Magnetite

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Magnetite

Magnetite from Bolivia

General
 Oxide minerals
 Spinel group
Category
 Spinel structural group

Formula
(repeating iron(II,III) oxide, Fe2+Fe3+2O4
unit)
Strunz
4.BB.05
classification
Crystal system Isometric
Hexoctahedral (m3m)
Crystal class
H-M symbol: (4/m 3 2/m)
Space group Fd3m
Unit cell a = 8.397 Å; Z = 8
Identification
Black, gray with brownish tint in
Color
reflected sun
Octahedral, fine granular to
Crystal habit
massive
On {Ill} as both twin and
Twinning composition plane, the spinel law,
as contact twins
Indistinct, parting on {Ill}, very
Cleavage
good
 Fracture Uneven
Tenacity Brittle
Mohs scale
5.5–6.5
hardness
Luster Metallic
Streak Black
Diaphaneity Opaque
Specific gravity 5.17–5.18
Dissolves slowly in hydrochloric
Solubility
acid
References [1][2][3][4]
Major varieties
Magnetic with definite north and
Lodestone
south poles

Magnetite is a rock mineral and one of the main iron ores, with the chemical formula
Fe3O4. It is one of the oxides of iron, and is ferrimagnetic; it is attracted to a magnet and
can be magnetized to become a permanent magnet itself.[5][6] It is the most magnetic of all
the naturally-occurring minerals on Earth.[5][7] Naturally-magnetized pieces of magnetite,
called lodestone, will attract small pieces of iron, which is how ancient peoples first
discovered the property of magnetism. Today it is mined as iron ore.

Small grains of magnetite occur in almost all igneous and metamorphic rocks. Magnetite is
black or brownish-black with a metallic luster, has a Mohs hardness of 5–6 and leaves a
black streak.[5]

The chemical IUPAC name is iron(II,III) oxide and the common chemical name is ferrous-
ferric oxide.

Properties

In addition to igneous rocks, magnetite also occurs in sedimentary rocks, including banded iron
formations and in lake and marine sediments as both detrital grains and as magnetofossils.
Magnetite nanoparticles are also thought to form in soils, where they probably oxidize rapidly to
maghemite.[8]

Crystal structure
The chemical composition of magnetite is Fe2+Fe23+O42−. The main details of its structure were
established in 1915. It was one of the first crystal structures to be obtained using X-ray
diffraction. The structure is inverse spinel, with O2− ions forming a face centered cubic lattice and
iron cations occupying interstitial sites. Half of the Fe3+ cations occupy tetrahedral sites while the
other half, along with Fe2+ cations, occupy octahedral sites. The unit cell consists of 32 O2− ions
and unit cell length is a = 0.839 nm.[9]

Magnetite contains both ferrous and ferric iron, requiring environments containing intermediate
levels of oxygen availability to form.[10]

Magnetite differs from most other iron oxides in that it contains both divalent and trivalent
iron.[9]

As a member of the spinel group, magnetite can form solid solutions with similarly structured
minerals, including ulvospinel (Fe2TiO4), hercynite (FeAl2O4) and chromite (FeCr2O4).
Titanomagnetite, also known as titaniferous magnetite, is a solid solution between magnetite
and ulvospinel that crystallizes in many mafic igneous rocks. Titanomagnetite may undergo
oxyexsolution during cooling, resulting in ingrowths of magnetite and ilmenite.

Crystal morphology and size

Natural and synthetic magnetite occurs most commonly as octahedral crystals bounded by {111}
planes and as rhombic-dodecahedra.[9] Twinning occurs on the {111} plane.

Hydrothermal synthesis usually produce single octahedral crystals which can be as large as 10mm
across.[9] In the presence of mineralizers such as 0.1M HI or 2M NH4Cl and at 0.207 MPa at 416-
800 °C, magnetite grew as crystals whose shapes were a combination of rhombic-dodechahedra
forms.[9] The crystals were more rounded than usual. The appearance of higher forms was
considered as a result from a decrease in the surface energies caused by the lower surface to
volume ratio in the rounded crystals.[9]

Reactions

Magnetite has been important in understanding the conditions under which rocks form.
Magnetite reacts with oxygen to produce hematite, and the mineral pair forms a buffer that can
control oxygen fugacity. Commonly, igneous rocks contain solid solutions of both
titanomagnetite and hemoilmenite or titanohematite. Compositions of the mineral pairs are used
to calculate how oxidizing was the magma (i.e., the oxygen fugacity of the magma): a range of
oxidizing conditions are found in magmas and the oxidation state helps to determine how the
magmas might evolve by fractional crystallization. Magnetite also is produced from peridotites
and dunites by serpentinization.

Magnetic properties

Lodestones were used as an early form of magnetic compass. Magnetite typically carries the
dominant magnetic signature in rocks, and so it has been a critical tool in paleomagnetism, a
science important in understanding plate tectonics and as historic data for
magnetohydrodynamics and other scientific fields.

The relationships between magnetite and other iron oxide minerals such as ilmenite, hematite,
and ulvospinel have been much studied; the reactions between these minerals and oxygen
influence how and when magnetite preserves a record of the Earth's magnetic field.

At low temperatures, magnetite undergoes a crystal structure phase transition from a monoclinic
structure to a cubic structure known as the Verwey transition. Optical studies show that this
metal to insulator transition is sharp and occurs around 120 K.[11] The Verwey transition is
dependent on grain size, domain state, pressure,[12] and the iron-oxygen stoichiometry.[13] An
isotropic point also occurs near the Verwey transition around 130 K, at which point the sign of
the magnetocrystalline anisotropy constant changes from positive to negative.[14] The Curie
temperature of magnetite is 858 K (585 °C; 1,085 °F).

If magnetite is in a large enough quantity it can be found in aeromagnetic surveys using a

magnetometer which measures magnetic intensities.[15]

Distribution of deposits

Magnetite and other heavy minerals (dark) in a quartz beach sand (Chennai, India).

Magnetite is sometimes found in large quantities in beach sand. Such black sands (mineral sands
or iron sands) are found in various places, such as Lung Kwu Tan of Hong Kong; California, United
States; and the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand.[16] The magnetite, eroded from
rocks, is carried to the beach by rivers and concentrated by wave action and currents. Huge
deposits have been found in banded iron formations. These sedimentary rocks have been used to
infer changes in the oxygen content of the atmosphere of the Earth.[17]

Remote sensing has the potential to be a big part in locating magnetite sands as even small
amounts of magnetite in sand can drastically alter the sands albedo which is the amount of
electromagnetic radiation the sand will reflect. The darker magnetite will lower the sands albedo
compared to sands that do not contain magnetite.[18]

Large deposits of magnetite are also found in the Atacama region of Chile; the Valentines region
of Uruguay; Kiruna, Sweden; the Pilbara, Midwest and Northern Goldfields regions in Western
Australia; the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia; the Tallawang Region of New South Wales; and
in the Adirondack region of New York in the United States. Kediet ej Jill, the highest mountain of
Mauritania, is made entirely of the mineral. Deposits are also found in Norway, Germany, Italy,
Switzerland, South Africa, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Hong Kong, and in Oregon, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, North Carolina, West Virginia, Virginia, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado in the
United States. In 2005, an exploration company, Cardero Resources, discovered a vast deposit of
magnetite-bearing sand dunes in Peru. The dune field covers 250 square kilometers (100 sq mi),
with the highest dune at over 2,000 meters (6,560 ft) above the desert floor. The sand contains
10% magnetite.[19]

In large enough quantities magnetite can affect compass navigation. In Tasmania there are many
areas with highly magnetized rocks that can greatly influence compasses. Extra steps and
repeated observations are required when using a compass in Tasmania to keep navigation
problems to the minimum.[20]

Magnetite crystals with a cubic habit have been found in just one location: Balmat, St. Lawrence
County, New York.[21]

Magnetite can also be found in fossils due to biomineralization and are referred to as
magnetofossils.[22] There are also instances of magnetite with origins in space coming from
meteorites.[23]

Biological occurrences

Biomagnetism is usually related to the presence of biogenic crystals of magnetite, which occur
widely in organisms.[24] These organisms range from bacteria (e.g., Magnetospirillum
magnetotacticum) to animals, including humans, where magnetite crystals (and other
magnetically-sensitive compounds) are found in different organs, depending on the
species.[25][26] Biomagnetites account for the effects of weak magnetic fields on biological
systems.[27] There is also a chemical basis for cellular sensitivity to electric and magnetic fields
(galvanotaxis).[28]

Magnetite magnetosomes in Gammaproteobacteria

Pure magnetite particles are biomineralized in magnetosomes, which are produced by several
species of magnetotactic bacteria. Magnetosomes consist of long chains of oriented magnetite
particle that are used by bacteria for navigation. After the death of these bacteria, the magnetite
particles in magnetosomes may be preserved in sediments as magnetofossils. Some types of
anaerobic bacteria that are not magnetotactic can also create magnetite in oxygen free
sediments by reducing amorphic ferric oxide to magnetite.[29]

Several species of birds are known to incorporate magnetite crystals in the upper beak for
magnetoreception,[30] which (in conjunction with cryptochromes in the retina) gives them the
ability to sense the direction, polarity, and magnitude of the ambient magnetic field.[25][31]

Chitons, a type of mollusk, have a tongue-like structure known as a radula, covered with
magnetite-coated teeth, or denticles.[32] The hardness of the magnetite helps in breaking down
food, and its magnetic properties may additionally aid in navigation. It has also been proposed
that biological magnetite may store information.[33]

Human brain

Living organisms can produce magnetite.[26] In humans, magnetite can be found in various parts
of the brain including the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, brainstem, cerebellum
and basal ganglia.[26][34] Iron can be found in three forms in the brain – magnetite, hemoglobin
(blood) and ferritin (protein), and areas of the brain related to motor function generally contain
more iron.[35][34] Magnetite can be found in the hippocampus. The hippocampus is associated
with information processing, specifically learning and memory.[34] However, magnetite can have
toxic effects due to its charge or magnetic nature and its involvement in oxidative stress or the
production of free radicals.[36] Research suggests that beta-amyloid plaques and tau proteins
associated with neurodegenerative disease frequently occur after oxidative stress and the build-
up of iron.[34]
Some researchers also suggest that humans possess a magnetic sense,[37] proposing that this
could allow certain people to use magnetoreception for navigation.[38] The role of magnetite in
the brain is still not well understood, and there has been a general lag in applying more modern,
interdisciplinary techniques to the study of biomagnetism.[39]

Electron microscope scans of human brain-tissue samples are able to differentiate between
magnetite produced by the body's own cells and magnetite absorbed from airborne pollution,
the natural forms being jagged and crystalline, while magnetite pollution occurs as rounded
nanoparticles. Potentially a human health hazard, airborne magnetite is a result of pollution
(specifically combustion). These nanoparticles can travel to the brain via the olfactory nerve,
increasing the concentration of magnetite in the brain.[36][34] In some brain samples, the
nanoparticle pollution outnumbers the natural particles by as much as 100:1, and such pollution-
borne magnetite particles may be linked to abnormal neural deterioration. In one study, the
characteristic nanoparticles were found in the brains of 37 people: 29 of these, aged 3 to 85, had
lived and died in Mexico City, a significant air pollution hotspot. A further eight, aged 62 to 92,
came from Manchester, and some had died with varying severities of neurodegenerative
diseases.[40] According to researchers led by Prof. Barbara Maher at Lancaster University and
published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, such particles could
conceivably contribute to diseases like Alzheimer's disease. Though a causal link has not been
established, laboratory studies suggest that iron oxides like magnetite are a component of
protein plaques in the brain, linked to Alzheimer's disease.[41]

Increased iron levels, specifically magnetic iron, have been found portions of the brain in
Alzheimer's patients.[42] Monitoring changes in iron concentrations may make it possible to
detect the loss of neurons and the development of neurodegenerative diseases prior to the onset
of symptoms[35][42] due to the relationship between magnetite and ferritin.[34] In tissue,
magnetite and ferritin can produce small magnetic fields which will interact with magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) creating contrast.[42] Huntington patients have not shown increased
magnetite levels; however, high levels have been found in study mice.[34]
Applications

Due to its high iron content, magnetite has long been a major iron ore.[43] It is reduced in blast
furnaces to pig iron or sponge iron for conversion to steel.

Magnetic recording

Audio recording using magnetic acetate tape was developed in the 1930s. The German
magnetophon utilized magnetite powder as the recording medium.[44] Following World War II,
3M Company continued work on the German design. In 1946, the 3M researchers found they
could improve the magnetite-based tape, which utilized powders of cubic crystals, by replacing
the magnetite with needle-shaped particles of gamma ferric oxide (γ-Fe2O3).[44]

Catalysis

Magnetite is the catalyst for the industrial synthesis of ammonia.[45] It is also used to catalyze
the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into hydroxyl free radicals and to decompose organic
contaminants such as p-nitrophenol (p-NP), which results from chemical processes such as oil
refining, petrochemical manufacturing, pulp and paper mills, and the production of many paints,
plastics, and pesticides.[46] The removal of such contaminants is an important environmental
application.

Magnetite nanoparticles

Magnetite micro- and nanoparticles are used in a variety of applications, from biomedical to
environmental. One use is in water purification: in high gradient magnetic separation, magnetite
nanoparticles introduced into contaminated water will bind to the suspended particles (solids,
bacteria, or plankton, for example) and settle to the bottom of the fluid, allowing the
contaminants to be removed and the magnetite particles to be recycled and reused.[47] This
method works with radioactive and carcinogenic particles as well, making it an important
cleanup tool in the case of heavy metals introduced into water systems.[48][49] These heavy
metals can enter watersheds due to a variety of industrial processes that produce them, which
are in use across the country. Being able to remove contaminants from potential drinking water
for citizens is an important application, as it greatly reduces the health risks associated with
drinking contaminated water.

Another application of magnetic nanoparticles is in the creation of ferrofluids. These are used in
several ways, in addition to being fun to play with. Ferrofluids can be used for targeted drug
delivery in the human body.[47] The magnetization of the particles bound with drug molecules
allows “magnetic dragging” of the solution to the desired area of the body. This would allow the
treatment of only a small area of the body, rather than the body as a whole, and could be highly
useful in cancer treatment, among other things. Ferrofluids are also used in magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) technology.[50]

Coal mining industry

For the separation of coal from waste, dense medium baths were used. This technique employed
the difference in densities between coal (1.3-1.4 tonnes per m³) and shales (2.2-2.4 tonnes per
m³). In a medium with intermediate density (water with magnetite), stones sank and coal
floated.[51]