel sound. This is important for students to remember since syllables or
short words can have more than one written vowel and still have only one vowel sound. For
example, the word coal is a one syllable word with two vowels but only one vowel sound, the
long /o/, is actually heard.
3. A syllable is produced by one push of breath.

Short and long vowels

Once the concept of the syllable is understood, long and short vowels have to be introduced.
Students should be told that according to convention, the 5 vowel letters in English (a,e,i,o,u)
represent a minimum of at least two different sounds, one called long and the other, short. The long
sound of each vowel says its name (bike = /i/), while the short vowel sounds have to be taught:

a says /a/ as in cat

e says /e/ as in Eddy
i says /i/ as in in
o says /o/ as in orange
u says /u/ as in umbrella

Normally, a half circle is placed above short vowels and a straight line appears above long vowels.
These diacritical marks should be taught as they appear in dictionaries and will make classroom
discussions easier.

Basic Syllable Types

After long and short vowels have been introduced, syllable types can be discussed. How and where a
particular syllable type is introduced will depend on the students, their level and their reading material.
However, under normal circumstances, closed syllables, followed by open syllables should be
introduced first because basic reading texts are normally made up of a relatively high proportion of
closed, one syllable words.

There are six basic syllable types:

1. closed syllable
2. open syllable
3. magic e syllable
4. consonant + le syllable
5. r controlled syllable .
6. double vowel syllable

1. Closed syllable
The closed syllable ends in one or more consonants and has one vowel before it. (e.g. van /
an).
The vowel in closed syllables is normally short. This can effect both reading and spelling. For
example: because we know that vowels in closed syllables are short, when we see the word
cat, we immediately know that the a says short /a/, and therefore we have the word cat, not
Kate.

One important sub-category of the closed syllable, which occasionally confuses students, is
made-up of words ending in ind (find), olt (colt) or old (cold). These words can be treated as a
word family. Tell students that although these words look like closed syllables, the vowels in
them usually say their name. There are some exceptions however. For example, the word
wind can be pronounced two different ways and mean two different things.

2. The open syllable ends in a vowel and the vowel says its name. e.g. she, go, mu/sic.

3. The magic e syllable has the following structure: vowel + consonant + silent e (vCe).
Although the e at the end of the syllable is silent, because it is there, the vowel preceding the
consonant is pronounced as a long sound. Thus the vowel in the word like is long and says its
name.

4. consonant + le
The consonant + le or regular final syllable, as its name implies, ends in the letters -le
preceded by a consonant. The letter 'e' is silent.

This combination of letters (consonant + le) can not be divided, which has implications both for
reading and spelling. For example, if a student wants to spell the word apple, he has to be told
to listen to the vowel which comes immediately before the consonant +le combination. If the
vowel sound is short but there is another consonant before the consonant + -le combination,
(can/dle) there is no problem. The word is divided before the consonant + le and what is left,
(can) is a closed syllable (short vowel). However, if this vowel is short, and there is no
consonant before the consonant + le combination, then the consonant in the consonant +le
combination must be doubled. In other words, the student hears [a/pl]. Because of the 'pl'
combination at the end of the word, the student should know two things:

a) he has to add the letter 'e' at the end of the consonant combination, and
b) he has to double the consonant in the consonant +le combination.

The 'p' in apple has to be doubled to close the syllable, thus keeping the vowel sound short. If
the 'p' were not doubled, the student would have a two syllable word, a/ple and the first
syllable would be an open syllable which would says its name.

On the other hand, if the vowel sound before the consonant is long, there is no need to double
it. For example, there is no need to double the f in the word rifle, because this word is divided
ri/fle, the first syllable is open and says its name.

From a reading point of view, it is much easier. Since students have been taught that the
consonant + le can not be divided, they have to divide before the consonant. Ap/ple is a two
syllable word. The first syllable ends in a consonant and is therefore a closed syllable and the
vowel within it is short. If however, the word was ri/fle, the syllable before the regular final
syllable (the ri) ends in a vowel and therefore, the vowel says its name.
 5. r controlled
The r controlled syllable contain a vowel + r combination: ar, er, ir, ur, or. These combinations
constitute a separate syllable type because the presence of the r effects the quality of the
vowel which precedes it.

a) er, ir, and ur are normally pronounced /er/ as in (bird, turn).

b) ar is normally pronounced /ar/ as in car, and
c) or is pronounced /or/ as in Ford.

Note however that when the letter 'w' preceded an ar word, the 'ar' combination is normally
pronounced /or/ as in war/warden. If the 'w' precedes an 'or' word, than the 'or' is normally
pronounced /er/ as in word.

6. Double vowel
The double vowel syllable contains two vowels but only one vowel sound is heard: boat,
feed, out.

The double vowel syllable is the most complex of all syllable types because the double vowel
combination can represent more than one sound. For example, oy or oi say /oi/.

However, the 'ea' combination can represent three different sounds: the long /e/ sound as in
beat, the short /e/ sound as in treasure, and the long /a/ sounds as in the word great.

Double vowels should be introduced as they appear in the material students read. For
example, if a beginning student comes across the word boat in one of his/her texts, it's enough
to tell them that this is a new syllable type and the 'oa' says /o/. More information will be
provided as they come across other double vowel words or syllables.

Table of vowel combinations

The following table* divides vowel combinations according to the number of pronunciations they have
and how accurate these pronunciations are.

One Sound:
Ay = /a/ play 96.4%
Oa = /o/ coat 95%
Ee = /e/ feet 95.9%
Ai = /a/ rain 75%
Ey = /e/ key 77%
Aw = /aw/ saw 100%
Oy = /oi/ boy 100%
Oi = /oi/ join 100%
Au = /aw/ cause 78.9%

Two Sounds:
Ow = /o/ snow 68%
         /au/ how 31.9 %
ew = /oo/ blew 88.3%
         /u/ few 18.7%
oo = /oo/ boot 50%
         /u/ book 40.4 %
ei = /a/ eight 50%
         /e/ either 25%
ie* = /e/ field 49%
         /i/ tied 27.2%
There are only 12 words which use the long /i/ sound. This can be
introduced on a Word family card: lie, die, tie, pie, untie, necktie,
belie, magpie, tie, fie = shame, vie = struggle, enter competition,
hie = speed

Three Sounds:
Ea = /e/ seat 49.6%
         /e/ head 16.7%
         /ear/ fear 14.3%
ou = /au/ out 43.2%
         /u/ touch 17.8%
         /or/ your 7%
oe = /o/ toe 44.4%
         /oo/ shoe 33.3%
         /u/ does 22.2%

One of the major problems in learning how to read is deciding how to pronounce the vowel within
words. Vowel pronunciation is problematic because of the number of possibilities the student has to
choose from. The knowledge of syllable types will not provide all the answers. There will always be
exceptions to these generalizations. Nevertheless, teaching children about syllable types will go a long
way toward solving the vowel pronunciation problem and making students lives easier.

____________
* Table appears in the journal, Reading Teacher, 2001, by B Johnson.

http://www.teacherjoe.us/ConvSkills01.html

Overcome Common Pronunciation Problems in English

There are three problems with pronunciation that students in China often have: problems
pronouncing groups of consonants, problems pronouncing certain vowels, and problems with
the rhythm of English. In addition, there are smaller problems such as pronouncing TH
sounds and the letter V, which will be discussed at the end of this article. Not all students
have the same problems, but maybe one of these causes trouble for you. Look at each
problem, and if you think you have some trouble, practice saying the words in this article
many times. When you can pronounce a language well, and be understood easily, your
confidence level will rise dramatically!

Problem One - Consonants

The first problem is difficulty in pronouncing groups of consonants. (Remember, vowels are
open sounds made with the letters a, e, i, o and u. Consonants are hard sounds made with all
the other letters.) Consider the word "describe". Many students try to speak too quickly and
end up missing one or more sounds. They pronounce it as "decribe" or "desribe" or even
sometimes as "deribe". The word "instinct" is even more difficult, with two groups, each
having three consonants. It's important to practice by saying each sound slowly at first: IN-S-
T-IN-C-T. Then say it a bit faster: IN-ST-IN-CT. Then say IN-STIN-CT. Finally, you can put
it all together as INSTINCT. The important thing is to take your time at first, then speak faster
later. Here are some other words you can practice saying: IMPRESS, STRONG, ABSOLVE,
EXPLAIN, ADMIRE, ADJECTIVE.

Problem Two - Vowels

The second problem students encounter is with vowel combinations. There are fourteen
different vowel sounds in English, and they can be spelled in so many different ways.
Consider this pair of words. How would you pronounce them?

CHILD - CHILLED

Many students say these two words with the same pronunciation. They pronounce CHILLED
correctly. The "I" is just like in SIT or WITH. The "I" in CHILD, however, should be
pronounced like the word EYE. Other words with the same sound are WILD, TIME, SIGN.

Here's another vowel sound that is frequently mispronounced: FAIR. Students pronounce it
well in AIR, WEAR, or CARE, but often pronounce FAIR as FIRE. Different spellings can
cause confusion. I have also heard students misprounce PET, STRAW, FUN, PLUS, TONE,
HATE and SPEED. The best way to learn is to listen to these sounds. You need to listen very
carefully in order to "internalize" these sounds. You can listen either to your teachers or to a
cassette tape. With just a little practice, you can train your ear and mouth to pronounce such
sounds accurately.

Problem Three - Rhythm

The third problem many students have is with English rhythm. One of the unique aspects of
the English language is that it is a "stress-timed" language, whereas most other languages are
"syllable-timed" languages. Let me explain. Chinese is a "syllable-timed language because
each syllable, or part of a word, gets one beat. If you say "Ni hao", it has two syllables and
two beats. If you say "Ni hao ma", it has three syllables and three beats. "Ni xianzai mang bu
mang" would have six beats, etc. English is not like that at all! If we say "How are you", it has
three syllable, but only two stress points (HOW and YOU), so it has only two beats. If we say
"How's your little sister", it now has four syllables, but still only two stress points (HOW and
SIS), so it takes the same amount of time as "How are you"!

TH and V

There are two TH sounds, one hard and one soft. Many students pronounce the hard TH like Z
and the soft TH like S. This is not too bad, but can sometimes make language hard to
understand. With both Z and S, you use both your upper teeth and lower teeth to produce
sound. With TH, just use your tongue in place of your lower teeth. You can start by biting
your tongue slightly with your upper teeth, then blowing out air as with Z or S. Using the
tongue makes the TH sounds quite a bit softer than Z or S.

V is actually quite simple to pronounce. Many students try to pronounce it like B, but it is, in
fact, like the letter F. The only difference is that with F, you do not use your voice, but with
V, you DO use your voice. Try saying FAST and then VAST. The teeth remain in the same
position for both words. If you have trouble making the right sound with your voice, think of
Z and S again. Say SUE and ZOO now. With SUE, there is no voice in pronouncing the S.
With ZOO, you DO use your voice. It's the same with F and V.

English Conversation 7: Jerry tells Fei about his first visit to a primary school

Jerry: Hi Fei, how was your day?

Fei: Hi Jerry, I've been looking for you. Where have you been?

Jerry: I just had a very interesting experience. I spent the whole day with dozens of little
children!

Fei: That sounds like fun.

Jerry: Yes, it was fun... but exhausting! Kids have so much energy.

Fei: Where did you meet all these kids?

Jerry: At the primary school down the street. I visited some of their classes in the morning,
then taught them some simple English in the afternoon.

Fei: English must be very difficult for them.

Jerry: Actually, they were very eager to learn. I was quite impressed.
Fei: What did you teach them?

Jerry: One teacher gave me some sentences to practice. The kids love to repeat things out
loud! Sometimes I shouted the sentences, and they shouted back at me. Other times I
whispered, and they whispered back. They were very cute.

Fei: Yes, I can imagine.

Jerry: We also sang songs and played some English games together.

Fei: That's great. You know, when I was in primary school, we never had English lessons.

Jerry: How about in middle school?

Fei: We studied English, but only for a test. It wasn't very practical.

Jerry: Well, you've managed to learn English very well. I guess it's because you're a "Super
Student".

Fei: Ha ha ha. Not me! The kids you saw today seem to be much more "super" than I am.
They're the future of China.

Jerry: Yes, they are, so China must have a bright future! I wonder what this country will be
like in 15 or 20 years when these kids are adults...