The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 21:2 (2012), pp.

279-285

Actualizing Critical English Language Teaching:

A Classroom Experience in the Philippines
Paolo Nino Valdez
De La Salle University, Philippines
paolo.valdez@dlsu.edu.ph

This brief research report presents findings from an investigation conducted in an academic writing class for college students
in a tertiary institution in the Philippines. It first describes the role of academic writing in the site of investigation and
proceeds with a description of actualizing principles of critical pedagogy in the classroom. Through the use of meaningful
texts and tasks that sensitizes the learners’ awareness on the use of language to counter existing discourses of dominance,
this research posits that adopting critical pedagogy in the ELT classroom can help students problematize issues imparted
by texts as it applies to the wider context of society.

Keywords: Critical Pedagogy, English Language Teaching, Counter Discourses

In recent years, the influence of critical theory in applied
linguistics and English language teaching (henceforth, ELT)
has prompted researchers and practitioners to unravel the
socio-political dimension of the profession. The impact of
critical scholarship in the field can be attributed to different
economic, social and cultural factors brought about by
globalization. As Pennycook (1994) and Phillipson (1992)
emphasized, the profession cannot be simply viewed as a
seemingly objective, ahistorical enterprise that promotes
language learning but rather is an active instrument in
forwarding ideological, cultural and political values which
privilege certain groups. For instance, in the Philippine
context, English language education has been widely
criticized by its stratifying nature—privileging those who
can afford quality education—and disenfranchising those
who cannot (Tupas, 2007). Due to the country’s volatile
economic situation and problematic issues concerning
education, the English language is considered as an
important commodity that contributes to the success of
an individual in society (Gonzalez, 1999; Sibayan, 2000).
Given these realities, scholars advocating critical pedagogy
in applied linguistics and ELT posit important perspectives
for teachers:
• Language teaching should be geared towards
the development of counter discourses or means
to effectively appropriate language to articulate
resistance against hegemonic/ oppressive beliefs
and practices (Pennycook, 1994).
• Language learning should be contextualized in
order to sensitize students’ awareness of socio-
political issues in society (Kumaravadivelu,
2006).
• Language learning and teaching located within
critical pedagogy recognizes the fact that
knowledge is amorphous and constantly challenged
(Pennycook, 1999). Moreover, it helps students use
their knowledge of language to recognize the plights
of marginalized groups in society.
However, one problematic area for language teachers
in observing critical pedagogy is its application in the
classroom. Akbari (2008) reiterated that though a critical
dimension in ELT is necessary, the challenge among
teachers is actualizing critical language pedagogy given
the unique conditions practitioners face. Specifically,
questions such as: how do I go about espousing critical
pedagogy considering that I have a prescribed syllabus or
textbook to follow; otherwise, I will be reprimanded by my
superior? Dialogue and collaboration between students and
teacher are important, yet I find it a struggle to even let my
students participate or make choices? How is resistance in
the classroom articulated and how can teachers encourage
this without sacrificing provisions of the curriculum?

Copyright © 2012 De La Salle University, Philippines

280 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
These questions can be attributed to two extreme sides
in the literature concerning critical pedagogy in ELT and
applied linguistics. The first movement can be characterized
as a critical-prescriptive stance that accounts for social
structure, socio-political-economic influences and power
in the teaching and learning process (e.g., Auerbach,
1991; Pennycook, 1994; Phillipson, 1992). Though
this movement acknowledges the need for political
awareness in education, research from this movement
are largely prescriptive such that it provides guidelines
or principles in making practice “critical”. For instance,
counter discourses are described as a means for students
in appropriating language in resisting hegemonic forces.
However, how can this be done? With regard to the second
strand, investigations grounded on critical scholarship
tends to account for specific nuances in particular
classroom contexts which may be absent in other cultures
(e.g., Benesch, 1999; Canagarajah, 1993). Despite these
extremes, practitioners are informed by insights from these
strands to continuously raise questions in grappling with
the growing complexity of the teaching-learning process.
This investigation is situated within the second strand which
lends itself to actualizing principles of critical pedagogy
in the ELT classroom in the Philippines. Specifically, it
attempts to seek manifestations of critical practice through
the use of poster essays.
Context of the study
This investigation was conducted at De La Salle
University-Manila (DLSU), Philippines. Established in
1911, DLSU has emerged as one of the top institutions
in the Philippines as it has trained students in different
fields. The institution upholds the belief that education
is an instrument for professional excellence and social
transformation. Specifically, DLSU-Manila is guided by
the Transformative Learning (TL) Framework which posits
that education should be learner-centered (Richards, 2005).
Delving further, teachers play a facilitative role as a problem
poser in providing opportunities for learners to actively
discover meaning from lessons and eventually apply them
in real-life situations.
In the case of the place of English language teaching at
DLSU, the university offers ENGLCOM to all first year
students. ENGLCOM is a six-unit course that focuses
on academic reading and writing. Since the course is
believed to be helpful in terms of training students to cope
with the reading and writing tasks given in other courses,
ENGLCOM introduces students to the different reading
strategies and rhetorical patterns needed for academic
work. Due to the institution’s thrust in empowering faculty,
ENGLCOM teachers are allowed to employ varying
strategies to promote critical thinking skills in reading
and writing different texts. Some activities implemented
by ENGLCOM teachers are:
VOL. 21 NO. 2
• Panel discussions/debates
• Preparation of non-prose texts
• Essay writing using the process approach to writing
The participants in the study are 26 first year Biology
majors during the second term of school year 2009-2010
and 23 Engineering majors during the first term of school
year 2010-2011. Most come from middle-upper class
families and have acquired their secondary education from
private schools. Due to the rigid entry requirements of
their course, the students seem to have excellent written
and oral communication skills. However, some expressed
uncertainty with regard to their skills in the language to
communicate effectively. As one student pointed out:
I think we need more training in English to be good in [sic]
communicating because our subjects are quite hard and we
need the reading and writing skills to pass subjects. (Leah)
The data from the interview and reflective essays
administered at the start of the course suggest that the
students simply view ENGLCOM as a required course
in order to complete the academic requirements of the
particular term. Also, most of them have stated that the
subject appears to be an important course in order for them
read and write effectively as these are needed to cope with
the demands of other subjects as well.
METHOD
In actualizing notions of critical pedagogy in the ELT
classroom, an authentic text that highlights the theme of the
changing role of women in the Philippines was used. The
essay “Forgotten Cause” in Pegiña (2009) examined the
different roles of Filipino women throughout history and the
motivations for such changes. The text is a suitable authentic
sample for several reasons. First, it uses several rhetorical
patterns (comparison and contrast; static description)
observed in other academic texts encountered by students.
Second, due the rhetorical patterns present in the text,
grammatical structures (transitional devices, adjectives,
meaning differences through the use of prepositions,
symbolic/literal language) necessary for students may be
examined in order for them to be prepared for the post-
reading activity (poster essay). Third, the text’s overall
theme allows readers to infer notions of gender politics in the
Philippines. Since the essay highlights the existing dilemma
between the woman’s struggle for freedom and personal
responsibility, the text is an excellent source of varying
interpretations among the readers—allowing the students
to integrate experiences and challenge the assertions made
by the author. Likewise, the essay is culturally sensitive
since it delves on a contemporary issue in Philippine society.
In tackling the text, I had the students arrange their
seats following a U-shaped pattern. This promoted an open
environment for students and the teacher to communicate
CRITICAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
ideas freely in order to discuss the text thoroughly. Questions
(see appendix A) were used to process understanding of the
text. These questions did not only check for understanding
of the information imparted by the essay but also allowed
the students to question the author’s intentions in forwarding
her arguments, evaluate the truthfulness of the statements
and share experiences which support or refute the author’s
claims.
After the discussion, students were then asked to prepare
poster essay considering the following prompt:
As a member of an organization that promotes women’s
rights, prepare a poster essay that illustrates the notion
of women being both liberated/oppressed in Philippine
society.
Similar to Vilches’ (2007) claimed, doing a poster essay
has its merits. First, the task allows learners to consider an
appropriate audience for their poster. Second, since language
is influenced by social forces, the task approximates an
authentic real-life scenario where language is used to
express their views towards social issues.
RESULTS/ DISCUSSION
Analysis of the poster essays and interviews has yielded
several insights and categories that actualize critical
pedagogy in the ELT classroom. Though non-exhaustive,
the categories that show students’ responses to the prompt
presented are not mutually exclusive. This can be explained
in the students’ varying interpretations of the text and
different strategies employed to creatively express their
understanding of the essay.
Awareness of social issues
Most of the students believe that Filipino women,
despite their freedom from domestic chores at home, choose
to be oppressed due to the ever growing financial needs of
the family. They believe that men, who have assumed the
role of breadwinner before cannot solely provide for the
family; hence, forcing women to look for work in order to
earn extra. One student noted in her essay,
I chose this picture because it depicts a woman who looks
stressed out and is sitting in her room pondering about her
life. The images beside her are her thoughts like family,
her health and her other material needs. She puts these first
before her that’s why they’re colored, except her wants
which is bordered with black pen. The women today are
liberated because she can do what she wants to do, but at
the same time oppressed because she forgot herself (her
wants) for other priorities. (Leslie)
VALDEZ, P.N. 281
Figure 1. Poster essay by Leslie.
The poster essay by Leslie (Figure 1) depicted the
concerns of women. She asserted that though her role has
expanded in terms of having the right to work, she also
considered women’s role in nurturing children and the
family. The work revealed the dilemma of Filipina women
between moving beyond their role as homemakers to earners
for their family. As Opondo, Dolan, Wendoh and Kathuri
(2007) pointed out, globalization has created a demand for
cheap labor sourced from developing nations in order for
industrialized countries to maintain its competitive stature
in the global economy. Such demand has created tension for
families in the Philippines. Traditional roles between men
as providers and women as homemakers are now replaced
with concerns about providing for the economic needs of
the family. In this regard, the Filipino woman may have
achieved freedom in terms of stereotypical roles in the
family but continues to be oppressed by global economic
forces.
Using language as an instrument in challenging forces
that oppress marginalized sectors of society
As seen in most pieces, slogans accompany the poster
essays which reveal creative use of the language to articulate
their unique interpretations of the text. Likewise, this
serves as their expressions of challenging the continuous
marginalization of certain groups in society.
The piece done by Michael (Figure 2) was an example
of his understanding that oppression against women can
also be attributed to history. Aptly titled “History is Not
a Stencil”, Michael believed that women were relegated
inferior roles in society throughout history. However, history
should not serve as a limit to continue the oppressive status
quo. He emphasizes,
The empowered 21st century Filipinas is now liberated.
They fully exercise their rights. They can strive for
superiority over men. They do not have to follow the
stencil of Filipino culture. However, Filipinas are still
oppressed by society, culture, self limits, and, in my
opinion the greatest oppression they receive, their
282 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
liberation. Because of their determination to prove their
boundless capabilities, they are slowly drifting away from
what they are really good at, and that is being a loving
full-time mom and wife.
Figure 2. Poster essay by Michael.
Second, some students have taken the interpretation of
the text through the incorporation of literal and experiential
meaning. The work of Fred (Figure 3) depicted a worn out
open door showing several signs such as “DO NOT LEAVE
UNLOCKED” and “FEED TWICE DAILY”, “HELP”,
“FAMILY?”. Also, it can be noticed that there are several
stick figures which represent the number of years the
Filipina woman had been confined with limitations due to
her role in the family and society. Fred noted,
As the image of the 19th century Filipina was the
“madwoman in the attic,” it is then likely that our view
of them today should be different, albeit very similar; the
“madwoman from the attic.” Why? Simply because they
enjoy more freedom today then they did previously, hence
the “attic”. But this does not mean that they are treated
equally, mark of the “madwoman.
Figure 3. Poster essay by Fred.
VOL. 21 NO. 2
Fred used the text to set the distinction between the
expanding role of women in society. Using the phrases
“madwoman from the attic and madwoman in the attic”, he
proceeded with claiming that Filipino women in the past
have become confined to limited and demeaning roles in the
family. Their dependence on men has made them objects
of oppressive action. For instance, the Philippine society’s
tolerance of men having several mistresses and even wives
is considered a norm in the country. On the other hand,
women’s infidelity is viewed by Philippine society as taboo,
making such beliefs a clear societal double standard imposed
against women. The open door suggests that women have
become free in terms of the activities they are now allowed
to join. However, despite the apparent freedom, Fred claims,
women are still considered as madwomen for their state of
suppressed emotions and actions.
One reality in the Philippines is the influence of the
politics of gender in society. In a hierarchical society, social
positions are accorded not only the basis of wealth and
social status but gender as well. Those who are in positions
of power legitimize dominant ideologies to keep them in
place. One the other hand, Orendain (2006) asserted that,
[T]hose who find themselves outside of this class can
only be subjected to its control in their day to day material
struggle and in their submission to ideas or ways of
thinking which they neither have the time nor preparation
to produce or resist (p. 19).
Unequal power relations are evident in gender
segregation. This is seen when men are placed in better
paying jobs while women are assigned to “more insecure,
temporary and typically lower waged positions” (Opondo
et al., 2007, p.81). Traditionally, Philippine society has
accorded the woman with domestic work (rearing for
the children and maintaining the household). However,
globalization has created a legitimized demand for cheap
labor export. Filipinos, especially women, leave the country
every year to serve as domestic helpers for other more
powerful nations (Lindio-McGovern, 2003). Similar to
other developing nations, the country is a source of cheap
labor since the masses have very few job opportunities. Such
oppressive reality is more apparent among women because
[Filipino women face the challenge of] insecure forms
of employment; compulsory and excessive overtime
work; sexual harassment; low wages; lack of collective
bargaining power; exposure to occupational health hazards
and restriction of reproductive rights”(Opondo et al.,
2007, p.81).
Much worse, the underemployment of Filipino women
who have finished college degrees and work as skilled
laborers abroad has simply created a notion of social
reproduction of inequality at a global scale (Lindio-
McGovern, 2003). This is supported by Del Rosario’s (2005)
observation that labor demands due to globalization has
CRITICAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
given rise to a new set of domestic helpers-caregivers, sex
workers, and entertainers.
Engagement through meaningful dialogue with the text
A constant theme in the literature concerning critical
pedagogy is that engagement through meaningful dialogue
is important in order for students to continuously challenge
beliefs traditionally upheld by society (Benesch, 2001;
Morgan, 2009). Pennycook (1989) highlighted the need for
teachers to present opportunities for students to critically
engage texts since knowledge production is a political
enterprise. Therefore, in this context, students should
not treat texts as dogma but constantly challenged. One
indication of problematizing texts is through generative
themes where questions are drawn from the text providing
space for constructive debate among students (Kincheloe,
2008).
Kiko’s piece (Figure 4) did not only use a creative
combination of adjectives (Bold, innovative, revolutionary,
riveting, strong, new…) that reveals the empowerment of
women but also the limitless potential as active agents of
change.
Figure 4. Kiko’s poster essay.
However, skepticism is apparent in Kiko’s explanation.
[T]imes have changed, but the Filipina hasn’t failed to
keep up with the changes as well. Rather, she overcame
her own limits set by the prejudice of others, and proved
to the world that we should never be biased to any gender.
Liberated as she may seem, she is only oppressed by her
own trials: is the price of all this effort leave her with no
self-fulfillment, and with no self-actualization?
Inferring from the aforementioned interpretation, it is
probably safe to say that Kiko believes that the liberation
of women is a constant struggle. Moreover, it can also be
inferred that Kiko saw that the empowerment of women
should be taken with caution as certain values may be
VALDEZ, P.N. 283
compromised. Similar to insights forwarded by advocates
of critical pedagogy, questioning texts does not only help
interrogate hidden assumptions made by writers but allows
students to critically examine unchallenged ideologies in
society (Kincheloe, 2008).
Overall, the aforementioned observations may be
considered as manifestations of a counter discourse that
actualizes principles espoused by critical pedagogy.
Specifically, critical pedagogy is realized through students’
constant reshaping of beliefs concerning social issues in
the country. In this case, the students acknowledged that
oppression on the basis of gender is not only conditioned
by history but is driven by complex forces brought about
by political, social and economic forces. Also, in keeping
with Pennycook’s (1994) assertion that counter discourses
should help learners appropriate language skills in more
socially conscious endeavors, the textual and non-textual
combination manifested in the poster essays provided
a creative means for students to articulate diverse
interpretations of a text. Given that the essay discussed in
class delves on a contemporary issue in Philippine society,
the poster essay provided an opportunity for learners to
express resistance to oppressive forces that continuously
marginalize women in society. More importantly, the
activity fostered critical pedagogy as it attempted to
maintain a “delicate balance between social change and
cultivating the intellect” (Kilencheloe, 2008, p. 11). In this
context, the poster essays represented a contextual space
which appreciates the diverse experiences and knowledge
that students bring into the classroom. Similar to Morgan’s
(2009) attempt to revitalize the essay in English for
academic purposes, the use of poster essays has become
an active tool for students to engage in social inquiry by
critically examining the social, historical, and cultural
influences of practices and beliefs apparent in society.
REFLECTIONS/ IMPLICATIONS
This investigation has revealed that critical pedagogy
applied in the language classroom entails an avoidance
of offering simple critiques resulting “better or alternate
explanations” of existing conditions of Filipino women.
Rather, students through the use of poster essays have
engaged in a meaningful form of critical social inquiry
that carefully examines the intricacies of gender politics
richly embedded in economic, social, and cultural tensions.
As the world becomes more complex due to the impact of
globalization and technology, educational institutions should
not only prepare students for the demands of the real world
but should instill a conscious critical stance, prompting
them to be catalysts of change. Moreover, the poster essay
represents a combination of multiliteracies brought about
by multimodal technologies (Morgan, 2009), rich histories,
struggles, and politics (Pennycook, 1994) which all help
students shape their understanding of how society shapes
284 THE ASIA-PACIFIC EDUCATION RESEARCHER
texts. However, like other critical investigations such
as this, a reflexive stance should be considered. Though
the implementation of the poster essay here accounts for
the application of a critical orientation in the classroom,
can other important classroom documents such as the
syllabus, writing requirements (essays, written exercises)
and tests serve as counter discourses as well? Considering
that industries in the Philippines greatly influence the
kind of training given in schools, do critical practices
such as these have any purpose at all since workplaces
demand compliance, docility and non-resistance? As
Auerbach (1991) emphasized, inequality in society can
always be traced back on how schools reproduce these
unequal structures. Therefore, it is important for teachers
and students to continue critically examining social issues
through projects that draw diverse understandings of these
issues to genuinely create possibilities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am indebted to Topsie Ruanni Tupas (National
University of Singapore) and Brian Morgan (Glendon
College, York University) for insightful discussions
concerning the complexities of doing critical pedagogy in
the ELT classroom. The usual proviso applies.
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Akbari, R. (2008). Transforming lives: Introducing critical
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CRITICAL ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING VALDEZ, P.N. 285

APPENDIX A

Sample Questions for Discussion

1. What is the text about?

2. What is the thesis statement of the piece?
3. Is the thesis statement given adequate support throughout the text?
4. Do you think Filipino women are continuously oppressed? Could you give sample situations of such?
5. Do you (dis)agree with the authors arguments? Why so?
6. What does the author mean by stating madwoman from the attic and madwoman in the attic?
7. In what ways does society show the liberation/oppression of women? What might have caused these acts?

APPENDIX B

The Forgotten Cause1

By Joanne P. Pegiña

Every Filipina woman is an endless source of endless possibility. Her person embraces the role of responsible daughter,
steadfast sister, generous aunt, an indifferent employee, a consistent ex-lover, a bill settler, a person who knows exactly to
uncomplicated matters for each member of the family; yet, she knows not to identify what she has long wanted for herself.
She may have won the battle against men for equal opportunity; but, she has lost and forgotten the sprit that drove her to
win the battle. She can hardly recognize herself, perhaps, who she had been, as an individual who once had an underrated
self-image. But declining economy remains clear to her. Now, her true objective in her display of deliberate obsession to fare
in the formerly man’s world then needs disambiguation. Did she fight for self-actualization because she wanted to pursue
a career in the field of her choice, or, did she fight for the inadequacies of men in her family that cripple its function? Her
present actions seemingly prove her presence for the latter. Perhaps she thinks of herself as messiah, and uses the same
strength and freedom that she has acquired from her battle for equality to save and rescue her family. She has become
indifferent to her needs again-caged, caged in her pretense. She flaunts her strength, her talents, her unwavering confidence
of herself; she uses her resources and takes responsibility of her family; she exercises her freedom to penetrate fields she can
be good at; she works hard for others and forgets about her own self, again. She has turned into an unimaginably powerful
person, who does everything she can possibly think of and defies anyone who challenges her otherwise. She is the spirit
who overshadows even the real person within herself. She has enough compassion for her family; yet, she has not left any
for herself.
Thus she no longer portrays the madwoman in the attic2 since she has finally acknowledged her worth as an individual.
She is now instead the image of the 21st century Filipina, in authentic human flesh and disguised as Overseas Filipino
Worker (OFW), executive in the industry, public official, or in occupation/field where she receives compensation used to
be atypical to and denied of the formerly home-maker, domesticated wife, fragile daughter, the second-class citizen, the
inferior sex: The madwoman from the attic.

1 Taken from the Portrait of the 21st Century Filipina. Cavite: Kamalayan Publishing, Reprinted with permission from the author.
2 A term in feminist criticism from Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar