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Word Power ii
Contents
Keywords v 4.7 Appreciating the Existence of Elements and
Their Compounds 98
FORM 4 SPM Exam Practice 4 100
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Chemistry 1 CHAPTER 5
2
1.1 Chemistry and Its Importance 2 Chemical Bonds 107
1.2 Scientific Method 5 5.1
Formation of Compounds 108
1.3 Scientific Attitudes and Values in 5.2
Formation of Ionic Bonds 109
Conducting Scientific Investigations 7 5.3
Formation of Covalent Bonds 114
SPM Exam Practice 1 9 5.4
The Properties of Ionic Compounds and
Covalent Compounds 121
CHAPTER 2 SPM Exam Practice 5 128
The Structure of the Atom 14
2.1
Matter 15
2.2
The Atomic Structure 23 CHAPTER 6
2
2.3
Isotopes and Their Importance 26 Electrochemistry 134
2.4
The Electronic Structure of an Atom 29 6.1
Electrolytes and Non-electrolytes 135
2.5
Appreciating the Orderliness and 6.2
Electrolysis of Molten Compounds 137
Uniqueness of the Atomic Structure 32 6.3
Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 142
SPM Exam Practice 2 33 6.4
Electrolysis in Industries 152
6.5
Voltaic Cells 158
2
CHAPTER 3 6.6
The Electrochemical Series 165
Chemical Formulae and Equations 39 6.7
Developing Awareness and Responsible
3.1 Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Practices when Handling Chemicals used in
Molecular Mass 40 the Electrochemical Industries 172
3.2 Relationship between the Number of SPM Exam Practice 6 173
Moles and the Number of Particles 43
3.3 Relationship between the Number of
Moles of a Substance and Its Mass 45 CHAPTER 7
2
3.4 Relationship between the Number of Acids and Bases 181
Moles of a Gas and Its Volume 48 7.1 Characteristics and Properties of Acids and
3.5 Chemical Formulae 51 Bases 182
3.6 Chemical Equations 57 7.2 The Strength of Acids and Alkalis 192
3.7 Scientific Attitudes and Values in 7.3 Concentration of Acids and Alkalis 196
Investigating Matter 60 7.4 Neutralisation 203
SPM Exam Practice 3 62 SPM Exam Practice 7 211
2
CHAPTER 4
Periodic Table of Elements 67 CHAPTER 8
2
4.1 Periodic Table of Elements 68 Salts 218
4.2 Group 18 Elements 74 8.1 Salts 219
4.3 Group 1 Elements 75 8.2 Qualitative Analysis of Salts 240
4.4 Group 17 Elements 82 8.3 Practising Systematic and Meticulous
4.5 Elements in a Period 89 Methods when Carrying Out Activities 255
4.6 Transition Elements 93 SPM Exam Practice 8 256
iii
2
CHAPTER 9 2
CHAPTER 3
Manufactured Substances in Industry 262 Oxidation and Reduction 384
9.1
Sulphuric Acid 263 3.1 Redox Reactions 385
9.2
Ammonia and Its Salts 266 3.2 Rusting as a Redox Reaction 412
9.3
Alloys 272 3.3 The Reactivity Series of Metals and
9.4
Synthetic Polymers 278 Its Applications 418
9.5
Glass and Ceramics 281 3.4 Redox Reactions in Electrolytic Cell and
9.6
Composite Materials 284 Chemical Cell 430
9.7
Appreciating Various Synthetic Industrial 3.5 Appreciating the Ability of the Elements to
Materials 288 Change their Oxidation Numbers 441
SPM Exam Practice 9 289 SPM Exam Practice 3 444
FORM 5 2
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 1 Thermochemistry 452

4.1
Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions 453
Rate of Reaction 295
4.2
Heat of Precipitation 463
1.1
4.3
Heat of Displacement 469
1.2
Factors that Affect the Rate of Reaction 305
4.4
Heat of Neutralisation 474
1.3
The Collision Theory 322
4.5
Heat of Combustion 482
1.4
Practising Scientific Knowledge to
4.6
Appreciating the Existence of Various
Enhance Quality of Life 328
Energy Sources 489
SPM Exam Practice 1 329
CHAPTER 2
2
CHAPTER 5
Carbon Compounds 340 Chemicals for Consumers 499
2.1 Carbon Compounds 341
5.1 Soaps and Detergents 500
2.2 Alkanes 343
5.2 Uses of Food Additives 510
2.3 Alkenes 346
5.3 Medicine 515
2.4 Isomerism 352
5.4 Appreciating the Existence of Chemicals 519
2.5 Alcohols 357
2.6 Carboxylic Acids 362
2.7 Esters 366
2.8 Oils and Fats 370 SPM Model Test 526
2.9 Natural Rubber 371 Answers 537
2.10 Order in Homologous Series 376 Glossary 592
2.11 The Variety of Organic Materials in Nature 376
iv
Key Words
FORM 4 denominator – penyebut decomposition – penguraian

element – unsur discharge – nyahcas
1 Introduction to Chemistry empirical formula – formula empirik displacement reaction – tindak balas
conclusion – kesimpulan ionic compound – sebatian ion penyesaran
constant variable – pembolehubah mass – jisim dry cell – sel kering
yang dimalarkan molar volume – isipadu molar electrochemical series – siri
manipulated variable molecular formula – formula molekul elektrokimia
– pembolehubah yang numerator – pengangka electrochemistry – elektrokimia
dimanipulasikan product – hasil tindak balas electrode – elektrod
procedure – kaedah/prosedur reactant – bahan tindak balas electrolysis – elektrolisis
responding variable – pembolehubah reduced – diturunkan electrolyte – elektrolit
yang bergerakbalas relative atomic mass – jisim atom electroplating – saduran elektrik
scientific attitudes – sikap saintifik relatif half-reaction – tindak balas setengah
variable – pembolehubah non-electrolyte – bukan elektrolit
4 Periodic Table of Elements non-rechargeable cell – sel yang tidak
boleh dicas semula
boiling point – takat didih potential difference – beza
2 The Structure of the Atom chemical bonding – ikatan kimia keupayaan
charged particles – zarah bercas covalent bond – ikatan kovalen primary cell – sel primer
chemical reaction – tindakbalas kimia double bond – ikatan ganda dua rechargeable cell – sel yang boleh
collision – perlanggaran electrical conductivity – kekonduksian dicas semula
compressibility – kemampatan elektrik secondary cell – sel sekunder
condensation – kondensasi electrostatic force of attraction – daya
diffusion – peresapan tarikan elektrostatik
duplet – duplet inert gas – gas adi 7 Acids and Bases
electronic configuration –susunan ionic bond – ikatan ion basicity – kebesan
elektron Lewis structure – struktur Lewis degree of dissociation – darjah
electron shells – petala elektron non-polar – tidak berkutub penceraian
forces of attraction – daya tarikan organic solvent – pelarut organik dilution – pencairan
KEY WORDS
freezing point – takat beku polar – berkutub diprotic acid – asid dwibes
half-life – setengah hayat shell – petala end point – takat akhir
isotope – isotop single bond – ikatan tunggal molarity – kemolaran
matter – jirim solubility – kelarutan monoprotic acid – asid monobes
melting point – takat lebur triple bond – ikatan ganda tiga hydroxide ion – ion hidroksida
non-renewable – tidak boleh valence electron – electron valens hydroxonium ion –ion hidroksonium
diperbaharui volatility – kemeruapan neutralisation – peneutralan
nucleon number – nombor nukleon partial dissociation –penceraian
octet – oktet separa
5 Chemical Bonds
standard solution – larutan piawai
aqueous solution – larutan akueus titration – pentitratan
giant molecules – molekul raksasa triprotic acid – asid tribes
3 Chemical Formulae and intermolecular force – daya tarikan
Equations universal indicator –penunjuk
antara molekul semesta
anion (negatively-charged ion) noble gas – gas adi
– anion (ion bercas negatif)
cation (positively-charged ion) 8 Salts
6 Electrochemistry
– kation (ion bercas positif) brown ring test – ujian cincin perang
compound – sebatian alkaline cell – sel alkali confirmatory test –ujian pengesahan
crucible – mangkuk pijar anode – anod continuous variation –perubahan
covalent compound –sebatian cathode – katod berterusan
kovalen concentration – kepekatan crystal – hablur
v Key Words
decolourised – nyahwarna energy profile diagram – rajah profil metal displacement –penyesaran
double decomposition –penguraian tenaga logam
ganda dua observable change – perubahan yang oxidation state –keadaan
evaporation – sejatan dapat diperhatikan pengoksidaan
filtrate – hasil turasan rate of reaction – kadar tindak balas oxidising agent – agen pengoksidaan
impurities – benda asing reactivity series – siri kereaktifan
insoluble salts –garam tak terlarutan reducing agent – agen penurunan
precipitate – mendakan 2 Carbon Compounds sacrificial metal – logam korban
qualitative analysis – analisa kualitatif addition – penambahan
recrystallisation – penghabluran alkanes – alkana
semula 4 Thermochemistry
alkenes – alkena
residue – baki
alkynes – alkuna bond energy – tenaga ikatan
soluble salts – garam terlarutan
combustion – pembakaran endothermic reaction –tindak balas
solution – larutan
fractionating column –turus endotermik
pemeringkat energy content –kandungan tenaga
9 Manufactured Substances in functional group – kumpulan energy level diagram –gambar rajah
Industry berfungsi aras tenaga
alloy – aloi general formula – formula am exothermic reaction –tindak balas
biodegradable – terbiodegradasikan homologous series – siri homolog eksotermik
borosilicate glass – kaca borosilikat hydration – penghidratan fuel value – nilai haba bahan api
brass – loyang hydrogenation – penghidrogenan heat of combustion – haba
bronze – gangsa IUPAC nomenclature – sistem pembakaran
catalyst – mangkin penamaan IUPAC heat of displacement –haba
ceramic – seramik saturated – tepu penyesaran
coagulation – penggumpalan sootiness – kejelagaan heat of formation – haba
Contact process – proses sentuh straight chain – rantai lurus pembentukan
corrosion – kakisan structural formula – formula struktur heat of neutralisation –haba
density – ketumpatan substitution – penukargantian peneutralan
ductility – kemuluran unsaturated – tak tepu law of conservation of energy
explosive – bahan letupan carboxylic acid – asid karboksilik – hukum keabadian tenaga
fibre optic – gentian optik coagulation – penggumpalan precipitation – pemendakan
fused glass – kaca silika terlakur dehydration – pendehidratan reversible reaction – tindak balas
lead glass – kaca plumbum distillation – penyulingan berbalik
malleability – kebolehtempaan specific heat capacity –muatan haba
drying agent – agen pengontangan
photochromic glass –kaca fotokromik tentu
elasticity – kekenyalan
polymerisation – pempolimeran thermal dissociation –penceraian
KEY WORDS
esterification – pengesteran
refrigerant – bahan penyejuk terma
extraction – pengekstrakan
rust – karat thermochemical equation –
fatty acid – asid lemak
soda glass – kaca soda kapur persamaan termokimia
fermentation – penapaian
solder – pateri
stainless steel – keluli nirkarat hydroxonium ion – ion hidroksonium
superconductor – superkonduktor hydroxyl group – kumpulan hidroksil
polyunsaturated fats –lemak poli tak 5 Chemicals for Consumers
synthetic fibre – gentian sintetik
tepu additive – bahan tambahan
volatility – kemeruapan analgesic – analgesik
FORM 5 vulcanised – tervulkan antioxidant – pengantioksida/
1 Rate of Reaction antipengoksida
antipsychotic – antipsikotik
activation energy –tenaga
3 Oxidation and Reduction biodegradable – terbiodegradasikan
pengaktifan
blast furnace – relau bagas biological enzyme – enzim biologi
average rate – kadar purata
cast iron – besi tuangan codeine – kodeina
catalyst – mangkin
chemical cell – sel kimia detergent – detergen
collision frequency – frekuensi
flavouring agent – agen perisa
perlanggaran displacement reaction – tindak balas
preservative – pengawet
collision theory – teori perlanggaran penyesaran
saponification – saponifikasi
effective collision –perlanggaran electrolytic cell – sel elektrolisis
soap – sabun
berkesan extraction – pengekstrakan
stabiliser – pengstabil
energy barrier – rintangan tenaga impurity – bendasing
thickening agent – agen pemekat
Key Words vi
CHAPTER FORM 4
1
THEME: Introducing Chemistry
Introduction to Chemistry
SPM Topical Analysis

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Section A B C A B C A B C A B C
Number of questions – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
ONCEPT MAP
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
History of chemistry Importance of chemistry Methodology in chemistry
Meaning of chemistry The scientific method Scientific attitudes

and values
Science that studies the

properties, composition and • Observe a situation • Attitudes
structure of substances and • Identify all variables • Avoid wastage
the changes they undergo • Suggest a problem • Maintain cleanliness
statement • Avoid accidents
• Form a hypothesis
• Select suitable apparatus
• Carry out an experiment
• Collect and tabulate data
In the fields of: Careers that need
• Interpret the data
• Food processing knowledge of chemistry:
• Write a report
• Medicine • Medicine and Dentistry
• Agriculture • Pharmacy
• Transportation • Geology
• Telecommunications • Biochemistry
• Daily usage of • Engineering
chemical products
(a) Medicine: to fight diseases and prolong life.
1.1 Chemistry and Its
Importance
1 Human beings used chemical processes before
500 BC to extract metals such as copper and Medicine
iron for making ornaments. They also found
ways to make ceramics from clay. However,
they could not explain the chemical processes
that took place.
2 The next 1700 years of chemical history were
dominated by a pseudo-science called alchemy (b) Fertilisers and pesticides: increase crop
(pseudo means not genuine or false). The word yields.
1
alchemy originated from the Arabic word ‘al-

kimiya’ (al === the; kimiya === art of changing).
The alchemists in Egypt believed they could
change cheap metals like lead into gold. Their
efforts were unsuccessful but along the way they
(a) discovered other substances like mercury,
sulphur, antimony and phosphorus,
(b) developed some reliable techniques of
chemical manipulation,
(c) Preservatives: prolong the storage of food.
(c) learned to prepare some mineral acids such
as sulphuric, hydrochloric and nitric acids.
Food preservative
(d) Materials used for making clothing such as

cotton, silk and nylon.
A chemist carrying out research
3 Modern chemistry originated from an Nylon

Englishman named Robert Boyle. In 1661,
he wrote a book called The Sceptical Chymist
which introduced the modern concept of
chemical elements. An element is a substance
that cannot be broken down into simpler
(e) Building materials such as cement,
substances by chemical means. In the
concrete and glass.
centuries that followed, many elements were
discovered.
The Importance of Chemistry

1 Chemistry is the science concerned with the Building
composition of substances, the basic forms of
matter and the interactions between them.
2 Chemical substances or chemicals are very
important in our lives. The following are a
few examples of chemicals.
Introduction to Chemistry 2
(f) Components of automobiles and computers. (b) how chemicals interact among each other,
and
(c) how to use the knowledge of the properties of
these chemicals to produce new substances.
Chemistry Related Careers
1 Many careers require knowledge of chemistry.

For example, a dentist uses hydrogen peroxide
gel (H2O2) to bleach teeth (making it whiter).
(g) Consumer products such as soap and For extraction of a tooth, the dentist will
detergents. administer a local anaesthetic (procaine)
before extracting the tooth of a patient. To fill
1
a tooth, he/she will use amalgam which is an
alloy of mercury and silver. Hydrogen peroxide,
procaine and amalgam are all chemicals.
Consumer products
3 Table 1.1 shows the uses of some chemical

substances in our daily life.
4 In chemistry, we study
(a) the basic units that make up these
materials, A dentist at work
Table 1.1
Name of substance Chemical formula Uses
Oxygen O2 Respiration and combustion
Nitrogen N2 Manufacture of ammonia
Carbon dioxide CO2 In photosynthesis and in making carbonated drinks
Sodium chloride NaCl Food preservation, for example, salted fish
Iron(II) sulphate FeSO4 Iron pills to treat anaemia
Aspirin CH3COOC6H4COOH An analgesic drug to treat pain and fever
Calcium sulphate 2CaSO4. H2O Used as a cast to support broken bones of accident
hemihydrate victims
Copper-nickel alloy 25% Nickel + 75% Copper To make coins
Urea CO(NH2)2 A nitrogenous fertiliser
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 As an electrolyte in a lead-acid accumulator
Ethanol C2H5OH As a solvent and manufacture of industrial chemicals
Sodium stearate C17H35COONa Soap
Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) CH3COOH Preservation of fruits and manufacture of food
flavourings
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 Calcium supplement
3 Introduction to Chemistry
2 A medical doctor needs a knowledge of
chemistry to administer the correct amount of
medicine to a patient. Categories of medicine
include antibiotics, hormones, psychiatric
medicine, analgesics, alkaloids and fungal
creams. All these medicine are chemicals.
Food processing
6 A farmer uses fertilisers to increase the yield of

A doctor his crops. Pesticides, herbicides and fungicides
1
administering are used to control pests. Therefore, even the

an injection farmer is required to have a knowledge of
chemistry.
3 Pharmacy is a branch of science which deals
with the interaction of medicine with the
human body. It also finds ways to synthesise
new drugs. Most medicine are organic
compounds. Therefore a pharmacist must
have an understanding of organic chemistry.
A farmer spraying
pesticides
Chemical-based Industries in Malaysia and

their Contributions
Local chemical industries have contributed
Pharmacist greatly to Malaysia’s economy. These industries
not only provide job opportunities but also
4 The expertise of forensic chemists can help earn foreign exchange for the country when
the police to solve crimes. The analyses and the chemicals produced are exported. Some
identification of samples of blood, drugs, notable chemical industries in Malaysia are:
semen, poison, weapons and a host of other 1 Plants in Pasir Gudang, Johor and Gebeng,
items collected from the crime scene are used Pahang produce chemicals such as
as evidence to convict criminals. polyethylene. Polyethylene and polypropylene
are used to make many household items
such as chairs, raincoats, pails and basins.
Table 1.2 shows the chemicals produced by
the petrochemical plants.
Table 1.2 Chemicals produced by petrochemical
plants in Malaysia
Petrochemical plant Product
Analysis of DNA BASF Petronas Acrylic polymers
Chemicals Sdn Bhd
5 Many types of chemicals, namely, preservatives,
colourings, antioxidants, flavour enhancers, Titan Petrochemicals Polyethylene
food stabilisers and artificial flavourings are (M) Sdn Bhd
used in the food processing industry. Thus, food
Petrochemicals (M) Expandable polystyrene
technologists require knowledge of chemistry to
Sdn Bhd
ensure the correct mixture of these chemicals.
2 The Asean Bintulu Fertiliser (ABF) plant of the water affect the solubility of
in Sarawak produces urea. This is a project sugar in water.
undertaken by some Asean countries. Urea (ii) A constant variable is the factor
is a nitrogenous fertiliser. Lack of nitrogen which is kept the same throughout
in plants will cause chlorosis whereby the the experiment.
leaves of the plants turn yellowish. To study the effect of temperature
3 Composite Technology Research of Malaysia on the solubility of sugar in water,
(CTRM) in Malacca produces fibreglass used the volume of the water used in the
in the making of aircraft and boats. experiment must be kept constant.
The volume of water is called the
constant variable.
1.1 (iii) A variable which is changed during the
experiment is called the manipulated
1
1 Name two examples of chemicals used in each of variable.
the following fields. An experiment can be carried out by
heating the water to temperatures of
Field Chemicals used 30 °C, 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C.
Agriculture The mass of sugar that dissolves at
different temperatures of water is then
Medicine
measured. The temperature of water
Food processing is called the manipulated variable.
(iv) A responding variable is the variable
that responds to the change made
by the manipulated variable. The
1.2 Scientific Method amount of sugar that dissolves in
water at different temperatures is
1 Chemistry is an experimental science similar called the responding variable.
to Biology and Physics and requires scientific Thus the variables are:
research. Manipulated variable: Temperature
2 There are some basic guidelines in approaching of the water
any scientific research. These guidelines are Responding variable: Amount
known as the scientific method. of sugar that dissolves in water at
3 The scientific method is a systematic approach different temperatures
to research. It consists of the following steps: Constant variable: Volume of water
(a) Making an observation about a situation (c) Suggesting a problem statement
A scientific research starts with an This is a question which identifies the
observation. For example, a student would problem related to the observation.
have observed a situation as follows: For example,
Does the solubility of sugar increase

When he adds 20 g of sugar to 100 cm3
proportionally with the increase in the
of hot water and stirred, all the sugar
temperature of water?
dissolved. However, when 20 g of sugar
is added to 100 cm3 of water at room
temperature and stirred, some sugar This will lead to the forming of a
remains undissolved in the water. hypothesis.
(d) Forming a hypothesis
A hypothesis is a proposition, idea, theory
(b) Identifying variables or any other statement used as a starting
(i) A variable is a factor which affects the point for discussion, investigation or study.
results of the experiment. The factors For example, to study the effect of the
that affect the solubility of sugar in temperature of water on the amount of
water are called variables. It is found sugar that dissolves, a probable hypothesis
that the temperature and volume would be:
the scientist needs to draw a conclusion
The higher the temperature of the based on the experimental results.
water, the greater the amount of sugar (j) Writing a report
that can dissolve in it. Lastly, the scientist has to write a report of
his/her work. This will enable him/her to
(e) Apparatus and materials communicate with other scientists.
When planning an experiment, suitable The general format of a report:
apparatus and materials that are required
to carry out the experiment are selected.
(f) Listing a work procedure Title:
The procedure is the list of steps that needs Aim:
to be taken to carry out an experiment. Problem statement:
It is advisable to list the steps in point Hypothesis:
form. Variables:
1
(g) Carrying out the experiment (a) Manipulated variable:

After planning the experiment, a scientist (b) Responding variable:
will carry out the experiment according to (c) Constant variable(s):
the procedure. Materials:
(h) Data collection Apparatus:
The scientist will then record the results Procedure:
of the experiment accurately. He or she Data and observation:
should not change the results of the Interpreting data:
experiment and must be honest. Discussion:
(i) Data interpretation and conclusion Conclusion:
After collecting the data, the scientist will
analyse the results of his/her experiment. The
results can be presented in various forms, 4 The following is an example of an experimental
such as a table, graph or calculation. Then, report.
1.1
To investigate the effect of the temperature of water on the solubility of sugar

Problem statement Procedure
Does the amount of sugar that dissolves in water increase 1 100 cm3 of water is
when the temperature of the water increases? measured using a
measuring cylinder and
Hypothesis
is poured into a 250
The higher the temperature of the water, the greater cm3 beaker.
the mass of sugar that dissolves in it. 2 The temperature of the
Variables water is recorded using
• Manipulated variable: Temperature of water a thermometer.
• Responding variable: Amount of sugar that 3 A 100 cm3 beaker is
dissolves at different temperatures filled with sugar. The
beaker and its contents Figure 1.1
• Constant variable: Volume of water and size of
sugar are then weighed and recorded as a gram.
Experiment 1.1
4 The sugar is added a little at a time to the water

Materials Sugar and water.
in the beaker using a spatula. The mixture is then
Apparatus stirred using a glass rod.
100 cm measuring cylinder, 250 cm beaker, 100
3 3 5 The process is continued until no sugar can
cm beaker, electronic balance, Bunsen burner,
3 further dissolve in the water.
tripod stand, wire gauze, spatula, thermometer and 6 The beaker and its contents (sugar) are weighed
glass rod. again and recorded as b gram.
7 The amount of sugar that dissolved in the water Interpreting data
at room temperature is (a – b) gram.
8 The experiment is repeated by heating the water
to temperatures of 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C
respectively.
9 The results are recorded in Table 1.3.
Results
Table 1.3
Temperature Room 40 50 60 70 Figure 1.2 Graph of mass of sugar dissolved
(°C) temperature against temperature
Initial mass of a b c d e A graph of the mass of sugar dissolved against

beaker and its temperature is plotted as shown in Figure 1.2.
1
contents (g) (Note: Both axes must be labelled with their units
and the title of the graph must be stated)
Final mass of b c d e f
beaker and its
contents (g)
Conclusion
Mass of sugar (a – b) (b – c) (c – d) (d – e) (e – f)
dissolved (g) The amount of sugar that dissolves in the water
increases when the temperature of the water increases.
(Note:
The unit of each reading must be The hypothesis is accepted.
stated:temperature in °C and mass in gram)
1.2
1 You are required to investigate whether table salt (iii) the constant variable of the experiment.
dissolves in water and kerosene. (c) List the materials and apparatus needed to carry
(a) State a hypothesis for the experiment. out the experiment.
(b) State (d) Give a brief procedure of the experiment.
(i) the manipulated variable, (e) Tabulate your results.
(ii) the responding variable,
1 A student must develop the following good

1.3 Scientific Attitudes and laboratory practices.
Values in Conducting (a) Positive attitudes
Scientific Investigations A student should
(i) have an enquiring outlook,
Scientific Attitudes and Values (ii) cooperate with other students while
carrying out an experiment,
(iii) be honest and not alter the results of
an experiment.
(b) Safety
(i) Do not carry out an experiment
without the supervision of the
teacher.
(ii) Do not taste any chemicals.
(iii) Do not use burning paper to light a
Bunsen burner.
(iv) Always check the label of the chemical
Students carrying out an experiment before using it.
(v) Dispose of all toxic waste in a proper (e) Accidents
container. (i) Any chemical spilled on the body,
(vi) Do not play with electrical clothing or eyes must be washed
appliances. immediately with plenty of water.
(c) Wastage (ii) Any chemical unintentionally ingested
(i) Do not waste chemicals. Take only must be spat out immediately and
whatever is necessary. the mouth must be washed with plenty
(ii) Switch off the gas supply or electricity of water.
when it is not required.
(d) Cleanliness 1.3
After carrying out an experiment,
(i) the apparatus must be cleaned and 1 What are the safety precautions that must be taken
returned to the same place, when carrying out the following experiments?
(a) Diluting concentrated acid.
1
(ii) the table must be wiped dry with a

towel or rag, (b) Heating a solution in a test tube.
(iii) all solid waste must be thrown into (c) Carrying out an experiment that involves the
release of a poisonous gas.
the dustbin and not into the sink.
1 The scientific method is a systematic approach to (b) Responding variable: A variable that responds
research. to the change of the manipulated variable.
2 The scientific approach begins with a hypothesis. (c) Constant variable: The factor that is kept
A hypothesis is an intelligent guess relating a constant throughout the experiment.
manipulated variable with a responding variable. 5 After carrying out the experiment, you have to write
3 A variable is a factor that affects the result of a a report which includes the following:
reaction. (a) Write the aim or problem statement
For example, the mass of salt that can dissolve in (b) State the hypothesis
water depends on the volume and the temperature (c) List all the variables
of the water. Volume and temperature are called (d) List the chemicals and apparatus used in the
variables. experiment
4 There are three types of variables: (e) Tabulation of your data
(a) Manipulated variable: A variable that is changed (f) Interpret your result
during the experiment. (g) Make a conclusion
1
Multiple-choice Questions
1.1 7 Which of the following chemicals 11 What is the manipulated variable
Chemistry and Its
is synthetic? of the experiment?
Importance
A Neon A Magnesium oxide and
1 The chemical used to neutralise B Protein manganese(IV) oxide
acidity in soil is C Sodium hydroxide B Mass of magnesium oxide
A potassium nitrate D Citric acid and manganese(IV) oxide
1
B calcium hydroxide C Temperature of hydrogen
C copper(II) oxide 8 DDT is a chemical used as peroxide solution
D sodium carbonate pesticide. It is made up of carbon, D Concentration of hydrogen
chlorine and hydrogen atoms. peroxide solution
2 The chemical used in raising flour The molecular formula of DDT is
is CCl3CH(C6H4Cl)2. 12 What is the constant variable of
A calcium carbonate the experiment?
What is the total number of
B sodium nitrate I Volume of oxygen released
atoms in a DDT molecule?
C magnesium sulphate II Mass of magnesium oxide
A 3 C 18
D sodium bicarbonate and manganese(IV) oxide
B 17 D 28
III Temperature of hydrogen
3 Which of the following careers 9 Chemical X is used as electrolyte peroxide solution
below do not need a knowledge in the accumulator. IV Concentration of hydrogen
of chemistry? Chemical Y is used in soap making. peroxide solution
A Geologist What is chemical X and Y? A I, II and III only
B Forensic scientist B I, III and IV only
C Meteorologist X Y C II, III and IV only
D Pharmacist D I, II, III and IV
A Sulphuric Sodium
acid hydroxide 13 The responding variable for the
4 The branch of chemistry that
experiment is
studies carbon compounds is B Sodium Sulphuric A the rate of release of oxygen gas.
A organic chemistry hydroxide acid B the decreasing rate in volume
B polymer chemistry
C Hydrochloric Sodium of hydrogen peroxide.
C inorganic chemistry
acid hydroxide C the rate of increase in
D industrial chemistry
concentration of hydrogen
5 Chloroform has the formula of D Sodium Hydrochloric peroxide.
CHCl3. Which of the following hydroxide acid D the decreasing rate in mass of
statements are true about the the metal oxide.
chloroform molecule? 1.2 14 Magnesium ribbon reacts with
Scientific Method
I It is made up of three elements. hydrochloric acid as shown.
II It is made up of five elements. 10 The factor that affects the result
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
III The molecule consists of five of an experiment is called a
atoms. A solute C result If you are required to study
IV The molecule consists of four B solution D variable the effect of concentration of
atoms. hydrochloric acid on the rate of
A I and III only For questions 11 – 13, use the reaction above, what variables
B I and IV only information given below: must be constant?
C II and III only Hydrogen peroxide decomposes as I Time of reaction
D II and IV only represented by the equation: II Temperature of hydrochloric acid
III Size of beaker
2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
6 The substance that cannot be IV Length of magnesium ribbon
broken down into simpler form is A student is required to study the A IV only
called effect of magnesium oxide and B II and IV only
A compound C molecule manganese(IV) oxide on the rate of C I, II and IV only
B element D particle decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. D II, III and IV only
15 “The greater the quantity of sodium chloride added to ice, the lower its 20 Q Analyse data
melting point”. If you are required to study the above hypothesis, what is the
manipulated variable? R Observe a situation
A Mass of ice S Make a hypothesis
B Types of salt added
T Carry out the experiment
C Mass of salt added
D Temperature of ice U Collect data
The steps above are the steps
16 “Without water iron will not rust”. Which of the following is correct in carrying taken to carry out a scientific
out the experiment to prove the statement above? investigation. The correct order in
carrying out the investigation is
Manipulated variable Constant variable A S, R, T, U, Q
B R, S, T, U, Q
A Presence or absence of water Rusting of iron
C R, T, U, Q, S
1
B Presence or absence of water Presence or absence of air D R, T, U, S, Q

C Presence or absence of water Presence of air 21 During electrolysis, the mass of
D Presence or absence of air Presence of water metal deposited at the cathode
is dependent on the time and
the amount of current passed
17 A student wants to find out the effect of temperature on the solubility of through the electrolyte. If you are
sugar in water. Which of the following is correct? required to show that the mass of
metal deposited is proportional
Manipulated variable Responding variable Constant variable to the current passed through the
electrolyte, what are the variables
A Temperature of Mass of sugar Volume of water
in this experiment?
water dissolved
B Volume of water Mass of sugar Temperature of water Manipulated Constant
dissolved variable variable
C Mass of sugar Temperature of Volume of water A Time Types of
dissolved water electrodes
used
D Temperature of Mass of sugar Humidity of the air
water dissolved B Time Amount of
current
C Amount of Types of
18 An experiment is carried out to study the solubility of sodium chloride in
current electrodes
water and in benzene. What is the (i) manipulated variable (ii) constant
used
variable of the experiment?
D Amount of Time
Manipulated variable Constant variable current
A Solvent Rate of stirring
1.3 Scientific Attitudes and
B Solvent Mass of sodium chloride
Values
C Solute Volume of solvent
22 What precautions must you take
D Solute Rate of stirring
when storing concentrated nitric
acid?
A Store it in a dark place
19 A hypothesis
B Store it in a fume cupboard
I is a law of science.
C Store it in a locked cupboard
II can be a true or false statement.
D Store it away from any
III is a conclusion derived from the result of the experiment.
Bunsen burner
IV is a statement that relates the manipulated variable and the responding
variable. 23 What precaution must you take
A I and III only when diluting concentrated
B II and IV only sulphuric acid?
C I, II and III only A Add the concentrated
D II, III and IV only sulphuric acid to water
B Add water to the concentrated 25 27 An experiment should be carried
sulphuric acid out in the fume cupboard if it
C Mix equal volumes of the involves
concentrated sulphuric acid A the release of poisonous gas.
and water together B the release of flammable gas.
D Mix one volume of C the use of corrosive
concentrated sulphuric acid chemicals.
to three volumes of water D the use of oxidising
together A bottle of chemical has a label chemicals.
shown in the diagram. What does
this label represents?
24 A Flammable chemical 28 Why is it important to understand
B Corrosive chemical the experimental procedures
C Radioactive chemical before carrying out the
1
D Oxidising chemical experiment?
I To prevent wastage of
chemicals
26 When heating a solution in a II To prevent accidents from
boiling tube, what precaution happening
must you take? III To prevent repetition of the
A bottle of chemical has a label A Never heat the solution too experiment
as shown in the diagram. What strongly IV To know what apparatus
precaution must be taken when B Never hold the boiling tube is needed to carry out the
storing this chemical? vertically experiments
A Store it in a dark place C Never use a Pyrex boiling tube A I, II and III only
B Store it in a fume cupboard to heat the solution B I, III and IV only
C Store it in a locked cupboard D Never direct the mouth C II, III and IV only
D Store it away from any of the boiling tube at your D I, II, III and IV
Bunsen burner classmates
Structured Questions
1 Table 1 shows the time taken for a 5 cm length of seconds. From the graph in (i), determine
magnesium ribbon to dissolve in 50 cm3 of dilute the concentration of the hydrochloric acid
hydrochloric acid of different concentrations. solution. [1 mark]
2 Table 2 shows the mass of two salts P and Q that

Concentration of
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 dissolved in 100 cm3 of water at different temperatures.
hydrochloric acid (mol dm–3)
Time taken for a 5 cm Solubility of salt (mass of salt
magnesium ribbon to Temperature soluble in 100 cm3 of water)
30 26 22 18 14
dissolve (s) (°C)
Salt P (g) Salt Q (g)
Table 1 30 5 7
(a) State
40 10 14
(i) the manipulated variable,
(ii) the responding variable and 50 15 21
(iii) the constant variable of the experiment 60 20 28
above. [3 marks] 70 25 35
(b) State a hypothesis for this experiment. [1 mark]
Table 2
(c) (i) Plot a graph of concentration of hydrochloric
acid against time taken for the magnesium (a) State one other variable, besides temperature,
to dissolve. [5 marks] that affects the solubility of salt. [1 mark]
(ii) If a 5 cm length of magnesium ribbon is (b) In the experiment above, state
added to a hydrochloric acid solution of (i) the manipulated variable
unknown concentration, the time taken for (ii) the constant variable
the magnesium ribbon to dissolve is 17 (iii) the responding variable [3 marks]
(c) Plot a graph of the solubility of salts P and Q (a) State a hypothesis for the experiment above.
against temperature on the same axis. [4 marks] [1 mark]
(d) What can you conclude from the graphs in (c)? (b) What is the
[2 marks] (i) manipulated variable
3 The procedure below shows the sequence in (ii) responding variable
carrying out an experiment to study the effect of the (iii) constant variable when carrying out the
temperature of water on the mass of sugar that can experiment? [3 marks]
dissolve. (c) Calculate the mass of sugar that dissolved in water
Procedure: at various temperatures and write your answer in
• Initial mass of beaker P and sugar is taken (a gram). the right column of the table. [2 marks]
• 50 cm3 of water is poured into a separate 100 cm3
(d) Plot a graph of the mass of sugar that dissolved
beaker. The water is heated to 30 °C.
against the temperature of water. [3 marks]
• Sugar is added to the 50 cm3 of water at 30 °C
1
a little at a time while stirring the mixture until no (e) From your graph, estimate the mass of sugar that
more sugar can further dissolve. can dissolve in water at 45 °C. [1 mark]
• The final mass of beaker P and sugar is taken (b
gram). The mass of sugar that dissolved is (a – b) 4 (a) Name four chemicals used in food processing.
gram. [4 marks]
• The experiment is repeated by dissolving the sugar
in water heated to 40 °C, 50 °C, 60 °C and 70 °C. (b) Name six careers that need a knowledge of
chemistry. [6 marks]
The results are tabulated in Table 3.
(c) Name three contributions of chemical industries
Initial mass Final mass Mass of to the country. [3 marks]
Temperature of beaker P of beaker P sugar (d) Name five scientific values that must be observed
of water (°C) and contents and contents dissolved when carrying out scientific research. [5 marks]
(g) (g) (g)
(e) Name two types of chemicals that can increase
30 92.50 87.50 the yield of crops. [2 marks]
40 87.50 77.50
50 77.50 62.50
60 62.50 42.50
70 42.50 17.50
Table 3
Essay Questions
1 ‘Without air, an iron nail will not rust’. You are required (b) The list below shows the steps involved in carrying
to plan an experiment to verify the statement. out scientific research:
(a) List the apparatus and materials needed to carry
Making a hypothesis, making a conclusion, collecting data,
out the experiment. [3 marks]
making an inference, making an observation, carrying out
(b) State (i) the manipulated variable, (ii) the an experiment, interpreting data, identifying variables and
responding variable and (iii) the constant variable planning the procedure of the experiment.
of the experiment above. [3 marks]
(c) Briefly write the procedure for the experiment. (i) Arrange the steps in the correct order.
[10 marks] [8 marks]
(ii) Explain the difference between inference
(d) Tabulate your results. [4 marks]
and hypothesis. [4 marks]
2 (a) Explain the meaning of the scientific method. (iii) State three ways of presenting the
[2 marks] experimental results. [6 marks]
Experiments
1 ‘The greater the volume of water, the higher the solubility of salt’. Plan an experiment to prove the
statement. Your answer should include the following items:
(a) Aim of experiment [3 marks]
(b) Statement of hypothesis [3 marks]
(c) All variables [3 marks]
(d) List of materials and apparatus [3 marks]
(e) Procedure [3 marks]
(f) Tabulation of data [3 marks]
2 The table shows the pH values of 25 cm3 sodium hydroxide solutions of different concentrations
measured by a student using a pH meter.
Concentration of sodium hydroxide solution
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
1
(mol dm–3)
pH value 13.0 13.3 13.5 13.6 13.7
(a) State the variables of this experiment. [3 marks]

(b) Suggest a hypothesis for the experiment. [3 marks]
(c) Plot a graph of pH value against concentration of the NaOH solution. [3 marks]
(d) Using the graph that you have plotted, determine
(i) the pH value of a sodium hydroxide solution with a concentration of 0.35 mol dm–3.
(ii) the concentration of NaOH solution with a pH value of 13.4. [3 marks]
3 Manganese(IV) oxide is a catalyst that speeds up the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to form
water and oxygen gas as represented by the equation:
2H2O2(l) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
A student carried out an experiment by adding different amounts of manganese(IV) oxide to 50 cm3 of 0.2
mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide solution.
The table shows the results obtained by the student.
Quantity of manganese(IV) oxide (g) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Time taken to collect 50 cm of oxygen (s)
3
30 25 20 15 10
(a) State the

(i) manipulated variable,
(ii) responding variable,
(iii) constant variable of the experiment. [3 marks]
(b) What can you conclude from the results of the experiment? [3 marks]
CHAPTER FORM 4
2
THEME: Matter Around Us
The Structure of the Atom

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 1
Number of questions 5 — – – – 6 — – – – 2 1 – – – 3 1 – – –
2 2
ONCEPT MAP
MATTER
Kinetic theory of matter Atomic structure
Changes in states of Diffusion in a solid, liquid Particles in matter: atom, molecule and ion
matter and gas
Subatomic particles: proton, electron and neutron
Determination of the
melting and freezing
points of naphthalene
Electron arrangement in atoms
and valence electrons
Symbols of elements
A
Z X
Isotopes
(b) When the gas tap in the laboratory is turned
2.1 Matter SPM
’08/P1
on, the smell of the gas is immediately
detected. This shows that the gas is also
1 Chemistry is the study of matter, its made up of particles in motion.
composition and the changes it undergoes. 7 An element is a substance that cannot be
2 Matter is anything that occupies space and made into anything simpler by means of a
has mass. In other words, matter is anything chemical reaction.
that has volume and mass. 8 The particles in some elements are made
3 Examples of matter are books, pens, chairs, up of atoms. For example, metals like gold,
water, air and plants. Examples of non-matter copper, iron, zinc are all made up of atoms.
are electricity and light.
4 The particle theory of matter states that matter
is made of very tiny discrete particles. The
particulate nature of matter is investigated in
2
Activity 2.1.
5 Elementary particles that make up matter may
be atoms, molecules or ions.
1 ’04
Substance Chemical formula

Figure 2.1 Copper foil is made up of atoms
Naphthalene C10H8
9 A compound is a substance that can be
Iron Fe
made into something smaller by means of a
Sodium chloride NaCl chemical reaction.
10 Compounds contain more than one element.
State the particles present in each of the above The elements in a compound are not just mixed
substances. together. They are joined by strong forces called
Solution Naphthalene – molecules, iron – atoms, chemical bonds. Compounds do not have the
sodium chloride – ions. same properties as the elements they contain.
Compounds are
(a) formed by chemical reactions, and
(b) they have different properties from the
elements they contain.
All metals and noble gases are made up of atoms. 11 The particles in compounds may be molecules
A compound formed between non-metallic elements or ions. Molecules are made up of two or
(example: naphthalene, C10H8), is made up of molecules. more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
A compound formed between a metal and a non-metal Molecules are particles that are not charged.
(example: sodium chloride, NaCl) is made up of ions. 12 A molecule may consists of atoms of the same
element, for example, oxygen molecules (O2),
6 The existence of these particles is supported nitrogen molecules (N2), hydrogen molecules
by some observations. Some examples are: (H2) and sulphur molecules (S8) (Figure 2.2(a)).
(a) When a drop of 13 A molecule may also consist of dissimilar
ink falls into a atoms of two or more elements. For
glass of water, example, a water molecule (H2O) consists of
the colour of one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, and a
the ink spreads carbon dioxide molecule (CO2) consists of
throughout the one carbon and two oxygen atoms (Figure
water. This shows 2.2(b)).
that ink is made 14 Some molecules can be very large. For example,
up of particles in Dropping ink into a quinine which is a drug used to treat malaria
motion. glass of water patients has the formula C20H24N2O2.
15 The Structure of the Atom

(a) The particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) possess kinetic energy. They are in
constant motion and constantly collide
with each other.
(a) Model of nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur (b) The velocities of the particles in the three
molecules physical states of matter—solid, liquid
and gas—are different.
(c) The higher the temperature, the higher
the kinetic energy, as the velocity of the
particles increases.
(d) At a given temperature, the lighter particles
(b) Model of carbon dioxide and water molecules move faster than the heavier ones.
Figure 2.2 2 In 1827, Robert Brown (a botanist) made an
2
observation through a microscope. He found

15 However, some compounds consist of atoms or that pollen grains on the surface of water are
a group of atoms that carry positive or negative in constant motion. He explained that the
charges. These charged particles are called pollen grains are moving because the moving
ions. For example, table salt, NaCl, consists water molecules are constantly colliding
of sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl–) with the pollen grains. The visible motion
(Figure 2.3). The rust on an iron nail consists of of these pollen grains is called the Brownian
iron(III) ions (Fe3+) and oxide ions (O2–). motion.
3 The Brownian motion gives the evidence that
a liquid consists of particles in constant
movement.
Figure 2.3 Model of sodium chloride crystal
16 Ions which are positively-charged are called

cations. For example, sodium ions (Na+) and Figure 2.4 Pollen grain being bombarded by water
iron(III) ions (Fe3+) are cations. molecules
17 Ions which are negatively-charged are called
anions. For example, chloride ions (Cl–) and 4 Another evidence of the movement of particles
oxide ions (O2–) are anions. is diffusion. Diffusion is the random
18 Generally, metals form positive ions and non- movement of particles from a region of high
metals form negative ions. Some examples of concentration to a region of low concentration.
cations and anions are given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
You can smell perfume
Examples of positive H+, K+, Cu2+, Al3+, NH4+, while you walk past
ions (cations) Mg2+, Ca2+, Zn2+, Pb2+ and Ag+ cosmetic counters.The
perfume particles have
Examples of negative Br–, I–, OH–, NO3–, SO42–,
left the open perfume
ions (anions) CO32–, PO43–, O2–, S2– bottles and spread
and S2O32– out through the air by
diffusion.
The Kinetic Theory of Matter

1 The kinetic theory is an extension of the 5 There are three states of matter, namely,
particle theory of matter. According to the solid, liquid and gas. Table 2.2 shows the
kinetic theory: comparison between the three states of matter.

SPM
Table 2.2 Comparison between the three states of matter ’11/P2
States of matter solid liquid gas
Arrangement The particles are very closely The particles are closely The particles are very far
of particles packed. packed but there are more apart from each other.
empty spaces between them
compared to the solid state.
2
Forces of The very strong forces The forces of attraction are The forces of attraction are
attraction of attraction restrict the weaker than in the solid state. very weak. The particles
between particles movement of the particles. The particles are no longer move randomly in all
The particles in a solid are held in fixed positions. directions at great speed.
held in fixed positions.
Volume and Solids have fixed volumes Liquids have fixed volumes. Gases do not have fixed
shape and shapes. However, they do not have shapes or volumes.
fixed shapes but take the
shapes of the containers.
Types of Vibration and rotation Vibration, rotation and Vibration, rotation and
movement translation translation
Kinetic energy The kinetic energy of the The kinetic energy of The kinetic energy of the
of particles particles are low. the particles are high, on particles are very high and
average. they move at high speed.
Compressibility Very difficult to be Not easily compressed Easily compressed because
compressed because the because the particles are the particles are very far
particles are packed closely packed quite closely apart
Rate of diffusion Very low Average Very high
SPM
Diffusion ’08/P2
1 Diffusion refers to the process by which particles

intermingle as a result of their kinetic energy
of random motion.
2 Figure 2.5(a) shows a container that consists
of gases A and B. The two gases are separated
by a partition. The particles of both gases
are in constant motion and make numerous
collisions with the partition.
3 If the partition is removed as in Figure 2.5(b),
the gases will mix because of the random
motion of their particles.
In time, a uniform mixture of gases A and B
particles will be produced in the container.
4 The rate of diffusion depends on the
temperature and the molecular mass of the
particles. The higher the molecular mass, the
lower the rate of diffusion.

To investigate the diffusion of particles in a gas, liquid SPM
’09/P1
and solid
Apparatus Two gas jars with plastic covers, beaker, teat pipette, boiling tube, spatula and rubber stopper.
Materials Liquid bromine, potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 crystals, water and hot jelly solution.
Procedure
(A) Diffusion in a gas
1 A few drops of liquid bromine are dropped into a gas jar using a teat
pipette.
2
2 The gas jar is covered with a gas jar cover.

3 An empty gas jar is placed upside down on top of the first jar.
4 The cover is removed and any colour change is recorded. The time
taken for the brown bromine vapour to spread into the second gas jar is
recorded.
Figure 2.6
(B) Diffusion in a liquid
1 A beaker is —
2 filled with water.
3
2 A few potassium manganate(VII) crystals are placed at the bottom of
the water using a spatula.
3 Any colour change is recorded. The time taken for the purple
manganate(VII) ions to spread throughout the water is recorded.
Figure 2.7
(C) Diffusion in a solid

1 Some freshly cooked jelly solution is poured into a boiling tube until it
is almost full.
2 The jelly is allowed to set.
3 A small potassium manganate(VII) crystal is placed on top of the jelly.
4 The boiling tube is then stoppered using a rubber stopper.
5 Any colour change is recorded. The time taken for the purple
manganate(VII) ions to spread throughout the solid jelly is recorded.
Figure 2.8
Results
Experiment Observation
A The brown bromine vapour spreads out into the upper gas jar. The time taken is very short.
B After about 10 minutes, the purple colour of the manganate(VII) ions had spread throughout
Activity 2.1
the water.
C After a week, the purple colour of the manganate(VII) ions had spread throughout the solid
jelly.

Discussion
1 Diffusion has taken place in the gas (air in experiment A), liquid (water in experiment B) and solid (jelly
in experiment C).
2 The rates of diffusion of the particles in the solid, liquid and gaseous states are different. It is highest in
gases, lower in liquids and lowest in solids.
3 This shows that there are more and bigger spaces between particles in the gas. The spaces between liquid particles
are smaller. The particles in the solid state are very close with little space between them.
4 The occurence of diffusion proves that matter (bromine and potassium manganate(VII)) consist of particles
in constant motion.
5 The diffusion experiments show that because particles possess kinetic energy, they are in constant motion.
2
SPM
The Changes in the States of Matter ’10/P2
1 A substance can be changed from one state into another when it is heated or cooled.
2 The changes in the state of the substance can be explained using the kinetic theory model.
Heating Heating
Solid Liquid Gas

1 The particles in a solid are 1 When a liquid is continuously 1 When a gas is cooled,
packed closely in a fixed heated, the particles receive more the particles lose kinetic
pattern. energy and move even faster. They energy. The movement of
2 When the solid is heated, collide with each other more often. the particles slows down.
the particles receive heat 2 At the boiling point, the particles 2 The forces of attraction
energy. The kinetic energy receive enough energy to between the particles are
of the particles increases overcome the forces of attraction formed which hold the
and the particles vibrate holding them together. The particles particles together in the
faster. in the liquid state break loose to liquid state.
3 At the melting point, the become the gaseous state. 3 The process whereby the
particles vibrate so much 3 When the liquid is cooled, the gas changes into a liquid
that they break away from movement of the particles slows is called condensation.
their fixed positions. The down. Stronger forces of attraction 4 The temperature at which
solid becomes a liquid. between the particles are formed. the gas condenses to the
4 The temperature at which 4 The particles are arranged in an liquid state is the
the solid changes into the orderly manner in the solid state. The same as the boiling point.
liquid state is called the process whereby the liquid changes
melting point. into a solid is called solidification.
The temperature at which this process
occurs is called the freezing point.
5 The melting point and the freezing
point of a substance have the same
value.
Cooling Cooling

3 Examples of substances that undergo sublima
tion are iodine, ammonium chloride and
solid carbon dioxide (dry ice).
The process in which substances change
directly from the gaseous to the solid state is
also called sublimation.
Melting Point and Boiling Point

1 No two substances have the same melting
and boiling points. We can thus identify a
substance by its melting and boiling points.
When a state of matter gains or loses heat, it undergoes 2 The melting and boiling points of a substance
2
a change. will change when there is a small amount of

impurity in it. For example, the melting point
A gain in heat is called an endothermic change. A loss of pure water is 0 °C and its boiling point is
in heat is called an exothermic change.
100 °C. A small amount of salt added to the
water will decrease its melting point to –2 °C
Sublimation and increase its boiling point to 102 °C.
3 As the melting and boiling points of an
1 Certain substances do not melt when heated. impure substance will deviate slightly from its
SPM They change directly from the solid to the standard values, we can determine the purity
’11/P1
gaseous state. of a substance by the melting and boiling
2 This process is called sublimation. points of the substance.
To determine the melting and freezing points of

naphthalene
Apparatus (A) Heating of naphthalene

Boiling tube, retort stand and clamp, tripod stand, 1 3 spatulas of naphthalene powder are placed in a
Bunsen burner, wire gauze, thermometer (0 – 110 °C), boiling tube.
500 cm3 beaker, 250 cm3 conical flask, test tube 2 A 500 cm3 beaker is filled with water until it is
holder and stopwatch. 3
about — full. It is then placed on a tripod stand.
4
Materials Naphthalene and water. 3 The boiling tube containing naphthalene is clamped
Procedure in the beaker of water, making sure the naphthalene
Figure 2.9 powder is below the water level of the water bath.
Heating of 4 The water bath is heated until it reaches a
naphthalene temperature of about 65 °C as shown in Figure
2.9. The water is then heated with a low flame.
5 A stopwatch is started and the temperature of the
naphthalene is recorded at 30-second intervals until
the temperature reaches 90 °C. The naphthalene is
stirred continuously during the experiment.
6 The results are recorded in a table.
Figure 2.10
Cooling of (B) Cooling of naphthalene
Activity 2.2
naphthalene 1 The boiling tube containing the molten naphthalene

is removed from the hot water bath using a test
tube holder.
2 It is immediately transferred into a conical flask
to be cooled slowly as shown in Figure 2.10.

3 The stopwatch is started and the temperature of Discussion
the naphthalene is recorded at 30-second intervals
until it drops to about 70 °C. The naphthalene is 1 In the heating of naphthalene, a water bath is
stirred continuously during the experiment. used instead of direct heating. This is to ensure
4 The results are recorded in a table. that an even heating process is carried out.
2 In the cooling of naphthalene, the boiling tube
Results containing the liquid naphthalene is cooled
(A) Heating of naphthalene inside a conical flask. This is to ensure that an
even cooling process is carried out.
Time (s) Temperature (°C) 3 Stirring the naphthalene continuously also
0 ensures even heating or cooling.
30 4 A water bath is suitable in this experiment
60 because the melting point of naphthalene is
2
below 100 °C, the maximum temperature that
90
can be attained by the water bath.
120
5 If the melting point of the substance is above
150 100 °C, the water bath will have to be replaced
180 by an oil bath or a sand bath.
210 6 Besides naphthalene, the other substance that is
suitable for heating by water bath is acetamide.
(B) Cooling of naphthalene 7 The heating curve of naphthalene consists of
three regions: AB, BC and CD as in Figure 2.11.
Time (s) Temperature (°C)
0 Region in State of substance and the
30 the graph energy change
60
Region AB Naphthalene is in the solid state. As
90 SPM napthalene is heated, heat energy is
120 ’04/07
P2 converted to kinetic energy. Kinetic
150 energy increases and the molecules
180 vibrate faster about their fixed
210 positions. Temperature increases as the
molecules receive more heat energy.
Analysis of data
Point B As the kinetic energy of the molecules
1 A graph of temperature
SPM against time is plotted
increases, the molecules vibrate
’10/P1 faster. At point B, some molecules
for the heating of
vibrate so much that they break away
naphthalene. The graph
from their fixed positions. The solid
is shown in Figure 2.11.
naphthalene begins to melt.
2 A graph of temperature
against time is plotted Figure 2.11 Heating curve Region BC Naphthalene now consists of a
for the cooling of of naphthalene SPM mixture of solid and liquid. At
naphthalene. The graph ’11/P1
this region the temperature remains
is shown in Figure 2.12. constant because the heat energy
3 When plotting a graph, supplied by the water bath is the
make sure that: same amount as the heat energy
(a) The axes are absorbed. Heat energy is absorbed to
labelled with their overcome the forces of attraction
units. holding the naphthalene molecules
(b) The points are together in the solid state. The heat
transferred absorbed to overcome the forces of
correctly. Figure 2.12 Cooling curve attraction is called the latent heat
(c) The curve is smooth. of naphthalene of fusion. Latent heat of fusion of

Region in State of substance and the Region in State of substance and the
the graph energy change the graph energy change
a substance is the heat required to moving except for small vibrations.
convert a solid into a liquid without At point Q, the liquid naphthalene
a change in temperature. begins to solidify or freeze.
Point C All the naphthalene has completely Region QR Naphthalene now consists of a
melted. mixture of liquid and solid. At
Region CD Naphthalene is in the liquid state. As this region the temperature remains
the liquid naphthalene is heated, the constant because the heat energy
molecules gain more heat energy. The lost to the environment is the same
temperature continues to increase. amount as the heat energy released.
Latent heat of fusion is released when
2
forces of attraction are formed

8 The cooling curve of naphthalene consists of between the molecules as the liquid
three regions: PQ, QR and RS as in Figure 2.12. naphthalene solidify (or freezes).
Region in State of substance and the Point R All the naphthalene has completely
the graph energy change solidified.
Region PQ Naphthalene is in the liquid state. Region RS Naphthalene is in the solid state. The
The liquid naphthalene loses heat to solid naphthalene continues to lose
the environment. The kinetic energy heat to the environment and hence
of the molecules decreases as the the temperature drops down to room
temperature decreases. temperature.
Point Q As the kinetic energy of the molecules Conclusion
decreases, the molecules move slower. The melting point and the freezing point of
At point Q, some molecules stop naphthalene is 80 °C.
2 ’09
A I and III only C I, II and III only

B II and IV only D I, II and IV only
Comment
From time 0 to t1 the substance loses heat to the
surroundings. Hence the temperature decreases.
(Statement I is incorrect)
From time t1 to t2 condensation takes place and heat
energy is released. The kinetic energy of particles
becomes lower and the forces of attraction become
stronger. (Statement II is correct)
The graph shows the cooling curve for gas X. From time t2 to t3 the particles continue to lose heat to
Which of the following statements are true? the surroundings. Hence the kinetic energy of particles
I From time 0 to t1 heat energy is absorbed. decreases. (Statement III is incorrect)
II From time t1 to t2 forces of attraction between
From time t3 to t4 freezing takes place. The temperature
particles become stronger.
of the substance remains constant because during
III From time t2 to t3 the kinetic energy of particles
freezing, heat energy released is equal to the heat lost
increases.
to the surroundings. (Statement IV is correct)
IV From time t3 to t4 heat energy released is equal to
the heat lost to the surroundings. Answer B

2.1
1 State the type of particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) that make up the substances below.
(a) Ammonia gas (d) Potassium iodide
(b) Sodium chloride (e) Copper wires
(c) Iron nail (f) Cooking oil
2 The graph shows the heating curve for
naphthalene.
Figure 2.13 John Dalton and his model
3 However, Dalton’s atomic model had its

weakness. It was found that:
(a) The atom is not the smallest particle in
2
an element. There are subatomic particles
(proton, electron and neutron) in an atom.
(b) A radioactive atom decomposes spon
taneously, which means that an atom can
be destroyed. A new atom can also be
created by a process called transmutation.
(a) State the melting point of naphthalene. (c) Not all atoms of an element are alike. They
(b) What is the physical state of naphthalene at
may differ in atomic mass. For example,
time t second?
(c) Why does the temperature remain constant at
hydrogen has three isotopes 11H, 21H and 31H.
region BC although heating is carried on? 4 In 1897 J. J. Thomson discovered negatively-
(d) Draw the cooling curve obtained when the charged particles which he called electrons.
molten naphthalene is cooled from T3 to Thomson then suggested that an atom is
room temperature. a positively-charged sphere with electrons
embedded in it like a raisin pudding.
2.2 The Atomic Structure
The Historical Development of the

Atomic Model
1 The concept of the atom originated from
Democritus, a Greek philosopher. He proposed
that if a piece of gold is divided repeatedly, it
will reach a state whereby the smallest particle, Figure 2.14 J. J. Thomson and his model
which is indivisible, is obtained. He called
5 In 1911, Ernest Rutherford bombarded a thin
the smallest indivisible particle atomos, which
gold foil with alpha particles (helium nuclei,
means ‘indivisible’ in Greek.
He2+).
2 In 1808, John Dalton proposed the atomic
(a) It was found that most of the alpha particles
theory. In this theory, Dalton proposed that:
passed directly through the gold foil without
(a) All elements are made up of small
deflection. Rutherford then suggested that
indivisible particles called atoms.
most of the atom must be empty space.
(b) Atoms are neither created nor destroyed
in chemical reactions.
(c) The atoms of an element are alike, but
differ from the atoms of other elements.
(d) When atoms combine, they do so in a
simple ratio.
(e) All chemical reactions result from the
combination or separation of atoms. Figure 2.15(a) Rutherford’s experiment

7 In 1932, James Chadwick discovered rays of
electrically neutral subatomic particles which
he called neutrons. The neutron has a mass
almost the same as that of a proton. Chadwick
suggested that the nucleus of the atom contains
protons and neutrons, and the nucleus is
Figure 2.15(b) Magnified view showing alpha surrounded by a cloud of electrons.
particles deflected by the
nuclei of gold atoms
(b) However, some of the alpha particles were

deflected at very acute angles. To explain
the deflection of the alpha particles,
Rutherford proposed that all the positive
2
charge of an atom is concentrated in the

nucleus, which repelled the positively-
charged alpha particles in the opposite
direction. Further experimental studies
led to the discovery of positive particles
in the nucleus. Rutherford called the
positively-charged particles protons.
(c) Rutherford proposed that an atom
consists of a positively-charged nucleus
with a cloud of electrons surrounding the
nucleus. Figure 2.18 James Chadwick and his model
SPM
’08/P1 8 The atomic model in the present day is based
on the contributions of the above scientists.
In this atomic model:
(a) The nucleus of an atom consists of
protons and neutrons occupying a small
space in the centre of the atom.
(b) Electrons are moving around the nucleus
in permissible orbits or electron shells
(also known as quantum shells).
Figure 2.16 Ernest Rutherford and his model
Subatomic Particles of an Atom
6 In 1913, Niels Bohr proposed that the
electrons in the atom are arranged in permitted An atom is made up of three smaller particles
orbits called electron shells surrounding the which are called protons, neutrons and electrons.
nucleus. These particles are called subatomic particles.
Table 2.3 shows the relative masses and charges of
these particles.
Table 2.3 The symbols, relative masses and the
charges of subatomic particles
Subatomic Relative
Symbol Charge
particle mass
Proton p 1 +1
Electron e 1 –1
—
———
1840
Neutron n 1 0
Figure 2.17 Niels Bohr and his model

3 that the number of neutrons in phosphorus is
’05 31 – 15 = 16.
6 The relative masses of the proton and neutron
The diagram shows a model of an atom.
are almost similar. However, the relative mass
Who introduced this model? of the electron is very small. So the mass of an
A Niels Bohr atom is determined by the number of protons
B J. J. Thomson and neutrons in the atom.
C John Dalton 7 The nucleon number and proton number of
D Rutherford SPM an element is written in the following way:
’09/P2
Answer A
Niels Bohr. He proposed that electrons are arranged
in shells surrounding the nucleus.
2
Proton Number and Nucleon Number
1 Protons and neutrons are located in the A student need not memorise the proton number and
nucleus and the electrons are arranged in nucleon number. It will be given in the examination.
electron shells surrounding the nucleus. The proton number is smaller than the nucleon number.
2 The nucleus is positively-charged because
it contains protons, each of which carry a
positive charge. 4 ’03
3 The proton number of an element is the
number of protons in its atom. The proton
State the number of protons, electrons and neutrons
number is also known as the atomic number.
in a chlorine atom, 17
37
Cl.
Each element has its own proton number.
No two different elements can have the same Solution 17 protons, 17 electrons and 20 neutrons
proton number. For example, sodium, with (37 – 17 = 20)
a proton number of 11 means that it has 11
protons in its nucleus and an element with 11
protons in its nucleus must be sodium. Symbols of Elements
4 In a neutral atom, the proton number
also tells us the number of electrons. For 1 Each element is represented by a symbol,
example, the proton number of magnesium consisting of either one letter or two letters of
is 12. Therefore, a magnesium atom has 12 the alphabet.
protons and 12 electrons. The proton number 2 Some elements are represented by the first letter
of nitrogen is 7 and hence a nitrogen atom of its name. Examples are in the following table.
has 7 protons and 7 electrons.
5 The nucleon number (also known as the Name of element Symbol
SPM mass number) of an element is the sum of the Hydrogen H
’11/P2
number of protons and neutrons in its atom. Nitrogen N
Nucleon Number of Number of Oxygen O
= + Fluorine F
number protons neutrons
OR Sulphur S
Nucleon Proton Number of
= + 3 The names of some elements start with the same
number number neutrons
letter. For example, the names of the elements
For example, a sodium atom has 11 protons Nitrogen, Neon, Nickel and Nobium start
and 12 neutrons; hence the nucleon number with the letter ‘N’. Therefore, a second letter is
of sodium is 23. added to differentiate between these elements.
The proton number of phosphorus is 15 The second letter used is always a small letter.
while its nucleon number is 31. This means Examples are in the following table.

and 53 stand for? How many protons, electrons
Name of element Symbol
and neutrons are there in an iodine atom?
Silicon Si
2 (a) A list of elements are represented by the letters
Neon Ne given below:
Chlorine Cl 11
A, 126 B, 24 C, 23 D, 146 E and 147 F
5 12 11
Calcium Ca
Bromine Br Which two letters represent the same
element? Explain your answer.
Magnesium Mg (b) State four facts that you can derive from the
nuclear symbol, 27
13
Al.
4 Some elements are represented by the letters
of their Latin names. For example,
Name of
2
element
Latin Name Symbol 2.3 Isotopes and Their
Silver Argentum Ag Importance
Copper Cuprum Cu
Iron Ferrum Fe Isotopes
Gold Aurum Au 1 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with
Lead Plumbum Pb SPM the same proton number but different nucleon
’10/P1
Tin Stannum Sn numbers. Alternatively, isotopes can be defined
Potassium Kalium K as atoms of an element with the same number
Sodium Natrium Na of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
2 Many elements exhibit the phenomenon of
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
isotropy, whereby an element can have more
than one type of isotope.
2.2 3 The isotopes of an element have the same
1 (a) An atom of uranium (U) has 92 protons and chemical properties because they have the
143 neutrons. What is the proton number and same electron arrangement but their physical
nucleon number? Write its atomic symbol. properties such as densities and melting
(b) Seaweed is rich in the element iodine, points differ.
represented by 127
53
l. Lack of iodine in our diet 4 Table 2.4 shows examples of isotopes of some
can cause goiter. What do the numbers 127 elements.
SPM
Table 2.4 Examples of isotopes of some elements ’07/P2
Proton Nucleon Number of Number of Percentage

Element
number number protons neutrons abundance
Hydrogen, 11H 1 1 1 0 99.985%
Deuterium, 12H 1 2 1 1 0.015%
Tritium, 13H 1 3 1 2 Man-made isotope
Carbon-12, 126C 6 12 6 6 98.1%
Carbon-13, 136C 6 13 6 7 1.1%
Carbon-14, 146C 6 14 6 8 Trace amount
Chlorine-35, 17
35
Cl 17 35 17 18 75.5%
Chlorine-37, 17
37
Cl 17 37 17 20 24.5%
Oxygen-16, 168O 8 16 8 8 99.757%
Oxygen-17, 178O 8 17 8 9 0.038%
Oxygen-18, 188O 8 18 8 10 0.205%
Same Different Same Different

Nucleon number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

5 Some elements, such as fluorine, F, have only number and nucleon number of the isotope
one isotope. However, most elements have may change.
more than one isotope. 9 There are many uses of radioisotopes, namely,
6 The relative atomic mass of an element is in the field of medicine, agriculture, industry,
based on the average mass of all the isotopes archaeology, food preservation and electricity
of the element. For example, the relative generation.
atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 because
chlorine has 75% of 3517
Cl and 25% of 37
17
Cl.
7 In an element, some isotopes are stable
while the rest are unstable isotopes. Unstable Isotopes are atoms of an element with the same
isotopes are radioactive isotopes. number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Alternatively, isotopes can be defined as atoms of an
8 Radioactive isotopes will undergo spontaneous
element with the same proton number but different
decay to emit radioactive rays: alpha, beta
nucleon numbers.
2
and gamma. After radioactive decay, the proton
Uses of Isotopes in Daily Life SPM

’05/P2
Medicine
1 Cobalt-60 is a radioactive isotope of cobalt. to the thyroid gland. The radiation given
It decays by giving out gamma radiation. In out by the radioactive iodide ions will kill
radiotherapy, malignant cancer cells are the malignant cancer cells without affecting
killed by directing a beam of gamma rays the other parts of the body.
towards the cancer cells.
SPM
’09/P1
Radiotherapy is used to kill cancer cells Patient suffering from thyroid cancer
2 Patients suffering from thyroid cancer are 3 Some medicine, surgical gloves, bandages,
given a drink containing sodium iodide, plastic hypodermic syringes are sterilised
(NaI) containing radioactive iodide ions. The by using gamma radiation. These materials
radioactive iodide ions move preferen tially cannot be sterilised by boiling.
Agriculture
1 Using the radioactive carbon-14 (14C) in pests are then exposed to gamma radiation
carbon dioxide, the path of carbon during the which can cause genetic mutation to the
photosynthesis process can be determined. gametes (sperms). The male pests are then
The rate of absorption of phosphorus by the released to be allowed to mate with the females.
plant can be determined by adding radioactive The offsprings produced will have physical
phosphate ions (32PO3–4
) to the ground. defects such as undeveloped digestive
2 Male pests can be attracted into traps using organs and wings. This will terminate the
female hormones (pheromone). The male survival of the following generation.

Industry
1 Beta radiation is used to control the thickness partially filled in which case a higher reading
of paper, plastic, metals and rubber made in will be recorded.
industry. A radioactive source is located at the
bottom of the material being produced. A
detector is located on top of the material. Any
change in the reading of the recorder signifies
a change in thickness of the material.
Figure 2.20 Using radiation to detect if a container

is fully filled
2
3 Radioisotopes are used to detect leaks

in pipes carrying gas. A radioisotope (for
example, sodium-24) is added to the gas
so that it will be carried along by the gas
flowing through the pipe. A detector is then
moved along the external wall of the pipe.
The detection of a high radioactive reading
will signify the location of the leakage.
Figure 2.19 Using radiation to control the
thickness of materials
2 Gamma radiation is used to detect whether

canned food or bottled drink is completely
filled or only partially filled. A radioactive
source emitting gamma radiation is directed
to the bottled or canned food. More radiation
will pass through if the container is only
Figure 2.21 Using radiation to detect a leak
SPM
Archaeology ’08/P1
Carbon-14 is used to determine the age

of archaeological artifacts. Plants take in The age of bones dug
carbon-14 in the form of carbon dioxide (14CO2) out from a historical site
can be estimated using
during photosynthesis. Carbon-14 is incorpo
carbon-14 dating. For
rated into animals or human beings when the
very old bones, much
plants are eaten. As long as the organism is alive, of the C-14 would have
the amount of carbon-14 in it remains constant. decayed. The minute
This is because the intake of carbon-14 through amount of C-14 left will
food is offset by its spontaneous decay. However, show little radioactivity.
when the organism dies, the intake of carbon-14 A recent archaeological
is stopped. The amount of C-14 ‘locked’ in the sample will have a high
body will continue to decay. The amount of reading of C-14.
C-14 remaining (measured by its activity) is
inversely proportional to the age of the artifacts.
Source: Jabatan Muzium Malaysia

Food preservation
1 Food such as vegetables, fruits and meat rot due to the
activity of fungus and bacteria. These microorganisms can
be killed by irradiating the food with gamma radiation of
cobalt-60. The shelf-life of the food can be extended using
this method. Irradiation is better than chemical preserva
tives because it does not have adverse effects on health.
2 Irradiation can also slow down budding in potatoes and
onions, thus extending their shelf-life. Gamma radiation Radiation can be used to delay rotting of
can also slow the ripening of fruits to be exported. fruits and vegetables
Generation of electricity
2
Nuclear energy is an alternative source of This causes the uranium nuclei to split,
energy to replace fossil fuels such as petroleum, producing heat energy. The heat energy released
natural gas or coal. The nuclear fuel used is is used to produce steam from water. The steam
uranium-235. The uranium atoms become drives the turbine of the generator, producing
unstable when bombarded with fast neutrons. electricity.
5 ’05 2.4 The Electronic Structure

of an Atom
Name an isotope and state its purpose for each of
the following fields:
(a) Medicine (c) Archaeology Electron Arrangement in an Atom
(b) Industry (d) Food preservation
1 Niels Bohr suggested that the electrons in an
Solution atom occupy orbits with definite energy levels.
(a) Cobalt-60 (gamma radiation from decay of Each of these orbits or energy levels can hold
Co-60 is used to kill cancer cells) a certain number of electrons. The electrons
(b) Sodium-24 (beta radiation from decay of are not static but are moving around.
Na-24 is used to detect leakages in pipes) 2 The electron orbits are also known as quantum
(c) Carbon-14 (it is used to estimate the age of shells. The shells are labelled first shell, second
archaeological artifacts) shell, third shell and so on, away from the
(d) Cobalt-60 (gamma radiation from decay of nucleus.
Co-60 is used to kill fungus or bacteria that 3 The first shell is the one nearest to the nucleus
can cause food to rot) and is filled first. It can hold a maximum of
two electrons.
4 After the first shell is full, the remaining electrons
2.3 are filled into the second shell. The second shell
can hold a maximum of eight electrons.
1 Uranium has three isotopes: 234
92
U, 235
92
U and U.
238
92
What do you understand by the term isotopes?

State the differences between these isotopes.
2 A list of elements are represented by letters of the
alphabet as given below. Choose a pair of isotopes
from these elements. Explain your answer.
Figure 2.22 The electron shells of an atom is
23
A, 127 B, 79 C, 131 D, 131 E, 55 F labelled away from the nucleus
11 53 34 55 53 25
3 Give an example of a radioactive isotope of 5 After the first and second shells are full, the
carbon. What is meant by radioisotope? Give a remaining electrons are filled into the third shell.
use of the isotope given in your example. The third shell can take a maximum of eight or
18 electrons. If the number of electrons of an

atom is more than 20, the third shell will hold
18 electrons. If the number of electrons is 20 or Eight electrons are filled in the second shell.
less, the third shell will hold 8 electrons. Eight electrons are filled in the third shell.
6 Table 2.5 shows the maximum number of Two electrons are filled in the fourth shell.
electrons permitted in each shell. The electron arrangement of calcium is 2.8.8.2.
7 The way in which the electrons are distributed
in the shells of an atom is called the electron
9 The electrons in the outermost occupied shell
arrangement or electronic configuration of
the atom. are called the valence electrons. Therefore,
carbon atom has four valence electrons,
SPM Table 2.5 Maximum number of electrons chlorine atom has seven valence electrons and
’11/P2
permitted in each shell of an atom calcium atom has two valence electrons.
Shell Maximum number of electrons 10 Elements with the same number of valence
electrons have the same chemical properties.
2
First 2
For example, lithium, sodium and potassium
Second 8 of Group 1 of the Periodic Table have the
Third 8 or 18 same chemical properties because each atom
Fourth 32 has one valence electron.
8 The examples below show the electron Group 1 Electron Number of

arrangement of some elements: element arrangement valence electrons
Lithium 2.1 1
1 Sodium 2.8.1 1
Potassium 2.8.8.1 1
The carbon atom, 126C has six protons.
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons = 11 Group 17 elements have the same chemical
the number of protons. properties because each element has seven
Hence there are six electrons and are arranged as valence electrons.
follows:
Two electrons are filled in the first shell. Group 17 Electron Number of
Four electrons are filled in the second shell. element arrangement valence electrons
The electron arrangement of carbon is 2.4.
Fluorine 2.7 7
Chlorine 2.8.7 7
2 Bromine 2.8.18.7 7
Iodine 2.8.18.18.7 7
The chlorine atom, 3517Cl has 17 protons.
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons = 12 The inert or noble gases of Group 18 of the
the number of protons. Periodic Table are very stable. They have filled
The 17 electrons are arranged as follows: outer shells of electrons.
Two electrons are filled in the first shell.
Eight electrons are filled in the second shell. Group 18 Electron Number of
Seven electrons are filled in the third shell. element arrangement valence electrons
The electron arrangement of chloride is 2.8.7. Helium 2 2
Neon 2.8 8
Argon 2.8.8 8
3
The calcium atom, 40 Ca has 20 protons. 13 Helium has exactly two electrons in the first
20
In a neutral atom, the number of electrons = shell. It has attained the duplet electron
arrangement which is stable. Neon and argon
the number of protons.
each has eight electrons in the outermost
The 20 electrons are arranged as follows:
shell. It has attained the octet electron
Two electrons are filled in the first shell.
arrangement which is stable.

14 Table 2.6 shows the diagrammatic electronic structures and the electron arrangements of elements
with proton numbers 1 to 20.
SPM
Table 2.6 The diagrammatic electronic structure of elements with proton numbers 1 to 20 ’04,05
06/P1
’08/P1
2
23
X, 3517Y, 126Z. Write the electronic configuration of
6 ’04
11
each of these elements.

The atomic symbol of element X is 199X. Which of Solution
the following is true about the subatomic particles
Number Number
of element X? Proton Electronic
of of
number configuration
Proton Nucleon Electronic protons electrons
number number configuration X 11 11 11 2.8.1
A 9 19 2.7 Y 17 17 17 2.8.7
B 9 19 2.8.8.1 Z 6 6 6 2.4
C 19 9 2.7
D 19 9 2.8.8.1
Comment 2.4
The proton number of X is 9. Hence it has 9 protons
and 9 electrons. The 9 electrons are arranged as 1 Write the electron arrangement and draw the
follows: atomic structures of carbon and magnesium
Two electrons in the first shell and the remaining atoms. [Proton number: C, 6; Mg, 12]
seven electrons are arranged in the second shell. 2 The diagram shows the atomic
Its electronic configuration is 2.7. structure of an element X.
(a) In an atom of X, how
Answer A many of the following
are there?
(i) Valence electrons
(ii) Protons
7 ’04 (b) What is the nucleon number of X if it has 16
neutrons?
The chemical symbols of three elements X, Y and Z (c) Write the atomic symbol of element X.
are shown as follows:

Rutherford discovered the proton in 1911 and
2.5 Appreciating the James Chadwick discovered the neutron in
Orderliness and 1932. Niels Bohr explained the arrangement
Uniqueness of the of the electrons in an atom.
Atomic Structure 3 We now know that the protons and neutrons
are located at the center of the atom called the
1 John Dalton proposed the atomic theory nucleus. The electrons are arranged in orbits
about 200 years ago in 1807. Before that around the nucleus.
scientists thought that atoms were solid 4 The atomic structure of an atom can help us
particles like marbles. understand the chemical properties of the
2 About 100 years later, other scientists discovered elements better and how they are bonded
the subatomic particles. J.J. Thomson together to form compounds.
discovered the electron in 1897. Ernest
2
1 There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and 5 During freezing, the temperature remains constant
gas. because heat energy is released and the energy
2 When a substance is heated or cooled it will change released is equals to the heat lost to the surrounding
state. during cooling.
3 The table shows the energy involved during the 6 The proton number is the number of protons in
change in state: the nucleus of an atom.
7 The nucleon number is the total number of
Change of Change in protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Process
state energy 8 Isotopes are atoms of the same element which
Solid to liquid Melting Heat energy is contain the same number of protons but different
absorbed numbers of neutrons.
9 The protons and neutrons are enclosed in the
Liquid to gas Boiling/ Heat energy is nucleus whereas the electrons are arranged in shells
evaporation absorbed surrounding the nucleus.
Solid to gas Sublimation Heat energy is (a) The first shell can hold a maximum of two
absorbed electrons.
(b) The second shell can hold a maximum of
Liquid to solid Freezing Heat energy is eight or 18 electrons.
released (c) The third shell can hold a maximum of 18
electrons.
Gas to liquid Condensation Heat energy is
However for atoms with proton numbers
released
1 – 20, the atom attains stability when its third
Gas to solid Sublimation Heat energy is shell has eight electrons.
released (d) The valence electron is the electron in the
outermost shell of the atom.
4 During melting the temperature remains constant For example, the electronic configuration of the
because heat energy absorbed is used to overcome calcium atom, 4020
Ca is 2.8.8.2.
the forces of attraction between the molecules. The calcium atom has two valence electrons.

2
2.1 4 An inflated balloon will shrink D The air particles diffuse out of
Matter
faster at higher temperature than the balloon at a faster rate at
1 What process and change in heat at lower temperature. higher temperature.
energy takes place when iodine
’11 crystals are heated at room
temperature and pressure?
2
5 Carbon dioxide(CO2), sulphur
Change in dioxide(SO2) and nitrogen
Process
heat energy dioxide(NO2) are three gases that
Heat energy cause acid rain.
A Melting Which of the following lists the
absorbed
Heat energy molecules in order of increasing
B Melting average speed?
released
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12;
Heat energy
C Sublimation N, 14; O, 16; S, 32]
absorbed
Heat energy
D Sublimation Which of the following is the Slowest Fastest
released
best explanation for this
2 Which statements below are true A Sulphur Nitrogen Carbon
observation?
about a gas? dioxide dioxide dioxide
A The air particles liquefy at
I They move at low speed. lower temperature. B Sulphur Carbon Nitrogen
II They are easily compressed. B The air particles react to form dioxide dioxide dioxide
III They have a higher rate of other compounds at higher C Nitrogen Sulphur Carbon
diffusion compared to a liquid. temperature. dioxide dioxide dioxide
IV They spread throughout the C The air particles come
vessel in which they are D Carbon Sulphur Nitrogen
closer together at lower
contained. dioxide dioxide dioxide
temperature.
A I, II and III only
B I, III and IV only
6 The table shows the changes in physical states and energies of four
C II, III and IV only
D I, II, III and IV substances.
3 The diagrams show the spacing Name of Change of physical

of the molecules of a substance Process Change of energy
process state
at two different temperatures.
I Freezing Solid to liquid Heat is released
II Melting Solid to liquid Heat is absorbed
III Boiling Solid to gas Heat is absorbed
IV Condensation Gas to liquid Heat is released
at –110 °C at 85 °C
What is the likely melting point and Which of the following processes above are correct?
boiling point of the substance? A I and III only C I, II and IV only
Melting point Boiling point B II and IV only D II, III and IV only
(°C) (°C) 7 Which of the following statements is true about pentane molecules when it
is cooled to a temperature of –129 °C? [Melting point of pentane is –135 °C
A –125 90
and its boiling point is 36 °C].
B –117 78 A The pentane molecules remain static.
C –102 75 B The pentane molecules move randomly.
C The pentane molecules are arranged closely together.
D –98 105 D The distance between the pentane molecules increases.

8 The graph shows the Magnesium oxide Sodium Ammonia
temperature against time of a ’07
substance X when it is heated. A Ions Atoms Molecules
B Ions Molecules Molecules
C Molecules Molecules Atoms
D Ions Ions Ions
2.2 The Atomic Structure

11 Which of the following sets is correct? The scientists who discovered the
electron, proton and neutron are
’08
Electron Proton Neutron
2
Which of the statements below

are true about X ? A Ernest Rutherford J.J. Thomson James Chadwick
I X starts to melt at Q. B J.J. Thomson Ernest Rutherford James Chadwick
II The melting point of X is
C J.J. Thomson Ernest Rutherford Niels Bohr
T1 °C.
III X exists in gaseous state at D J.J. Thomson James Chadwick Ernest Rutherford
region TU.
IV At region RS, there is a 12 What can be deduced from the I It belongs to Group 15 in the
mixture of solid and liquid X. symbol 31 P? Periodic Table.
15
A I and III only I Phosphorus atom has five II It belongs to Period 3 of the
B II and IV only valence electrons. Periodic Table.
C I, II and III only II Phosphorus atom has 15 III It forms an ion with a charge
D I, III and IV only protons and 31 neutrons. of –3.
III Phosphorus atom has 16 IV It is a metal.
9 The diagram shows the graph of neutrons. A I, II and III only
temperature against time for the IV Phosphorus atom has proton B I, III and IV only
heating of substance X. C II, III and IV only
number of 15 and nucleon
number of 31. D I, II, III and IV
temperature (°C)
C II, III and IV only 15 The diagrams show three models
65
D I, II, III and IV of the atom.
13 Two particles P and Q have the

t1 t2 time (s) following compositions:

Which statements below are true Particle Electron Neutron Proton
about substance X? P 10 10 9
I It is a gas at room
temperature. Q 10 12 11
II It undergoes physical change Name the scientists who proposed
It follows that
at 65 °C. these models?
A P and Q are both negatively-
III It absorbs heat at time
charged
intervals t1 and t2. I II III
IV It exists as a mixture of liquid B P and Q have the same
and solid at time intervals t1 nucleon number. A James J.J. Ernest
and t2. C P and Q are particles of the Chadwick Thomson Rutherford
A I and II only same element.
B Niels Bohr John Ernest
B I and III only D P is negatively-charged and Q
Dalton Rutherford
C II and III only is positively-charged.
D II and IV only C Niels Bohr J.J. Ernest
14 An atom X has an electron Thomson Rutherford
arrangement of 2.8.5. Which of
10 State the particles in magnesium D Niels Bohr Ernest J.J.
the following statements about X
oxide, sodium and ammonia. Rutherford Thomson
are correct?

16 An atom has the symbol Isotope Use 25 Which of the following
11
5
X. Which of the following comparisons between 79 35
Br and
statements about X are correct? III Carbon-14 To estimate the age 81
35
Br are correct?
I It has 5 valence electrons in of archaeological
its atom. artifacts Bromine-79 Bromine-81
II It has 6 neutrons in its atom. IV Sodium-24 To detect leakages I Has 35 Has 35
III It belongs to Group 13 of in pipes protons protons
the Periodic Table.
IV It belongs to Period 2 of the A I, II and III only II Has 35 Has 35
Periodic Table. B I, II and IV only electrons electrons
A I, II and III only C II, III and IV only III Has 35 Has 35
B I, II and IV only D I, II, III and IV neutrons neutrons
21 Which of the following statements IV Has 44 Has 46
D I, II, III and IV
are true about isotopes? neutrons neutrons
2
17 The atoms 126 C and 115 B have the I They have the same chemical
properties. A I and IV only
same
II They have different physical B II and III only
A number of protons
properties. C I, II and IV only
B number of neutrons
III The have a different number D I, III and IV only
C physical properties
D chemical properties of neutrons.
IV They have the same number 26 The radioisotope that is used to
of valence electrons. kill cancerous cells is
2.3 Isotopes and Their A uranium-235
Importance B I, III and IV only B cobalt-60
18 Two uranium isotopes are 235 U C II, III and IV only C carbon-14
and 238 U. Which of the
92
following D I, II, III and IV D phosphorus-32
92
statements below is true? 22 Oxygen has the isotope 16 O, 17 O
A The 235 U atom has fewer and 18 O. Which of the following 2.4
92
The Electronic Structure
electrons than 238 U atom. oxygen gas has the lowest rate of
92
of an Atom
B The 235 92
U atom has 92 diffusion?
protons and 235 neutrons. A 16 O = 16 O 27 Which of the following particles
C The 238 92
U atom has 92 B 17 O = 17 O have eight valence electrons?
protons and 146 neutrons. C 18 O = 18 O I 168 W III 40
Y
18
D The 235 92
U atom and 23892
U atom D 17 O = 18 O 23 +
II 11 X IV 35 –
Z
17
have the same number of A I and III only
neutrons. 23 B II and IV only
C I, II and III only
19 Isotopes are different atoms with D II, III and IV only
the same number of
A protons but different number
28 Which of the following particles
of neutrons.
contains 18 electrons, 19 protons
B electrons but different X Y
and 20 neutrons?
number of protons. Which term describes the
C protons, electrons and A 39
19
X + C 39
18
X–
particles X and Y shown above? 40 39
neutrons. A Isotopes C Anions B 20
X 2+ D 19
X
D protons but different number B Isomers D Cations
of electrons and neutrons. 29 How many protons and neutrons
24 An element has two isotopes, are there in one tin atom with
20 Which of the following pairs are which are represented by 127 X nucleon number 119?
correct? and 131 X. How does 127 X differ
from 131 X ? Protons Neutrons
Isotope Use A It has four less neutrons and
A 50 68
I Uranium-235 To generate three less electrons.
electricity B It has four less neutrons. B 50 69
C It has four less protons and C 50 71
II Iodine-131 To kill cancerous three less electrons.
thyroid cells D It has four less protons. D 50 119

30 The symbol of an element X is 33 Which of the following elements Element W X Y Z
40
18
X. We can deduce that an atom given below have the same
of element X number of valence electrons? Proton
6 7 12 15
I has eight valence electrons. 19
number
V ; 27 W; 35 X; 39 Y; 40 Z
II has 22 neutrons in its nucleus. 9 13 17 19 20
III has three electron shells. A W and Y only A Y and Z only

IV has a total of 18 electrons in B X and Z only B X and Z only
its atom. C V and X only C X and Y only
A I, II and III only D V and Y only D W and Z only
34 Which of the following list are the 38 The electronic configuration of
electron arrangements of all non- arsenic is 2.8.18.5.
D I, II, III and IV
metals? Which of the following
A 2.6 2.7 2.8.5 statements is true?
31 Two particles X and Y have the
B 2 2.5 2.8.3 A Arsenic has three valence
following composition:
2
C 2.1 2.7 2.8.6 electrons.

Particle Electrons Neutrons Protons D 2.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 B Arsenic is in Group 14 of the
Periodic Table.
X 10 12 11 C The nucleon number of the
35 An atom 39 19
Y
Y 11 12 11 I has 20 neutrons. arsenic atom is 33.
II has 19 protons. D Arsenic is in the same group
Which of the following statements III has one valence electron. of the Periodic Table as an
are true about X and Y? IV has four electron shells. element with proton number
I Both X and Y are negatively- A I, II and III only 7.
charged. B I, II and IV only
II Both X and Y are positively- C II, III and IV only 39 The electronic configuration of
charged. D I, II, III and IV the ion X– is 2.8.18.18.8.
III Both X and Y have the same The ion X– has 74 neutrons.
nucleon number. 36 What is the number of subatomic Determine the nucleon number
IV Both X and Y are particles of particles in 60 Co2+ ion? of element X.
27
the same element. A 127
A I and III only Protons Neutrons Electrons B 128
B II and IV only C 129
A 27 33 27
C III and IV only D 130
D II, III and IV only B 27 33 25
40 The electronic configuration
C 33 27 27
32 An element 3919
X of the strontium ion, Sr2+ is
A has one valence electron. D 33 27 25 2.8.18.8. The Sr2+ ion has 49
B forms a positively-charged ion neutrons. Determine the nucleon
of charge +2. 37 The table shows the proton number of strontium.
C is located in Group 17 of the numbers of four elements. Which A 85
Periodic Table. of the following pairs of elements B 86
D has 19 protons and 39 has the same number of valence C 87
neutrons. electrons? D 88
1 Carbon has two isotopes as shown in Table 1 below. (ii) What is the difference between the two
isotopes 126C and 146C? [1 mark]
Atom Proton number Nucleon number
(b) Draw the atomic structure of C using, x, to
14
6
12
6
C represent an electron. [2 marks]
14
6
C (c) Give one use of 146C. [1 mark]
’08
Table 1 (d) What is the number of valence electrons in both
(a) (i) Complete Table 1 with the proton numbers of the carbon atoms above? [1 mark]
and nucleon numbers of the two different
carbon isotopes. [2 marks]

2 Diagram 1 shows a graph of temperature against time (g) (i) Explain the meaning of the term isotope.
of substance M when it is heated until it boils. [2 marks]
(ii) State a pair of isotopes from the particles in
Table 2. [1 mark]
4 Table 3 shows four substances and their respective

formulae.
’04
Substance Chemical formula
Bromine Br2
Iron Fe
Diagram 1 Naphthalene C10H8
(a) State the physical state of M at the region Sodium chloride NaCl
(i) PQ (iii) RS
2
(ii) QR (iv) ST [3 marks] Table 3
(b) When does M begin to boil? [1 mark] (a) State two substances that consist of molecules.
[1 mark]
(c) What is the melting point of M? [1 mark]
(d) Explain why the temperature of M remains (b) Which of the following substances has the highest
constant from time t1 to t2. [1 mark] melting point: bromine, iron or naphthalene?
[1 mark]
(e) Sketch the graph obtained when molten M is
cooled from 450 °C to room temperature. [2 marks] (c) (i) State the substance that can conduct
electricity in the solid state. [1 mark]
3 Table 2 shows the proton numbers and nucleon numbers (ii) Draw the arrangement of the particles of this
of five particles represented by the letters V, W, X, Y and Z. substance. [1 mark]
Proton Nucleon Electron (d) Name the particles present in sodium chloride.
Particle
number number arrangement [1 mark]
V 6 12 (e) Diagram 2 shows the graph of temperature against
time obtained when solid naphthalene is heated.
W 8 16
X 8 18
Y 11 23
Z 16 32
Table 2
(a) Write the electron arrangements of all the
particles in Table 2. [2 marks]
(b) What is the number of valence electrons in
particle V ? [1 mark] Diagram 2
(c) Draw the atomic structure of particle Y. [2 marks] (i) State the melting point of naphthalene. [1 mark]
(ii) Explain why there is no change in temperature
(d) State the number of electron shells in particle Z.
from Q to R. [2 marks]
[1 mark]
(iii) State how the movement of naphthalene
(e) Explain the meaning of nucleon number. [1 mark] particles changes between R and S during
(f) What is the number of neutrons in particle Y ? [1 mark] heating. [1 mark]
Essay Questions
1 (a) Compare the three physical states of matter You are given two substances X and Y. They are
in terms of particle arrangements, forces of either naphthol or naphthalene.
attraction between the particles, kinetic energy of You are required to carry out an experiment
the particles and compressibility. [8 marks] to identify X and Y. Design an experiment to
(b) Table 1 shows the melting points of naphthol and determine X and Y.
naphthalene.

Chemical Melting point (°C) 2 (a) Define the following terms:
(i) Proton number
Naphthol 65 (ii) Nucleon number
Naphthalene 80 (iii) Valence electron [3 marks]
Table 1 [12 marks] (b) (i) What are isotopes? [3 marks]

(ii) Give an example of a pair of isotopes. [2 marks]
(iii) Discuss six uses of isotopes. [12 marks]
Experiments
1 An experiment is carried out to determine the melting point of naphthalene. Solid naphthalene is heated
and its temperature is recorded every 30 seconds.
’05 Diagram 1 shows the recorded temperature readings at 30-second intervals.
2
Diagram 1
(a) Record the temperatures in the spaces provided in Diagram 1. [3 marks]
(b) Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus used to carry out the experiment. [3 marks]
(c) Plot a graph of temperature against time for the heating of naphthalene. [3 marks]
(d) State the melting point of naphthalene. [3 marks]
(e) What is the physical state of naphthalene at time 90 seconds? [3 marks]
(f) Explain why the temperature between time 60 s to 120 s remained constant. [3 marks]
(g) Sketch a graph you expect to obtain if the molten naphthalene is cooled to room temperature. [3 marks]
2 ‘The melting point of a substance is lowered by the presence of impurities’.

Using naphthalene and a mixture of naphthalene with some acetamide, describe an experiment to prove
the statement above. Your answer should include the following items:
(a) Aim of experiment [3 marks]
(b) All variables involved [3 marks]
(c) List of apparatus and materials used [3 marks]
(d) Procedure of experiment [3 marks]
(e) Tabulation of results [3 marks]

CHAPTER FORM 4
3
Chemical Formulae and

Equations

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1
Number of questions 4 — – – – 9 1 – – – 4 – – – – 4 – – – –
2
ONCEPT MAP
FORMULAE AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Atom Molecule
Relative atomic mass Relative molecular mass
Relative atomic mass, Relative molecular mass,

Molar mass
Ar in gram Mr in gram
Mass of matter
3 Molar mass 4 Molar mass
4 Molar volume 3 Avogadro constant

Volume of gas Number of moles Number of particles
3 Molar volume 4 Avogadro constant
Reactants Chemical equation Products of reaction
Empirical formula Chemical formula Molecular formula

3.1 Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Molecular Mass
1 It is impossible to weigh an atom in gram. So
chemists compared how heavy one atom is to Relative
Mass of one atom of the element
another atom which is taken as the standard. atomic mass = ——
— —
—— ———————— ——
———— ———— ———
————
1
The comparison of the mass of an atom to of an element —  mass of one carbon-12 atom
12
another is called the relative atomic mass
(r.a.m.). For example, a sodium atom, Na is 23 times
heavier than one-twelfth of the mass of one
carbon-12 atom. Thus the relative atomic mass
of Na is 23.
3
Mass of one Na atom

—
————
———
———————— ——————————————— = 23
1
—  mass of one carbon-12 atom
12
(Note: the mass of one carbon-12 atom is 12

units)
5 A molecule is a small group of atoms joined
together. The simplest being diatomic
The relative atomic mass of atoms or relative molecules like O2, N2 and Cl2. Examples of
molecular mass of molecules can be determined
triatomic molecules are CO2 and H2O. Some
using the mass spectrometer with carbon-12 as the
standard
examples of larger molecules are ammonia
(NH3), methane (CH4), sulphur (S8),
2 In 1961, scientists agreed to use carbon-12 as phosphorus (P4) and ethanol (C2H5OH).
the standard. The mass of a carbon-12 atom 6 The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a
is assigned a value of exactly 12 units. compound is defined as the number of times
3 Carbon is chosen as the standard because one molecule of the compound is heavier than
(a) the abundance of carbon-12 isotope is one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
almost 99%. Carbon-13 and carbon-14
isotopes make up about only 1%. Relative Mass of one molecule
Thus the mass of a carbon atom using molecular of the compound
mass of a = —
carbon-12 isotope or using the average —— — ——— ——— ——
————
————— —
———
1
mass of the three isotopes of carbon is compound —  mass of one
12
still 12.00 units. carbon-12 atom
(b) carbon is a solid at room temperature.
Unlike hydrogen and oxygen which are For example, a molecule of methane, CH4,
gases, it does not require a container with is 16 times heavier than one-twelfth of the
a lid to contain it. mass of a carbon-12 atom. Thus the relative
(c) carbon is present in many organic molecular mass of CH4 is 16.
substances, namely, wood, natural gas and
petroleum. Thus carbon is easily available.
Carbon can be obtained by burning these
organic substances in a limited supply of A student need not memorise the relative atomic mass
oxygen. of elements. They will be given in the examination.
4 The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element However, one must know how to calculate the relative
SPM is defined as the number of times one atom
molecular mass of compounds from the Ar given. To
’11/P1 determine the Mr of a molecule, we sum up the relative
of the element is heavier than one-twelfth of
atomic mass of every atom present in the molecule.
the mass of a carbon-12 atom, that is:
Chemical Formulae and Equations 40

Concept of relative atomic mass and relative molecular mass
using analogy
Apparatus Twin-pan balance

Ball bearings, iron nails, screws and nuts.
3
Figure 3.1(a) Figure 3.1(b)
1 An iron nail is put into the pan on the right of the Mass of 1 iron nail = mass of five ball bearings
balance (Figure 3.1(a)). OR
2 Ball bearings are added to the pan on the left of
the balance until it is balanced. Mass of one iron nail
——————————————————— = 5
3 The number of ball bearings needed to balance Mass of one ball bearing
the small nail is counted.
Hence, relative mass of one iron nail = 5
4 The procedure is repeated for a screw, a nut,
2 If we assume that a ball bearing represents one-
a screw and a nut (Figure 3.1(b)) and a screw
twelfth of the mass of carbon-12 atom and the
and two nuts. For each sample the number of ball
nail, screw and nut represent the atoms of other
bearings required to balance the object is counted
elements, then the relative atomic mass of these
and recorded in the table as follows:
elements will be 5, 12 and 7 respectively.
Number of Relative mass 3 If we assume that the screw and the nut form a
ball bearings of object molecule, relative molecular mass of the molecule
Object = relative atomic mass of a screw +
needed to (compared to
balance object a ball bearing) relative atomic mass of a nut
= 12 + 7 = 19
Iron nail 5 5 4 A total of 26 ball bearings are required to balance
Screw 12 12 the mass of one screw and two nuts. Hence, Mr
of a screw and two nuts
Nut 7 7 = r.a.m. of a screw + r.a.m. of two nuts
Screw + nut 19 19 = 12 + 7 + 7 = 26
Therefore to determine the relative molecular
Screw + 2 nuts 26 26
mass of a molecule, we sum up the relative atomic
mass of each atom present in the molecule.
(Assuming the relative mass of a ball bearing is
5 In this experiment, we do not need to know the
1 unit)
actual mass of a ball bearing to determine the
relative mass of other objects. Similarly, we do
1 If we assume that the ball bearing has a mass of 1 not need the actual mass of a carbon atom to
unit, then the iron nail which is equivalent to five determine the relative atomic mass of an element
ball bearings has a relative mass of five units. or the relative molecular mass of a molecule.
Activity 3.1
41 Chemical Formulae and Equations

1 Solution
24
Iridium is a very dense metal and was discovered in (a) Z is heavier than Y by —
— times = 1.5 times.
16
1804 by Smithson Tennant. Determine how many (b) Assume that n atoms of X has the same mass as
carbon atoms will have the same mass as one iridium the sum of 3 atoms of Y and 2 atoms of Z.
atom.
12n = 3(16) + 2(24)
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12; Ir, 192]
12n = 96
Solution 96
Assuming n carbon atoms has the same mass as one n = — —
12
iridium atom.
=8
12n = 192
192
n = — ——
12
3
= 16
5
Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal gland.
Adrenaline has the formula C9H13NOx. If its r.m.m.
2 SPM
’08/P1 is 183, determine the value of x. Then write the
molecular formula of adrenaline.
Three cobalt atoms have the same mass as fifteen
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14; O, 16]
carbon atoms. Determine the relative atomic mass of
cobalt. [Relative atomic mass: C, 12] Solution
Solution Relative molecular mass of adrenaline is
C9H13NOx= 183
Assume that the relative atomic mass of Co = a
9(12) + 13(1) + 14 + x(16) = 183
Co + Co + Co = 15 C 108 + 13 + 14 + 16x = 183
16x = 183 – 135
3a = 15  12
48
15  12 x =— —
a = — ———— —— 16
3
= 60 x = 3
The formula of adrenaline is C9H13NO3.
3
The mass of a rutherfordium (Rf) atom is equal to the 1 ’09
sum of three sodium atoms and six sulphur atoms.
What is the relative atomic mass of rutherfordium? The relative formula mass of X3(PO4)2 is 310.
[Relative atomic mass: Na, 23; S, 32] Determine the relative atomic mass of element X.
Solution [Relative atomic mass: O, 16; P, 31]
Relative atomic mass of Rf = 3(23) + 6(32) Solution
= 69 + 192 Assume that the relative atomic mass of the
= 261 element X is p.
Relative formula mass of X3(PO4)2 = 310
4 3(p) + 2[31 + 4(16)] = 310
3p + 2[31 + 64] = 310
The relative atomic mass of elements X, Y and Z are 3p + 190 = 310
12, 16 and 24 respectively.
3p = 310 – 190
(a) How much is an atom of Z heavier than an atom
of Y? 120
p =— —
(b) How many atoms of X will have the same mass as 3
the sum of 3 atoms of Y and 2 atoms of Z? = 40

3 Let us extend the reasoning to other elements.
3.1
The number of atoms in a sample of any
1 (a) A platinum atom is five times heavier than a element with its relative atomic mass in grams
potassium atom. What is the relative atomic is equal to the number of atoms in 12 g of
mass of platinum? [Relative atomic mass: K, 39] carbon-12.
(b) Calculate the number of carbon atoms that For example, 1 g of hydrogen, 14 g of nitrogen,
has the same mass as one molybdenum 23 g of sodium, 56 g of iron will all contain the
atom. [Relative atomic mass: C, 12; Mo, 96]
same number of atoms as in 12 g of carbon-12.
(c) Five aluminium atoms have the same mass
4 Now the question that arises is: how many
as the sum of six lithium atoms and three
phosphorus atoms. Determine the r.a.m. of atoms are there in 4 g of helium, 1 g of
phosphorus. [Relative atomic mass: Li, 7; Al, 27] hydrogen, 14 g of nitrogen, 23 g of sodium,
(d) The relative atomic mass of elements W, X, Y 56 g of iron and 12 g of carbon-12?
and Z are 7, 39, 56 and 195 respectively. Through several experiments scientists have
3
(i) One atom of thorium (Th) has the same found that this number is 602 000 000 000
mass as the sum of six W atoms, two 000 000 000 000 or 6.02  1023.
X atoms and two Y atoms. What is the 5 In Chemistry, the number 6.02  1023 is called
r.a.m. of thorium? one mole (or mol in short).
(ii) How many W atoms will have the same
mass as the sum of two X atoms, one Y
atom and one Z atom?
2 Determine the relative molecular mass (or relative
formula mass) of the following compounds:
(a) Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa (Soap molecule)
(b) Complex ion Cu(NH3)4SO4
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14; O, 16;
Na, 23; S, 32; Cu, 64]
3 Borax is a compound used to kill cockroaches.
Its molecular formula is X2B4O7. If the relative
molecular mass of borax is 202, determine the Amedeo Avogadro
relative atomic mass of the element X. Identify the
element X from the list of elements given below. Amedeo Avogadro was a professor of physics at the
[Relative atomic mass: B, 11; C, 12; O, 16; F, 19; University of Turin, Italy. In 1811, he proposed the
Na, 23; Mg, 24] hypothesis which states that under the same temperature
and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain
equal numbers of molecules. He showed that 22.4 dm3
of any gas at a temperature of 0 °C and a pressure of 1
atmosphere contains 6.02  1023 molecules. Therefore
3.2 Relationship between the value of 6.02  1023 is called Avogadro’s number
the Number of Moles or the Avogadro constant in honour of him.
and the Number of
Particles
Definition of the Mole SPM
’08/P1
Concept of the Mole
1 One mole is the amount of substance which
1 The relative atomic mass of carbon atom is 12 contains the same number of particles as
and the relative atomic mass of helium atom there are in 12 grams of carbon-12.
is 4. This means that a carbon atom is three 2 The number of atoms in 12 grams of
times heavier than a helium atom. carbon-12 is 6.02  1023.
2 Thus, a sample containing 12 grams of carbon 3 This number, 6.02  1023, is called Avogadro’s
and four grams of helium will contain the number or the Avogadro constant (NA).
same number of atoms, that is, 4 The particles in matter can be atoms, ions or
molecules.
number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon 5 For elements, the particles are atoms. For
= number of atoms in 4 grams of helium example, 1 mol of gold contains 6.02  1023
gold atoms.

6 For ionic compounds, the particles are ions. Conversion of the Number of Moles to the Number
For example, of Particles
1 mol of magnesium ions contains 6.02  1023
Mg2+ ions.
6 SPM
’09/P1
1 mol of potassium iodide, KI contains 6.02
 1023 K+ ions and 6.02  1023 I– ions. Calculate the number of particles in:
1 mol of magnesium chloride, MgCl2 contains (a) 0.75 mol of aluminium atoms, A1,
6.02  1023 Mg2+ ions and 2  6.02  1023 (b) 1.2 mol of chloride ions, Cl–,
Cl– ions. (c) 0.07 mol of carbon dioxide molecules, CO2.
7 For covalent compounds, the particles are [Assume NA = 6  1023 mol–1]
molecules. For example,
1 mol of carbon dioxide contains 6.02  1023 Solution
CO2 molecules. (a) 1 mol of aluminium contains 6  1023 Al atoms.
0.75 mol of aluminium contains
3
0.75 mol Make sure that the

Conversion of the Number of Moles to ———————  6  1023 Al atoms numerator and the
1 mol
the Number of Particles and Vice Versa denominator have
= 4.5  1023 Al atoms the same unit.
1 Since one mole of any substance contains (b) 1 mol of chloride ions contains 6  1023 Cl– ions.
6.02  1023 particles, n moles of the substance 1.2 mol of chloride ions contain
will contain n  6.02  1023 particles. 1.2 mol
—— ————  6  1023 Cl– ions.
2 Hence, 1 mol
= 7.2  1023 Cl– ions
number of particles = number of mole 3 NA (c) 1 mol of carbon dioxide contains 6  1023 CO2
(where NA = 6.02 3 1023) molecules.
0.07 mol of carbon dioxide contains
3 If 6.02  1023 particles are found in 1 mol, 0.07 mol
—— —————  6  1023 CO2 molecules
then one particle is found in 1 mol
1 particle = 4.2  1022 CO2 molecules
—
———————————— ———
——  1 mol
6.021023 particles
1
=— —————
—
—— — mol
6.021023
7 SPM
’11/P1
Therefore, x particles are found in
x Calculate the number of atoms in:
————————— mol
6.02  1023 (a) 0.2 mol of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2,
4 Thus, the (b) 0.125 mol of methane gas, CH4.
[NA = 6  1023 mol–1]
number of moles = number of particles  NA
Solution
(where NA = 6.02  1023)
(a) 0.2 mol of SO2 contains 0.2  6  1023
molecules = 1.2  1023 molecules.
5 Generally, 1 sulphur dioxide molecule (SO2) has 3 atoms
 NA (one sulphur and two oxygen atoms).
number of Therefore the number of atoms
mol = 3  1.2  1023
particles  NA
= 3.6  1023 atoms
(b) 0.125 mol of CH4 contains 0.125  6  1023
molecules = 7.5  1022 molecules.
A student need not memorise that the Avogadro constant 1 methane molecule (CH4) has 5 atoms (one
is 6.02  1023. It will be given in the examination. carbon and four hydrogen atoms). Therefore the
However in most cases, the value of NA given is number of atoms = 5  7.5  1022
6  1023 for easy calculation. = 3.75  1023 atoms

Conversion of the Number of Particles to the 3 The mole-atom is the relative atomic mass of
Number of Moles SPM an atom expressed in gram.
’10/P1
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12; Al, 27; S, 32]
8 1 mole-atom of carbon
= 12 g Each sample
Calculate the number of moles of the following contains
1 mole-atom of aluminium
substances: 6.02  1023
= 27 g
(a) 6  1021 iron atoms, atoms
1 mole-atom of sulphur
(b) 7.5  1023 carbon monoxide molecules.
= 32 g
[NA = 6  1023 mol–1]
Solution 4 The mole-molecule is the relative molecular
mass of a compound expressed in gram.
(a) 1 mol of iron contains 6  1023 atoms.
[Relative molecular mass: H2O, 18; CO2, 44;
3
Therefore 6  1021 iron atoms NH3, 17; C2H5OH, 46; CH4, 16]
6  1021 atom
=— — —
— ———— ———  1 mol 1 mole-molecule of water,
6  1023 atom Each sample
H2O = 18 g
= 0.01 mol contains
1 mole-molecule of carbon
(b) 1 mol contains 6  1023 molecules. 6.02  1023
dioxide, CO2 = 44 g
Therefore 7.5  1023 CO molecules contain molecules
1 mole-molecule of ethanol,
7.5  1023 molecules
——— ————— ——— ——————  1 mol C2H5OH = 46 g
6  1023 molecules
= 1.25 mol
Conversion of the Number of Moles of a SPM
’07/P2
Substance to Its Mass
3.2 1 Since 1 mol of an element is the relative
1 Calculate the number of particles in atomic mass in gram, x mol of the element
1 has x  relative atomic mass in gram.
(a) — mol of copper,
6
(b) 0.0625 mol of water molecule, H2O, Number of mole-atom
(c) 1.3 mol of sodium ions, Na+. mass in gram
[NA = 6  1023 mol–1] =—
— ————— ——————
————————
relative atomic mass
2 Calculate the number of atoms in
(a) 0.012 mol of ethane gas, C2H6,
(b) 1.1 mol of sulphur trioxide, SO3. 2 Similarly, since 1 mol of a compound is the
[NA = 6  1023 mol–1] relative molecular mass in gram, x mol of
3 Calculate the number of moles of the following the compound has x  relative molecular
substances: mass in gram.
(a) 6  1022 sodium ions,
(b) 1.8  1024 H2S molecules.
[NA = 6  1023 mol–1] Number of mole-molecule
mass in gram
=—
——— ——————————————————
———
relative molecular mass
3.3 Relationship between the 3 Generally,

Number of Moles of a
Substance and Its Mass  Ar or Mr
mole mass in gram
1 The mass of a substance that contains one mole 4 Ar or Mr
of the substance is called the molar mass.
2 One mole of substance contains 6.02  1023
number of moles
particles. Therefore the molar mass of any
substance contains 6.02  1023 particles.

Conversion of the Number of Moles of a Conversion of the Number of Particles of a
Substance to Its Mass Substance to Its Mass and Vice Versa
1 Two steps are involved in the conversion of the
9 mass of substance to the number of particles.
Determine the mass for each of the following Step 1: Mass in gram is converted to number
substances: of moles by dividing the mass by
the relative atomic mass or relative
2
(a) — mol of aluminium atoms, molecular mass.
3
Step 2: Number of moles is converted to
(b) 0.08 mol of ascorbic acid, C6H8O6, number of particles by multiplying
(c) 0.125 mol of magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2. the number of moles by the Avogadro
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16; Mg, 24; constant.
Al, 27; Cl, 35.5] 2 Two steps are involved in the conversion of
3
Solution the number of particles to mass.

(a) 1 mol of Al = 27 g Step 1: Number of particles is converted to
2 2 the number of moles by dividing the
— mol of Al = — 27 g = 18 g number of particles by the Avogadro
3 3
constant.
(b) 1 mol of C6H8O6 = 6(12) + 8(1) + 6(16) g
Step 2: Number of moles is converted to mass
= 176 g in gram by multiplying the number of
0.08 mol C6H8O6 = 0.08  176 g moles by the relative atomic mass or
= 14.08 g relative molecular mass.
(c) 1 mol of Mg(OH)2 = 24 + 2(16 + 1) g 3 In general,
= 58 g  Ar
0.125 mol of Mg(OH)2 = 0.125  58 g  NA or Mr mass in
= 7.25 g number of
mole
particles  NA  Ar gram
or Mr
Conversion of the Mass of a Substance to the
Number of Moles Conversion of the Mass of a Substance to the
Number of Particles
10 SPM
’08/P1
Calculate the number of moles of the following 11

substances:
Calculate the number of particles in:
(a) 23.5 g of copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2,
(a) 12.8 g of copper,
(b) 0.97 g of caffeine, C8H10N4O2 (a stimulant).
(b) 8.5 g of ammonia, NH3.
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14; O, 16; Si,
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14; O, 16;
28; S, 32; Cu, 64]
Fe, 56; Cu, 64; NA = 6  1023 mol–1]
Divide mass
Solution in gram by the
Solution relative atomic
(a) 1 mol of Cu(NO3)2 = 64 + 2[14 + 3(16)] g 12.8
= 188 g (a) 12.8 g of Cu = ——— mol = 0.2 mol mass to find the
number of moles
64
23.5
23.5 g of Cu(NO3)2 = — ———  1 mol 1 mol contains 6  1023 atoms.
188 0.2 mol contains 0.2  6  1023 atoms
= 0.125 mol = 1.2  1023 atoms Number of moles
(b) 1 mol of C8H10N4O2 is converted to
(b) 1 mol of NH3 = 17 g number of particles
= 8(12) + 10 + 4(14) + 2(16) g = 194 g
8.5 by multiplying the
8.5 g of NH3 = —— mol = 0.5 mol number of moles
0.97 g of C8H10N4 O2 17 by the Avogadro
0.97 1 mol contains 6  1023 molecules. constant
= ———  1 mol
194 0.5 mol contains 0.5  6  1023 molecules
= 0.005 mol = 3  1023 molecules

Conversion of the Number of Particles of a 3.3
Substance to Its Mass
1 Calculate the mass of each of the following
substances:
12 (a) 1.25 mol of helium gas,
2
Calculate the mass of the following substances: (b) — mol of cobalt, Co,
(a) 1.2  1022 zinc atoms, 5
(c) 0.15 mol of hydrated copper(II) sulphate,
(b) 3  1023 ethanol (C2H5OH) molecules.
CuSO4.5H2O,
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16; Zn,
(d) 0.05 mol of potassium manganate(VII),
65; NA = 6  1023 mol–1] KMnO4.
Solution [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; He, 4; O, 16; S,
32; K, 39; Mn, 55; Co, 59; Cu, 64]
(a) 1 mol contains 6  1023 atoms.
1.2  1022 atoms 2 Calculate the number of moles of the following
3
Number of particles is
1.2  1022 converted to the number of substances:
=— ———— ——
— — mol moles by dividing the number (a) 2.8 g of iron,
6  10 23
of particles by the Avogadro
constant (b) 4.05 g of nicotine, C10H14N2 (an addictive
= 0.02 mol substance in cigarette),
1 mol of Zn = 65 g (c) 1.49 g of ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4
0.02 mol of Zn = 0.02  65 g (a fertiliser),
= 1.3 g (d) 2.3 g of ethanol, C2H5OH.
(b) 1 mol contains Number of moles is [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14; O,
converted to mass in
6  10 molecules.
23
gram by multiplying
16; P, 31; Fe, 56]
3  1023 C2H5OH molecules the number of moles 3 Calculate the mass of the following substances:
by the relative atomic
3  1023 mass (a) 3  1023 titanium atoms,
is contained in ——— ——— mol
6  1023 (b) 1.2  1024 argon atoms,
= 0.5 mol (c) 7.5  1022 citric acid (C12H16O14) molecules.
1 mol of C2H5OH = 46 g [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16; Ar,
0.5 mol of C2H5OH = 0.5  46 g = 23 g 40; Ti, 48; NA = 6  1023 mol–1]
4 Calculate the number of particles in the following
substances:
(a) 4 g of sulphur,
2 ’04 (b) 2.24 g of cadmium,
(c) 36 g of glucose, C6H12O6.
The relative atomic mass of X and Y is 64 and 16 [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16;
respectively. Which of the following is about the S, 32; Cd, 112; NA = 6  1023 mol–1]
atoms of X and Y? 5 Geranial is a compound found in lemon grass
The mass of one atom of Y is 16 g. (daun serai). Its molecular structure is shown
The number of protons in X is 64. below.
4 mol of Y have the same mass as 1 mol of X.
The density of one atom of X is 4 times that of CH3 H H H CH3 H H
an atom of Y. ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮
C == C –– C –– C –– C == C –– C == O
Solution ⎮ ⎮
16 CH3 H H
The mass of one atom of Y is ————
——— g.
6  1023
(A is incorrect)
(a) Determine the mass of 1 mol of geranial.
The nucleon number of X is 64. (B is incorrect) (b) Determine the mass of 0.02 mol of geranial.
Mass of 4 mol of Y = 4  16 g (c) Determine the number of molecules present
= 64 g (C is correct) in 7.6 g of geranial.
Mass of 1 mol of X is 64 g. (d) Determine the mass of 7.5  1022 geranial
molecules.
Densities cannot be determined because the volume [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16;
of the atom is not given. (D is incorrect) NA = 6  1023 mol–1]

3.4 Relationship between Conversion of the Number of Moles of SPM
’04/P2
a Gas to Its Volume and Vice Versa
the Number of Moles of
a Gas and Its Volume 1 Since 1 mol of any gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at
s.t.p. (or 24 dm3 at r.t.p.), n mol of the gas
Conversion of the Number of Particles of will occupy n  22.4 dm3 at s.t.p. (or n 
a Substance to Its Volume 24 dm3 at r.t.p.)
2 Hence,
1 The volume occupied by a gas depends on volume of gas = number of moles of gas 
the temperature. As the temperature increases, molar volume
the gas expands and occupies a larger volume. where the molar volume is 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.
If the gas is cooled, the gas contracts and or 24 dm3 at room temperature.
occupies a smaller volume. 3 If a volume of 22.4 dm3 (or 22 400 cm3) is
3
2 The volume occupied by a gas also depends occupied by 1 mol of gas,

on the pressure. If a gas is compressed (with 1
1 cm3 of gas is occupied by — ———
—— ‑ mol.
increased pressure), the volume of the gas 22 400
decreases. If the pressure is decreased, the 4 Conversely,
volume of the gas increases. volume of gas
number of moles of gas = — ——
——
——
——
——
———
——
———‑
3 At the same temperature and pressure, molar volume
equal volumes of all gases contain the
same number of particles. Accordingly, one
mole of any gas (which contains 6.02  1023
particles) will occupy the same volume at a
particular temperature and pressure. A student need not memorise that molar volume is
22.4 dm3 at s.t.p. or 24 dm3 at r.t.p. It will be given in
4 It is found that one mole of any gas at
the examination.
room temperature (25°C) and pressure of 1
atmosphere occupies a volume of 24 dm3 (or
24 000 cm3). Conversion of the Number of Moles to Volume
5 At standard temperature and pressure of Gas
(s.t.p.), that is, at a temperature of 0 °C
and pressure of 1 atmosphere, one mole of
any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 (or
13
22 400 cm3). Calculate the volume of 0.75 mol of nitrogen gas
6 The volume occupied by one mole of any gas at s.t.p.
SPM is called the molar volume.
’11/P1 [1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.]
Example
Solution
• 1 mol of oxygen gas, occupies 24 1 mol of gas occupies a volume 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.
O2(32 g) dm3 at room 0.75 mol of N2 gas occupies Make sure that
• 1 mol of carbon temperature or 0.75 mol the numerator and
occupies 22.4 —————— ——  22.4 dm = 16.8 dm denominator have the
3 3
dioxide gas, CO2(44 g) 1 mol same unit
dm3 at s.t.p.
[Relative molecular mass: O2, 32; CO2, 44]

Conversion of Volume of Gas to Number of Moles
7 One mole of gas contains 6.02  10 23
molecules and therefore at s.t.p. 14

Calculate the number of moles of the following
22.4 dm3 of oxygen gas, gases at room temperature and pressure.
O2(32 g) each contains
6.02  1023 (a) 4.8 dm3 of chlorine gas,
22.4 dm3 of carbon (b) 1200 cm3 of methane gas.
dioxide gas, CO2(44 g) molecules
[1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at
room temperature]

Solution
(a) 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at Solution
room temperature. 1 mol of NH3 gas = 17 g
4.8 dm3 3.4 g
4.8 dm3 Cl2 gas contain ———— —
—  1 mol 3.4 g of NH3 = ———— 1 mol = 0.2 mol
24 dm3 17 g
= 0.2 mol 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.
(b) 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 000 cm3 at
0.2 mol of ammonia gas occupies a volume of
room temperature.
0.2  22.4 dm3 = 4.48 dm3.
1200 cm3 of CH4 gas contain
1200 cm3
—— ————— ——  1 mol
24 000 cm3 Conversion of Volume of Gas to Mass
= 0.05 mol
16
3
Conversion of the Volume of Gases to SPM
’06/P2
Calculate the mass of the following gases at room
Mass and Vice Versa ’08/P2
temperature and pressure:
1 Two steps are involved in the conversion of (a) 7.2 dm3 of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2,
volume of gas to mass. (b) 600 cm3 of methane gas, CH4.
Step 1: Volume of gas is converted to [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16; S,
number of moles (by dividing the 32; 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3
volume of gas by the molar volume). at room temperature]
Step 2: Number of moles is converted to Solution
mass in gram (by multiplying the (a) 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at
number of moles by the relative room temperature.
atomic mass or relative molecular 7.2 dm3
mass of the gas). 7.2 dm3 of SO2 = ————
————
—
— 1 mol = 0.3 mol
24 dm3
2 Two steps are involved in the conversion of 1 mol of SO2 = (32 + 32) g = 64 g
mass to volume of gas. 0.3 mol of SO2 = 0.3  64 g = 19.2 g
Step 1: Mass in gram is converted to
number of moles (by dividing the (b) 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 000 cm3 at
mass by the relative atomic mass or room temperature.
relative molecular mass). 600 cm3
600 cm3 of CH4 gas = — ———— ————  1 mol
Step 2: Number of moles is converted 24 000 cm3
to volume of gas (by multiplying = 0.025 mol
the number of moles by the molar 1 mol of CH4 = 16 g
volume). 0.025 mol of CH4 = 0.025  16 g = 0.4 g
3 In general:
 22.4 dm3  Ar or Mr
number mass in Conversion of the Volume of Gases to SPM
’04,06
volume the Number of Particles and Vice Versa /P2
of moles gram
 22.4 dm3  Ar or Mr 1 Two steps are involved in the conversion
(at s.t.p.) of the volume of gas to the number of
particles.
Step 1: Volume of gas is converted to
Conversion of Mass to Volume of Gas number of moles (by dividing the
volume of gas by the molar volume).
15 Step 2: Number of moles is converted to
number of particles (by multiplying
Calculate the volume occupied by 3.4 g of ammonia the number of moles by the Avogadro
gas, NH3 at standard temperature and pressure. constant).
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; N, 14; 1 mol of gas 2 Two steps are involved in the conversion of
occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.] the number of particles to volume of gas.

Step 1: Number of particles is converted to Solution
number of moles (by dividing the 1 mol contains 6  1023 molecules.
number of particles by the Avogadro 1.5  1023 molecules
constant). 1.5  1023 molecules
=— ——— ——— ——
——— ———— —
—  1 mol = 0.25 mol
Step 2: Number of moles is converted 6  1023 molecules
to volume of gas (by multiplying
the number of moles by the molar 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at room
volume). temperature.
3 In general: 0.25 mol of gas occupies a volume of 0.25  24 dm3
= 6 dm3
 22.4 dm3  NA
volume number number of
of gas of moles particles
 22.4 dm3  NA
3
(at s.t.p.)
 22.4 dm3
(or 24 dm3)  Mr
number of mass in
Conversion of Volume of Gas to Number of volume
 22.4 dm 3 moles gram
 Mr
Particles (or 24 dm3)
 (61023)  (61023)
17
number of particles
Calculate the number of molecules present at s.t.p. in
(a) 0.28 dm3 of N2 gas,
(b) 448 cm3 of carbon monoxide, CO gas. 3 ’03
[1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at
s.t.p., NA = 6  1023 mol–1]
Which of the following gases contain 6  1022
Solution molecules?
(a) 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p. [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14; O, 16;
0.28 dm3 Avogadro constant = 6  1023 mol–1]
0.28 dm3 of nitrogen gas = — ———— —
—  1 mol I 1.0 g of hydrogen gas
22.4 dm3
= 0.0125 mol II 2.8 g of nitrogen gas
1 mol of N2 contains 6  1023 molecules. III 4.4 g of carbon dioxide
0.0125 mol of N2 contains IV 1.8 g of water vapour
I, II and III only II, III and IV only
0.0125  6  1023 molecules = 7.5  1021 molecules
I, III and IV only I, II, III and IV
(b) 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 22 400 cm3 at
s.t.p. Solution
448 cm3 6  1022
448 cm3 of CO gas = — ——— ——— ——  1 mol 6  1022 molecules = — ——————‑  1 mol = 0.1 mol
22 400 cm3 6  1023
= 0.02 mol I 1 mol of H2 = 2 g
1 mol of CO contains 6  1023 molecules. 1
1 g of H2 = — mol = 0.5 mol (I is incorrect)
0.02 mol of CO contains 2
0.02  6  1023 molecules = 1.2  1022 molecules II 1 mol of N2 = 28 g
2.8
2.8 g of N2 = —
— mol = 0.1 mol (II is correct)
Conversion of Number of Particles to Volume of 28
Gas III 1 mol of CO2 = 44 g
4.4
4.4 g of CO2 = —— mol = 0.1 mol (III is correct)
18 44
IV 1 mol of H2O = 18 g
Calculate the volume of 1.5  1023 molecules of 1.8
ethane, C2H6 gas at room temperature and pressure. 1.8 g of H2O = —— mol = 0.1 mol (IV is correct)
18
[1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at r.t.p.,
Answer
NA = 6  1023 mol–1]

4 ’05 3.5 Chemical Formulae SPM
’05/P2
’08/P1
The activity of microorganisms on waste products 1 A chemical formula is used to represent a

at dump sites produces methane gas. If 180 dm3 chemical compound.
of methane gas is collected, calculate the mass of The chemical formula shows
methane obtained. (a) the elements, denoted by their symbols,
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; 1 mol of gas present in the compound.
occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at room temperature (b) the relative numbers, indicated by
and pressure] subscripts written after the symbols, of
each element present in the compound.
Solution
2 For example, the chemical formula of
1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at room
sulphuric acid is H2SO4. The chemical formula
temperature.
indicates that
3
180 dm3 (a) the elements present in sulphuric acid are
180 dm3 of CH4 gas = — ————  1 mol
24 dm3 hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen.
= 7.5 mol (b) two hydrogen atoms, one sulphur atom
1 mol of CH4 = 16 g and four oxygen atoms combine to form
7.5 mol of CH4 = 7.5  16 g the compound.
= 120 g 3 Table 3.1 shows the chemical formulae of
some covalent compounds.
Table 3.1 The chemical formulae of some covalent
3.4 compounds
1 Calculate the volume of 0.55 mol of oxygen gas at Name of Chemical Number of each element
room temperature and pressure. compound formula in the compound
[1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at Oxygen O2 2 oxygen atoms
room temperature]
Water H2O 2 hydrogen atoms and
2 Calculate the number of moles of 672 cm3 of
1 oxygen atom
carbon dioxide gas at s.t.p.
[1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at Ammonia NH3 1 nitrogen atom and
s.t.p.] 3 hydrogen atoms
3 Calculate the volume occupied by 1.4 g of ethene Sulphuric H2SO4 2 hydrogen atoms,
gas, C2H4 at room temperature and pressure. acid 1 sulphur atom and
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; 1 mol of 4 oxygen atoms
gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at room
temperature]
4 Calculate the mass of each of the following gases
4 The chemical formula of an ionic compound
at standard temperature and pressure: can be written if the charge of the cation
(a) 16.8 dm3 of methane, CH4, (positively-charged ion) and the anion
(b) 6720 cm3 of carbon monoxide gas, CO. (negatively-charged ion) forming the ionic
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16; 1 compound are known.
mol of gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at 5 Table 3.2 shows the charges of some ions.
s.t.p.]
Table 3.2 Charges of some cations and anions
5 Calculate the number of molecules present in:
(a) 3.6 dm3 of N2 gas, Charge Cation Symbol
(b) 1200 cm3 of ammonia gas at room Sodium ion Na+
temperature and pressure.
Potassium ion K+
[1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3
Lithium ion Li+
at room temperature, NA = 6  1023 mol–1]
Silver ion Ag+
6 Calculate the volume of 9  1021 molecules of +1 Copper(I) ion Cu+
CO at standard temperature and pressure.
Hydrogen ion H+
[1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at
Ammonium ion NH4+
s.t.p., NA = 6  1023 mol–1]
Nickel(I) ion Ni+

Charge Cation Symbol must be equal to the total negative charge of
the anion.
Magnesium ion Mg2+ 7 To write the chemical formula of an ionic
Calcium ion Ca2+ compound, the following steps can be used:
Zinc ion Zn2+ (a) Write the formulae of the ions involved in
Iron(II) ion Fe2+ forming the compound and their charges.
+2 Copper(II) ion Cu2+ (b) Then, balance the positive and negative
Manganese(II) ion Mn2+ charges. This can be done by writing the
Lead(II) ion Pb2+ numerical charge of the cation next to the
Nickel(II) ion Ni2+ anion as a subscript and the numerical
Iron(III) ion Fe3+ charge of the anion next to the cation as a
+3 Aluminium ion Al3+ subscript.
Chromium(III) ion Cr3+ (c) Finally write the chemical formula of the
3
ionic compound without the charges.

Charge Anion Symbol 8 Generally, if the ionic compound is formed by
the ions Xm+ and Yn–, then the chemical formula
Fluoride ion F– of the compound is XnYm.
Chloride ion Cl– If m = n, then the chemical formula is XY.
Bromide ion Br– Examples,
Iodide ion I– (a) Chemical formula of sodium sulphate
Hydroxide ion OH–
–1 Charge of ion +1 –2
Nitrate ion NO3–
Formula of ion Na+ SO42–
Nitrite ion NO2–
Ratio 2 1
Bicarbonate ion HCO3–
Chemical formula is Na2SO4.
Permanganate ion MnO4–
(b) Chemical formula of iron(III) chloride
Hydride ion H–
Charge of ion +3 –1
Oxide ion O2– Formula of ion Fe3+ Cl–
Sulphide ion S2– Ratio 1 3
Sulphate ion SO42– Chemical formula is FeCl3.
Sulphite ion SO32– (c) Chemical formula of magnesium oxide
–2 Carbonate ion CO32– Charge of ion +2 –2
Thiosulphate ion S2O32–
Formula of ion Mg O2–2+
Chromate(VI) ion CrO42–
Ratio 2 2
Dichromate(VI) ion Cr2O72–
Chemical formula is MgO.
Phosphide ion P3– Note that if the charges of the ions are the
–3 Phosphate ion PO43– same, the ratio of the ions that combine
Nitride ion N3– is 1 : 1.
9 In general, the chemical formulae of
6 Since a chemical compound is always electrically compounds formed between the ions are
neutral, the total positive charge of the cation summarised in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Formulae of ionic compounds
Cation Anion Chemical formula Examples
X+ Y– XY Sodium chloride, NaCl
X+ Y 2– X2Y Potassium dichromate(VI), K2Cr2O7
X+ Y 3– X3Y Ammonium phosphate, (NH4)3PO4
X 2+ Y– XY2 Calcium chloride, CaCl2
X 2+ Y 2– XY Copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4
X 2+ Y 3– X3Y2 Magnesium nitride, Mg3N2
X 3+ Y– XY3 Iron(III) chloride, FeCl3
X 3+ Y 2– X2Y3 Chromium(III) sulphate, Cr2(SO4)3
X 3+ Y 3– XY Aluminium nitride, AlN

10 Transition elements can form ions with Simplest
different charges. In the IUPAC (International Molecular Empirical
Compound ratio of the
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system, formula formula
elements
the standardised chemical nomenclature is
denoted by Roman numerals in brackets to Glucose C6H12O6 C:H:O CH2O
indicate the charge of the ion. For example, =1:2:1
iron(II) represents Fe2+ ion and iron(III)
Quinine C20H24N2O2 C : H : N : O C10H12NO
represents Fe3+ ion. Table 3.4 shows examples
= 10: 12 : 1 : 1
of some compounds of transition elements.
Table 3.4 Formulae of some compounds of transition
4 The following steps can be used to determine
elements
the empirical formula of a compound:
Chemical Step 1: Write the mass or percentage of each
Cation Anion Name of compound formula
3
element in the compound.
Cu+ O2– Copper(I) oxide Cu2O Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of
Cu2+ O2– Copper(II) oxide CuO each element in the compound by
dividing the mass or percentage of the
Fe2+ Cl– Iron(II) chloride FeCl2
element by the relative atomic mass of
Fe3+ Cl– Iron(III) chloride FeCl3
the element.
Mn2+ O2– Manganese(II) oxide MnO Step 3: Next, divide each number by the
Mn4+ O2– Manganese(IV) oxide MnO2 smallest number to obtain the
simplest ratio.
Step 4: Finally write the empirical formula
of the compound based on the ratio
of the elements.
All transition elements are metals. Many of them
like iron, manganese, copper, silver, gold, nickel and
titanium are of major technological importance. A large 5 ’09
number of the transition elements combine with each
other to form useful alloys.
The table shows the mass of elements M and O in
an oxide, and relative atomic mass of M and O.
Empirical and Molecular Formulae Element M O
1 The empirical formula of a compound shows Mass (g) 2.4 1.6

SPM the simplest ratio of the atoms of the elements
’07/P2
that combine to form the compound. Relative atomic mass 48 16
2 The molecular formula of the compound What is the empirical formula of this compound?
shows the actual numbers of the atoms of the
elements that combine to form the compound. Solution
3 Table 3.5 shows the molecular and empirical
formulae of some compounds. Element M O
Table 3.5 The molecular and empirical formulae SPM Step 1 Mass 2.4 g 1.6 g
’09/P1
of some compounds
Step 2 Number of 2.4 1.6
Simplest —— mol —— mol
Molecular Empirical moles 48 16
Compound ratio of the = 0.05 = 0.1
formula formula
elements
Water H2O H:O=2:1 H2O Step 3 Simplest 0.05 0.10
——— ———
ratio 0.05 0.05
Ethene C2H4 C:H=1:2 CH2 =1 =2
Butane C4H10 C:H=2:5 C2H5
Empirical formula of compound is MO2.
Ethane C2H6 C:H=1:3 CH3

6 ’05
Simplest 4.8
——
1.6
——
—
4.84
———
ratio 1.6 1.6 1.6
2.5 g of X combined with 4 g of Y to form a =3 =1 =3
compound with the formula XY2. If the relative
atomic mass of Y is 80, determine the relative Empirical formula of boric acid is H3BO3.
atomic mass of X.
Solution
Assume the relative atomic mass of X is a.
Element X Y
20 SPM
’04/P2
Mass 2.5 4
Number of moles 2.5 4 A gaseous hydrocarbon X contains 85.7% of carbon
3
—— mol —
— mol by weight. 4.2 g of the gas X occupies a volume of
a 80
= 0.05 3.36 dm3 at standard temperature and pressure.
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; 1 mol of gas
Simplest ratio 1 2 occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.]
(a) Determine the empirical formula of X.
Since the empirical formula is XY2, the ratio of X : (b) Determine the relative molecular mass of X.
Y=1:2 (c) What is the molecular formula of X?
2.5

—
— Solution
a 1
— ——= —
0.05 2
2.5 0.05 Element C H
— —= — — —
a 2
Percentage 85.7% 100 – 85.7%
2.5  2 = 14.3%
a=— —
——— —
0.05
= 100 Number of 85.7 14.3
——— — mol ——— mol
moles 12 1
= 7.14 = 14.3
19 Simplest ratio 7.14 14.3

——— ————
7.14 7.14
Boric acid is used to preserve prawns and fish. =1 =2
Chemical analysis of the compound shows that it
contains 4.8% hydrogen, 17.7% boron and the rest
(a) Empirical formula of X is CH2.
is oxygen. Determine the empirical formula of boric
(b) 4.2 g of the gas has a volume of 3.36 dm3 at s.t.p.
acid. [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; B, 11; O, 16]
1 mol of the gas (22.4 dm3) has a mass of
Solution 22.4 dm3
—— ——— ——  4.2 g
3.36 dm3
Element H B O = 28 g
Therefore the relative molecular mass of X is 28.
Percentage 4.8% 17.7% 100 – 4.8 – 17.7% (c) Assume the molecular formula of X is (CH2)n.
= 77.5% The relative molecular mass of X is
(12 + 2)n = 28
Mass in 4.8 17.7 77.5
——
— 100 g ———100 g ———  100 g 28
100 g of 100 100 100 n=— —
compound 14
= 4.8 g = 17.7 g = 77.5 g
=2
Number 4.8 17.7 77.5 Thus the molecular formula of X is C2H4.
—— mol ——— mol
of moles 1 ——— mol
11 16
= 4.8 = 1.6 = 4.84

To determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide by
experiment
Apparatus Crucible with lid, tripod stand, combustion of the magnesium. Care is taken
sandpaper, Bunsen burner, clay pipe to prevent white smoke (magnesium oxide
triangle, electronic balance and tongs. powder formed) from escaping by closing the lid
Materials A magnesium ribbon of about 20 immediately after it is lifted.
cm in length and oxygen. 6 When the magnesium is completely burnt, the
crucible is cooled and is weighed again with its
Procedure
lid. The weight is recorded.
7 The heating, cooling and weighing process is
repeated until a constant mass is obtained.
Results
3
Mass of crucible + lid = a gram
Mass of crucible + lid + magnesium = b gram
Mass of crucible + lid + magnesium oxide = c gram
Calculations
Mass of magnesium used = (b – a) gram
Mass of oxygen that combined with
1 The 20 cm length of magnesium ribbon is polished magnesium = (c – b) gram
with sandpaper to remove the oxide layer on its
surface. Element Mg O
2 The magnesium ribbon is rolled into a loose coil.
Mass (g) (b – a) (c – b)
3 An empty crucible with its lid is first weighed
and its weight is recorded. Number of (b – a) (c – b)
—— —— mol —— —— mol
4 The rolled magnesium ribbon is placed in the moles 24 16
crucible. The crucible is weighed again and its Simplest ratio x y
weight recorded.
5 The crucible is placed on a clay pipe triangle and
Conclusion
then heated strongly. The lid is lifted at intervals
to allow the oxygen from the air to enter for the The empirical formula is MgxOy.
To determine the empirical formula of copper oxide SPM

’09/P2
The empirical formula of copper oxide is determined 1 The combustion tube with a porcelain dish is
by reducing the copper oxide using hydrogen gas. weighed. The weight is recorded.
2 A spatula of copper oxide powder is placed in
Apparatus Porcelain dish, combustion tube and
the porcelain dish. The combustion tube with its
electronic balance.
contents is weighed again. The weight is recorded.
Materials Copper oxide powder and dry 3 Dry hydrogen gas is passed through the tube for
hydrogen gas. a few minutes to expel all the air.
Procedure 4 The copper oxide is then heated strongly and
Activity 3.2 & 3.3
the hydrogen gas passing through the end of the

combustion tube is lit.
5 When all the copper oxide is reduced to copper
metal (the black copper oxide has all become
brown), heating is stopped.
6 A continuous stream of hydrogen gas is allowed
to pass through the tube until it is cooled.

7 The combustion tube with its contents is weighed Precautions taken
and the weight recorded.
1 Hydrogen gas must be allowed to pass through
8 The heating, cooling and weighing process is
SPM the combustion tube for a few minutes before the
repeated until a constant weight is obtained. ’11/P1
copper oxide is heated. This is to remove the air
Results in the tube. A mixture of air and hydrogen can
Mass of combustion tube + empty porcelain dish explode when lit.
= 54.31 g 2 The flow of hydrogen gas must be continued
Mass of combustion tube + porcelain dish + copper throughout heating. This is to ensure that air
oxide = 62.32 g does not enter the combustion tube. Hence
Mass of combustion tube + porcelain dish + copper the hydrogen gas must be seen to be burning
= 60.71 g continuosly at the end of the combustion tube.
3 The hot copper metal is allowed to cool in a
Calculations
3
stream of hydrogen gas. This is to ensure that

Mass of copper obtained = (60.71 – 54.31)g = 6.40 g oxygen from the air does not oxidise the hot
Mass of oxygen that combined with the copper copper to copper oxide again.
= (62.32 – 60.71)g = 1.61 g 4 The heating, cooling and weighing process is
repeated until a constant weight is obtained. This
Element Cu O is to ensure that all the copper oxide has been
Mass (g) 6.40 1.61 reduced.
Number of 6.4 1.61 Conclusion
——— mol = 0.1 ——— mol = 0.1
moles 64 16 The empirical formula of copper oxide is CuO.
Simplest ratio 0.1 0.1
——
—= 1 —
——= 1
0.1 0.1
3.5
1 Write down the chemical formulae of the following 4 10.2 g of vanadium metal combined with 8 g of
ionic compounds: oxygen to form a compound with empirical formula
(a) Silver nitrate V2O5. Determine the relative atomic mass of
(b) Sodium thiosulphate vanadium. [Relative atomic mass: O, 16]
(c) Ammonium phosphate 5 Hydrazine is used as a rocket fuel. It contains 87.5%
(d) Calcium hydroxide nitrogen and 12.5% hydrogen. [Relative atomic
(e) Magnesium carbonate mass: H, 1; N, 14]
(f) Zinc phosphide (a) Determine the empirical formula of the
(g) Iron(III) hydroxide compound.
(h) Aluminium oxide (b) If the relative molecular mass of hydrazine is 32,
(i) Chromium(III) chloride determine its molecular formula.
(j) Copper(II) sulphate
6 x g of iron combined with 5.04 g of oxygen to form
(k) Nickel(I) chloride an oxide with empirical formula Fe2O3. Determine
(l) Magnesium nitride the value of x. [Relative atomic mass: O, 16; Fe, 56]
2 Silicon hydride contains 87.5% silicon by mass. 7 A gaseous hydrocarbon Q contains 20% hydrogen.
Determine the empirical formula of silicon hydride. 6 g of this hydrocarbon occupies a volume of 4.48
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; Si, 28] dm3 at s.t.p. [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; 1
3 Reduction of 7.55 g of tin oxide using hydrogen gas mol of gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.]. Determine:
yields 5.95 g of tin metal. Determine the empirical (a) The empirical formula of Q
formula of tin oxide. [Relative atomic mass: Sn, 119; (b) Relative molecular mass of Q
O, 16] (c) Molecular formula of Q

3.6 Chemical Equations
Remember that a chemical equation cannot be
Reactants and Products of Chemical balanced by altering the formulae of the reactants or
Equations products. You can only balance the equation by putting
a number in front of each of the formulae.
1 A chemical reaction can be represented by a
chemical equation. For example, when sodium
hydroxide reacts with sulphuric acid, sodium Writing Chemical Equations
sulphate and water are produced. The reaction
can be represented symbolically by the equation: 1 Lets’s look at a chemical reaction to practice
these rules. During combustion, magnesium
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O reacts with the oxygen in air to produce a
white powder, magnesium oxide. You might
3
(a) The reactants are the chemicals that start by writing an equation for this reaction
are reacting and they are written on the by writing the symbols for the reactants and
left-hand side of the equation. Hence, products.
sodium hydroxide and sulphuric acid are
the reactants. reactants yield product
(b) The products are the chemicals formed in Mg + O2 ⎯→ MgO
a reaction and they are written on the right-
hand side of the equation. Hence, sodium 2 On the left-hand side of the equation there
sulphate and water are the products. is 1 atom of magnesium and there is also
(c) 2 mol of NaOH react with 1 mol of H2SO4 1 atom of Mg on the product side of the
to produce 1 mol of Na2SO4 and 2 mol of equation. However, there are 2 oxygen atoms
H2O. on the left and only 1 on the right. To balance
2 Some symbols which appear in a chemical the number of atoms of each type you will
equation are: need to add coefficients. If you multiply Mg on
the left-hand side of the equation by 2 then
Symbol Meaning you must do the same to the Mg atom on the
∆ Heating of substance right which will mean doubling the number
of oxygen atoms on the right-hand side of the
↑ or (g) Gas evolved equation too since you may not change the
↓ or (s) Precipitate formed ratio of atoms within a molecule because it
will change the identity of the substance. The
Reversible reaction new equation will look like this:
3 When writing a chemical equation, the 2Mg + O2 ⎯→ 2MgO

following steps are followed:
(a) Write the correct formulae of all reactants 3 Now the equation is balanced. There are the same
on the left-hand side of the equation. number of Mg and O atoms on both sides of the
(b) Write the correct formulae of all products equation. A balanced equation is the source of a
on the right-hand side of the equation. great deal of information about both products
(c) The equation is then balanced. This and reactants during a chemical change.
involves making sure that the number of
atoms of each element before and after Examples of Chemical Equations
the reaction are the same.
(d) Finally the physical state of each of the 1 (a) When green copper(II) carbonate is heated,
reactants or products is written as: it decomposes to form black copper(II)
(s) – represents solid state oxide and carbon dioxide gas which turns
(l) – represents liquid state limewater cloudy.
(g) – represents gaseous state
(aq) – represents aqueous state, that is, CuCO3(s) ⎯→ CuO(s) + CO2(g)
the substance is dissolved in water. reactant products

(b) When calcium carbonate is reacted with If 0.12 g of magnesium is added to excess
hydrochloric acid, the products formed are hydrochloric acid, calculate
calcium chloride, carbon dioxide and water. (a) the mass of magnesium chloride salt formed.
(b) the volume of hydrogen gas evolved at room
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → temperature and pressure.
CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) [Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5; 1 mol
of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at r.t.p.]
(c) When an aqueous solution of potassium iodide is
added to an aqueous solution of lead(II) nitrate, Solution
a yellow precipitate of lead(II) iodide is formed. (a) Referring to the equation, 1 mol of Mg (24 g)
produces 1 mol of MgCl2(95 g).
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Hence 0.12 g of Mg will produce
PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
0.12 g Mg
— ———
——
———
——
——  95 g MgCl2
24 g Mg
3
Interpreting Chemical Equations SPM = 0.475 g of MgCl2

Qualitatively and Quantitatively ’11/P1
(b) 1 mol of Mg (24 g) produces 1 mol of H2 gas
1 From a chemical equation, we can obtain (24 dm3) at r.t.p.
information on Hence 0.12 g of Mg will produce
(a) the reactants taking part in the reaction 0.12
———  24 dm3 of H2
(on the left-hand side of the equation). 24
(b) the products formed in the reaction (on = 0.12 dm3 of H2
the right-hand side of the equation). = 120 cm3 of H2
(c) the number of moles of each substance
taking part in the reaction and the
number of moles of the products formed
(from the coefficients/numbers before 8 ’04
the substances).
(d) the physical states of all the reactants and 3.2 g of copper(II) oxide powder is reacted with
products (from the symbols in bracket excess dilute nitric acid.
after the substance). (a) Write a chemical equation for the reaction.
For example: (b) Calculate the mass of copper(II) nitrate salt
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) formed in the reaction.
The chemical equation shows that: [Relative atomic mass: N, 14; O, 16; Cu, 64]
2 mol of solid sodium react with 2 mol
Solution
of liquid water to form 2 mol of aqueous
(a) CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
sodium hydroxide and 1 mol of hydrogen
(b) 1 mol of CuO produces 1 mol of Cu(NO3)2.
gas.
80 g of CuO produces 188 g of Cu(NO3)2.
Hence 3.2 g of CuO will produce
Solving Numerical Problems Using SPM 3.2 g CuO
Chemical Equations ’08/P1 ——————  188 g of Cu(NO3)2
80 g CuO
The quantity of reactants and products can be = 7.52 g of Cu(NO3)2
calculated using stoichiometric equations when
numerical information is given (stoichiometry).
21
7 ’09 Ethanol burns in air as represented by the equation
C2H5OH(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid as Calculate the mass of ethanol burnt if 2.4 dm3 of
represented by the equation carbon dioxide is produced at room temperature.
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16; 1 mol of
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at room temperature]

Solution (d) Displacement reaction between zinc metal
Referring to the equation, 1 mol of C2H5OH and copper(II) sulphate solution to form
(46 g) produces 2 mol (2  24 dm3) of CO2. copper metal and zinc sulphate salt.
Therefore 2.4 dm3 of CO2 is produced from (e) Decomposition of zinc carbonate to zinc oxide
and carbon dioxide gas when heated.
2.4 dm3 (f) Reduction of solid lead(IV) oxide, PbO2 by
—— ——— ——— —  46 g of C2H5OH
2  24 dm3 hydrogen gas to form lead metal and water.
= 2.3 g of ethanol, C2H5OH 3 Iron metal reacts with excess hydrochloric acid to
produce iron(II) chloride and hydrogen gas.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the
22 reaction.
(b) If 2.8 g of iron metal is used in the reaction,
The chemical name of baking powder is sodium calculate
bicarbonate (NaHCO3). When sodium bicarbonate (i) the maximum mass of iron(II) chloride
3
is heated, it decomposes to sodium carbonate, formed.
(ii) the volume of hydrogen gas produced at
carbon dioxide and water.
room conditions.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the
[Relative atomic mass: Cl, 35.5; Fe, 56;
decomposition of sodium bicarbonate when it is 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3
heated. at r.t.p.]
(b) If 2.1 g of sodium bicarbonate is heated,
4 Acetylene gas (C2H2) is used in metal welding. This
calculate the volume in cm3 of CO2 produced at gas can be prepared by reacting calcium carbide
room temperature. with excess water as represented by the equation
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16; Na, 23;
1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at room CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + C2H2(g)
temperature] If 4.8 g of calcium carbide is reacted with excess
water, calculate
Solution (a) the volume of acetylene gas evolved at room
(a) 2NaHCO3(s) ⎯→ Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) temperature.
∆
(b) the mass of calcium hydroxide formed.
(b) 2 mol of NaHCO3 (2  84 g) produces 1 mol of
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16;
CO2 (24 dm3) at r.t.p. Ca, 40; 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24
2.1 g of NaHCO3 will produce dm3 at r.t.p.]
2.1
— ——
———  24 dm3 of CO2 = 0.3 dm3 of CO2 5 Hydrogen gas is prepared by reacting methane gas
2  84 with steam using platinum as catalyst. The reaction
= 300 cm3 of CO2 is represented by the equation
CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2(g)
If 60 dm3 of hydrogen gas is produced at room
3.6
temperature and pressure, calculate
1 Balance the following chemical equations: (a) the mass of methane that is used in the
(a) Na(s) + H2O(l) → NaOH(aq) + H2(g) reaction.
(b) Zn(s) + HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) (b) the number of carbon monoxide molecules
(c) CuCO3(s) + HNO3(aq) → released.
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; 1 mol
(d) HCl(aq) + Na2S2O3(aq) → of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at r.t.p;
NaCl(aq) + SO2(g) + S(s) + H2O(l) NA = 6 1023 mol–1]
(e) Pb(NO3)2(s) ⎯⎯→ PbO(s) + NO2(g) + O2(g) 6 Zinc phosphide (Zn3P2) is used as a rat poison.
∆
This substance can be prepared by reacting excess
2 Write balanced equations for the following reactions: zinc powder with phosphorus.
(a) Reaction between sulphur dioxide and oxygen (a) Write a balance chemical equation for the
to form sulphur trioxide. reaction.
(b) Neutralisation reaction between potassium (b) Calculate the mass of phosphorus needed to
hydroxide and sulphuric acid to form react with the excess zinc to produce 51.4 kg
potassium sulphate and water. of zinc phosphide.
(c) Burning of ethane (C2H6) in air to form carbon [Relative atomic mass: P, 31; Zn, 65]
dioxide and water.

3.7 Scientific Attitudes and Values in Investigating Matter
1 In the 19th century, scientists introduced a to produce 2 mol of magnesium oxide, we
simple way to represent an element. need to burn 2 mol of magnesium in air.
Each element is represented by a letter or If we need to produce 1 mol of MgO (40 g),
two letters of the alphabet; the first letter is a then we have to burn 1 mol of Mg (24 g) in
capital letter and the second letter is a small air.
letter. For example, the reaction between Similarly, to produce 40 kg of MgO, the
carbon and oxygen to form carbon dioxide required amount of Mg needed is 24 kg.
can be represented by the following equation: Any excess amount of magnesium used is
considered a wastage.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) 5 The use of relative mass by scientists enabled
the mass of atoms and molecules to be
3
determined although they are too small to

2 The symbols of elements using letters of be measured by any weighing machines. The
the alphabet are universal in that they are development of the standard to be used in the
agreed upon by all scientists, regardless of the determination of relative atomic mass and
countries of origin. They become a tool of relative molecular mass started with the use
communication between chemists although of the hydrogen atom, followed by the oxygen
the spoken languages may be different. atom, and finally carbon-12 which is now
3 Many chemical reactions involve the formation used as the standard.
of compounds. However, the names of some 6 The Italian scientist, Amedeo Avogadro
compounds are long. This makes the writing proposed the hypothesis that equal volumes of
of equations in words cumbersome. all gases at the same temperature and pressure
For example, contain the same number of molecules. With
perseverance and ingenuity, he calculated that
Sulphuric acid + sodium hydroxide → 22.4 dm3 of any gas contains 6.02  1023
sodium sulphate + water particles at standard temperature and pressure.
The number of 6.02  1023 is now known as
To simplify the writing of the chemical Avogadro’s number or the Avogadro constant
equations, scientists used chemical formulae in honour of him.
to represent compounds. The above reaction 7 Some products can be produced by different
can then be represented by processes. For example, calcium oxide can be
produced by
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → (a) burning calcium in air:
Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s) or
(b) heating calcium carbonate:
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Thus the writing of chemical equations is
made easy. 8 The ideal process is one in which
4 In the formation of a desired product through (a) a high percentage yield is obtained.
a chemical reaction, it is important to calculate For example, a process which produces
the correct amount of reactants required so as 80% yield is superior to one which
to prevent wastage. This is made possible produces only 45% yield.
by the mole concept used by chemists in the The mole concept makes it possible to
quantitative calculations of chemical reactions. calculate the percentage yield.
For example, in the reaction between magnesium (b) the cost of reactants used is cheap.
and oxygen, In general, the cheaper the reactants, the
better the process is because the cost of
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO producing the product is lower. Thus, the
product can be priced competitively.

3.7
1 Write the chemical formulae for the following 2 Explain the meaning of the following chemical
compounds: equations:
(a) Hydrobromic acid (a) CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
(b) Zinc hydroxide (b) 2Mg(NO3)2(s) ⎯→ 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) +
∆
(c) Potassium nitrate O2(g)
(d) Sodium sulphate (c) H2(g) + PbO(s) → Pb(s) + H2O(l)
(e) Silver nitrate (d) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
(f) Magnesium chloride CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
3
1 The relative atomic mass of an element is the 6 The molar volume of a gas is the volume occupied
number of times one atom of the element is heavier by one mole of the gas.
than one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. At standard temperature and pressure, one mole of
2 The relative molecular mass of a compound is the gas occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3.
number of times one molecule of the compound is 7 The interconversion between mole, mass, volume
heavier than one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 and number of particles can be summarised
atom. below:
3 One mole is the quantity of substance which
contains the same number of particles as there are 3 RAM
in 12.00 grams of carbon-12.  22.4 dm3 or RMM
Number Mass in
4 One mole of element is the relative atomic mass Volume of gram
of the element expressed in gram. 3 22.4 dm3 moles  RAM
For example, or RMM
1 mol of C = 12 g
3 (6 3 1023)  (6 3 1023)
All contain
1 mol of Na = 23 g
6.02 3 1023 atoms
1 mol of S = 32 g
Number
5 One mole of compound is the relative molecular
of
mass of the compound expressed in grams. For
particles
example,
1 mol of H2O = 18 g
All contain
1 mol of CO2 = 44 g
6.02 3 1023 molecules
1 mol of C2H6 = 30 g

3
3.1 [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; 3.2

Relative Atomic Mass C, 12; O, 16] Relationship between the
and Relative Molecular A 136 Number of Moles and
Mass B 140 the Number of Particles
1 The relative formula mass of C 151 8 Which of the following samples
D 152
3
Mg(XO3)2 is 148. Determine the contain 3.0 3 1022 molecules?

relative atomic mass of element [Relative atomic mass: H,1;
X. [Relative atomic mass: O, 16; 5 Three elements are represented C, 12; N, 14; O,16; S, 32; 1 mol
Mg, 24] by the letters X, Y and Z. One contains 6 3 1023 molecules]
A 10 C 14 ’08 atom of Z is two times heavier I 0.9 g of H2O
B 12 D 18 than one atom of Y. One atom II 0.85 g of NH3
of Y is three times heavier than III 1.4 g of C2H4
2 A compound with formula
one atom of X. If the relative IV 1.6 g of SO2
M2S2O3.5H2O has a relative
atomic mass of X is 39, what is A I, II and III only
formula mass of 248.
the relative atomic mass of Z? B I, III and IV only
What is the relative atomic mass
A 78 C 195 C II, III and IV only
of M? [Relative atomic mass:
B 117 D 234 D I, II, III and IV
H, 1; O, 16; S, 32]
A 23 C 27 9 Calculate the number of molecules
B 24 D 39 6 Which compound in the table in 0.88 g of vitamin C, C6H8O6.
below is correctly matched with [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12;
3 Veronal is a barbiturate used
its relative formula mass? O, 16; NA = 6 3 1023 mol–1]
to induce sleep in psychiatric
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; A 3.0 3 1021
patients. The molecular formula
C, 12; N, 14; O, 16; Na, 23; B 3.0 3 1022
of veronal is C4H2N2O3(C2H5)2.
P, 31; S, 32; Cl, 35.5; Ca, 40; C 7.5 3 1021
Determine the relative molecular
Co, 59] D 7.5 3 1022
mass of veronal. [Relative
atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14; 10 Calculate the number of atoms
O, 16] Relative
Compound in 0.96 g of titanium.
A 160 C 186 formula mass
[Relative atomic mass: Ti, 48;
B 184 D 196 I Ca3(PO4)2 310 NA = 6 3 1023 mol–1]
4 The diagram shows the molecular A 1.2 3 1021
II C14H18N2O5 294 B 1.5 3 1021
structure of vanillin molecule
which gives vanilla its taste. III C17H35COONa 306 C 1.2 3 1022
D 1.5 3 1022
H O IV CoCl2.6H2O 170
11 Which of the following has the
C A I and III only most number of molecules?
| [Relative atomic mass: H, 1;
B II and IV only
H C H C, 12; O, 16; Br, 80]
C C D I, III and IV only A 3.6 g of water, H2O
B 4.0 g of methane, CH4
H
| C 19.6 g of sulphuric acid, H2SO4
7 Calculate how many beryllium
D 13.2 g of ethanoic acid,
C C–O–C–H atoms that will have the same
| CH3COOH
mass as one quinine molecule,
H C H C20H24N2O2 (an anti-malarial 12 The relative atomic mass of
| drug). [Relative atomic mass: oxygen and sulphur are 8 and
O–H H,1; Be,9; C,12; N,14; O,16] 32 respectively. Which of the
Determine the relative molecular A 35 C 37 following statements is/are true
mass of vanillin. B 36 D 38 about oxygen and sulphur?

I 4 g of oxygen and 8 g of A I and III only Calculate the number of moles
sulphur contain the same B I and IV only in 4.86 g allicin.
number of atoms. C II and III only [Relative atomic mass: H, 1;
II The sulphur atom has four D II and IV only C, 12; O, 16; S, 32]
times more neutrons than an A 0.02 mol C 0.03 mol
17 Calculate the mass of 7.5 3 1021
oxygen atom. aspirin, C9H8O4 molecules. B 0.025 mol D 0.05 mol
III The sulphur atom is four times [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; 23 Cocaine, C17H21O4N is a drug.
denser than the oxygen atom. C, 12; O, 16; NA = 6 3 1023 Calculate the mass of 1.2 3 1021
IV 8 g of oxygen contain two mol–1] cocaine molecules.
times more atoms than 8 g A 1.25 g C 2.25 g [Relative atomic mass: H, 1;
of sulphur. B 1.44 g D 3.00 g C, 12; N, 14; O, 16;
A I and III only
18 Caffeine is found in coffee beans. NA = 6 3 1023 mol–1]
B II and IV only
Its molecular formula is C4H5N2O. A 0.202 g C 0.404 g
C II and III only
A pill contains 0.05 mol of B 0.303 g D 0.606 g
D IV only
3
caffeine. Determine the mass
13 What is the total number of the compound in the pill. 3.4 Relationship between
of atoms present in 6.05 g [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; the Number of Moles of
dichlorodifluoromethane, CCl2F2. C, 12; N, 14; O, 16]
a Gas and Its Volume
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12; A 1.94 g C 4.85 g
F, 19; Cl, 35.5; NA = 6 3 1023 B 2.42 g D 9.70 g 24 1.0 g of calcium carbonate is
mol–1] added into excess hydrochloric
19 A cockroach repellent has the
A 1.2 3 1022 C 1.2 3 1023 formula CH3(CH2)5CHCHCHO. acid.
B 3.0 3 1022 D 1.5 3 1023 Determine the mass of CaCO3 + 2HCl →
0.02 mol of this substance. CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
14 Pyrethrin is an insecticide with
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; Determine the volume of
molecular formula of C19H26O3.
C, 12; O, 16] carbon dioxide gas evolved at
Calculate the number of
A 1.40 g C 3.50 g room temperature.
pyrethrin molecules contained
B 2.80 g D 5.60 g [Relative atomic mass: C, 12;
in a spray with 15.1 g of the
O, 16; Ca, 40; 1 mol of gas
compound. 20 Acetaminophen is a medicine
occupies a volume of 24 dm3
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; used to relieve pain. 0.0002
at r.t.p.]
C, 12; O, 16; NA = 6 3 1023 mol of acetaminophen has a
A 120 cm3 C 180 cm3
mol–1] mass of 0.0302 g. Which of
B 150 cm3 D 240 cm3
A 1.5 3 1022 C 1.5 3 1023 the following is the molecular
B 3.0 3 1022 D 3.0 3 1023 formula of acetaminophen? 25 Which of the following gases will
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; occupy the same volume as 2.42
15 If m is the number of atoms in C, 12; N, 14; O, 16] g dichlorodifluoromethane, CCl2F2?
3 g of carbon, the number of A C8H9NO2 C C8H9NO [Relative atomic mass: H, 1;
atoms in 3 g of magnesium in B C8H8NO2 D C8H9N2O C, 12; N, 14; O, 16; F, 19;
terms of m is [Relative atomic S, 32; Cl, 35.5]
21 Ethyl ethanoate is a liquid used
mass: C, 12; Mg, 24] I 0.34 g of ammonia, NH3
as nail varnish remover. If 0.025
1 II 0.88 g of carbon dioxide, CO2
A —m C m mol of ethyl ethanoate has a
2 mass of 2.20 g, determine the III 1.28 g of sulphur dioxide, SO2
1 relative molecular mass of ethyl IV 0.40 g of methane, CH4
B —m D 2m
3 ethanoate. A I, II and III only
A 44 C 77 B I, II and IV only
B 55 D 88 C I, III and IV only
3.3 Relationship between the D II, III and IV only
Number of Moles of a 22 The diagram shows the molecular
structure of allicin which is a 26 Which of the following gases
Substance and Its Mass
compound obtained from garlic. occupy a volume of 600 cm3 at
16 Which of the following Allicin have powerful antibiotic room temperature and pressure?
substances contain the same and antifungal properties. [Relative atomic mass: H, 1;
’09 number of atoms as in 36 gram C, 12; O, 16; S, 32; 1 mol of
O
of carbon? [Relative atomic i gas occupies a volume of 24
mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16; S, 32] C S C C dm3 r.t.p.]
I 3 g of hydrogen H H2 H2 I 0.64 g of oxygen, O2
II 64 g of sulphur C C S C II 0.75 g ethane, C2H6
III 18 g of water H2 H2 H III 0.56 g of carbon monoxide,
IV 22 g of carbon dioxide allicin CO

IV 1.15 g nitrogen dioxide, NO2 3.5 [Molar volume: 24 dm3 mol–1 at
Chemical Formulae
A I and III only room conditions; Relative atomic
B II and IV only 31 1.04 g of element X reacted mass: Zn, 65]
C I, II and III only with 0.48 g of oxygen to form an A 0.325 g
D II, III and IV only oxide with the empirical formula B 0.650 g
X2O3. Determine the relative C 0.975 g
27 Which of the following gases atomic mass of element X. D 4.333 g
has the heaviest mass at room
[Relative atomic mass: O, 16]
temperature and pressure?
A 24 C 52 37 0.31 gram of copper(II)
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1;
B 48 D 56 carbonate is heated. Determine
C, 12; N, 14; O, 16; S, 32;
the volume of carbon dioxide
1 mol of gas occupies a volume 32 When 3.64 g of a metal oxide
gas released at room conditions.
of 24 dm3 r.t.p.] of M is reduced, 2.04 g of the [Relative atomic mass: C, 12; O,
A 3 dm3 of sulphur dioxide, SO2 metal is obtained. 16; Cu, 64; Molar volume : 24
B 6 dm3 of nitrogen dioxide, NO2 Determine the empirical formula dm3 at room conditions]
3
C 15 dm3 of methane, CH4 of the metal oxide. A 60 cm3

D 96 dm3 of hydrogen, H2 [Relative atomic mass: O, 16; B 120 cm3
M, 51] C 240 cm3
28 Which of the following gases
A MO2 C M3O2 D 360 cm3
occupies the greatest volume at
B M2O3 D M2O5
room temperature and pressure?
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; 33 2.75 g of metal M combines 38 Calculate the mass of aluminium
C, 12; N, 14; O, 16; 1 mol of with 1.6 g of oxygen to form an oxide, Al2O3 formed if 5.4 g of
gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 ’10 oxide with the empirical formula aluminium is heated in air.
r.t.p.] of MO2. Determine the relative [Relative atomic mass: O, 16;
A 0.64 g oxygen, O2 atomic mass of M. K, 39]
B 0.70 g nitrogen, N2 [Relative atomic mass: O, 16] A 8.4 g
C 1.10 g carbon dioxide, CO2 A 48 C 55 B 8.6 g
D 0.51 g ammonia, NH3 B 52 D 56 C 10.2 g
D 11.8 g
29 What is the number of atoms in 34 x gram of antimony (Sb)
0.05 mol of ammonia gas, NH3? combines with 0.48 g of 39 Magnesium oxide reacts with
[Avogadro number : 6 3 1023 oxygen to form an oxide with nitric acid to form magnesium
mol–1] the empirical formula of Sb2O3. nitrate and water.
A 1.2 3 1022 Determine the value of x. If 8.0 g of magnesium oxide
B 3.0 3 1022 [Relative atomic mass: O, 16; is reacted with excess nitric
C 1.2 3 1023 Sb, 122] acid, calculate the mass of salt
D 3.0 3 1023 A 1.22 g formed.
B 2.44 g [Relative atomic mass: N, 14;
30 Which of the statements below
C 3.66 g O, 16; Cu, 64]
are true?
D 4.88 g A 14.8 g
I 1.10 g of CO2 and 1.25 g of
SO2 gases occupy the same 35 An element E forms a fluoride B 17.2 g
volume at s.t.p. compound with the formula C 20.4 g
II 0.42 g of N2 and 0.66 g of EF3, which contains 16.2 % of D 29.6 g
CO2 gases occupy the same E by mass. What is the relative
volume at s.t.p. atomic mass of E? 40 Iron reacts with chlorine
III 2.24 dm3 of C2H6 and 1.12 [Relative atomic mass; F, 19] according to the equation
dm3 of SO2 gases at s.t.p. A 11 ’09 below:
have the same mass. B 24 2Fe + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3
IV 4.48 dm3 of O2 and 8.96 C 27
dm3 of CH4 gases at s.t.p. D 31 If 1.68 gram of iron burns
have the same mass. completely in chlorine, calculate
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; the mass of product formed.
N, 14; O, 16; S, 32; 1 mol of 3.6 [Relative atomic mass: Cl, 35.5,
Chemical Equations
gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.] Fe, 56]
A I and III only 36 Calculate the mass of zinc A 2.438 g
B II and IV only required to react with excess B 4.875 g
C I, II and IV only ’09 nitric acid to produce 360 cm3 C 6.555 g
D II, III and IV only of hydrogen at room conditions. D 9.750 g

1 A hydrocarbon X contains 82.76% carbon by mass. (i) Determine the empirical formula of M oxide.
2.9 g of hydrocarbon X occupies a volume of 1.2 [2 marks]
’10 dm3 at room temperature and pressure. (ii) Write a chemical equation for the reduction
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16; 1 mol of of M oxide to metal M using hydrogen gas.
gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at r.t.p.; [2 marks]
NA = 6  1023 mol–1] (e) Can the empirical formula of magnesium oxide
(a) What is a hydrocarbon? [1 mark] be determined using the same arrangement of
(b) Determine the empirical formula of hydrocarbon apparatus as above? Explain your answer. [2 marks]
X. [2 marks]
3 Table 1 shows the positive and negative ions in three
(c)
Calculate the relative molecular mass of salt solutions.
hydrocarbon X. [2 marks] ’05
(d) Determine the molecular formula of hydrocarbon X. Name of salt Positive ion Negative ion
3
[2 marks] Copper(II) sulphate Cu2+
SO42–
(e) Combustion of X in air produces carbon dioxide
Potassium iodide K+ I–
and water. Write a chemical equation for the
reaction. [2 marks] Lead(II) nitrate Pb2+ NO3–
(f) If 11.6 g of X is burnt, calculate Table 1
(i) the mass of water formed. [1 mark]
(ii) the number of carbon dioxide molecules (a) What is another name for a positively-charged
produced at room temperature. [1 mark] ion? [1 mark]
(b) Write the formula of lead(II) nitrate. [1 mark]
2 The apparatus shown is used to determine the
empirical formula of the oxide of metal M by reducing (c) When aqueous lead(II) nitrate solution is added
’07 the metal oxide with dry hydrogen gas. to aqueous potassium iodide solution, a yellow
[Relative atomic mass: O, 16; M, 55] precipitate is formed.
(i) Write a chemical equation for the reaction.
[2 marks]
(ii) Describe the chemical equation in (i).
[1 mark]
(iii) Name the yellow precipitate. [1 mark]
(iv) If 0.04 mol of aqueous potassium iodide
solution is added to excess lead(II) nitrate
solution, calculate the maximum mass of
Diagram 1
the yellow precipitate formed. [Relative
(a) State one precaution that must be taken when atomic mass: I, 127; Pb, 207] [2 marks]
carrying out the experiment. [1 mark] 4 Table 2 shows the descriptions and observations of
(b) How can you ensure that all the oxide of metal two experiments, I and II.
M has been reduced? [1 mark] ’05
(c) (i) Name two chemicals used to prepare Experiment Description Observation
hydrogen gas in the laboratory. [1 mark] I Combustion Magnesium burns
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction in (i). of 1.2 g of brightly and a
[1 mark] magnesium white powder is
(iii) Name a chemical used to dry hydrogen gas. powder in formed
[1 mark] excess oxygen
(d) The information below shows the results of the II Heating Black solid X is
experiment: copper(II) formed and a
carbonate gas P which turns
Mass of combustion tube + asbestos paper strongly in a limewater cloudy
= 39.25 g test tube is evolved
Mass of combustion tube + asbestos paper +
oxide of metal M before heating = 47.95 g Table 2
Mass of combustion tube + asbestos paper + [Relative atomic mass: C, 12; O, 16; Mg, 24; Cu, 64;
metal M after heating = 44.75 g 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at room
temperature and pressure]

(a) Based on Experiment I: (a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the
(i) The white powder formed is magnesium decomposition of sodium bicarbonate on heating.
oxide. Write the chemical equation for the [2 marks]
reaction that takes place. [2 marks] (b) State a chemical test for carbon dioxide gas.
(ii) Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide [2 marks]
formed if 3 g of magnesium is completely (c) If 8.4 g of sodium bicarbonate decomposes,
burnt in excess oxygen. [2 marks]
calculate
(iii) State one use of magnesium oxide. [1 mark] (i) the volume of carbon dioxide gas envolved
(iv) The magnesium oxide is basic and reacts at room temperature and pressure. [3 marks]
with nitric acid (HNO3) to form magnesium (ii) the mass of sodium carbonate formed.
nitrate and water. Write a chemical equation [3 marks]
for this reaction. [2 marks] [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16;
(b) Based on Experiment II: Na, 23; 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of
(i) Name the black solid X and gas P formed 24 dm3 at room temperature and pressure]
3
when copper(II) carbonate is heated strongly. (d) Sodium bicarbonate reacts with nitric acid (HNO3) to
[2 marks] form sodium nitrate, carbon dioxide and water.
(ii) Write the chemical equation for the reaction (i) Write a balanced chemical equation for this
that takes place. [1 mark] reaction. [2 marks]
(iii) If 6.2 g of copper(II) carbonate had reacted, (ii) Calculate the mass of sodium bicarbonate
calculate that reacts with the excess acid to produce
(a) the mass of solid X formed. [1 mark] 17 g of sodium nitrate. [3 marks]
(b) the volume of gas P formed at room (iii) State one use of sodium nitrate. [2 marks]
temperature and pressure. [1 mark] [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14;
O, 16; Na, 23]
5 When sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) is heated, it (e) (i) Name another chemical that reacts with
decomposes to sodium carbonate, carbon dioxide nitric acid to form sodium nitrate. [1 mark]
and water. (ii) Write an equation for this reaction. [2 marks]
Essay Questions
1 (a) Using a suitable example, explain the meaning of (d) Describe a laboratory method of determining
the following terms: the empirical formula of lead oxide. Your answer
(i) Empirical formula [2 marks] should include
(ii) Molecular formula [2 marks] (i) the procedure of the experiment [4 marks]
(b) State a suitable method that can be used to (ii) tabulation of result [3 marks]
determine the empirical formula of lead(II) oxide. (iii) calculation of the results obtained. [4 marks]
[2 marks] [Relative atomic mass: O, 16; Pb, 207]
(c) Can the same method in (b) be used to
determine the empirical formula of magnesium
oxide? Explain your answer. [3 marks]
Experiment
1 You are required to plan an experiment to determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide.
Your explanation should include the following:
(a) Statement of the problem
(b) All the variables
(c) List of materials and apparatus
(d) Procedure
(e) Tabulation of data [17 marks]

CHAPTER FORM 4
4
Periodic Table of Elements

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 1
Number of questions 4 — – – 1 3 — – – – 3 1 – – 1 6 1 – – –
2 4
ONCEPT MAP
PERIODIC TABLE
Historical development of the Transition elements

Periodic Table
J. W. Dobereiner Metallic Special

John Newlands properties characteristics
Lothar Meyer of transition of transition
Dmitri Mendeleev elements elements
Henry G. J. Moseley
Group Period
Physical and chemical properties Identifying the group and period of • Changes in the properties of
of elements in: an element based on the electron the elements and their oxides
Group 1 arrangement of the element across Period 3
Group 17 • Uses of semi-metals such as
Inert property and uses of silicon and germanium in the
Group 18 elements microelectronics industry
3 This systematic method of classification of the
4.1 Periodic Table of elements will enable us to
Elements (a) study and generalise the chemical and
physical properties of elements in the
Historical Development of the Periodic same group.
Table (b) predict the position of an element in the
Periodic Table from its properties.
1 Many of the elements known today were disco (c) identify and compare elements from
vered from the years 1800 to 1900. Chemists different groups.
noted that certain elements have similar chemi (d) predict the chemical and physical proper
cal properties. For example: chlorine, bromine ties of new elements in the same group.
and iodine; potassium and sodium; magnesium 4 Chemists such as Lavoisier, Dobereiner,
and calcium have similar chemical properties. Newlands, Meyer, Mendeleev and Moseley
4
2 Chemists then tried to group the elements with contributed to the development of the
the same chemical properties together. This led Periodic Table in use today.
to the development of the Periodic Table.
Contribution of Scientists to the Development of the Periodic Table
Antoine Lavoisier
1 Antoine Lavoisier, a Frenchman, was the first chemist who attempted to
classify the elements into four groups as in Table 4.1.
2 The four groups consisted of gases, metals, non-metals and metal oxides.
3 His classification was not accurate as light and heat, which are not elements,
were included. Furthermore, some elements in each group did not have the
same chemical properties.
Table 4.1 Lavoisier’s Periodic Table
Antoine Lavoisier
Group I Group II Group III Group IV
(1743–1794)
Oxygen Sulphur Arsenic Calcium oxide
Nitrogen Phosphorus Bismuth Barium oxide
Hydrogen Carbon Cobalt Silicon(IV) oxide
Light Chlorine Lead Magnesium oxide
Heat Fluorine Zinc, Nickel, Tin, Silver Aluminium oxide
Johann W. Dobereiner
1 Dobereiner classified the elements with the same chemical properties into
groups of three called triads.
2 Dobereiner discovered the Example:
relationship between the relative Element in the Relative atomic
atomic mass (r.a.m.) of elements in triad mass (r.a.m.)
each triad. He found that the r.a.m.
of the element in the middle of each Lithium (Li) 7
triad is approximately equal to the Sodium (Na) 23
average of the total r.a.m. of the Potassium (K) 39 Johann W. Dobereiner
other two elements. Average of the total r.a.m. of Li and K is (1780–1849)
3 However, this relationship did
7 + 39
not apply to most of the other ⎯⎯⎯ = 23
elements. 2
Periodic Table of Elements 68

John Newlands
1 John Newlands arranged the elements in order of increasing nucleon number
(mass number) in horizontal rows. Each row consisted of seven elements.
2 He found that the chemical properties of every eighth element are similar.
This was known as the law of octaves.
3 Table 4.2 shows the arrangement of elements by John Newlands.
Table 4.2 The classification of elements by Newlands (law of octaves)
Li Be B C N O F
John Newlands
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl (1837–1898)
K Ca
4
4 The classification of elements by Newlands was not successful because:
(a) The law of octaves was only accurate for the first 16 elements (from Li to Ca).
(b) There were no positions allocated for elements yet to be discovered.
5 Nevertheless, Newlands was the first scientist who discovered the existence of periodicity in the
elements.
Lothar Meyer SPM

’09/P1
1 Meyer, a German chemist, Volume of an atom

calculated the volume of
an atom of an element mass of one mole-atom of the element
= ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
using the formula: density of the element
2 He plotted a graph of
volume of atoms of elements against their relative atomic masses. The
graph obtained is shown in Figure 4.1.
Lothar Meyer
(1830–1895)
Figure 4.1 Lothar Meyer’s atomic volume curve
3 From the shape of the atomic volume curve, Meyer showed that elements occupying the
corresponding positions of the curve exhibit similar chemical properties. For example:
(a) Li, Na, K and Rb which are located at the peak of the curve show similar chemical properties.
(b) Be, Mg, Ca and Sr which are located at positions after the maximum points also show similar
chemical properties.
4 Just like Newlands, Meyer showed that the properties of the elements recur periodically.
69 Periodic Table of Elements

Dmitri Mendeleev
1 Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, arranged the elements in order of
increasing atomic mass.
2 Table 4.3 below shows the Periodic Table suggested by Mendeleev.
Table 4.3 The partial Periodic Table by Mendeleev
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 H
2 Li Be B C N O F
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
Dmitri Mendeleev
4 K Ca () Ti V Cr Mn Fe, Co, Ni (1834–1907)
4
5 Cu Zn () () As Se Br
6 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo () Ru, Rh, Pd
( ) represents unknown elements yet to be discovered
3 Dmitri Mendeleev was more successful for several reasons.
(a) First, he left gaps for elements yet to be discovered. He even used the table to predict the
existence and properties of undiscovered elements. Mendeleev correctly predicted the properties
of the elements gallium, scandium and germanium which were only discovered much later.
(b) Secondly, although the elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic mass, he changed
the order of the elements if the chemical properties are not similar.
Henry G. J. Moseley
1 Moseley was a British physicist. He bombarded different elements with high
energy electrons and measured the frequency (f) of the X-ray emitted by the
element.
2 He then plotted the square-root of the frequency of the X-ray ( ⎯
f ) against
the proton number (atomic number) of the element and obtained a straight
line graph (Figure 4.2).
3 Thus from the square-root of the frequency of the X-ray emitted by an
unknown element, he could determine its proton number.
4 After obtaining the proton number of the elements, Moseley went on to
Henry G. J. Moseley
arrange the elements in the Periodic Table in order of increasing proton (1887–1915)
number (atomic number).
5 Just like Mendeleev did, Moseley left gaps ( ) for elements yet to be
discovered. He reasoned that there should be an element corresponding to
each proton number.
6 Moseley successfully predicted the existence of four undiscovered elements
from the atomic numbers. These elements were later determined to be
technetium, promethium, hafnium and rhenium. With this prediction,
Moseley was able to prove the separate existence of each element in the
lanthanide series. Figure 4.2
Modern Periodic Table

1 There are 117 discovered elements now. Most of 2 In the modern Periodic Table, the elements
these elements are naturally occurring elements. are arranged in order of increasing proton
However, a few of these elements are made number. This order is also related to the
artificially in nuclear reactors. electron arrangement of the elements.

3 The Periodic Table is a classification of (b) Periods 2 and 3 have eight elements each.
elements whereby elements with the same The first three periods are called the short
chemical properties are placed in the same periods.
group. This makes the study of the chemistry (c) Periods 4 and 5 have 18 elements each.
of these elements easier and more systematic. They are called the long periods.
4 The modern Periodic Table is shown on page (d) Period 6 has 32 elements. Not all the
78. elements can be listed on the same
5 The vertical columns of the Periodic Table horizontal row. The elements with proton
are called groups. There are 18 groups in the numbers 58 to 71 are separated and are
Periodic Table. grouped below the Periodic Table. These
6 Each member of a group shows similar elements are called the Lanthanide Series.
chemi cal properties although their physical (e) Period 7 has 31 elements and not all can
properties such as density, melting point and be listed on the same horizontal row. The
4
colour may show a gradual change when elements with proton numbers 90 to 103
descending the group. are grouped below the Periodic Table.
• Group 1 elements (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) are They are called the Actinide Series.
called alkali metals.
• Group 2 elements (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra)
The Electron Arrangement of Elements in the
are called alkaline earth metals.
• Group 17 elements (F, Cl, Br, I, At) are Periodic Table
called halogens.
• Group 18 elements (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) 1 Table 4.4 shows the electron arrangement of
are called noble gases. the elements with proton numbers 1–20.
7 A block of elements called the transition 2 All members of the same group have the
elements separates Group 2 and Group 13. same number of valence electrons. Valence
(a) The elements in Groups 1, 2, 13 and the electrons are electrons in the outermost shell.
transition elements are metals. For example:
(b) The elements in Groups 15, 16 and 17 are (a) Group 1 elements (Li, Na, K) each has
non-metals. one valence electron.
(c) Group 14 consists of non-metals at the (b) Group 2 elements (Be, Mg, Ca) each has
top of the group, followed by semi-metals two valence electrons.
(or metalloids) and metals lower down in (c) Group 17 elements (F, Cl, Br, I, At) each
the group. has seven valence electrons.
8 The horizontal rows are called periods. There 3 (a) The number of valence electrons of Group
are seven periods. 1 and Group 2 elements is the same as its
(a) Period 1 has two elements only: hydrogen group number.
and helium.
SPM
’11/P1,
Table 4.4 The electron arrangement of the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table P2
Group
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Period
1 H He
1 2
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8
4 K Ca
2.8.8.1 2.8.8.2

(b) Except for helium, the elements with more 3
than 2 valence electrons (Groups 13 to
18), the group number = 10 + (number of The proton number of element X is 20. Which of
valence electrons). the following statements are true concerning the
4 The period number is indicated by the number element X?
SPM of filled electron shells. For example: I X can conduct electricity.
’05/P2
(a) Elements in Period 1 (H and He) each II X belongs to Group 2 of the Periodic Table.
has only one electron shell filled with III X belongs to Period 4 of the Periodic Table.
electrons. IV X belongs to Period 3 of the Periodic Table.
(b) Elements in Period 2 (Li, Be, B, C, N, O, A II and III only
F, Ne) each has two electron shells filled B II and IV only
with electrons. C I, II and III only
(c) Elements in Period 3 (Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, D I, II and IV only
4
S, Cl, Ar) each has three electron shells Comment

filled with electrons.
X has 20 electrons. The electronic configuration of
(d) Elements in Period 4 (K and Ca) each has
X is 2.8.8.2.
four electron shells filled with electrons.
X belongs to Group 2 of the Periodic Table because
5 All elements in the same period have the same
it has two valence electrons. (II is correct)
number of filled electron shells.
Group 2 elements are metals and can conduct
electricity. (I is correct)
1 ’05
X belongs to Period 4 of the Periodic Table because
Which of the following represents the electron it has four electron shells filled with electrons. (III
arrangement of an element in Group 17? is correct, IV is incorrect)
A B C D Answer C
Answer D (The element has seven valence electrons) Element Q R S

Electron
2.8.6 2.8.8 2
arrangement
2 ’03
Determine the group in which Q, R and S belong to
In the Periodic Table, Y is below Z in the same in the Periodic Table.
group. If the proton number of atom Z is 11, what is
the electron arrangement of atom Y ? Solution
A 2.2 C 2.8.3 For elements with one or two valence electrons,
B 2.7 D 2.8.8.1
Group number = Number of valence electrons
Comment
In an atom, the number of protons is equal to the For elements with more than two valence electrons,
number of electrons.
Thus Z has 11 electrons. The electron arrangement Group number = 10 + Number of valence electrons
of Z is 2.8.1.
The elements in the same group have the same Therefore element Q belongs to Group 16 and
number of valence electrons. element R belongs to Group 18 of the Periodic
Therefore the electron arrangement of Y is 2.8.8.1 Table. S has two electrons in the first electron shell.
because each atom of Y and Z has one valence It is helium and belongs to Group 18 of the Periodic
electron. Table.
Answer D

1 ’04
Element Q R T X Z Element Q R T X Z
Proton Electron
3 15 18 19 35 2.1 2.8.5 2.8.8 2.8.8.1 2.8.18.7
number arrangement
The proton numbers of elements Q, R, T, X and Z Comment

are given in the table above. Which of the following Elements Q and X belong to the same group in the
statements are true? Periodic Table because they have the same number
I Elements Q and X belong to the same group in of valence electrons. (Statement I is correct)
the Periodic Table. Element T belongs to Period 3 (it has 3 electron
II Elements T and X belong to the same period. shells), whereas element X belongs to Period 4 (it
4
III Elements Q and X are metals. has four electron shells). (Statement II is wrong)
IV Elements R and Z are non-metals. Elements in Groups 1, 2 and 13 have one, two
A I and III only and three valence electrons and they are metals.
B II and IV only (Statement III is correct)
C I, III and IV only Elements with five, six, seven or eight valence
D II, III and IV only electrons are non-metals. (Statement IV is correct)
Answer C
4.1
1 Explain the term valence electrons. 3 Arsenic is represented by the symbol 75
33
As. In which
State the number of valence electrons of the group and period does arsenic belong to in the
elements in the following groups in the Periodic Periodic Table? Name two elements that have the
Table. same chemical properties as arsenic. Explain your
(a) Group 1 answer.
(b) Group 2 4 The following table shows the proton numbers of 10
(c) Group 15 elements represented by the letters A to K:
(d) Group 17
2 Element A B C D E F G H J K
Element W X Y Z
Proton number 2 9 13 19 18 16 7 20 17 6
Electron
2.8.5 2.1 2.8.8.3 2.8.18.32.18.7
arrangement Electron
arrangement
The table shows the electron arrangement of four
elements. Group number
(a) State the group of each element: Period number
(i) W
(ii) X (a) Write the electron arrangement of each element.
(iii) Y Then state the group number and period
(iv) Z number of each element.
(b) State the period of each element: (b) Pick a pair of elements which have the same
(i) W (ii) X (iii) Y (iv) Z chemical properties.

4.2 Group 18 Elements ’05
General
He • The noble gases are also known as the inert gases.

Ne They are elements of Group 18, at the far right of the
Ar Periodic Table (Figure 4.3).
Kr • The group consists of six elements: helium (He), neon
Xe (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon
Rn (Rn).
• The atomic radius of the noble gases increases down
Figure 4.3 The elements of Group 18 in the the group. This is because as the number of filled
Periodic Table
electron shells increases down the group, the valence
4
electron is further from the nucleus.
Physical Properties
Physical properties of noble gases: This is because as the size of the atoms increases
• All noble gases are insoluble in water and do down the group, the van der Waals forces of
not conduct electricity or heat. attraction become stronger.
• All noble gases have low melting points and • The noble gases have very low densities. This is
low boiling points. This is because the noble because the atoms are very far apart. The density
gases exist as monatoms which are attracted by of the noble gases increases when descending
very weak van der Waals forces of attraction. the group. This is due to the increase in the
The melting points and boiling points of the relative atomic mass of the element.
noble gases increase when descending the group.
Chemical properties
Chemical properties of noble gases: stable duplet electron arrangement.
• Noble gases are chemically inert which means – The other noble gases have eight electrons in
that they are unreactive in nature. They do not their outermost electron shells. They are said
react with any other elements. to have attained the stable octet electron
• Noble gases are the only elements which exists arrangement.
as monatoms (as single atoms). • Therefore the noble gases do not need to
• Noble gases are unreactive because they all accept, donate or share electrons with other
have filled outer shells of electrons which are elements.
a stable electron arrangement. (All chemical reactions involve either gaining,
– Helium has only one filled electron shell and losing or sharing electrons.)
it has exactly two electrons in this outermost
electron shell. It is said to have attained the
Table 4.5 The proton numbers, relative atomic mass, electron arrangement and physical properties of inert gases
Proton Relative atomic Electron Atomic Melting Boiling point Density
Element
number mass arrangement radius (nm) point (°C) (°C) (g dm–3 )
He 2 4 2 0.06 –270 –269 0.17
Ne 10 20 2.8 0.07 –248 –246 0.84
Ar 18 40 2.8.8 0.094 –189 –186 1.66
Kr 36 84 2.8.18.8 0.109 –156 –152 3.54
Xe 54 131 2.8.18.18.8 0.130 –112 –107 5.45
Rn 86 222 2.8.18.32.18.8 – –71 –62 –

2 ’04
4.2
1 2P, 11Q, 13R, 18S, 20T.
A car distributor wants to use colourful electric
The above is a set of elements with their proton
lamps to attract customers. Which of the following
numbers. Choose two elements that exist as
substances A, B, C or D in the Periodic Table is monatomic gases. Explain your answer.
suitable for use in the lamps?
2 Inert gases are the elements of Group 18 of the
Periodic Table. Name two inert gases and state
one use of each.
3 All the inert gases have low melting and boiling
points. Explain why as we go down Group 18, the
Comment melting points and boiling points increase.
B is neon gas. Neon-filled electric bulbs produce
4
an attractive bright red light which is used in 4 One of the characteristics of Group 18 gases is that
advertising. they exist as monatoms. Explain why neon does
not form compounds with other elements.
Answer B
4.3 Group 1 Elements
General
• Group 1 elements are also known as the alkali metals.
• The elements in Group 1 are lithium (Li), sodium
(Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs)
and francium (Fr).
• All Group 1 elements are soft metals. The metals are
grey in colour and are silvery when the surface is freshly
Figure 4.4 The elements of Group 1 in the cut, before being exposed to air.
Periodic Table
Physical Properties
Physical properties of Group 1 elements: between the atoms becomes weaker down the
• All Group 1 elements are metals; hence they group as the atomic radius increases.
are good conductors of heat and electricity. • The electropositivity of the metals increases
• The atomic radius increases down the group. down the group. Electropositivity is a measurement
The reason is that as the number of filled of the ability of an atom to lose an electron
electron shells increases when descending and form a positive ion.
the group, the distance between the outermost
electron shell and the nucleus increases. M → M+ + e– (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)
• The density increases down the group. The
densities of Li, Na and K is lower than that As the atomic radius becomes larger down
of water, and hence these metals can float on the group, the force of attraction between
water. the nucleus and the single valence electron
• The melting point decreases when descending becomes weaker. Hence the elements lose
the group. This is because the metallic bond the single valence electron more easily when
descending the group.

SPM
Reactivity ’07/P2, ’11/P2
Reactivity of Group 1 elements

• All Group 1 elements are very reactive. The M(s) → M+ + e– (M = Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)
reactivity increases down the group. Li(s) → Li+ + e–
• The elements in Group 1 have one valence 2.1 2
electron each. During a chemical reaction, Na(s) → Na+ + e– reactivity increases
an atom of a Group 1 element will donate a 2.8.1 2.8
valence electron to form a univalent positive K(s) → K+ + e–
ion to attain the stable duplet or octet in its 2.8.8.1 2.8.8
electron arrangement.
• The reactivity of Group 1 elements depends on how easily it can donate its valence electron. The
atomic radius of Group 1 elements increases down the group. This causes the force of attraction
4
between the nucleus and the valence electron to become weaker, making it easier for a metal
lower in the group to donate its valence electron. Therefore, the reactivity of Group 1 elements
increases when descending the group.
Chemical Properties
Chemical properties of Group 1 elements – cold water to produce hydrogen gas and
• The elements in Group 1 have the same chemical alkalis,
properties because each has one valence – oxygen to produce metal oxides,
electron. – halogen to produce metal halides.
• Group 1 elements react with
SPM
Table 4.6 Some physical properties of Group 1 elements ’06/P2, ’08/P1
Electron Atomic Density Electrical Melting

Element Colour Electropositivity
arrangement radius (nm) (g dm–3) conductivity point (°C)
Li Silvery 2.1 0.15 0.53 Conductor 181 ⏐
Na Silvery 2.8.1 0.16 0.97 Conductor 98 ⏐
K Silvery 2.8.8.1 0.23 0.86 Conductor 63 ⏐
⏐
Increases
Ru Silvery 2.8.18.8.1 0.25 1.53 Conductor 39
⏐
Cs Silvery 2.8.18.18.8.1 0.26 1.87 Conductor 29 ⏐
Fr Silvery 2.8.18.32.18.8.1 0.29 – Conductor 27 ↓
4.1
To study the reaction of alkali metals with oxygen

Problem statement Variables
How do lithium, sodium and potassium differ in (a) Manipulated variable : The alkali metals used
reactivity with oxygen? (b) Responding variable : Reactivity of the metals
Experiment 4.1
with oxygen
Hypothesis (c) Constant variable : Excess supply of oxygen
The alkali metals show similar chemical properties in and the size of the metal
their reactions with oxygen but the reactivity of the piece used
Materials
alkali metals with oxygen increases down the group
(in the order from lithium, sodium to potassium). Small pieces of Li, Na and K metals, oxygen gas,
filter paper and phenolphthalein indicator.

Apparatus 3 The lithium metal is heated until its starts to burn.
The spoon is then put into a gas jar containing
Pen knife, tongs, gas jar with cover, gas jar spoon and
oxygen gas.
Bunsen burner.
4 The observation is recorded.
5 After the reaction has stopped, about 20 cm3
Safety precautions
of water is added to the gas jar. The gas jar is
Alkali metals, especially sodium and potassium, are shaken so that the product of the combustion is
very reactive. Therefore we have to dissolved in the water. The solution is tested with
(a) use small pieces of each metal. a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator. The
(b) use goggles while carrying out the experiment. observation is recorded.
(c) ensure that we do not handle the metal with our 6 The experiment is repeated using sodium and
bare hands. potassium metals.
Procedure
4
1 A piece of lithium metal is removed from the
bottle with tongs. A small piece of the metal is
cut using a pen knife. A piece of filter paper is
used to absorb the paraffin oil from the piece of
metal.
2 The lithium metal is then transferred onto a gas Figure 4.5 Reaction of Group 1 metals with
jar spoon using tongs. oxygen
Results
Metal Observation
Lithium The lithium metal burns with a red flame forming a white metal oxide. The metal oxide
dissolves in water producing a solution which turns phenolphthalein indicator red.
Sodium The sodium metal burns with a bright yellow flame forming a white metal oxide. The metal
oxide dissolves in water producing a solution which turns phenolphthalein indicator red.
Potassium The potassium metal burns with a very bright purplish flame forming a white metal oxide.
The metal oxide dissolves in water producing a solution which turns phenolphthalein indicator
red.
Discussion
1 Alkali metals burn in oxygen to form white The presence of hydroxide ions, OH– causes the
metal oxides solution to be alkaline.
SPM
4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s) Reactivity
⎯⎯→
’11/P1
4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s) Conclusion

increases down
4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s) the group All alkali metals burn in oxygen gas to produce
white metal oxides. Group 1 elements show similar
2 These metal oxides dissolve in water to form chemical properties. Their reactivity increases down
alkaline solutions which turn phenolphthalein the group from lithium, sodium to potassium.
indicator red.
4M(s) + O2(g) → 2M2O(s),
Li2O(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq)
Na2O(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) where M = Group 1 element.
K2O(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq)


4

SPM
4.2 ’05/P2
’08/P3
’09/P1
’10/P3
To study the reaction of alkali metals with water

Problem statement
How do lithium, sodium and potassium differ in
reactivity with water? Figure 4.8 Reaction of
potassium with water
Hypothesis
Results
The alkali metals show similar chemical properties
in their reactions with water but the reactivity of Metal Observation
alkali metals with water increases down the group Lithium The lithium metal moves slowly on
(in the order from lithium, sodium to potassium). the surface of the water (Figure 4.6).
4
Variables A colourless solution is produced. This
solution turns red litmus paper blue.
(a) Manipulated variable : The alkali metals used
Sodium The sodium metal moves at a fast
(b) Responding variable : Reactivity of the metal
speed on the surface of the water with
with water
a ‘hissing’ sound. It is ignited during
(c) Constant variable : Size of alkali metal and the reaction and burns with a yellow
the temperature of water flame (Figure 4.7). A colourless
Materials solution is obtained. This solution
Small pieces of lithium, sodium and potassium turns red litmus paper blue.
metals, basin filled with water, filter paper and red Potassium The potassium metal moves at a very
litmus paper. fast speed on the surface of the water.
It is ignited during the reaction and
Apparatus burns with a purple flame with a
Pen knife and tongs. ‘pop’ sound (Figure 4.8). A colourless
solution is obtained. This solution
Procedure turns red litmus paper blue.
1 A piece of lithium metal is removed from the
bottle. A small piece of the metal is cut using Discussion
a pen knife. A piece of filter paper is used to 1 Alkali metals are reactive with water and can
absorb the paraffin oil from the piece of metal. SPM displace hydrogen from water. They react with
2 The lithium metal is then dropped into a basin of ’11/P2
water to produce hydrogen gas and aqueous
water carefully using a pair of tongs. solutions of metal hydroxides.
3 The observation is recorded.
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) →
4 The solution formed in the basin is tested with a
2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
piece of red litmus paper. Reactivity
5 The experiment is repeated using small pieces of 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) →
increases down
sodium and potassium metals. 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
the group
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) →
2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
2 The metal hydroxides are alkaline and turn the
colour of red litmus paper blue.
Figure 4.6 Reaction of Conclusion
lithium with water 1 Elements of Group 1 have similar chemical
Experiment 4.2
properties. All of them react with cold water to

produce an alkaline solution and hydrogen gas.
2M(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2MOH(aq) + H2(g),
where M = Group 1 element.
Figure 4.7 Reaction of 2 The reactivity increases down the group from
sodium with water lithium, sodium to potassium.

react vigorously with water forming hydrogen gas
and alkali solutions. If the size of the metal is
When the Group 1 elements react with water they give quite large, it will ignite and start to burn giving
off hydrogen gas. The heat generated by the chemical out ‘pop’ sounds.
reaction sets the hydrogen gas alight and it burns with When carrying out an experiment on the reaction
a coloured flame. Sodium burns with a yellow flame. of alkali metals with water, we must ensure that
no flammable organic solvents are nearby because
the fire from the burning alkali metals can spread
Safety Precaution to be Taken When to the organic solvents.
Handling Alkali Metals Therefore alkali metals must be kept in paraffin
oil in bottles to prevent them from reacting with
Alkali metals are extremely reactive. With the water.
exception of lithium, the rest of the alkali metals
4
4.3 SPM
’09/P1
To study the reaction of alkali metals with halogens

Problem statement Results
How do lithium, sodium and potassium differ in Metal Observation
reactivity with chlorine gas?
Lithium Lithium burns slowly with a reddish
Hypothesis
flame. A white solid is obtained.
The alkali metals show similar chemical properties
in their reactions with chlorine but the reactivity of Sodium Sodium burns brightly with a
alkali metals with chlorine increases down the group yellowish flame. A white solid is
(in the order from lithium, sodium and potassium). obtained.
Variables
Potassium Potassium burns very brightly with
(a) Manipulated variable : The alkali metals used
a purplish flame. A white solid is
(b) Responding variable : Reactivity of the metal
obtained.
with chlorine
(c) Constant variable : Supply of chlorine gas and
size of metal pieces used Discussion
1 All alkali metals react with chlorine gas to
Materials form white metal chlorides
Small pieces of lithium, sodium and potassium The reactivity of the metal increases down the
metals chlorine gas and filter paper. group from Li, Na to K.
⎯⎯⎯→
Apparatus 2Li(s) + Cl2(g) → 2LiCl(s) Reactivity

Pen knife, tongs, gas jar with cover, gas jar spoon 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s) increases down
and Bunsen burner. 2K(s) + Cl2(g) → 2KCl(s) the group
Procedure 2 If the experiments are repeated using bromine gas,
1 A small piece of lithium is cut and the paraffin the brown colour of bromine gas will disappear
oil on it is blotted using filter paper. and white metal bromides will be formed.
2 The lithium metal is then transferred onto a gas
2Li(s) + Br2(g) → 2LiBr(s) Reactivity
⎯⎯→
jar spoon using tongs.

Experiment 4.3
2Na(s) + Br2(g) → 2NaBr(s) increases down

3 The lithium metal is heated until it starts to burn.
2K(s) + Br2(g) → 2KBr(s) the group
The spoon is then put into a gas jar containing
chlorine gas. 3 Similarly, Group 1 elements will react with
4 The observation is recorded. iodine vapour to produce white metal iodides.
5 The experiment is repeated using sodium and The purple colour of iodine vapour will
potassium metals. disappear in the reactions.

4 Generally, all alkali metals react with halogens
to produce metal halides. 2M(s) + Cl2(g) → 2MCl(s)
2M(s) + X2(g) → 2MX(s) where M = Group 1 elements
where M = Group 1 elements, X = halogen.
2 The reactivity increases down the group from
Conclusion
lithium, sodium to potassium.
1 Elements of Group 1 have similar chemical
properties. All react with chlorine to produce
white metal chlorides.
Comment
3 ’05
Element Electron arrangement
4
An atom of element X has three electron filled
X 2.8.1
shells. When element X reacts with chlorine, it forms
a compound with the formula XCl. Which of the Y 2.8.8.1
following is element X?
[Proton number of Li, 3; Na, 11; Mg, 12; K, 19] The atomic radius of Y is larger than X. Hence Y
A Lithium C Magnesium can donate its valence electron more easily than X.
B Sodium D Potassium Thus Y is more reactive. (I is correct)
Both X and Y have one valence electron. Both are
Comment alkali metals which can conduct electricity.
Alkali metals react with chlorine to form metal (II and III correct)
chloride with formula XCl. Alkali metals react with water to form metal
X is sodium because sodium has three electron hydroxides and hydrogen gas. (IV is incorrect)
shells. Answer A
Answer B
4.3
4 ’03 1 Imagine that a new element is discovered. It is
named Pentium (Pn) and is below sodium metal
The table below shows the proton numbers of two in Group 1 of the Periodic Table.
elements: (a) Predict three physical and three chemical
properties of pentium.
Element Proton number (b) Which is more reactive, pentium or sodium?
X 11 Explain your answer.
2 List the alkali metals in order of decreasing reactivity.
Y 19
3 How do each of the following properties of alkali
metals change as we go down the group?
Which of the following statements are true?
(a) Melting point
I Y is more reactive than X. (b) Density
II Both X and Y can conduct electricity. (c) Hardness
III Both X and Y are in the same group of the (d) Chemical reactivity
Periodic Table. 4 When a piece of burning sodium metal is placed in
IV Both X and Y react with water to form metal a gas jar containing bromine gas, the brown colour
oxides and hydrogen gas. of bromine gas will disappear and white powder
A I, II and III only will be formed. Explain the above observation with
B I, II and IV only a suitable equation.
D I, II, III and IV

SPM
4.4 Group 17 Elements ’08/P2
General Physical properties

• The elements in Group 17 are also Physical properties of the halogens
known as the halogens. • All Group 17 elements are non-metals. Hence,
• The elements in Group 17 are fluorine they are non-conductors of heat and electricity.
(F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), • The atomic radius increases down the group.
iodine (I) and astatine (At). The reason is that as the number of filled
• Halogens are very reactive elements electron shells increases down the group, the
and most of them exist naturally as distance between the outermost electron shell
halide salts. and the nucleus increases.
• The halogen molecules exist as diatomic • The density increases down the group. This is
4
molecules: F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 and At2. due to the increase in relative molecular mass.
• Halogens have low boiling points. The forces of
attraction between the molecules are weak.
• The melting points and boiling points of the
halogens increase down the group. This is
because the molecular size increases down the
group. As the size increases, the van der Waals
forces of attraction between the molecules
Figure 4.9 The elements of Group 17 in the become stronger. More heat is required to
Periodic Table overcome the forces of attraction and therefore
the melting points and boiling points increase.
The first two elements (fluorine and chlorine) are
gases at room temperature. Bromine is a liquid
whereas iodine and astatine are solids at room
temperature.
• The colour of the halogen becomes darker
down the group. Fluorine is a colourless gas;
chlorine is a yellowish-green gas; bromine is a
dark brown liquid and iodine is a black solid.
• All halogens have high electronegativities. They
are electronegative non-metals. Electronegativity
is a measurement of the tendency of an element
to attract electrons. The electronegativity
decreases down the group from fluorine to
Halothane (CHClBrCF3) is used as a general iodine. As the atomic radius becomes larger
anaesthetic during a major operation. Can you down the group, the force of attraction between
name the halogens present in this compound? the nucleus and the electrons becomes weaker
Answer Bromine, chlorine and fluorine and thus electronegativity decreases.
Chemical properties
Chemical properties of Group 17 elements
• The elements in Group 17 have the same chemical properties because each has seven valence
electrons.
• Group 17 elements react with
– water to produce acids,
– metals such as iron to produce metal halides,
– sodium hydroxide to produce salts and water.

SPM
Reactivity ’06/P2, ’08/P2
Reactivity of Group 17 elements

X2 + 2e– → 2X–, where X = F, Cl, Br or I
• All Group 17 elements are very reactive. However, the
reactivity decreases down the group. Cl2 + 2e– → 2Cl–
• The elements in Group 17 have seven valence electrons 2.8.7 2.8.8
each. During a chemical reaction, the atom of a Br2 + 2e → 2Br– –
Group 17 element will accept a valence electron to 2.8.18.7 2.8.18.8

form univalent negative ion to attain the stable octet
in its electron arrangement. I2 + 2e → 2I– –
• The reactivity of Group 17 elements depends on 2.8.18.18.7 2.8.18.18.8

its ability to gain an electron. The atomic radius of Group 17 elements increases down the group.
Thus the force of attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons become weaker. As a
result, the halogen lower in the group has a lower tendency to attract an electron to form a negative
4
ion. Therefore, the reactivity of halogens decreases down the group.
SPM
Table 4.7 Some physical properties of three halogens ’08/P2
Atomic Melting Boiling Physical

Proton Electron Electro
Halogen radius point point state at room Colour
number arrangement negativity
(nm) (°C) (°C) temperature
Chlorine 17 2.8.7 0.099 –101 –35 Gas 3.0 Yellowish-
green gas
Bromine 35 2.8.18.7 0.114 –7 58 Liquid 2.8 Brown liquid
Iodine 53 2.8.18.18.7 0.133 114 183 Solid 2.5 Black solid
4.4
To study the reactions of chlorine, bromine and iodine with water

Problem statement Materials
How do chlorine, bromine and iodine react with water? Chlorine gas, liquid bromine, iodine crystals and blue
litmus paper.
Hypothesis
The halogens show similar chemical properties when Apparatus
they react with water but the reactivity decreases Test tube, rubber stopper, test tube holder, delivery
down the group from chlorine to iodine. tube and teat pipette.
Variables Safety precautions
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of halogens used (a) Chlorine gas and bromine vapour are poisonous.
(b) Responding variable : The rate at which the The experiments should be carried out in a fume
halogen dissolves in water cupboard.
and products of reactions (b) The chlorine gas and bromine vapour irritate the
(c) Constant variable : Temperature of water eyes. So goggles should be worn while carrying
out the experiments.
Figure 4.10 Reaction

Experiment 4.4
of halogen with water
(a) (b) (c)

Procedure
(A) Reaction of chlorine with water 2 The test tube is tightly closed with a rubber
1 Chlorine gas is passed into a test tube containing stopper and then shaken.
water. 3 The solution produced is tested with blue litmus
2 The solution produced is tested with blue litmus paper.
paper. (C) Reaction of iodine with water
(B) Reaction of bromine with water 1 Some iodine crystals are added to some water in
a test tube.
1 A few drops of liquid bromine are added to some
2 The test tube is tightly closed with a rubber
water in a test tube.
stopper and then shaken.
3 The solution produced is tested with blue litmus
Results SPM paper.
’11/P1
4
Observation
Halogen
Solubility Effect on litmus paper
Chlorine Dissolves quickly in the water to form a light The solution first turns the blue litmus paper
yellowish solution red, then it quickly decolourises it.
Bromine Dissolves slowly in water to form a brown The solution first turns the blue litmus paper
solution red. The red colour of the litmus takes a
longer time to be decolourised.
Iodine A little of the iodine crystals dissolves The solution turns the litmus paper from
slightly in water to form a pale brown blue to red. The red litmus paper is not
solution decolourised.
Discussion
1 Chlorine, bromine and iodine dissolve in water Hypobromous(I) acid is a weak bleaching agent
to form acidic solutions which turn blue litmus and takes a longer time to decolourise the red
paper red. The solubility of halogens decreases colour of litmus paper.
from chlorine to iodine. 4 Iodine is only very slightly soluble in water. It
2 Chlorine dissolves in water to form hydrochloric forms hydroiodic acid and hypoiodous(I) acid.
acid and hypochlorous(I) acid.
I2(s) + H2O(l) → HI(aq) + HOI(aq)
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq) hydroiodic hypoiodous(I)
hydrochloric hypochlorous(I) acid acid
acid acid Hydroiodic acid, HI is an acid and it turns blue
Hydrochloric acid, HCl is an acid and it turns litmus red.
blue litmus red. Hypoiodous(I) acid has a very weak bleaching
Hypochlorous(I) acid, HOCl is a strong bleaching property.
agent. It decolourises the red colour of litmus Conclusion
paper quickly. 1 Chlorine, bromine and iodine show similar
3 Bromine dissolves slowly in water to form chemical properties. They dissolve in water to
hydrobromic acid and hypobromous(I) acid. form acidic solutions.
Br2(l) + H2O(l) → HBr(aq) + HOBr(aq) 2 The solubility of halogens in water decreases
hydrobromic hypobromous(I) down the group.
acid acid 3 Aqueous chlorine and bromine solutions have
bleaching properties.
Hydrobromic acid, HBr is an acid and it turns Aqueous iodine solution does not bleach the
blue litmus red. colour of litmus paper.

4.5
SPM
To study the reactions of halogens with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution ’06/P2

How do chlorine, bromine and iodine react with Halogen Observation
aqueous sodium hydroxide solution?
Chlorine The greenish chlorine gas dissolves
Hypothesis quickly in NaOH solution to form a
The halogens show similar chemical properties when colourless solution.
they react with sodium hydroxide solution but the Bromine The brownish liquid bromine
reactivity decreases down the group from chlorine to dissolves steadily in NaOH
iodine. solution to form a colourless
4
solution.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of halogens used Iodine The dark iodine crystal dissolves
(b) Responding variable : The products of the slowly in NaOH solution to form a
reactions colourless solution.
(c) Constant variable : Concentration of sodium
Discussion
hydroxide solution
1 Chlorine gas reacts rapidly with sodium
Materials hydroxide solution to produce sodium chloride
Chlorine gas, liquid bromine, iodine crystals and salt, sodium chlorate(I) salt and water.
sodium hydroxide solution. Cl2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) →
NaOCl(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Apparatus sodium sodium
chlorate(I) chloride
Test tube, rubber stopper, test tube holder and teat
2 Bromine reacts moderately fast with sodium
pipette.
hydroxide solution to produce sodium bromide
Procedure salt, sodium bromate(I) salt and water.
Br2(l) + 2NaOH(aq) →
(A) Reaction of chlorine with aqueous sodium
NaOBr(aq) + NaBr(aq) + H2O(l)
hydroxide solution sodium bromate(I) sodium bromide
1 Chlorine gas is bubbled into aqueous sodium
3 Solid iodine reacts slowly with sodium
hydroxide solution.
hydroxide solution to produce the salts sodium
2 The colour change of chlorine is recorded.
iodide, sodium iodate(I) and water.
(B) Reaction of bromine with aqueous sodium I2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) →
hydroxide solution NaOI(aq) + NaI(aq) + H2O(l)
1 Two drops of liquid bromine are added to sodium iodate(I) sodium iodide
aqueous sodium hydroxide solution using a teat [Sodium chlorate(I), sodium bromate(I), sodium
pipette. iodate(I) are also called sodium hypochlorite, sodium
2 The test tube is tightly closed with a rubber hypobromite and sodium hypoiodite respectively]
stopper and the mixture is shaken.
3 The colour change of bromine is recorded. Conclusion
1 Chlorine, bromine and iodine react with
(C) Reaction of iodine with aqueous sodium sodium hydroxide solution to form two types
hydroxide solution of salts and water.
Experiment 4.5
1 Some iodine crystals are added to aqueous

X2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → NaX(aq) + NaOX(aq) +
sodium hydroxide solution.
H2O(l), where X = Cl, Br, I
2 The test tube is tightly closed with a rubber
stopper and the mixture is shaken. 2 The reactivity of halogens with sodium
3 The colour change of iodine crystal is recorded. hydroxide solution decreases down the group
from chlorine to iodine.

4.6
SPM
To study the reactions of halogens with iron ’06/P2
(B) Reaction of bromine gas with iron wool
Problem statement
How do chlorine, bromine and iodine react with
iron?
Hypothesis
The halogens show similar chemical properties when
they react with iron but the reactivity decreases down
the group from chlorine to iodine. Figure 4.12 Reaction of
bromine with iron
Variables
4
wool
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of halogen used 1 A small roll of iron wool is placed in the middle
(b) Responding variable : Products of reactions and of a combustion tube and is heated strongly.
rate of the reactions 2 The liquid bromine is warmed up by using a
(c) Constant variable : Iron wool Bunsen burner.
3 The bromine is vaporised and bromine gas
Materials
passed through the heated iron wool.
Chlorine gas, liquid bromine, iodine crystals, soda 4 The excess bromine gas is absorbed by the soda
lime, potassium manganate(VII), concentrated lime.
hydrochloric acid and iron wool.
(C) Reaction of iodine with iron wool
Apparatus
Combustion tubes, Bunsen burner, retort stand and
clamp, conical flask and thistle funnel.
Procedure
(A) Reaction of chlorine gas with iron wool
1 A small roll of iron wool is placed in the middle
of a combustion tube. The iron wool is then Figure 4.13 Reaction of iodine
heated strongly. with iron wool
2 Chlorine gas is prepared in the laboratory
by adding concentrated hydrochloric acid to 1 A few crystals of iodine are placed in a boiling tube.
potassium manganate(VII). 2 A small roll of iron wool is then placed in the
3 The chlorine gas produced is allowed to pass middle of a combustion tube.
through the heated iron wool. 3 The iron wool is heated strongly first, followed by
4 The excess chlorine gas is absorbed by the soda the iodine crystals (sublimation will take place).
lime. 4 The iodine vapour produced is allowed to pass
through the hot iron wool.
Results
Halogen Observation
Chlorine Hot iron wool glows brightly when
chlorine gas is passed over it. A brown
solid is formed.
Experiment 4.6
Bromine Hot iron wool glows moderately

bright when bromine gas is passed
over it. A brown solid is formed.
Figure 4.11 Reaction of chlorine with Iodine Hot iron wool glows dimly when
iron wool iodine vapour is passed over it. A
brown solid is formed.

Discussion
2KMnO4(s) + 16HCl(aq) →
1 The halogens react with hot iron wool to form 2KCl(aq) + 2MnCl2(aq) + 5Cl2(g) + 8H2O(l)
iron(III) halides which are brown in colour but
the reactivity of the halogen decreases down 3 Soda lime is a mixture of calcium hydroxide
the group. and sodium hydroxide. It is used to absorb the
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(s) excess halogen gas. The excess chlorine and
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
iron(III) chloride bromine gas have to be absorbed because they
reactivity are poisonous.
2Fe(s) + 3Br2(g) → 2FeBr3(s) decreases
iron(III) bromide down the Conclusion
group 1 Chlorine, bromine and iodine show the same
2Fe(s) + 3I2(g) → 2FeI3(s)
iron(III) iodide chemical properties when they react with iron
wool, producing brown iron(III) halides.
4
2 The reaction between concentrated hydrochloric 2 The reactivity of the halogen decreases down the
acid and potassium manganate(VII) produces group from chlorine to iodine.
chlorine gas:
Safety Precaution to be Taken When X and Y reacts with water to form two kinds of
Handling Group 17 Elements acids. (III is correct)
X2 + H2O → HX + HOX
1 Fluorine, chlorine and bromine gases are very
poisonous. In fact chlorine was used in the Answer C
First World War to kill people.
2 Hence the experiments which involve the use
of these gases should be carried out in a fume
cupboard. 4.4
1 Explain why a solution of chlorine is (a) acidic (b)
5 able to bleach things.
’05
2 Aqueous bromine and iodine solutions are both
brown.
(a) How do you differentiate between the two
X
Y solutions?
(b) Carry out an experiment to show that bromine
Which of the following statements below are true is more reactive than iodine.
concerning the elements X and Y in the above
3 Iodine is an element below chlorine in Group 17
Periodic Table?
of the Periodic Table.
I Y is more reactive than X.
(a) Does iodine show similar chemical properties
II X is more electronegative than Y. as chlorine? Explain your answer.
III They react with water to produce two kinds of [Proton number of iodine is 53 and proton
acids. number of chlorine is 17]
IV Both form univalent negative ions of charge (b) How does the
–1 when reacted with sodium. (i) density
A I, II and III only (ii) melting point of iodine compare to
B I, III and IV only chlorine?
C II, III and IV only (c) Write equations for the reaction of iodine with
D I, II, III and IV (i) aqueous sodium hydroxide solution
(ii) iron wool
Comment
4 Explain why the reactivity of Group 17 elements
X has a smaller atomic radius. Thus it has a higher
decreases down the group.
tendency to accept an electron to form a univalent
negative ion of charge –1. Thus X is more reactive 5 Name five compounds containing halogens and
and more electronegative. (I is incorrect) state their uses.

Modern Periodic Table
(a) Elements are arranged in order of increasing proton numbers.
(b) The vertical column is known as Group whereas the horizontal rows are called Periods.
(c) The number of valence electrons in the element corresponds to the group the element is in.
(d) The number of filled electron shells of an element corresponds to the period of the element.
Group 18 elements
4
(a) Group 18 elements are inert.

(b) They have attained the duplet or octet electronic configuration.
(c) Thus they do not need to share, donate or receive electrons from other elements.
Group 1 elements (Alkali metals)

(a) As we go down Group 1,
(i) melting point decreases,
(ii) density increases,
(iii) reactivity and electropositivity increases.
(b) Chemical properties of Group 1 elements:
(i) Alkali metals react with chlorine to form metal halide salts.
2M(s) + Cl2(g) → 2MCl(s) (M = Li, Na, K, …)
(ii) Alkali metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
2M(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2MOH(aq) + H2(g) (M = Li, Na, K, …)
(iii) Alkali metals burn in air to form metal oxides which are soluble in water.
4M(s) + O2(g) → 2M2O(s) (M = Li, Na, K, …)
M2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2MOH(aq)
Group 17 elements (Halogen)

(a) As we go down group 17,
(i) melting point and density increases,
(ii) reactivity and electronegativity decreases.
(b) Chemical properties of Group 17 elements:
(i) Halogens dissolve in water to form two types of acids.
X2(g) + H2O(l) → HX(aq) + HOX(aq) (X = F, Cl, Br, …)
(ii) Halogens react with iron to form brown iron(III) halide salts.
2Fe(s) + 3X2(g) → 2FeX3(s) (X = F, Cl, Br, …)
(iii) Halogens react with sodium hydroxide to form two types of salts and water.
2NaOH(aq) + X2(g) → NaX(aq) + NaOX(aq) + H2O(l) (X = F, Cl, Br, …)

period, other than Period 3, based on the changes
4.5 Elements in a Period in the properties of elements in Period 3.
4 Table 4.8 shows the trends across Period 3.
Elements in Period 3
1 The elements in Period 3 are sodium (Na),
magnesium (Mg), aluminium (Al), silicon
(Si), phosphorus (P), sulphur (S), chlorine
(Cl), and argon (Ar).
2 The study of the elements in Period 3 will show
a gradual change of physical and chemical
properties across the period from left to right.
3 Period 3 is a typical period. Thus we can predict Figure 4.14 The elements in Period 3 of the Periodic
the trend of changes in properties across a Table
4
SPM
Table 4.8 The trends across Period 3 ’11/P1
Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Element Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Proton number 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Electron
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8
arrangement
Number of valence
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
electrons
Atomic radius
0.156 0.136 0.125 0.117 0.111 0.104 0.099 0.094
(nm)
Electronegativity 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.5 3.0 —
Melting point (°C) 98 649 660 1410 590 119 –101 –189
Boiling point (°C) 883 1107 2467 2355 Ignites 445 –35 –186
Nature of elements Metal Metal Metal Metalloid Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal
Formula of oxide Na2O MgO Al2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 Cl2O7 None
Character of oxide Basic Basic Amphoteric Acidic Acidic Acidic Acidic —
Trends of Changes across Period 3

SPM
’05/P2
’09/P2 Atomic Radius Valence Electrons
The atomic radius decreases across the period. The number of valence electrons increases
• All the elements in Period 3 have three filled across the period.
electron shells but the proton number increases • As the proton number increases, the
by one unit across the period. number of electrons increases.
• As a result, the increase in the number of protons • The number of valence electrons
increases the electrostatic force between the increases by 1 from one element to the
nucleus and the valence electrons. next across the period.
• The valence electrons are pulled closer to the
nucleus, causing the atomic radius to decrease.

Electronegativity Melting & Boiling Points
The electronegativity increases across the The melting points and boiling points
period. Electronegativity is a measurement of the of the elements increase from the left
tendency of an atom to attract electrons. of the period to the middle of the
• The atomic radius decreases across the period. period and then decrease again.
• The proton number increases across the • Sodium, magnesium and
period. aluminium are metals with strong
• The increase in the number of protons (positive metallic bonds between the metal
charge in the nucleus) and the decrease in the atoms. Hence they have high melting
distance between the nucleus and the outermost and boiling points. The strength of
electron shell across the period cause an increase the metallic bonds increase with the
increase in the number of valence
4
in the force of attraction of the nucleus.

The atoms will have a higher tendency to attract electrons in the order: Na < Mg < Al.
electrons. Therefore electronegativity increases. • Silicon has very high melting and
• Elements on the left side of the period tend to boiling points. It has strong covalent
lose electrons to form positive ions. Elements bonds between atoms forming a
on the right side of the period tend to gain 3-dimensional gigantic network.
electrons to form negative ions. • Phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and
argon are non-metals with weak van
• Thus the elements on the left side of the period
der Waals forces of attraction between
(such as Na) are electropositive while the
molecules. They are lowest at the right
elements on the right side of the period (such
with chlorine and argon existing as
as Cl) are electronegative.
gases at room temperature.
Nature of Metals
As the electronegativity of the elements increases, the elements change from metals to metalloid and
finally to non-metals across the period.
• The elements on the left of the period are metals (Na, Mg and Al).
• Silicon has some metallic and some non-metallic properties. It is called a metalloid or semi-metal.
• The elements on the right of the period are non-metals (P, S, Cl and Ar).
SPM
Nature of Oxides ’08/P1, ’10/P1
The oxides of the elements change from basic to • Acidic oxides react with alkali to form salts and
amphoteric and then to acidic across the period. water.
• Elements on the left of the period, which are For example, sulphur trioxide reacts with
metals, form metal oxides. The metal oxides sodium hydroxide to form sodium sulphate
are usually basic oxides. salt and water:
• Basic oxides react with acids to form salts and
water. SO3(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
For example, magnesium oxide reacts with
sulphuric acid to form a salt and water:
• An amphoteric oxide can react with both acids
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l) and bases to form salt and water. Aluminium
oxide is an example of an amphoteric oxide.
Aluminium oxide can react with both acids and
• Elements on the right of the period are non- alkalis to form salts and water.
metals. Non-metallic oxides are acidic oxides. • Argon as an inert gas, does not form oxide.

4.7
To determine the properties of the oxides of elements in Period 3

Problem statement
How do the properties of the oxides of elements in
Period 3 change across the period?
Hypothesis
The oxides change from basic to amphoteric and
then to acidic across Period 3.
Variables
4
(a) Manipulated variable : Oxides of Period 3
Figure 4.15 Reaction of oxides of Period 3 with
(b) Responding variable : Reaction with acid or

(a) an acid, (b) an alkali
alkali
(c) Constant variable : Concentrations of sodium 3 Two drops of universal indicator are added and
hydroxide and nitric acid the pH of the solution is noted.
solutions 4 The experiment is repeated with magnesium oxide,
aluminium oxide, silicon(IV) oxide, phosphorus(V)
Materials oxide, sulphur dioxide and dichlorine heptoxide
Sodium oxide, magnesium oxide, aluminium oxide, respectively in place of sodium oxide.
silicon(IV) oxide, phosphorus(V) oxide, sulphur
(B) Reaction of the oxides of Period 3 elements
dioxide, dichlorine heptoxide, nitric acid solution
with 2 mol dm–3 nitric acid and 2 mol dm–3
and sodium hydroxide solution of 2 mol dm–3,
sodium hydroxide solutions
distilled water and universal indicator.
1 A little sodium oxide powder is put into two
Apparatus separate test tubes.
Test tube, test tube holder, Bunsen burner, rubber 2 5 cm3 of nitric acid and 5 cm3 of sodium hydroxide
stopper and glass rod. are added separately to the contents in each test tube.
3 The contents in each test tube are heated slowly
Procedure while being stirred with glass rods.
(A) Reaction of the oxides of Period 3 elements 4 The solubility of sodium oxide in the two
with water solutions is recorded.
1 A little sodium oxide powder is added to some 5 The experiment is repeated with magnesium oxide,
distilled water in a test tube. aluminium oxide, silicon(IV) oxide, phosphorus(V)
2 The test tube is tightly closed with a rubber oxide, sulphur dioxide and dichlorine heptoxide
stopper and the contents are shaken. respectively in place of sodium oxide.
Results
Experiment A
Observation
Oxide Inference
Solubility in water pH value of solution
Na2O Dissolves in water to form 13 – 14 Solution obtained is a strong alkali. Sodium
a colourless solution oxide is basic. Sodium shows metallic properties.
MgO Slightly soluble in water 8–9 Solution obtained is a weak alkali.
Experiment 4.7
to form a colourless Magnesium oxide is basic.

solution Magnesium shows metallic properties.
Al2O3 Insoluble in water 7 pH measured is pH of water as the oxide is
insoluble in water.
SiO2 Insoluble in water 7 pH measured is pH of water as the oxide is
insoluble in water.

Observation
Oxide Inference
Solubility in water pH value of solution
P4O10 Dissolves in water to 2–3 Solution obtained is acidic. P4O10 is acidic.
form a colourless solution Phosphorus shows non-metallic properties.
SO2 Dissolves in water to 2–3 Solution obtained is acidic. SO2 is acidic.
form a colourless solution Sulphur shows non-metallic properties.
Cl2O7 Dissolves in water to 1 Solution obtained is a strong acid. Cl2O7 is
form a colourless solution acidic. Chlorine shows non-metallic properties.
Experiment B
Reaction with 2 mol Reaction with 2 mol dm–3

Oxide Inference
4
dm–3 NaOH HNO3

Na2O Does not react Reacts with nitric acid to Sodium oxide is basic because it reacts with the
form a colourless solution acid. Sodium shows metallic properties.
MgO Magnesium oxide Dissolves in nitric acid Magnesium oxide is basic because it reacts with
does not dissolve forming a colourless the acid. Magnesium shows metallic properties.
solution
Al2O3 Dissolves in sodium Dissolves in nitric acid Aluminium oxide is amphoteric because it
hydroxide forming a forming a colourless reacts with both acid and alkali.
colourless solution solution
SiO2 Reacts with sodium Does not dissolve in nitric Silicon(IV) oxide is acidic because it reacts with
hydroxide solution acid an alkali. Silicon shows non-metallic properties.
P4O10 Reacts with sodium Does not react with nitric Phosphorus(V) oxide is acidic because it reacts
hydroxide solution acid with an alkali. Phosphorus shows non-metallic
properties.
SO2 Reacts with sodium Does not react with nitric Sulphur dioxide is acidic because it reacts
hydroxide solution acid with an alkali. Sulphur shows non-metallic
properties.
Cl2O7 Reacts with sodium Does not react with nitric Dichlorine heptoxide is acidic because it reacts
hydroxide solution acid with an alkali. Chlorine shows non-metallic
properties.
Discussion SiO2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SiO3(aq) + H2O(l)

1 (a) Metallic oxides are basic. Metal oxides react P4O10(s) + 12NaOH(aq) → 4Na3PO4(aq) + 6H2O(l)
with acids to form salts and water. SO2(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Na2O(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) Conclusion
MgO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) 1 Across Period 3 from left to right,
(b) Aluminium oxide is amphoteric because it (a) the element changes from being a metal, to a
SPM can react with both acids and alkalis. metalloid and a non-metal.
’05/P2
(b) the oxides change from being basic to
Al2O3(s) + 6HNO3(aq) →
amphoteric and acidic.
2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
2 Silicon is classified as a metalloid because it is
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) + 3H2O(l) → a very weak conductor of electricity. However,
2NaAl(OH)4(aq) (sodium aluminate) its oxide is acidic.
Other examples of amphoteric oxides are 3 Aluminium is classified as a metal because it is
lead(II) oxide and tin(II) oxide. a very good conductor of electricity. However, its
(c) Non-metallic oxides are acidic. Non-metallic oxide is amphoteric. Aluminium oxide shows
oxides react with alkalis to form salts and water. both metallic and non-metallic properties.

Uses of Semi-metals (or Metalloids)
1 A semi-metal or metalloid is an element with Do you know that
properties intermediate between those of a silicon wafer can
metals and non-metals. contain hundreds
2 For example, silicon is a non-metal and is a of microchips? Each
very poor conductor of electricity. However, microchip itself
the conductivity increases with temperature. It contains hundreds of
becomes a good conductor of electricity at electronic components.
high temperatures. Our earth contains
about 27.7% silicon
3 This type of substance is known as a Microchip wafer
and a large portion is
semi-metal. Examples of semi-metals are found in sand.
silicon, germanium, boron, antimony,
4
and arsenic. These elements are important
industrial materials and are used to make
semiconductors.
4 Adding of foreign elements (called doping)
4.6 Transition Elements
can increase the conductivity of semi-metals.
(a) If silicon is doped with Group 13 elements
such as boron, a p-type semiconductor is
produced.
(b) If it is doped with Group 15 elements
such as arsenic or antimony, a n-type
semiconductor is produced.
5 Semiconductors are very important in the
microelectronic industry and are used to Figure 4.16 The transition elements in the Periodic
make transistors, diodes, rectifiers, thermistors Table
and microprocessors. Hundreds of these
electronic components can be built onto a 1 The transition elements are elements in a
crystal of silicon to make a microchip. block located in-between Group 2 and Group
13 in the Periodic Table.
2 There are 10 elements in each series. The
4.5 first series is in Period 4 and consists of
the elements: scandium(Sc), titanium(Ti),
1 Predict the changes in the properties of the
vanadium(V), chromium(Cr), manganese
elements across Period 3 in the Periodic Table.
(a) Atomic radius
(Mn), iron(Fe), cobalt(Co), nickel(Ni),
(b) Electronegativity copper(Cu) and zinc(Zn).
(c) Acidic-base property of the oxides 3 Table 4.9 shows some physical properties of
2 The proton numbers of element X and Y are 3
the transition elements in the first series in
and 9 respectively. Period 4.
(a) To which period of the Periodic Table do X 4 The transition elements are all metals with
and Y belong? the following physical properties:
(b) Which is more electronegative? Explain your (a) High density
answer. (b) High hardness
3 Write the formula of the oxides of the elements in (c) High electrical conductivity
Period 3. State whether the oxide is basic, acidic (d) High tensile strength
or amphoteric. (e) Silvery surface
4 Silicon is a semi-metal. State one difference (f) Ductile and malleable
between (g) High melting point
(a) silicon and sulphur, (h) High boiling point
(b) silicon and iron. 5 The atomic radius and electronegativity of the
transition elements are almost the same.

Table 4.9 Some physical properties of the transition elements in the first series
Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Atomic radius (nm) 0.162 0.147 0.134 0.130 0.135 0.126 0.125 0.124 0.128 0.138
Melting point (°C) 1539 1668 1900 1875 1245 1536 1495 1453 1083 419
Boiling point (°C) 2730 3260 3450 2665 2150 3000 2900 2730 2959 906
Density (g cm–3) 3.0 4.51 6.1 7.19 7.43 7.86 8.9 8.9 8.96 7.14
Electronegativity 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.6
Hardness soft 6.0 7.0 8.5 6.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.5
(Mohs’ scale)
(Note: Hardness is measured using Mohs’ scale. Diamond, which is the hardest substance known, has a hardness of 10 on Mohs’ scale.)
4
Titanium alloy
is light and
have very
high tensile
strength. It is
used to make
aircraft engines.
Titanium alloy is corrosion An engine of
resistant and lightweight. It is Vanadium steel alloy is used in a A380 Airbus
used in orthopaedic and dental making gears and crankshafts of uses 11 tons
implants. vehicles. of titanium.
Uses of transition
metals
Nickel is used in many industrial Cobalt is alloyed with iron, nickel

and consumer products, including and other metals to make Alnico,
stainless steel, magnets, coinage an alloy of unusual magnetic
and special alloys. strength.
Iron is alloyed with carbon to

Chromium is used to make make steel which is used in
stainless steel and for the making cars, ships and in building Copper is used as electrical
electroplating of iron. industries. conductors and in piping.

Special Properties of Transition Elements
Transition elements have variable oxidation numbers

1 Unlike elements in the main group of the Table 4.10 The oxidation numbers of transition
Periodic Table in which each has only one elements in their compounds
oxidation number, a transition element has Compounds of transition Chemical Oxidation
more than one oxidation number in its elements formula number
compounds.
2 Oxidation number is the charge on the ion. Chromium(III) chloride CrCl3 +3
In other words, a transition element can form Potassium dichromate(VI) K2Cr2O7 +6
ions with different charges. Manganese(II) chloride MnCl2 +2
For example, magnesium (in Group 2), Manganese(IV) oxide MnO2 +4
4
can form only Mg2+ ion, with an oxidation Potassium manganate(VI) K2MnO4 +6
number of +2. Potassium manganate(VII) KMnO4 +7
Iron, however, as a transition element, can

Iron(II) sulphate FeSO4 +2
form Fe2+ ion (oxidation number of +2) and
Iron(III) chloride FeCl3 +3
Fe3+ ion (oxidation number of +3).
3 Table 4.10 shows the different oxidation Nickel(II) sulphate NiSO4 +2
numbers of transition elements in their Nickel(III) chloride NiCl3 +3
compounds. Copper(I) oxide Cu2O +1
Copper(II) oxide CuO +2
Transition elements form coloured compounds

1 Unlike main group metal compounds which Name of ion of Formula of ion Colour of
are usually white, transition elements can transition of transition aqueous
form compounds of different colours. element element solution
2 Unlike aqueous solutions of main group
compounds or ions which are usually Manganese(II) ion Mn2+ Pink
colourless, aqueous solutions of transition Chromium(III) ion Cr3+
Green
element compounds or their ions are
coloured. Nickel(II) ion Ni2+ Green
3 Table 4.11 shows the colours of some aqueous
solutions of ions of transition elements. 4 Precious stones are coloured due to the
presence of compounds of transition elements.
Table 4.11 The colours of some aqueous solutions Table 4.12 shows the transition elements
of ions of transition elements
present which are responsible for the
Name of ion of Formula of ion Colour of colours of some precious stones.
transition of transition aqueous
element element solution Table 4.12 Examples of some precious stones and
the transition elements which give
Chromate ion CrO 2–
4
Yellow them their distinctive colours
Dichromate ion Cr2O 2–
7
Orange Precious Transition element
Colour
Permanganate ion MnO4– Purple stone present
Iron(II) ion Fe2+ Green Ruby Red Chromium
Iron(III) ion Fe3+
Brown Sapphire Blue Iron and Titanium
Copper(II) ion Cu2+ Blue Emerald Green Chromium
Cobalt(II) ion Co2+ Pink Amethyst Purple Manganese

SPM
Transition metals or their compounds have catalytic properties ’08/P1/P2
1 A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the 3 Table 4.13 shows the uses of transition
rate of a reaction. A catalyst does not change elements or their compounds as catalysts in
chemically after a reaction. Catalysts are used industries.
in almost all chemical manufacturing plants.
2 Many catalysts are transition elements or
their compounds.
Table 4.13 The uses of transition elements or their compounds as catalysts in industries
Transition element or its
Industrial process which use the catalyst
compound
Fine iron powder, Fe Haber process in the manufacture of ammonia. Iron catalyses the
4
reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen gas to produce ammonia.

Fe
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⎯⎯→ 2NH3(g)
Vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5 Contact process in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. V2O5 catalyses the
SPM oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.
’10/P1
V2O5
2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⎯⎯→ 2SO3(g)
SO3 is used to manufacture sulphuric acid.
Nickel Manufacture of margarine. Nickel catalyses the hydrogenation of
unsaturated vegetable oil into saturated oil in the production of
margarine.
Platinum Ostwald process in the manufacture of nitric acid.
Transition elements can form complex ions

1 A complex ion is a polyatomic cation or anion Table 4.14
consisting of a central metal ion with other Complex ions Formula
groups bonded to it.
2 Table 4.14 shows some examples of complex Tetraamminecopper(II) Cu(NH3)2+
4
ions formed by transition elements. Hexaamminechromium(III) Cr(NH3)3+

6
Hexaaquocobalt(II) Co(H2O)2+
6
Hexacyanoferrate(II) Fe(CN)64–
Hexacyanoferrate(III) Fe(CN)63–
Reaction of Aqueous Solutions of Transition 2 The ions of transition elements react with
Element Compounds with Sodium Hydroxide the hydroxide ions to form coloured metal
hydroxide precipitates.
and Ammonia Solutions
3 Table 4.15 gives some examples of the
reactions of aqueous solutions of ions of
1 The presence of ions of transition elements in
transition elements with sodium hydroxide
a solution can be confirmed by using sodium
solution and ammonia solution.
hydroxide solution or ammonia solution.

Table 4.15
Ions Aqueous sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH(aq) Aqueous ammonia solution, NH3(aq)
Fe2+ Green precipitate of iron(II) hydroxide is Green precipitate of iron(II) hydroxide is formed.
formed. Precipitate is insoluble in excess NaOH Precipitate is insoluble in excess aqueous NH3
solution. solution.
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s)
(from NaOH) (green precipitate) (from NH3) (green precipitate)
Fe3+ Brown precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide is Brown precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide is formed.
formed. Precipitate is insoluble in excess NaOH Precipitate is insoluble in excess aqueous NH3
solution. solution.
4
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s) Fe3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s)
(from NaOH) (brown precipitate) (from NH3) (brown precipitate)
Cu2+ Blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide is Blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide is formed.
formed. Precipitate is insoluble in excess NaOH
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)
solution.
(from NH3) (blue precipitate)
Precipitate is soluble in excess NH3 solution to form
(from NaOH) (blue precipitate)
a complex ion which is dark blue in colour.
Cu(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) → Cu(NH3)2+ 4
(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
(dark blue solution)
Cu(NH3)2+ is a dark blue complex ion. Thus, Q is

6 ’03
4
copper(II) oxide.
Q is a compound. Study the flowchart below and Answer A
identify Q.
Solid Q
+ HNO3(aq) +NaOH(aq)
Aqueous ammonia contains hydroxide ions:
Blue solution is formed Not soluble
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH–
+ NaOH(aq)
+ excess ammonia
solution Dark blue
Blue precipitate
solution
A Copper(II) oxide C Copper(II) sulphate Have high melting, Have more

Form
B Iron(III) oxide D Iron(II) sulphate boiling points and coloured than one
Comment densities compounds oxidation state
Q is a base, since it dissolves in nitric acid. Metal
oxides are bases. Since it forms a blue precipitate,
Transition elements
Q must contain copper(II) ions. The above reactions
can be represented by the equations
CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
The presence of Used as catalysts Form
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → their ions can be in chemical complex
2NaNO3(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s) confirmed using reactions ions
(blue precipitate) NaOH(aq) or
Cu(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) → Cu(NH3)2+ (aq) + 2OH–(aq) NH3(aq)
4

in a table for easy studying. Scientists who
4.6
played prominent roles in the development of
1 You are given two blue aqueous solutions; one the Periodic Table were J. W. Dobereiner, John
containing Cu2+ ions and another containing a blue Newlands, Lothar Meyer, Dmitri Mendeleev
food colouring. Explain how you can differentiate and Henry Moseley.
between the two solutions.
2 The body of U-2 spy plane is made of titanium
Uses of the Elements and Compounds in
alloy. Give three reasons why titanium alloy is
used? Our Daily Life
1 An element is a substance that cannot be
broken down into simpler substances.
Table 4.17 shows the uses of some of these
4.7 Appreciating the elements in daily life.
Existence of Elements
4
2 A compound is a substance made by

and Their Compounds chemically combining atoms of two or more
elements.
1 In ancient times, gold, mercury, copper, 3 Many compounds have been synthesised by
iron, sulphur, tin, antimony, lead, diamond, chemists to improve our standard of living.
and graphite were already discovered. Credit Many items in our home are made up of
should be given to the scientists who, through elements. The shirt you are wearing may be
their persistent efforts, discovered and isolated made of Terylene, your sofa may be made of
other elements. Table 4.16 below shows the polyvinyl chloride, the cooking utensils in
scientists who isolated some of these elements. your kitchen are made of stainless steel, glass
2 Then about a century (100 years) later, or ceramics, part of the motor of your ceiling
scientists discovered the subatomic particles of fan is made of copper and the microprocessors
atoms. Credit is given to J. J. Thomson, Ernest in the computer are made of silicon and
Rutherford, James Chadwick and Niels Bohr germanium. Elements are used to make
in helping us understand the atomic structure vehicles, medicine and communication tools
of atoms in elements. The atomic structure like the handphone. Imagine our life without
of atoms helps us understand how elements these elements. Coloured compounds of
react to form compounds. transition elements are used as paint pigments
3 As more elements are isolated, there is a need and they make our homes more colourful.
to classify the elements. Elements with the Table 4.18 shows the uses of some of these
same chemical properties are grouped together compounds.
Table 4.16
Element Symbol Scientist Isolated in
Hydrogen H Henry Cavendish (British) 1766
Nitrogen N Daniel Rutherford (British) 1772
Oxygen O Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Swedish) 1774
Sodium Na Sir William Ramsay (British) 1807
Potassium K Sir Humphry Davy (British) 1807
Magnesium Mg Sir Humphry Davy (British) 1808
Aluminium Al Hans Christian Orsted 1825
Uranium U Eugene Melchior Peligot (French) 1841
Helium He Sir William Ramsay (British) 1895
Radium Ra Pierre Curie and Marie Curie (French) 1898

Table 4.17 Uses of some elements
Element Formula Uses
Hydrogen H2 Used in the hydrogenation of unsaturated oil to produce margarine.
Used in the manufacture of ammonia.
Aluminium Al Used in the production of duralumin alloy for use in the construction of
aeroplane bodies.
Silicon Si To make microchips
Sulphur S To make matches, fireworks and for the manufacture of sulphuric acid
Chlorine Cl2 To kill germs in drinking water
Iron Fe Production of steel
4
Copper Cu To make electrical wire, electrical motor, dynamo and coins (cupronickel alloy)
Cobalt-60 Co The gamma rays emitted from this radioactive element is used to kill cancer cells.
Table 4.18 Uses of some chemical compounds

Compound Chemical Formula Uses
Magnesium oxide MgO In antacid drugs to treat gastric patients. Also used to treat acid
poisonings.
Tin fluoride SnF2 Is added to toothpaste.
Fluoride ions can strengthen the teeth.
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 Used as a baking powder. Also used to treat acid burns.
Silver bromide AgBr Used in the making of photographic films.
Vinyl chloride CH2CHCl To make PVC pipes, toys, raincoats and cushions
Ammonia NH3 To manufacture fertiliser, nitric acid and explosives
Sodium hydroxide NaOH To make soap
Preventing Wastage pollution because many of these items are

non-biodegradable.
1 Most of the elements needed to keep life 3 We can minimise wastage in the school
going are obtained from the Earth’s crust. A laboratory by practising the following:
number of these elements are obtained from (a) Weigh or use the correct amount of
the oceans and the air. After extraction, these chemicals that is required to carry out an
chemicals cannot be replaced and will be experiment.
depleted one day. So it is important that we (b) Read the label of the chemicals carefully,
avoid wastage in using these elements. so that we do not take the wrong
2 Recycling of used materials is an alternative substance.
method. Used glass bottles, plastic bottles (c) Read the procedure of the experiment
and aluminium cans should be separated and plan the experiment carefully before
and thrown into different bins provided by carrying them out, so as to avoid the need
the government. This will also help to reduce to repeat the experiment.

1 Chemical elements are classed into groups in the Cl2(g) + H2O(l) → HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
Periodic Table, with elements in the same group (b) Halogens react with alkali metals to form halide
having the same chemical properties. salts, e.g.
2 Group 1 elements are called alkali metals. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)
(a) They react with cold water to produce an (c) Halogens react with hot iron wool to form brown
alkaline solution and hydrogen gas, e.g. iron(III) halide salt, e.g.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(s)
(b) They react with halogen gas to form halide 5 The reactivity of Group 17 element increases up
salts, e.g. the group because the atomic radius decreases.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s) The smaller the atomic radius, the stronger the
(c) They burn in air to form metal oxides, e.g. electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus
4
4Na(s) + O2(l) → 2Na2O(s) and the electron. Thus the elements higher in the
All oxides of Group 1 metals can dissolve in group can accept electrons more easily.
water to form alkaline solutions. 6 Group 18 elements exist as monatoms because
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) they have attained the duplet or octet electronic
3 The reactivity of Group 1 elements increases down the configuration. They do not need to donate, accept
group because the valence electron is further from the or share electrons with other elements.
nucleus. The electrostatic force of attraction between 7 Transition elements are a block of elements
the nucleus and the valence electron becomes weaker. between Group 2 and Group 13 in the Periodic
Thus the elements lower in the group can release their Table. The characteristics of transition elements are
valence electrons more easily. (a) they form coloured compounds
4 Group 17 elements are called halogens. (b) they have more than one oxidation number
(a) Halogens dissolve in water to form acidic (c) they catalyse chemical reactions
solutions, e.g. (d) they form complex ions
4
4.1 2 The structure of a compound 4 Atom of element X has proton
Periodic Table of Elements containing element Q and number of 19. Which of the
1 The diagram below shows the hydrogen is shown as follows. following statements are true
electron arrangement of atom Y. H H concerning X ?
x xo xo I X has one valence electron.
x x x
xx H Q Q H
o x o II The oxide of element X is
x xo xo
H H soluble in water.
x xx Y
x x
III X is in Period 4 of the
x
To which group of the Periodic
x Periodic Table.
Table does element Q belong?
xx IV X has the same chemical
A 14 C 16
properties as fluorine.
Which of the following is the B 15 D 17
A I and III only
position of atom Y in the
3 Which of the following elements B II and IV only
Periodic Table?
belong to the same group in the C I, II and III only
A Group Period Periodic Table? D I, III and IV only
TC 52
3 2 7 9 27 35 40
B P Q R S T
3 3 3 4 13 17 20
5 An atom of element Y has a
C 13 2 A P and R C P and S nucleon number of 31 with 16
D 13 3 B R and T D Q and T neutrons.

Which of the following statements 4.2 14 Which of the following explains
is true concerning element Y? Group 18 Elements why sodium is more reactive
A Atom of element Y has 16 7 The symbols for four elements ’06 than lithium?
protons. are shown below. A Sodium has more protons
B Atom of element Y has two 4 16 24 40 than lithium.
W X Y Z
filled electron shells. 2 8 12 18
B Sodium has less valence
C Atom of element Y has six Which of the following statements electrons than lithium.
valence electrons. is true? C Sodium has a lower melting
D Element Y is in Group 15 of A Both elements W and Z are point than lithium.
the Periodic Table. monatomic. D Sodium can release its
B Element Z is more reactive valence electron more easily.
6 An element X has a proton
than element X.
number of 9. In which group 15 An element X is burned in air.
C Elements W and Y react to
and period does X belong to in The product of combustion is
form a compound with the
the Periodic Table? then dissolved in water.
formula YW.
4
D Elements X and Y react to The solution gives a pH value of
Group Period
form a compound with the 14. The element X is
A 16 2 formula YX2. A potassium
B phosphorus
B 17 2 8 Which of the inert gases below C aluminium
C 16 3 is used in a diver’s oxygen tank? D sulphur
A Neon C Helium
D 17 3 B Argon D Krypton 16 Which statement below is true
about sodium?
9 Which element, as represented by the symbols below, exists as A It burns in air to form sodium
monatoms? oxide of formula NaO which
is soluble in water.
B It burns in air to form sodium
oxide of formula Na2O which
is soluble in water.
A W B X C Y D Z C It burns in air to form sodium
oxide of formula NaO which
10 The element which does not form compound with other elements is likely is insoluble in water.
to have a proton number of D It burns in air to form sodium
’06 A 4 B 6 C 8 D 10 oxide of formula Na2O which
is insoluble in water.
11 As we go down Group 18,
I the density increases. III the boiling point increases. 17 Which statement concerning the
II the reactivity decreases. IV the atomic size decreases. ions of Group 1 elements is
A I and III only C I, II and III only correct?
B II and IV only D I, III and IV only A Each contains more protons
than electrons.
12 Argon does not form compound with chlorine because B Each contains more electrons
A it has three filled electron shells. than protons.
B it has low melting and boiling points. C Each has one electron in its
C it has eight electrons in the outermost electron shell. outer electron shell.
D the atoms have the same number of protons and neutrons in the D Each contains the same
nucleus. number of protons and
electrons.
4.3 Group 1 Elements
18 As we go down Group 1,
13 Rubidium is below sodium in Group 1. Which statements below about I the density increases
rubidium are correct? II the melting point increases
’08 I It is more reactive than sodium. III the reactivity increases
II It burns in air to form rubidium oxide which is insoluble in water. IV the electropositivity decreases
III It is produced from the electrolysis of molten rubidium chloride. A I and II only
IV It reacts with cold water to form rubidium hydroxide and hydrogen. B I and III only
A I and III only C I, III and IV only C II and III only
B II and IV only D I, II, III and IV D II and IV only

19 The element X has a proton 23 Which of the statements below C Reacts with iron wool to
number of 19. Element X is not true concerning Group 17 form a compound with the
A forms a basic oxide that is elements? formula FeX3.
insoluble in water. A Bromine is a gas at room D Reacts with sodium to form
B reacts with cold water to temperature. a compound with formula
form an acidic solution. B Chlorine is more reactive NaX2.
C reacts with chlorine to form a than bromine.
compound with formula C As we go down Group 17, 28 Which of the following
XCl2. the density increases. statements about the Periodic
D is more reactive than an D Chlorine is more Table is true?
element with a proton electronegative than bromine. A All inert gases have eight
number of 11. valence electrons.
24 As we go down Group 17, B All Group 1 elements are
I the reactivity decreases equally reactive.
4.4 C The atomic radius increases
4
Group 17 Elements II electronegativity increases

III the melting point increases in size across a period from
20 Which of the following explains IV the solubility of the element left to right.
why chlorine is more reactive in water decreases D The electronegativity of
than bromine? A I, II and III only Group 17 elements increases
A Chlorine is less dense than B I, III and IV only up the group.
bromine. C II, III and IV only
B Chlorine has a lower boiling D I, II, III and IV 4.5
point than bromine. Elements in a Period
C Chlorine atom accepts an 25 Which statement about ions of 29 The table shows the proton
electron more easily than Group 17 elements is correct? numbers of four elements.
bromine atom. A Each has eight valence
D Chlorine atom contains Element P Q R S T
electrons.
less protons than bromine B Each contains more protons Proton
atom. 10 11 14 17 19
than electrons. number
C Each contains more protons Arrange the atomic radii of the
21 Which of the following halogens than neutrons. elements in increasing order.
dissolve in water to produce D Each has an odd number of A P, Q, R, S, T
an acidic solution which can electrons. B P, S, R, Q, T
decolourise the colour of litmus C T, S, R, Q, P
paper? 26 Which of the following statements D T, Q, R, S, P
I Chlorine are true about chlorine and
II Bromine bromine? 30 Which of the following metallic
III Iodine I Both are gases at room oxides can react with both acid
IV Astatine temperature. ’06 and alkaline solutions?
A I and II only II They react with sodium to I Aluminium oxide
B I and III only form soluble salts. II Tin(II) oxide
C II and IV only III They react with heated iron III Lead(II) oxide
D III and IV only wool to form iron(II) halides IV Copper(II) oxide
IV They dissolve in water to A I and III only
form solutions with pH B II and IV only
22 An element from Group X can values of less than 7. C I, II and III only
dissolve in water to form an A I and III only D I, III and IV only
acidic solution. B II and IV only
This resulting solution reacts C I, II and IV only 31 X, Y and Z are elements in the
with silver nitrate reagent to D II, III and IV only same period of the Periodic
form a white precipitate. Table.
In which group of the Periodic 27 An element X has a proton The oxide of X is acidic, the
Table does the element belong number of 35. Which statement oxide of Y is basic and the oxide
to? about X is true? of Z is amphoteric.
A 1 A X forms a positive ion during Arrange the elements X, Y and Z
B 2 chemical reactions. in increasing proton number.
C 16 B It belongs to Group 15 of A Z, X, Y C Y, X, Z
D 17 the Periodic Table. B X, Z, Y D Y, Z, X

32 X, Y and Z are elements in Which of the following
Element X Y Z
Period 3 of the Periodic Table. statements below are true
The table shows the properties Proton number 11 13 17 about the elements in the
of the oxides of X, Y and Z Periodic Table?
Which of the following
when reacted with sodium I Element W is inert.
statements is true?
hydroxide and nitric acid II Element Y has more than
solutions. A X, Y and Z are all conductors
one oxidation state.
of electricity.
III Element X reacts with cold
Metal Observation B All the elements above are
water to form X oxide and
oxides Sodium Nitric acid made up of atoms.
hydrogen.
hydroxide solution C The atomic radius decreases
IV Element Z reacts with iron
solution in the order Z, Y, X.
to form a compound with
D The electronegativity
X oxide Dissolves Dissolves formula FeZ3.
increases in the order X, Y, Z.
to form to form A II and IV only
B I, II and III only
4
colourless colourless
4.6 Transition Elements C I, II and IV only
solution solution
Y oxide Dissolves No change 35 Which of the following elements D I, II, III and IV
to form will form coloured compounds?
colourless I Cobalt III Aluminium 37 The properties of the transition
solution II Nickel IV Manganese metals include
’08 I they form white compounds.
Z oxide No change Dissolves A I, II and III only
to form B I, II and IV only II they act as catalysts in
colourless C II, III and IV only chemical reactions.
solution D I, II, III and IV III they have more than one
oxidation state.
What is the correct arrangement 36 The diagram shows part of a IV they form complex ions.
in increasing proton number of Periodic Table. A I, II and III only
the elements? B I, II and IV only
A X, Y, Z C II, III and IV only
B Y, X, Z D I, II, III and IV
C Z, Y, X
38 The table shows the properties of four elements. Which element is most
D Z, X, Y
likely to be a transition element?
33 The graph shows the change Element Melting point (°C) Density (g cm–3) Electrical conductivity
in a property as we go across
Period 3 of the Periodic Table. A 360 6.8 Good
B 620 3.1 Good
C 3500 3.5 Poor
D 3400 8.1 Good
39 An element X forms two oxides with the formula XO and X2O. Which of
the following statements is true about the element X ?
A It is a transition metal.
B It is a Group 1 element.
C It is a Group 17 element.
D The oxides of element X are amphoteric.
Which of the properties below 40 Which of the following shows correctly the colour of the ions of the
corresponds to the change as transition elements?
shown in the graph above?
A Atomic radius Colour
B Electropositivity Fe2+ Cr2O72– MnO4– Co2+
C Electrical conductivity A Brown Orange Purple Pink
D Density
B Green Orange Purple Pink
34 The table shows the proton C Brown Purple Orange Blue
numbers of three elements X, Y
and Z. D Green Purple Orange Blue

1 Bromine is an element of Group 17 in the Periodic 4 A list of elements represented by the letters with the
Table. nucleon numbers and proton numbers are given
(a) What is the physical state of bromine at room below:
temperature? [1 mark] 1
P, 126Q, 199R, 27 S, 35 T, 39 U
1 13 17 19
(b) Write an equation for the reaction between
bromine and water. [1 mark] (a) Choose two elements from the list above that
(c) Draw a labelled diagram for the apparatus that belong to the same group in the Periodic Table.
can be used to carry out a reaction between [1 mark]
bromine and iron wool. [2 marks] (b) State the (i) group and (ii) period of element U.
(d) What is the number of valence electrons in [2 marks]
bromine? [1 mark] (c) Give one use of the element P. [1 mark]
4
(e) Iodine is below bromine in Group 17. Which of (d) Draw the atomic structure of element R.
the two elements, iodine or bromine, is more [2 marks]
reactive? Explain your answer. [3 marks] (e) (i) Which of the elements in the list reacts with
2 Rubidium is placed below potassium in Group 1 in cold water to produce hydrogen gas?
the Periodic Table. [1 mark]
(ii) Write a balanced chemical equation for the
(a) Give two physical properties of rubidium.
reaction in (i). [1 mark]
[2 marks]
(f) Write the formula of the ion formed by the
(b) How is rubidium stored in the laboratory?
element U. [1 mark]
[1 mark]
(g) (i) What is electronegativity?
(c) Write the equations for the reactions of rubidium
(ii) Which is the more electronegative element
(Rb) with (i) water and (ii) chlorine gas.
between R and T? Explain your answer.
[2 marks]
[3 marks]
(d) Explain why rubidium is more reactive than
potassium. [2 marks] 5 A list of the symbols of the transition elements in
Period 4 is given below:
(e) Write the formula of (i) rubidium nitrate and (ii)
rubidium sulphate. [2 marks] Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu
(f) What is the colour of rubidium nitrate? [1 mark]
(a) Give two physical properties of the transition
3 Diagram 1 shows a portion of the Periodic Table.
elements. [2 marks]
The letters in the Periodic Table do not represent the
’05 actual symbols of the elements. (b) What is the colour of the aqueous Cu2+ ion
solution? [1 mark]
(c) Name a transition element in the list which is
used as a catalyst in the
(i) Haber process to manufacture ammonia.
[1 mark]
Diagram 1 (ii) hydrogenation of unsaturated oil to make
(a) Choose two elements which are metals in the margarine. [1 mark]
Periodic Table above. [2 marks] (d) Other than forming coloured compounds and
(b) Write the formula of the ions formed by the having catalytic properties, name two other
elements (i) E and (ii) Q. [2 marks]
properties of transition elements. [2 marks]
(c) Choose an element from the Periodic Table (e) Name a reagent that can be used to differentiate
above that can form a coloured compound. between the ions of transition elements in the list
[1 mark]
above. [1 mark]
(d) Choose an element that exists as monatoms. 6 The symbols of the elements in Period 3 of the
Give a use of this element. [2 marks] Periodic Table are given below:
(e) Which element from the Periodic Table above
Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, Ar
can form an acidic oxide? [1 mark]
(f) Which is the more reactive element between E (a) Name an element that can conduct electricity in
and R? Explain your answer. [2 marks] Period 3. [1 mark]

(b) How does the atomic radius change across the (f) (i) Name an acidic oxide of Period 3 that can
period? Explain your answer. [3 marks] dissolve in water. [1 mark]
(c) Name an element that exists as monatoms in (ii) Write an equation for the reaction that
Period 3. Explain your answer. [2 marks] takes place when the acidic oxide in (i) is
dissolved in water. [1 mark]
(d) Write the formulae of the oxides of the elements
in Period 3. [3 marks] (g) The oxide of aluminium can react with both acid
and alkali solutions. What is the term given to
(e) (i) Name a basic oxide of Period 3 that can
such an oxide? [1 mark]
dissolve in water. [1 mark]
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction that takes (h) Give a use of the element silicon. [1 mark]
place when its basic oxide in (i) is dissolved
in water. [1 mark]
4
Essay Questions
1 (a) (b) Explain why Group 18 elements exist as
The reactivity of alkali metals increases down
monatoms. [5 marks]
the group in the order:
(c) II
lithium < sodium < potassium Chlorine Iron(III) chloride
I
Explain the statement given above. [7 marks]
(b) Rubidium (Rb) is placed below potassium in Sodium chloride
Group 1 of the Periodic Table. Predict three
The flowchart shows the conversion of chlorine to
physical properties and three chemical properties
sodium chloride and iron(III) chloride.
of rubidium. [10 marks]
Explain a method to carry out an experiment
(c) The nucleon number of sodium is 23 and its (i) to obtain sodium chloride from chlorine in
atom has 12 neutrons. The nucleon number of conversion I. [5 marks]
chlorine atom is 35 and it has 18 neutrons. Prove (ii) to obtain iron(III) chloride from chlorine in
that sodium and chlorine belong to the same conversion II. [5 marks]
period in the Periodic Table. [3 marks]
4 (a) Using a suitable period in the Periodic Table as
2 (a) Explain the following statements: an example, explain the trend in the properties of
(i) The reactivity of Group 17 elements the elements in terms of metals, non-metals and
’06 decreases down the group. [7 marks] semi-metals. [5 marks]
(ii) The atomic radius of Period 3 elements
(b) Using a suitable period in the Periodic Table as
decreases across Period 3 from left to right.
an example, explain why the electronegativity of
[5 marks]
the elements increases across a period from left
(b) With suitable examples, discuss the four properties to right. [5 marks]
of transition elements in the Periodic Table.
(c) Write the formulae of all the oxides of the elements
[8 marks]
in Period 3. Describe a suitable experiment to show
3 (a) Name three elements in Group 18 and state their that the oxides change from basic to amphoteric
uses. [5 marks] and then to acidic across Period 3. [10 marks]
Experiments
1 The reactivity of a halogen in the reaction with
iron wool depends on its position in Group 17.
Diagram 1 shows the set-up of apparatus for an
experiment to determine the reactivity of halogens
in Group 17.
Diagram 1

The experiment is carried out using bromine gas, chlorine gas and iodine vapour to react with
heated iron wool respectively. Observation of the experiment is shown in Table 1 below.
Halogen Observation
Bromine Hot iron wool glows moderately bright when bromine gas is passed over it.
Chlorine Hot iron wool glows brightly when chlorine gas is passed over it.
Iodine Hot iron wool glows dimly when iodine vapour is passed over it.
Table 1
(a) Complete Table 2 below based on the experiment.
Variables Action to be taken

(i) Manipulated variable : (i) The way to manipulate variable :
4
(ii) Responding variable : (ii) What to observe in the responding variable :
(iii) Constant variable : (iii) The way to maintain the constant variable :
Table 2 [6 marks]
(b) State one hypothesis for the experiment. [1 mark]
(c) Based on the observation, arrange bromine, chlorine and iodine in descending order of reactivity of
halogens with iron wool. [1 mark]
(d) The proton numbers of the halogens increase in the order: chlorine < bromine < iodine.
Make a conclusion regarding the positions of halogens in Group 17 in relation to their reactivities. [1 mark]
(e) Astatine is a halogen below iodine in Group 17. Predict the reactivity of astatine with iron wool. [1 mark]
2
Lithium, sodium and potassium are in Group 1 of the Periodic Table.
’08 The reactivity of Group 1 elements increases down the group from lithium to potassium.
You are required to design a laboratory experiment to prove the statements above. Your explanations
should include the following:
(a) Problem statement [3 marks]
(b) Hypothesis [3 marks]
(c) List of materials and apparatus [3 marks]
(d) Procedure [3 marks]
(e) Tabulation of data [3 marks]

CHAPTER FORM 4
5
THEME: Interaction between Chemicals
Chemical Bonds

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 1 1
Number of questions 5 — – – – 3 — – – – 6 1 – – – 5 – – — –
3 4 2
ONCEPT MAP
CHEMICAL BONDS
To attain the stable electron arrangement of the noble gases
Ionic bonds Covalent bonds
Formed by transfer of electrons from Formed by sharing of electrons

metal atoms to non-metal atoms between non-metal atoms
Non-metal atoms share electrons

Metal atoms donate electrons Non-metal atoms accept electrons
Example: CH4
Example: NaCl /
/
¶
/ * / / * /
5H *S 5H *S
/
/
Differences in physical properties
Melting point and boiling point Solubility Electrical conductivity

9 Helium has only one electron shell filled with
5.1 Formation of Compounds 2 electrons (a duplet electron arrangement).
All other noble gases have 8 electrons in
Stability of Noble Gases the valence shell. This is known as an octet
1 A compound is a chemical substance that is 10 A duplet electron arrangement (as in helium)
formed by combining two or more elements or an octet electron arrangment (as in the
chemically in fixed proportions. other noble gases) is very stable. As such,
2 Almost all chemical substances exist as atoms of noble gases do not donate, accept
compounds in nature. Examples of compounds or share electrons with other elements. Thus,
are water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), table atoms of noble gases do not combine with
salt sodium chloride (NaCl) and minerals other elements or with itself. They exist as
such as metal silicates, metal oxides, metal monatoms.
carbonates and metal sulphides.
5
3 Only noble gases and a few minerals such as

gold, diamond and platinum exist as pure Conditions for the Formation of
elements. Chemical Bonds
4 The tendency of elements to combine with
1 Noble gases do not form chemical bonds
other elements to form compounds shows that
because they have the stable duplet or octet
compounds are more stable than elements.
5 The formation of compounds proves that
2 Atoms of elements from Group 1 to Group
chemical bonds hold atoms of elements
17:
together.
(a) Have less than 8 valence electrons
6 Noble gases are elements in Group 18 of the
(b) Each atom will tend to donate, accept
Periodic Table. They are also known as inert
or share electrons to achieve the stable
gases which consists of helium, neon, argon,
duplet or octet electron arrangement as
krypton, xenon and radon.
that of a noble gas
7 Noble gases exist as elements. They are very
3 In the process of attaining the stable duplet or
stable and are inert, which means they are
octet electron arrangement, chemical bonds
non–reactive chemically.
will form between atoms of these elements.
8 The stability of noble gases is due to their electron
4 The two types of chemical bonds are
arrangements (or electronic configurations) as
(a) ionic bonds (formed by transfers of
shown in Table 5.1.
electrons), and
Table 5.1 Electron arrangements of noble gases (b) covalent bonds (formed by sharing of
Electron electrons).
Noble gas Symbol 5 In the formation of chemical bonds, only
arrangement
valence electrons are involved in the donation,
Helium He 2 acceptance or sharing of electrons. Electrons
in the inner shells are not involved.
Neon Ne 2.8 6 The valence shell will then achieve an octet
electron arrangement or a duplet electron
Argon Ar 2.8.8 arrangement (in the case where there is only
one electron shell).
Krypton Kr 2.8.18.8
Xenon Xe 2.8.18.18.8
Neon is inert not just because it is a Group 18 element
but because it has a stable octet electron arrangement
Radon Rn 2.8.18.32.18.8 with eight electrons in the outermost shell.
Chemical Bonds 108

electrons respectively. In chemical reactions,
5.1
these metal atoms tend to donate all their
1 The proton numbers of neon and argon are 10 and valence electrons to achieve the stable duplet
18 respectively. Write the electron arrangements of or octet electron arrangement.
neon and argon. Explain why these two elements 6 A negative ion (or anion) is formed when an
exist as monatoms. atom accepts one or more electrons. The ion
2 The electron arrangements of atoms P, Q and R formed is negatively-charged because there are
are given in the table below. more electrons than protons. For instance,
Atom Electron arrangement 2–

accepts 2 10e
electrons
P 2.8.2
8p 8p
Q 2.8.7
5
8e
R 2.8.8
Oxygen atom (O) Oxide ion (O2–)
(8p, 8e) (8p, 10e)
(a) Which atom is chemically inert? Explain your
answer. 7 Generally,
(b) Which atom will take part in chemical bonding? (a) non–metals usually form negative ions,
Explain your answer. (b) charge of negative ion =
3 State two types of chemical bonds. number of electrons received by an atom
X + ne– → Xn–
8 Non–metal atoms from Groups 15, 16 and 17
in the Periodic Table have 5, 6 and 7 valence
5.2 Formation of Ionic Bonds SPM
’08/P1
electrons respectively. In chemical reactions,
non-metal atoms will accept electrons so
Formation of Ions that the ion formed achieves the stable octet
1 Atoms are neutral because the number of
protons is the same as the number of electrons.
2 An ion is formed when an atom donates or
receives one or more electrons. • The term electron arrangement is used interchangeably
3 A positive ion or cation is formed when an with electronic configuration.
atom donates one or more electrons. The • Donate electrons can also be explained as lose electrons
ion formed has less electrons than protons or release electrons.
and is positively-charged. For example, • Accept electrons can also be explained as gain
electrons or receive electrons.
+
• The name of a metal ion is the same as the metal
11e donates an 10e
electron atom. Examples: sodium ion (Na+), magnesium ion
(Mg2+), aluminium ion (Al3+).
11p 11p
• The name of the non-metal ion ends with -ide or
-ate (when oxygen is attached to the non-metal).
Examples: chloride ion (Cl–), sulphide ion (S2–),
sulphate ion (SO42–), carbonate ion (CO32–).
Sodium atom (Na) Sodium ion (Na+)
(11p,11e) (11p,10e)
4 Generally,
(a) metal atoms usually form positive ions,
(b) charge of positive ion = • The duplet or octet electron arrangement of noble
number of electrons released by an atom gases are very stable.
M → Mn+ + ne– • Atoms form positive ions or negative ions so as to
attain the electron arrangement as that of the noble
5 Metal atoms from Groups 1, 2 and 13 in
gases.
the Periodic Table have 1, 2 and 3 valence
109 Chemical Bonds

To prepare ionic compounds
Materials Magnesium ribbon, sodium, 2 The ignited sodium is placed in a gas jar filled with
chlorine gas, iron wool and sodium chlorine gas. Any changes that occur are recorded.
hydroxide solution.
Apparatus Tripod stand, clay pipe triangle,
Bunsen burner, crucible and lid,
sandpaper, gas jar, gas jar spoon,
combustion tube, filter funnel, retort
stand, clamp and beaker.
(A) Preparation of magnesium oxide

5
Procedure
1 A 5 cm length of magnesium ribbon is cleaned Figure 5.2 Preparation of sodium chloride
with a piece of sandpaper. (C) Preparation of iron(III) chloride
2 The magnesium ribbon is placed in the crucible.
3 The magnesium ribbon is heated strongly. Any Procedure
changes that occur are recorded. 1 A little iron wool is placed inside a combustion
tube.
2 The end of the combustion tube is connected to
a filter funnel inverted into a beaker with some
sodium hydroxide solution.
3 The iron wool is heated strongly until it glows.
4 Chlorine gas is passed through the iron wool
while being heated. Any changes that occur are
recorded.
Figure 5.1 Preparation of magnesium oxide
(B) Preparation of sodium chloride

Procedure
1 A small piece of sodium metal is placed in a gas
jar spoon and is heated carefully until it begins
to ignite.
Figure 5.3 Preparation of iron(III) chloride
Results
Method Observation Inference
Heating of magnesium in air • The magnesium ribbon burns with a The white powder formed is
bright flame magnesium oxide
• White powder is formed
Burning of sodium in chlorine • Sodium burns with a bright yellow flame The white powder formed is
gas • The yellowish-green colour of chlorine sodium chloride
gas is decolourised.
• White fumes are produced and deposited
Activity 5.1
as white powder
Heating of iron in chlorine gas • The iron wool continues to glow brightly The brown powder formed is
in the chlorine gas iron (III) chloride
• A brown powder is formed
Chemical Bonds 110

Discussion 7 Sodium hydroxide solution is used to absorb the
excess chlorine gas. Besides sodium hydroxide,
1 When magnesium is heated, magnesium
soda lime can also be used.
atom combines with oxygen in the air to form
8 A filter funnel is used to prevent the sodium
magnesium oxide.
hydroxide solution from being suctioned back
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) into the combustion tube as chlorine gas is very
soluble in water.
2 Magnesium oxide is an ionic compound that
contains Mg2+ ions and O2– ions. Conclusion
3 When sodium burns in chlorine gas, the white 1 Generally, the reaction between metals and non-
powder formed is sodium chloride. metals produces ionic compounds.
2 Ionic compounds such as magnesium oxide,
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s) sodium chloride and iron(III) chloride can be
5
4 Sodium chloride is an ionic compound that prepared by direct combination of the metal and
contains Na+ ions and Cl– ions. non-metal elements.
5 When iron burns in chlorine gas, the brown
powder formed is iron(III) chloride. Metal Non-metal Ionic compound
Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(s)
Sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride
6 Iron(III) chloride is an ionic compound that Iron + chlorine → iron(III) chloride
contains Fe3+ ions and Cl– ions.
Formation of Ionic Bonds SPM

’09/P1
1 Metals from Groups 1, 2 or 13 react with (c) non–metal atoms receive electrons to
non–metals from Groups 15, 16 or 17 in the form negative ions (anions).
Periodic Table to form ionic compounds. (d) positive ions and negative ions are then
2 In the formation of an ionic bond, attracted to each other by the strong
(a) electrons are transferred from a metal electrostatic force of attraction. The bond
atom to a non–metal atom. formed between ions of opposite charges
(b) metal atoms donate valence electrons to is known as ionic bond or electrovalent
form positive ions (cations). bond.
Formation of ionic bond in sodium chloride SPM

’06/P2
1
A sodium atom with an electron
arrangement of 2.8.1 achieves stability after Cl + e– ⎯→ Cl–
it donates one valence electron to form a 2.8.7 2.8.8
sodium ion, Na+. The electron arrangement
of the sodium ion, Na+, is 2.8, with an octet
3 Sodium ions, Na+ and chloride ions, Cl–
of valence electrons.
with opposite charges are attracted to
each other by the electrostatic force of
Na ⎯→ Na+ + e–
attraction. This force of attraction is called
2.8.1 2.8
the ionic bond.
2
A chlorine atom with an electron
arrangement of 2.8.7 achieves stability after
it accepts one electron from a sodium atom
to form a chloride ion, Cl –
. The electron
arrangement of the chloride ion, Cl–, is
2.8.8, with an octet of valence electrons.
111 Chemical Bonds

Formation of ionic bond in magnesium oxide SPM
’09/P1
1 A magnesium atom with the electron arrangement O + 2e– ⎯→ O2–

of 2.8.2 achieves the stable octet electron 2.6 2.8
arrangement when it donates two valence
electrons to form a magnesium ion, Mg2+. 3 The electrostatic force of attraction that exists
between the oppositely-charged magnesium
Mg ⎯→ Mg2+ + 2e– ions, Mg2+ and oxide ions, O2– forms the
2.8.2 2.8 ionic bond.
2 An oxygen atom with an electron arrangement

of 2.6 achieves the stable octet electron
arrangement when it accepts two electrons to
5
form an oxide ion, O2–.
Formation of ionic bond in potassium oxide

1 A potassium atom with an electron arrangement electrons from two potassium atoms to
of 2.8.8.1 achieves the stable electron form an oxide ion, O2–.
arrangement of an octet when it donates one 3 Hence each of the two potassium atoms donates
valence electron to form a potassium ion, K+. one valence electron to be accepted by one
oxygen atom. Ionic bonds are formed between
the two potassium ions and the oxide ion.
K ⎯→ K+ + e–
2.8.8.1 2.8.8

of 2.6 achieves the stable octet electron
arrangement when it accepts two valence
How to Predict the Formula of an Ionic Compound
When drawing the electron 1 Metal atoms will donate their valence electrons to achieve
arrangements to show the formation the stable duplet or octet electron arrangement of the noble
of ionic bonds, gases.
• do not overlap the outermost 2 Non-metal atoms will accept electrons in order to achieve
electron shells of atoms. the stable octet electron arrangement of the inert gases.
• the outermost shells of all ions
3 For cations Mb+ and anion Xa–, the formula of an ionic
must have eight electrons except
compound formed between them is written as
Li+ and H+.
• use ‘dots‘ or ‘crosses‘ to represent MaXb
the electrons from different atoms.
• show the charge of the ions clearly Number of electrons Number of electrons
outside the brackets of the ions. that will be received by that will be donated by
X (or charge of X ion) M (or charge of M ion)
4 The overall positive charge of the cation must be equal to the

overall negative charge of the anion in an ionic compound.
The chemical formula of sodium Hence the formula of an ionic compound formed between
chloride, NaCl, tells us that 1 mol them can also be derived as
of sodium ions combines with 1
mol of chloride ions and it is not 1 aMb++ bXa– → MaXb
molecule of sodium chloride.
Chemical Bonds 112

1 2
Atoms in element J and element Q have proton Element M is an element from Group 13 and element
numbers 12 and 17 respectively. Explain what type X is an element from Group 16 in the Periodic
of bond will form between J and Q. Predict the Table. What is the formula of the compound formed
formula of the compound formed. between element M and element X?
Solution Solution
An atom of J, with a proton number of 12 and M from Group 13 has three valence electrons and
an electron arrangement of 2.8.2, will achieve the will form M 3+ ion. X from Group 16 will receive
stable octet electron arrangement by donating two two electrons to form X 2– ion. The formula of the
electrons to form a J 2+ ion. compound formed is
J ⎯⎯→ J 2+ + 2e– M2X3
5
2.8.2 2.8 Charge of X 2– ion Charge of M 3+ ion
An atom of element Q with proton number 17 and

an electron arrangement of 2.8.7 will achieve the
stable octet electron arrangement by accepting one
electron to form a Q– ion. 5.2
Q + e ⎯⎯→ Q
– –
1 Give the formulae of the ions formed by the
2.8.7 2.8.8 following elements:
(a) Calcium
Two Q atoms will accept one electron each from the (b) Phosphorus
two electrons donated by every J atom. Ionic bonds (c) Sulphur
are formed between J 2+ ions and Q – ions to produce (d) Potassium
a compound with formula JQ2. (e) Nitrogen
[Proton number: N, 7; P, 15; S, 16; K, 19; Ca, 20]
2 The proton numbers of element P and element Q
1 ’02 are 9 and 20 respectively.
(a) Write the equations that show the transfer of
R reacts with S to form an ionic compound with electrons and the formulae of the ions formed
the formula R2S3. Which of the following electron by atom P and atom Q respectively.
arrangements of atoms R and atoms S is true? (b) Draw the valence electron arrangement to
show the formation of a compound formed
between P and Q.
Electron Electron
arrangement arrangement 3 The table shows the groups of four elements in
of atom R of atom S the Periodic Table represented by the letters E, F, G
and H.
A 2.8.2 2.8.3
B 2.8.3 2.8.2 Group 1 2 16 17
C 2.8.2 2.5 Element E F G H
D 2.8.3 2.6
(a) Write the formulae of the ions formed by the
Comments
elements E, F, G and H.
Since an ionic compound is formed, R must be (b) What is the formula of the compound formed
a metal and S must be a non-metal. The formula from
of R2S3 shows that R will donate three electrons (i) E and G ?
whereas S will accept two electrons to achieve the (ii) E and H ?
octet electron arrangement. Hence, R has three (iii) F and G ?
valence electrons and S has six valence electrons. (iv) F and H ?
Answer D
113 Chemical Bonds

3 A Lewis structure is a diagram which shows
5.3 Formation of Covalent only the valence electrons of the atoms
Bonds represented by dots. The Lewis structure of
the hydrogen molecule is
1 A covalent bond is a bond that is formed from
H• + H• → H •• H (or H — H)
SPM the sharing of valence electrons between
’08/P1
non-metal atoms to achieve the stable octet
or a duplet electron arrangement. Formation of a chlorine molecule, Cl2
2 Non-metals from Groups 15, 16 or 17 in the
Periodic Table react with other non-metals of 1 A chlorine atom with an electron arrangement
the same group or different groups to form of 2.8.7, needs to share one electron to achieve
covalent compounds. the stable octet electron arrangement of 2.8.8.
3 Hydrogen is a non-metal element. It can form
5
covalent bonds with other non-metal atoms

from Groups 14, 15, 16 and 17. Examples are
CH4, NH3, H2S and HCl.
4 Molecules with covalent bonds can be formed
from:
(a) Atoms of the same element
Examples: Hydrogen (H2), chlorine (Cl2),
oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2).
(b) Atoms of different elements
Examples: Water (H2O), ammonia (NH3),
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
tetrachloromethane (CCl4).
5 The types of covalent bond formed depend 2 Each chlorine atom contributes one valence
on the number of pairs of electrons shared electron to be shared. The sharing of one pair of
between two atoms. There are three types of electrons results in the formation of one single
covalent bonds. covalent bond between two chlorine atoms.
(a) Single bond: One pair of electrons 3 The Lewis structure showing the formation
shared between two atoms. of chlorine molecule is
(b) Double bond: Two pairs of electrons
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
shared between two atoms.
•
• Cl • + • Cl •• → •• Cl •• Cl ••
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
(c) Triple bond: Three pairs of electrons
shared between two atoms.
Formation of methane molecule, CH4
Formation of Single Covalent Bonds 1 A carbon atom with an electron arrangement
of 2.4 needs to share four electrons to achieve
Formation of a hydrogen molecule, H2 the stable octet electron arrangement of 2.8.
2 A hydrogen atom needs to share one
1 A hydrogen atom with an electron arrangement electron to achieve the stable duplet electron
of 1, needs to share one electron to achieve arrangement.
the stable duplet electron arrangement. 3 One carbon atom contributes four valence
2 Each hydrogen atom will contribute one electrons to be shared with four hydrogen
valence electron to be shared between two atoms respectively to form four single covalent
hydrogen atoms. One pair of electrons bonds in the methane molecule, CH4.
shared between two hydrogen atoms form a
single covalent bond.
Chemical Bonds 114

4 The Lewis structure for the formation of
Formation of ammonia molecule, NH3
methane molecule is
H H 1 A nitrogen atom with an electron
• • • ⏐
arrangement of 2.5 needs to share three
4H • + • C • → H •• C •• H or H ⎯ C ⎯H electrons to achieve the stable octet electron
• • • ⏐
H H arrangement of 2.8.
electron to achieve the stable duplet electron
arrangement.
3 One nitrogen atom contributes three valence
Formation of tetrachloromethane SPM electrons to be shared with three hydrogen
’10/P1,
(carbon tetrachloride), CCl4 ’11/P1 atoms (which contributes one electron
respectively) to form three single covalent
1 A carbon atom with an electron
5
bonds in the ammonia molecule, NH3.
arrangement of 2.4 needs to share four
electrons to achieve the stable octet electron
arrangement of 2.8.
2 A chlorine atom with an electron
arrangement of 2.8.7 needs to share one
electron to achieve the stable octet electron
arrangement of 2.8.8.
3 Four chlorine atoms contribute one valence
electron each to be shared with one carbon 4 The Lewis structure showing the formation
atom to form four single covalent bonds in of ammonia molecule, NH3 is
the tetrachloromethane molecule, CCl4.
3H • + N → H •• N
•
•
•
•
•
•
• H or H N H
• ⎯ ⎯
•
• • ⏐
•
H H
Formation of water molecule, H2O

of 2.6 needs to share two electrons to achieve
the stable octet electron arrangement of 2.8.
electron to achieve the stable duplet electron
arrangement.
3 One oxygen atom contributes two valence
electrons to be shared with two hydrogen
atoms (which contributes one electron
respectively) to form two single covalent
bonds in the water molecule, H2O.
4 The Lewis structure of the formation of

tetrachloromethane molecule is
4 The Lewis structure showing the formation
•
•
•
•
Cl ••
•
• • Cl •
• • of water molecule, H2O is
⏐
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
4 •• Cl • + • C • → •• Cl •• C •• Cl •• or •• Cl ⎯ C⏐ ⎯ Cl •• •
H
• •
H⏐
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Cl •
• •
• Cl •
• •
2H • + •• O
•
•
• → H •
• O
• •
•
• or H ⎯O •
• •
•
•
•
•
•
115 Chemical Bonds

Formation of Double Covalent Bonds Formation of carbon dioxide molecule, SPM
’06/P2
CO2 ’08/P1
Formation of oxygen molecule, O2

1 A carbon atom with an electron arrangement
1 An oxygen atom with an electron of 2.4 needs to share four electrons to achieve
arrangement of 2.6 needs to share two the stable octet electron arrangement of 2.8.
electrons to achieve the stable octet electron 2 An oxygen atom with an electron arrangement
arrangement of 2.8. of 2.6 needs to share two electrons to achieve
2 Each oxygen atom will contribute two the stable octet electron arrangement of 2.8.
valence electrons to be shared between two 3 One carbon atom contributes four valence
oxygen atoms. electrons to be shared with two oxygen atoms
3 The sharing of two pairs of electrons between (which contribute two electrons each) to form
two atoms results in the formation of a double two double bonds in the carbon dioxide
5
covalent bond in an oxygen molecule, O2. molecule, CO2 as shown in the diagram below.
4 The Lewis structure below shows the formation

of a carbon dioxide molecule, CO2.
• • • • • • • • • •
2O • + • C • → O • • C • • O or O == C == O
• • • •• ••
• • • • • • • • • •
4 The Lewis structure showing the formation Formation of Triple Covalent Bonds
of oxygen molecule is
• • • • • • SPM
Formation of nitrogen molecule, N2
•
•
•
•
•
•
O • + • O → O • • O or • O
• • •• • == O •• ’10/P1
• • • •
•
•
•
•
1 Each nitrogen atom with an electron

arrangement of 2.5 will contribute three
valence electrons to be shared between two
nitrogen atoms so as to achieve the stable
octet electron arrangement of 2.8.
In the formation of a covalent bond 2 The sharing of three pairs of electrons
• an atom that requires one more electron to achieve results in the formation of a triple covalent
the stable electron arrangement as in the noble gases
bond in the nitrogen molecule, N2.
will form one single covalent bond. For example:
hydrogen and chlorine form single covalent bonds in
H – H; Cl – Cl; H – Cl.
• an atom (such as oxygen and sulphur) that requires
two electrons to achieve the stable electron arrangement
will form two single covalent bonds or one double
covalent bond. For example:
H – O – H ; O=O 3 The Lewis structure for nitrogen molecule,
N2 is shown below.
2 single covalent bonds 1 double covalent bond
•
•
•
•
••
per oxygen atom per oxygen atom • N • + • N • → ••N •• •• N •• or •• N ≡ N ••
•
Chemical Bonds 116

How to Predict the Formula of a Covalent 2 ’03
Compound
The electron arrangement of atom P is 2.8.6 and
1 Covalent compounds are formed from the atom Q has four valence electrons. What is the formula
non-metal elements (from Group 14 to of the compound formed between P and Q?
Group 17). A QP2
2 The number of electrons required by a non- B QP4
metal atom to achieve the stable octet electron C Q2P
arrangement as that of a noble gas is known D Q4P
as the valency.
3 The valency of a non-metal is (8–x) where x Comments
is the number of valence electrons. Table 5.2 P, with 6 valence electrons, will need to share 2
shows the valency of non-metal elements. electrons in order to achieve the stable octet electron
5
arrangement. Q, with 4 valence electrons, will need
Table 5.2 to share 4 electrons to achieve the octet electron
Number of valence Valency arrangement. Hence the formula of the compound is
Element
electrons (x) (8–x) Q2P4 or QP2
Group 14 4 4
2 electrons to be shared 4 electrons to be shared
Group 15 5 3 with Q by P with P by Q
Answer A
Group 16 6 2
Group 17 7 1
3
4 If a non-metal element M, with a valency of
SPM x, combines with another non-metal element, Element X is from Group 14, element Y is from
’09/P1
N, with a valency of y, the formula of the Group 16 and element Z is from Group 17 of
covalent compound formed will be MyNx. the Periodic Table. What is the formula of the
compound formed between
MyNx (a) element X and element Y?
valency of N valency of M (b) element X and element Z?
Solution
5 Table 5.3 below shows the formulae of covalent (a) An atom of element X from Group 14 with 4
compounds formed between elements from valence electrons needs to share 4 electrons in
different groups. order to achieve the octet electron arrangement.
Table 5.3 An atom of element Y from Group 16 has 6
valence electrons and needs to share 2 electrons in
Non-metal Formula order to achieve the octet electron arrangement.
Non-metal
element, of covalent Examples The formula of the compound formed is
element, N
M compound
X2Y4 or XY2
Group 14 H or Group 17 MN4 CH4, CCl4,
(valency 4) (valency 1) SiCl4 2 electrons required by Y to 4 electrons required by X to
be shared to achieve the octet be shared to achieve the octet
electron arrangement electron arrangement
Group 14 Group 16 M2N4 CO2, SiO2
(valency 4) (valency 2) or MN2 (b) An atom of element Z from Group 17 requires 1
electron to be shared, hence the formula of the
Group 15 H or Group 17 MN3 NH3, PH3, compound is
(valency 3) (valency 1) PCl3 X1Z4 or XZ4
Group 16 H or Group 17 MN2 H2O, H2S,
Z shares 1 electron with X X shares 4 electrons with Z
(valency 2) (valency 1) SCl2
117 Chemical Bonds

4
The proton numbers of element J and element Q The electron arrangement of an atom of Q is 2.8.7.
are 16 and 17 respectively. Explain the type of bond Both J and Q are non-metals and they will form a
and the formula of the compound formed between covalent compound.
J and Q. An atom J needs to share 2 electrons and an atom
Q needs to share 1 electron in order to achieve the
Solution
stable octet electron arrangement. The formula of the
The electron arrangement of an atom of J is 2.8.6. compound formed is JQ2.
Guidelines in drawing the electron arrangement of a covalent compound formed by atom M and atom N.
5
Step 1 Step 2
Determine the number of valence electrons Draw the positions of atom M and atoms
and the valency of atom M and atom N in the formula with atoms N (more
N, then determine the formula of the number of atoms) surrounding atom M.
compound. Example:
Example
Atom M has 5 valence electrons and valency
is 3. Atom N has 7 electrons and valency is
1. Formula of compound is M1N3.
[Proton number: M, 7; N, 9]
Step 4 Step 3
Determine the number of electrons to Draw the valence electron shells overlapping
be shared (= 8 – x) where x = number of between the two types of atoms.
valence electrons.
Draw the electrons to be shared as dot or
crosses at the
overlapped area.
Example:
Step 5 Step 6
Draw the balance of the valence electrons Draw the inner electron shells for atom M
not shared (x – number of electrons shared) and atoms N and the electrons as dots and
on the shell outside the overlapped area. crosses.
N has 7 valence
electrons:
1 shared,
remainder 6
unshared.
Chemical Bonds 118

How to predict the type of chemical bonds formed and the formula of the compound formed
from two elements, X and Y.
Step 1 Step 2
Write the electron arrangement to • If one of the elements (say X) has 1, 2 or 3

determine the number of valence valence electrons and the other element (say
electrons of elements X and Y. Y) has 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons then X and Y
form an ionic bond.
• If both elements have 4, 5, 6 or 7 valence
electrons, or one of the elements is hydrogen,
X and Y form a covalent bond.
5
Step 3
Determine the number of electrons X or Y needs to donate/

accept/share to achieve the stable octet electron arrangement.
Ionic Bonding Covalent Bonding
Formula is Xa Yb. Formula is Xa Yb.
Number of Number of Number of electrons Number of electrons

electrons that atom electrons that that atom Y needs that atom X needs
Y needs to accept atom X needs to to share to achieve to share to
to achieve an donate to achieve an octet electron achieve an octet
octet electron an octet electron arrangement electron
arrangement arrangement arrangement
1 Elements with 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons can only form ionic bonds with non-metals (elements with 5, 6 or 7
valence electrons).
2 Elements with 4 valence electrons can only form covalent bonds.
3 Elements with 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons can form both ionic and covalent bonds.
119 Chemical Bonds

3 ’04
5.3
1 Write the Lewis structures for the following
The diagram shows the electron arrangement of a compounds:
compound formed between atoms X and Y. (a) Hydrogen chloride, HCl
(b) Water, H2O
Which of the following (c) Hydrogen cyanide, HCN
statements is true about the (d) Phosphorus trichloride, PCl3
compound? [Proton number: H, 1; C, 6; N, 7; P, 15; Cl, 17]
A The compound is formed 2 The table shows four elements in different groups
by ionic bonds. of the Periodic Table represented by the letters V, X,
B The compound is formed Y and Z.
by electron transfer.
C Atom X is a metal and atom Y is a non-metal. Group 14 15 16 17
5
D It is a covalent compound. Element V X Y Z

Comments
The diagram shows the overlap of the outermost (a) Write the formula of the compound formed
electron shells of atoms X and Y where the sharing between
(i) V and Z
of electrons is represented by dots and crosses. The
(ii) V and Y
diagram represents a covalent compound formed by (iii) X and Z
the sharing of electrons between non-metal atoms. (b) Draw the Lewis structures for the compounds
Answer D formed in (a).
(c) What type of compounds are formed in (a)?
3 The proton numbers of elements P and Q are 6
Comparison between Ionic Bonding and and 9 respectively. Draw the electron diagrams for
Covalent Bonding the formation of compounds between
(a) Q and hydrogen
(b) Q and P
Ionic bonding Covalent bonding (c) Q and Q
Similarity Atoms achieve the stable (duplet or
octet) electron arrangement after the
formation of bonds.
Difference Involves the Involves the

transfer of sharing of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) are covalent compounds
electrons from electrons between that consist of chlorine, fluorine and carbon atoms
metal atoms to non-metal atoms. bonded by covalent bonds. Two examples of CFCs
non-metal atoms. are CF2Cl2 and CFCl3. CFCs are colourless, odourless
and non-toxic gases with low boiling points. CFCs are
Positively- No charged ions used in aerosol and as refrigerants in air-conditioners.
charged ions are formed. However, since 1992, the usage of CFC was banned
because it was believed to deplete the ozone layer
and negatively- Molecules are
which protects the earth from getting too much
charged ions are formed.
harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun.
formed.
Strong Van der

electrostatic force Waals forces
of attraction holds of attraction
the oppositely- exist between • Metals only form ionic bonding.
charged ions the covalent • Non-metals form both ionic and covalent bondings.
together. molecules.
Chemical Bonds 120

SPM 8 The differences between the physical properties
5.4 The Properties of ’08/P1
SPM of ionic compounds and covalent compounds
Ionic Compounds and ’09/P1
are shown in Table 5.4.
Covalent Compounds Table 5.4 Comparison of properties of ionic and
covalent compounds
Properties of Ionic Compounds and
Covalent Compounds
SPM
’10/P2
Covalent
Ionic compound
Properties
1 The physical properties of ionic and covalent compound (simple
compounds are different because of the molecules)
different types of bonds formed and the (a) Melting point High Low
difference in the structures of the compounds. and boiling
2 An ionic compound is formed when ions point
5
of opposite charges are held by the strong
electrostatic force of attraction. (b) Volatility Non-volatile Volatile (can
3 The ions of ionic compounds are arranged change to
in an orderly and compact manner and form vapour when
large ionic structures. heated)
4 Figure 5.4 shows the arrangement of ions in (c) Solubility Usually Usually
a three-dimensional network forming a large soluble in soluble in
structure in an ionic compound. water and organic
polar solvents solvents such
but insoluble as benzene
in organic but insoluble
solvents in water
(d) Electrical Conducts Does not
conductivity electricity in conduct
the molten electricity in
Figure 5.4 Three-dimensional network of ions state or any state
aqueous
5 Most covalent compounds consist of simple solution
molecules.
6 The covalent bond within a molecule is strong
but the intermolecular forces (van der Waals
forces of attraction) are weak.
7 Figure 5.5 shows the intermolecular forces
Most ionic compounds are soluble in water. However
(van der Waals forces of attraction) between
there are some ionic compounds that are insoluble in
methane molecules and the intramolecular
water. For example, lead(II) bromide, lead(II) chloride
bonds (covalent bonds) in the methane and calcium carbonate are insoluble in water. There
molecules. The dotted line represents the weak are also some covalent compounds that are polar and
intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces). are soluble in water. For example, ethanol, ethanoic
acid and sugar are soluble in water.
• The low melting and boiling points of covalent

compounds are due to the weak intermolecular
forces between covalent molecules.
• They are not due to the strength of covalent bonds
inside the molecules.
Figure 5.5 Types of bonds in methane molecules
121 Chemical Bonds

To study the physical properties of ionic and covalent SPM
compounds ’06/P2
(A) To investigate the melting point and volatility 3 Steps 1 and 2 are repeated with naphthalene
of compounds and hexane respectively to replace magnesium
Apparatus Crucible, spatula, tripod stand, wire chloride.
gauze and Bunsen burner.
Materials Magnesium chloride, naphthalene
and hexane.
Procedure
1 A spatula of magnesium chloride solid is placed
in a crucible.
5
2 Magnesium chloride solid is heated slowly

at first and then strongly. The change in the Figure 5.6 To investigate the melting point of a
physical state of the compound is recorded. compound
Results
Observation
Compound Inference
Physical state Action of heat
Magnesium chloride Solid No change High melting point
Naphthalene Solid Melts rapidly Low melting point
Hexane Liquid Vaporise rapidly Low melting point and very volatile
Conclusion Results
1 Magnesium chloride is an ionic compound and Solubility
has high melting and boiling points. Naphthalene Compound
and hexane are covalent compounds and they In water In organic solvent
have low melting and boiling points. Magnesium Soluble Insoluble
2 Ionic compounds are non-volatile whereas chloride
covalent compounds are volatile.
Naphthalene Insoluble Soluble
(B) To investigate the solubility of compounds
Hexane Insoluble Soluble
Apparatus Boiling tubes and spatula
Materials Magnesium chloride, naphthalene, Conclusion
hexane, water and cyclohexane. 1 Magnesium chloride is an ionic compound and is
Procedure soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents.
2 Naphthalene and hexane are covalent compounds
1 A boiling tube is filled with 5 cm3 of distilled
and are insoluble in water but soluble in organic
water.
solvents.
2 Half a spatula of magnesium chloride solid is
3 Hexane and water form two layers of liquid in a
added to the distilled water and shaken. The
test tube. This shows hexane is insoluble in water.
solubility of magnesium chloride in water is noted.
3 Steps 1 to 2 are repeated with naphthalene and (C) To investigate the electrical conductivity of
hexane to replace magnesium chloride. compounds
4 Another boiling tube is filled with 5 cm3 of Apparatus Crucible, spatula, graphite rods,
cyclohexane (an organic solvent).
Activity 4.2
batteries, light bulb, switch,

5 Half a spatula of magnesium chloride is added
connecting wires, tripod stand, clay
to the cyclohexane and shaken. The solubility of
triangle and Bunsen burner.
magnesium chloride in cyclohexane is noted.
6 Steps 4 and 5 are repeated with naphthalene and Materials Lead(II) bromide, magnesium chloride,
hexane in turn to replace magnesium chloride. sugar and naphthalene.
Chemical Bonds 122

SPM
Procedure ’04/P2
1 Three spatulas of lead(II) bromide solid is placed in a crucible.

2 Two graphite rods are dipped in the lead(II) bromide solid and
the circuit is completed by connecting to the batteries and switch.
3 The switch is turned on and the bulb is checked if it lights up.
4 Lead(II) bromide is heated strongly until it melts. The switch is
turned on again to check if the bulb lights up.
5 Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using naphthalene to replace lead(II)
bromide.
6 Three spatulas of magnesium chloride solid is placed in a crucible.
7 The switch is turned on to check if the bulb lights up.
8 Water is added to the magnesium chloride. The mixture is stirred Figure 5.7 To investigate the
with a glass rod until all the magnesium solid dissolves in water.
5
electrical conductivity of
9 The switch is turned on again to check if the bulb lights up. compounds
10 Steps 6 to 9 are repeated using sugar to replace magnesium
chloride.
Results
Compound State of compound Observation Inference
Lead(II) bromide Solid Light bulb does not Conducts electricity in the liquid but
light up not in the solid state
Molten Light bulb lights up
Naphthalene Solid Light bulb does not Does not conduct electricity in any
light up state
Molten Light bulb does not
light up
Magnesium chloride Solid Light bulb does not Conducts electricity in aqueous state
light up but not in the solid state
Aqueous solution Light bulb lights up
Sugar Solid Light bulb does not Does not conduct electricity in any
light up state
Aqueous solution Light bulb does not
light up
Conclusion an electric current flows through the liquid or

aqueous solution.
1 Ionic compounds such as lead(II) bromide and
2 Lead(II) bromide has a lower melting point than
magnesium chloride do not conduct electricity
magnesium chloride. Therefore, lead(II) bromide
in the solid state but conduct electricity in the
is more suitable for use in the investigation of the
molten state or in aqueous solution due to the
electrical conductivity of ionic compounds in the
presence of mobile ions.
liquid state compared to magnesium chloride.
2 Covalent compounds such as naphthalene and 3 Lead(II) bromide is insoluble in water whereas
sugar do not conduct electricity in any state due magnesium chloride is soluble in water. Therefore,
to the absence of mobile ions. magnesium chloride is more suitable for the
Discussion investigation of the electrical conductivity of
1 Besides light bulbs, galvanometers and ammeters ionic compound in an aqueous solution.
can be used to determine the electrical conductivity. 4 Naphthalene does not dissolve in water. Some
covalent compounds such as sugar are soluble in
The needle of a galvanometer will deflect if
water but they still do not conduct electricity.
123 Chemical Bonds

Explanation for the Differences between consist of a covalent network of molecules
the Physical Properties of Ionic and forming a giant molecular structure. Some
Covalent Compounds examples are carbohydrates, proteins and
silicon dioxide. Strong covalent bonds hold
Melting points, boiling points and volatility the atoms together in these giant molecules.
A lot of heat energy is required to overcome
1 Ionic compounds have higher melting and the strong covalent bonds of these giant
boiling points than covalent compounds. molecules.
This is because the electrostatic force of
attraction between oppositely charged
ions is very strong. A lot of heat energy is Solubility
required to overcome this strong force of
attraction. 1 Ionic compounds are soluble in water
5
2 There are two types of covalent because they can form bonds with water
compounds: molecules but are insoluble in organic
(i) Simple molecules solvents.
(ii) Giant molecules 2 Covalent compounds are soluble in
3 Below are some examples of simple organic solvents because they can form
molecules and giant molecules. Most simple bonds with organic solvent molecules but
molecules exist as gases or liquids while are insoluble in water.
giant molecules exist as solids. 3 Some covalent molecules can dissolve in
water because they form hydrogen bonds
Simple covalent Giant covalent with water. Some examples of these covalent
molecules molecules compounds are sugar, ethanol, acetone and
carboxylic acids.
Carbon dioxide, CO2 Graphite 4 Most giant covalent molecules are insoluble
in both water and organic solvents.
Tetrachloromethane, CCl4 Diamond
Ammonia, NH3 Silicon

Electrical conductivity
Hydrogen gas, H2 Silicon dioxide
1 All ionic compounds can conduct electricity
Oxygen gas, O2 Carbohydrates in the molten state and in aqueous solution
because the charged ions can move freely.
Water, H2O Protein Ionic compounds in the solid state do not
conduct electricity because the ions are held
4 Melting and boiling points of covalent by the strong electrostatic force of attraction
compounds of simple molecules such as in the lattice structure and are not free to
tetrachloromethane, naphthalene, chlorine, move.
bromine and iodine are low because 2 Covalent compounds do not conduct
the intermolecular forces of attraction electricity in any state because they consist
between molecules (van der Waals forces of molecules. There are no freely moving
of attraction) are very weak. Little heat charged particles.
energy is required to overcome the weak 3 A few covalent compounds can dissociate
intermolecular forces. into ions when dissolved in water. So, they
5 The low boiling points of the covalent can conduct electricity in aqueous solution.
compounds cause the covalent compounds Some examples are ammonia (NH3),
to be volatile (easily changed to the hydrogen chloride (HCl) and sulphur
vapour state when heated). Hence covalent dioxide (SO2).
compounds should be kept far away from a 4 Electrical conductivity in the molten or
heat source. liquid state is the best physical property to
6 Some covalent compounds have high differentiate between ionic compounds
melting and boiling points because they and covalent compounds.
Chemical Bonds 124

1 The flowchart below helps us to determine the type of chemicals.
Chemical
Does it conduct electricity in the solid state?
Yes No
Metal Ionic compound or covalent compound
Does it conduct electricity in the liquid state?
Yes No
5
Ionic compound Covalent compound
Does it have high melting and boiling points?
Yes No
Giant covalent compound Simple covalent compound
Does it dissolve in water?
Yes No
Polar covalent compound Non-polar covalent compound
4 ’07
The table shows electrical condutivity and melting points of three substances X, Y, and Z.
Electrical conductivity
Substance Melting point (°C)
Solid Molten Aqueous
X No No No –117
Y No No No 80
Z No Yes Yes 801
(a) State the types of structure and bonding of network of ions held by ionic bonds.
substances X, Y and Z. (b) Substance X consists of simple covalent molecules
(b) Explain why substance X has a low melting point. held by weak intermolecular forces of attraction
(c) Show how the bonds are formed in substance Y that requires little energy to overcome them.
and substance Z. (c) The bonds in substance Y are formed by the
(d) Based on the information in the table, predict the sharing of valence electrons to achieve the
solubility of substances X, Y and Z in water. stable octet electron arrangement. The bonds in
Solution substance Z are formed by the transfer of electrons
(a) Substances X and Y are covalent molecules with to achieve the stable octet electron arrangement.
covalent bonds. (d) Substances X and Y are insoluble in water.
Substance Z is an ionic compound with a giant Substance Z is soluble in water.
125 Chemical Bonds

Uses of Covalent Compounds as Organic
Solvents
• Covalent bonds formed between atoms are very
1 Organic solvents are liquids consisting of strong. When a covalent compound is heated, heat
simple covalent compounds. energy is used to overcome the weak intermolecular
2 Examples of organic solvents are ethanol, forces of attraction which is the van der Waals forces
ether, acetone, benzene, turpentine, petrol and of attraction. The covalent bonds are not broken.
• Some covalent compounds are polar (examples: ethanol,
tetrachloromethane.
hydrogen chloride, ammonia) and can dissolve in water.
3 Organic solvents are used • Some ionic compounds are insoluble in water
(a) to clean or remove stains that cannot be (examples: Al2O3, PbCl2).
cleaned by water.
(b) to extract organic compounds.
(c) as solvents for drugs in medicine or
5
compounds used in cosmetics.

4 Some common useful organic solvents and
their uses are given in Table 5.5. Covalent compound
Ionic
Table 5.5 Uses of some organic solvents Property Simple Giant
compound
Organic solvents Uses molecule molecule
(a) Melting and High Low High

Petrol, kerosene and To remove grease and
boiling points
turpentine paint stains
(b) Volatility Non-volatile Very volatile Non-volatile
Ethanol, acetone To prepare medicated
(c) Solubility Soluble in Soluble Insoluble
solution, perfume and
water, insoluble in organic in both
ink
in organic solvents, water and
solvents insoluble organic
Acetone, turpentine To dissolve varnish in water solvents
compounds such as
shellacs, lacquer and (d) Electrical Conducts Does not conduct electricity
paints conductivity electricity in in any state
liquid and
Ether To extract organic in aqueous
compounds solution
5.4
2 The table shows the number of valence electrons of
Aluminium oxide, silicon dioxide, bromine,
three elements represented by the letters Q, R and S.
ethanol, ammonium nitrate, barium sulphate,
naphthalene, tetrachloromethane, hydrogen
iodide, copper(II) chloride Element Q R S
No. of valence electrons 2 4 7
1 Based on the chemicals in the list above, choose
(a) two compounds with high melting points.
(b) two compounds which can conduct electricity in Choose two elements which can combine to form a
the aqueous state. compound that
(c) one compound which dissolves in water but (a) has low melting and boiling points,
cannot conduct electricity. (b) conducts electricity in the liquid state,
(d) one covalent compound with a high melting point. (c) is soluble in water.
(e) two compounds which can be used as organic 3 Explain clearly why carbon dioxide is a gas whereas
solvents. magnesium chloride is a solid at room temperature.
(f) one compound which cannot dissolve in water Which compound can conduct electricity in the
but can conduct electricity in the molten state. liquid state? Explain your answer.
Chemical Bonds 126

1 Inert gases are non-reactive because they have either (b) Double bond: Sharing of two pairs of
a stable duplet or octet electron arrangement. electrons between two atoms.
2 Inert gases do not release, accept or share (c) Triple bond: Sharing of three pairs of
electrons with other elements. electrons between two atoms.
3 Atoms of elements from Group 1 to Group 17 have 14 For a covalent compound formed by a non-metal
less than eight electrons. These elements will form element P combined with another non-metal
chemical bonds. element, Q, the formula of the covalent compound
4 Ionic bonds are formed between atoms of metals formed will be PYQX. where
and atoms of non-metals.
5 Metal atoms from Groups 1, 2 and 13 will release PYQX
5
their valence electrons to achieve the stable duplet
or octet electron arrangement.
Number of electrons Number of electrons
6 A positive ion (cation) is formed when an atom
required by Q to required by P to achieve
releases electrons.
achieve duplet or octet duplet or octet electron
7 Non-metal atoms from Groups 15, 16 and 17
electron arrangement arrangement
will accept electrons to achieve the stable octet
8 A negative ion (anion) is formed when an atom 15 The differences in physical properties between ionic
receives electrons. compounds and covalent compounds:
9 The positive ions and negative ions are attracted
to each other by strong electrostatic force of Covalent
attraction in ionic bonds. Ionic compound
10 The total positive charge of the cation must be equal Property
compound (simple
to the total negative charge of the anion in an ionic molecule)
compound.
11 For an ionic compound consisting of cations Mb+ Melting point High Low
and anions Xa–, the formula of the ionic compound and boiling
formed between them is written as point
MaXb
Volatility Non-volatile Volatile
Number of electrons Number of electrons Solubility Soluble Soluble

that will be received by that will be released by in water, in organic
X (or charge of X ion) M (or charge of M ion) insoluble solvents,
in organic insoluble in
solvents water
12 A covalent bond is formed between atoms of non-
metals. Electrical Conducts Does not
13 Non-metal atoms share valence electrons to achieve conductivity electricity conduct
the stable duplet or octet electron arrangement in molten electricity in
in covalent compounds. There are three types of form and any state
covalent bond. in aqueous
(a) Single bond: Sharing of one pair of electrons solution
between two atoms.
127 Chemical Bonds

5
5.1 5 Which of the following substances 9 Element P and element Q

Formation of Compounds has particles bonded with very are located in Group 2 and
1 Which of the statements below strong electrostatic forces? ’10 Group 17 in the Periodic
best explains why elements of A Carbohydrate Table respectively. Element

Group 18 of the Periodic Table B Graphite P reacts with element Q to
C Napthalene form a compound. What is
5
such as neon, argon and krypton

are chemically inert? D Magnesium sulphide the chemical formula of the
A Exists as monatoms 6 The proton numbers of three compound?
B Have 8 valence electrons elements represented by the letters A PQ
C Have 8 electrons in every P, Q and R are given as follows: B P2Q
electron shell P: 4 Q: 13 R: 16 C PQ2
D Have weak covalent bonds D P2Q3
What will be the charges of the
between atoms
most stable ions of P, Q and R? 10 Element P reacts with element Q
to form an ionic compound with
2 Which of the following proton P ion Q ion R ion formula P2Q3. If the electronic
numbers belong to an element
A +4 +3 +6 configuration for Q is 2.8.6,
that does not form chemical
B +2 +3 +6 what is the possible electron
bonds?
arrangement of P?
I 8 C +2 +3 –2 A 2.8.2 C 2.8.5
II 10
D +4 –3 +2 B 2.8.3 D 2.8.6
III 18
IV 20 7 The table shows the proton 11 An ionic nitride compound has
A I and II only numbers for four elements R, S, formula X3N2. What is the possible
B I and III only T and U. proton number of atom X if nitrogen
C II and III only is in Group 15 of the Periodic Table?
Element R S T U
D II and IV only A 2 C 13
Proton number 8 11 13 20 B 12 D 15
3 Which of the following Which of the following ions have
statements best explains the 12 Which of the following represents
the same number of electrons
formation of chemical bonds as the sulphide ion? the valence electron arrangement
between elements? ’06 for the compound sodium oxide?
[Proton number of S = 16]
A The elements have high A U 2+ C T 3+ [Proton number: O, 8; Na, 11]
reactivities. B S
+
D R 2– A
B The atoms of the elements
8 The proton number of sodium and
have less than eight valence
oxygen are 11 and 8 respectively.
electrons. ’07 Which of the following occurs
C The atoms of the elements B
when sodium metal is burned in
have too many electrons.
air to produce sodium oxide?
D The elements are
A One oxygen atom receives one
either electropositive or electron from one sodium atom.
electronegative. B One oxygen atom receives C
two electrons from one
5.2 Formation of Ionic Bonds sodium atom.
C One oxygen atom receives
4 Oxide and fluoride ions have the two electrons, one from each D
same number of sodium atom.
’03 [Proton number: O, 8; F, 9] D One sodium atom and one
A charge C neutrons oxygen atom share two
B electrons D protons electrons.
Chemical Bonds 128

13 The following diagram shows the 18 The following diagram shows the
X Y
electron arrangement for the J 2+ electron arrangements of atoms
’07 ion. An atom of element J has 20 ’11 X and Y. X and Y are not the A 2 14
neutrons. actual symbols of the elements. B 4 6
C 14 16
D 18 18
22 Element R reacts with element S

X Y
What is the nucleon number of to produce a covalent compound
Which pair of formula and the
element J ? with the formula R2S3. Which
type of compounds is correct?
A 18 C 38 of the following electron
Formula Type of arrangements of atoms R and S
B 20 D 40
compound are true?
5
14 G is an element in Group 2 and X is A XY3 Ionic
an element in Group 16. Which of Electron Electron
the following is the formula of the B XY3 Covalent
arrangement arrangement
compound formed by G and X? C X3Y Ionic of atom R of atom S
A GX C G3X
D X3Y Covalent A 2.8.2 2.3
B G2 X6 D GX2
B 2.8.2 2.5
19 The electronic configuration
5.3 Formation of Covalent C 2.8.3 2.6
of the atoms of four elements
Bonds represented by the letters P, Q, D 2.8.5 2.6
15 The diagram shows the electron R and S are shown in the table
arrangement of an atom of below. 23 The electronic configuration of
element X. Element P Q R S atom E is 2.8.6 and atom G has
’03 four valence electrons. What is
Electronic the formula of the compound
1 2.7 2.8 2.8.8.2
configuration formed between E and G?
Which of the following pairs of A GE2 C G2E
elements will form a covalent B G4E2 D G2E4
compound?
The atom of element X can 24 The diagram shows the symbols
A P and Q C Q and S
form a covalent bond with of atoms P and Q.
another atom through the B Q and R D P and R
A acceptance of two electrons. 28 16
B donation of two electrons. 20 Which of the following
P Q
C sharing of two pairs of compounds have covalent
14 8
electrons. double bonds?
D sharing of six electrons. I O2 III CCl4
Atom P reacts with atom Q to
II N2 IV CO2
16 An element forms a covalent form a compound. Calculate the
A I and II only
compound with hydrogen. relative molecular mass for the
B III and IV only
Atoms of this element also form compound formed.
C I and IV only
covalent molecules themselves. A 21 C 60
D I, II and IV only
This element may be B 43 D 113
I sodium III chlorine
21 The diagram shows the electron
II oxygen IV nitrogen
arrangement in a compound 5.4 Properties of Ionic and
A I and II only ’05 formed by elements X and Y. Covalent Compounds
B III and IV only
C I, II and IV only 25 Element W and element Y have
D II, III and IV only proton numbers 17 and 19 as
shown below.
17 How many pairs of electrons are
shared by the oxygen atoms in a
molecule of oxygen gas? [Proton
number: O, 8] Which of the following is the
A 1 C 3 correct groups of X and Y in the
B 2 D 4 Periodic Table of Elements?
129 Chemical Bonds

Which of the following are true of C they are insoluble in water. D Magnesium oxide has a high
the compound formed between D they can become vapour melting point whereas carbon
element W and element Y? easily when heated. dioxide has a low melting
I Has high melting point point.
II Dissolves in organic solvents 30 Covalent compounds have
III Dissolves in water low melting and boiling points 33 Element X and element Y form a
IV Conducts electricity in the because compound that has a low melting
solid state A they have weak covalent point and does not conduct
A I and III only bonds. electricity. Element X and Y
B II and IV only B they have weak maybe
C III and IV only intermolecular forces of I hydrogen and sulphur
D I, III and IV only attraction. II chlorine and oxygen
C they are very volatile. III sodium and sulphur
26 Which of the following elements D they cannot withstand strong IV potassium and oxygen
A I and II only
5
will form an oxide that conducts heating.

electricity when dissolved in B I and III only
water? 31 Two elements represented by C II and IV only
A Potassium the letters X and Y have proton D III and IV only
B Silicon numbers as given in the table.
C Hydrogen 34 Which of the following
D Aluminium Element X Y compounds have a high melting
Proton number 16 20 point and are soluble in water?
27 The electronic configuration of I Calcium chloride
element X is 2.5. Which of the From the information given in the II Sulphur dichloride
following statements are true of table, it can be deduced that III Copper(II) chloride
element X? I X and Y will form a compound IV Tetrachloromethane
I X forms a hydride with formula with formula XY2. A I and II only
XH3. II Y can form ionic compounds B III and IV only
II Molecule X has a triple bond. but X can form both ionic and C I and III only
III X forms an oxide with high covalent compounds. D II and IV only
melting point. III element X is a non-conductor
IV Chlorine and X form a of electricity whereas element 35 Element X has an electronic
covalent compound. Y is a conductor of electricity. configuration of 2.8.2. Which of
A I and III only IV the compound formed the following are true of element
B II and IV only between element X and X?
C III and IV only element Y has a high melting I It can form negative ions.
D I, II and IV only point. II It is a metallic element.
A I and II only III It can form a covalent
28 Which of the following B III and IV only compound with chlorine.
statements best explains why C I, II and III only IV It can form a basic oxide.
bromine liquid is very volatile? D II, III and IV only A I and II only
A Bromine consists of diatomic B II and IV only
covalent molecules. 32 Both carbon and magnesium C I and III only
B Intermolecular forces of form compounds with oxygen. D III and IV only
attraction between bromine Which of the following is the
molecules are weak. difference between magnesium 36 Which of the following
C Size of bromine molecules is oxide and carbon dioxide? compounds can be used
small. A Magnesium oxide is soluble in as solvents for covalent
D The covalent bond in bromine water whereas carbon dioxide compounds?
molecules is weak. is insoluble in water. I Water
B Magnesium oxide solid II Ethanol
29 Covalent compounds do not conducts electricity whereas III Benzene
conduct electricity because carbon dioxide solid does IV Tetrachloromethane
A they do not have free moving not. A I and II only
ions. C Magnesium oxide is basic B II and IV only
B they have strong covalent whereas carbon dioxide is C III and IV only
bonds. neutral. D II, III and IV only
Chemical Bonds 130

1 Diagram 1 shows the Periodic Table of elements. The letters P, Q, R, S, T, U, V and W represent elements
and are not the symbols of the actual elements.
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
2 P Q U
3 R S T
4 V W
5
5
Diagram 1
Answer the following questions with reference only to the letters given above.
(a) (i) State the type of chemical bond found in the compound formed between R and T. [1 mark]
(ii) Draw a diagram showing the electron arrangement of the compound formed in (i). [2 marks]
(iii) State a physical property of the compound formed in (i). [1 mark]
(b) (i) Write the electronic arrangement of an ion formed by element Q. [1 mark]
(ii) Q exists as diatomic molecules. Draw a diagram that shows the electron arrangement of
the diatomic molecule. [2 marks]
(c) Can element U form a compound? Explain your answer. [2 marks]
(d) Write the equation for the reaction between V and water. [1 mark]
2 Diagram 2 shows two elements represented by the letters P and Q.
(a) Write the electron arrangement of atom P and atom Q. 23 16
[2 marks] P Q
(b) State the groups of elements P and Q in the Periodic Table. 11 8
[2 marks]
(c) Write an equation for the formation of Diagram 2
(i) ion P. (ii) ion Q. [2 marks]
(d) P can combine with Q to form a compound.
(i) Write the formula of the compound formed. [1 mark]
(ii) What type of bond is formed in this compound? [1 mark]
(iii) Draw the electron arrangement of this compound. [1 mark]
(e) Q can combine with itself to form a compound. State a physical property of the compound formed. [1 mark]
3 Table 1 shows a few properties of substances P, Q, R and S.
Melting point Solubility in Solubility in Conductivity

Substance
(°C) water organic solvent Solid state Liquid state
P 114 Insoluble Soluble Non-conducting Non-conducting
Q 782 Soluble Insoluble Non-conducting Conducting
R 840 Insoluble Insoluble Conducting Conducting
S 2750 Insoluble Insoluble Non-conducting (Does not exist in
the liquid state)
Table 1
Based on the information given in Table 1, answer the questions below.

(a) What type of bond is found in the particles of
(i) substance P? [1 mark]
(ii) substance Q? [1 mark]
(b) Explain why P has a low melting point. [2 marks]
131 Chemical Bonds

(c) Name a substance that has the same physical (d) (i) State two atoms in Table 2 that are elements
property as Q. [1 mark] in the same group in the Periodic Table.
(d) Which of the above substances is a metal? [1 mark]
[1 mark] (ii) Explain your answer in (i). [1 mark]
(e) Give reasons why Q conducts electricity in the (e) Z can react with heated iron to form a compound.
liquid state but does not do so in the solid state. (i) Write the formula of this compound.
[2 marks] [1 mark]
(ii) State one physical property of this
(f) Suggest one difference between the types of
compound. [1 mark]
particles in substance R and in substance S.
Give an example each for substance R and
5 Diagram 3 shows the diagram of the valence electron
substance S. [2 marks]
arrangement of a compound formed by two types of
atoms represented by the letters P and Q.
4 Table 2 shows the number of protons and neutrons
for a few atoms represented by the letters V, W, X, Y
5
and Z.
Atoms Number of protons Number of neutrons

V 3 4
W 6 6
X 6 7
Y 9 10
Z 17 18 Diagram 3
Table 2 (a) What is the formula of this compound? [1 mark]
Use the information in Table 2 to answer the (b) Predict the groups to which the atoms P and Q
questions below. belong to in the Periodic Table. [2 marks]
(a) What is the nucleon number of element Y? (c) Name the type of bond formed in the compound
[1 mark] shown in Diagram 3. [1 mark]
(b) W can combine with Y to form a compound. (d) State three physical properties of this compound.
(i) Name the type of chemical bond found in [3 marks]
this compound. [1 mark] (e) Q is an element that exists as diatomic
(ii) Write the formula of this compound. [1 mark] molecules.

(iii) Predict the relative molecular mass of this (i) Draw a diagram to show the valence electron
compound. [1 mark] arrangement of the molecule. [2 marks]
(c) Name two atoms that are isotopes. Explain your (ii) Explain why element Q has a low boiling
answer. [2 marks] point. [1 mark]
Essay Questions
1 Diagram 1 shows the chemical symbols for three elements: carbon, sodium and chlorine:
Diagram 1
(a) Construct a table to compare the three elements in terms of the number of protons, the number
of neutrons, the electron arrangement and the number of valence electrons. [4 marks]
(b) Carbon reacts with chlorine to form a covalent compound whereas sodium reacts with
chlorine to form an ionic compound. Explain how these ionic and covalent compounds are formed. [8 marks]
(c) State four differences in physical properties between the two types of compounds formed in (b). [4 marks]
Chemical Bonds 132

2 Element Group Period
W 1 3
Y 14 2
Z 17 3
Table 1
(a) With the help of an electron arrangement diagram, explain how two elements from Table 1 can
combine to form
(i) an ionic compound, and
(ii) a covalent compound. [14 marks]
(b) State the differences between an ionic compound and a covalent compound. [6 marks]
3 (a) Using suitable examples, explain the meaning of single covalent bond, double covalent bond and
5
triple covalent bond. [15 marks]
(b) Explain why ionic compounds can conduct electricity in the liquid state and in aqueous solution
whereas covalent compounds cannot. [5 marks]
Experiments
1 A group of students carried out an experiment to determine the types of particles in three compounds X, Y
and Z. The results obtained is recorded in Table 1.
Observation when shaken with

Chemical compound Physical state
Water Acetone
X Solid Forms a colourless solution X does not dissolve in acetone
Y Liquid Forms two immiscible layers Y and acetone mix completely
Z Liquid Z and water mix completely Z and acetone mix completely
Potassium chloride
Table 1
(a) If the experiment is repeated using potassium chloride, predict what will be observed and complete
Table 1. [3 marks]
(b) Deduce the solubility of X, Y and Z in water and in acetone. [3 marks]
(c) Classify the four chemical compounds used in Table 1 into
(i) ionic compound,
(ii) covalent compound. [3 marks]
(d) Potassium nitrate is used as a nitrogenous fertiliser in agriculture. Which of the compounds X, Y and Z
in the experiment may be potassium nitrate? Explain your answer. [3 marks]
(e) Compound Z is used as a solvent in medicine and perfume. Name a substance that may be compound Z. Explain
your answer. [3 marks]
2 Covalent compounds and ionic compounds differ in their ability to conduct electricity in the liquid state.
By referring to the statement above, design a laboratory experiment relating to the difference in electrical conductivity of
ethanol and sodium nitrate. In designing your experiment, the following aspects must be included:
(a) Problem statement
(b) Hypothesis
(c) All the variables
(d) List of substances and apparatus
(e) Experimental procedures
133 Chemical Bonds

CHAPTER FORM 4
6
Electrochemistry

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Number of questions 5 – 1 – – 6 – 1 – 1 4 1 – 1 – 5 1 – – –
ONCEPT MAP
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
types of substances
Electrolytes and non-electrolytes
conversion of electrical energy conversion of chemical

into chemical energy energy into electrical energy
Electrolysis Voltaic cells
can be used
to determine
Electrolysis of molten Electrolysis of aqueous
compounds solution
Various types of voltaic cells: Electrochemical
• non-rechargeable cell and series
products products
• rechargeable cell
• Metals are formed at Selective discharge of ions
the cathode determined by:
• Non-metals are formed • Position of ions in the
at the anode electrochemical series To construct the Uses of the
• Concentration of ions electrochemical series: electrochemical series:
• Types of electrodes • Potential difference • Predict the products of
between two different electrolysis
metals • Determine the terminals
• Displacement reaction of cells
Uses of electrolysis: of metals • Prediction of
• Extraction of metals displacement reactions
• Purification of metals
• Electroplating of metals
Introduction 6 Metals which are conductors are not regarded as
electrolytes because they are not decomposed
1 Electrochemistry is the study of the inter by the passage of an electric current.
conversion of chemical energy and electrical 7 The electrical conductivity of any substance is
energy. based on the movement of charged particles.
2 The energy change in electrochemistry consists (a) In metals, electricity is conducted by freely
of the moving electrons.
(a) conversion of electrical energy into
chemical energy (in electrolysis), (b) In electrolytes, electricity is conducted
(b) conversion of chemical energy into by freely moving ions: positive ions
electrical energy (in voltaic cells). and negative ions.
8 Most covalent substances are non-electrolytes

6.1
6
Electrolytes and Non- because they consist of molecules, which do
electrolytes SPM
’08/P1 not form ions in aqueous solution.
9 Some covalent substances such as hydrogen
1 An electrolyte is a chemical compound which chloride and ammonia are electrolytes
conducts electricity in the molten state or in because they react with water to produce
an aqueous solution and undergoes chemical freely moving ions.
changes. Examples:
2 When an electrolyte conducts electricity, chemical
changes occur and the electrolyte decomposes HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
into its component elements at the electrodes.
Electrolysis is said to have taken place. NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
3 Examples of electrolytes are acid solutions,
alkali solutions, molten salts or aqueous salt 10 Ions are charged (positive or negative)
solutions. particles. All metal ions and hydrogen ions
4 A non-electrolyte is a chemical compound are positive ions (also known as cations). All
which does not conduct electricity in any state. non-metal ions are negative ions (also known
5 Examples of non-electrolytes are metals and as anions). All electrolytes will dissociate into
covalent substances such as naphthalene, cations and anions in the molten states or
latex and sugar solution. aqueous solutions.
6.1
To identify electrolytes and non-electrolytes

Problem statement Apparatus Crucible, spatula, carbon (graphite)
How to identify electrolytes and non-electrolytes? electrodes, batteries, light bulb,
switch, rheostat, connecting wires,
Hypothesis tripod stand, clay pipe triangle and
Substances that, in the molten state or in aqueous Bunsen burner.
solution, conduct electricity and then undergo chemical
Materials Glucose, naphthalene, lead(II) bromide
reactions are electrolytes. Substances that do not
and potassium iodide.
conduct electricity in any state are non-electrolytes.
Experiment 6.1
Variables Procedure
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of compounds (A) To investigate the electrical conductivity of
(b) Responding variable : Electrical conductivity substances in the solid state and in the molten
(c)
Constant variable : Numbers of batteries, state
type of light bulb and 1 A crucible is half-filled with lead(II) bromide
amount of substance used solid.
135 Electrochemistry
2 The crucible with its contents is placed on a clay (B) To investigate the electrical conductivity of
triangle on a tripod stand. substances in the solid state and in aqueous
3 Two carbon electrodes are dipped in the lead(II) solutions
bromide solid and are connected to the batteries, 1 Three spatulas of potassium iodide solid are put
rheostat, switch and a light bulb with connecting in a beaker.
wires (Figure 6.1). 2 Two carbon electrodes are dipped in the
4 The switch is turned on and the light bulb is potassium iodide solid and then connected to the
checked if it lights up. batteries, rheostat, switch and a light bulb with
5 The lead(II) bromide solid in the crucible is connecting wires (Figure 6.2).
heated up until it melts. The switch is turned on 3 The switch is turned on and the light bulb is
again to check if the light bulb lights up. checked if it lights up.
6 Steps 1 to 5 of the experiment are repeated using 4 Distilled water is added to the beaker and the
naphthalene in place of lead(II) bromide. mixture is stirred until all the potassium iodide
6
has dissolved.
5 The switch is turned on again and the light bulb
is checked if it lights up.
6 Steps 1 to 5 of the experiment is repeated using
glucose in place of potassium iodide.
Figure 6.1 To investigate the conductivity of

substances in the solid state and in Figure 6.2 To investigate the conductivity of
the molten state substances in the solid state and in
aqueous solution
Results
Chemical Does the light Observation:
Physical state Inference
substance bulb light up? Does reaction occur?
Lead(II) bromide Solid No No noticeable change Non-electrolyte
Liquid (molten) Yes Brown gas is evolved Electrolyte
Naphthalene Solid No No noticeable change Non-electrolyte
Liquid (molten) No No noticeable change Non-electrolyte
Potassium iodide Solid No No noticeable change Non-electrolyte
Aqueous solution Yes Solution turns to a brown Electrolyte
colour
Glucose Solid No No noticeable change Non-electrolyte
Aqueous solution No No noticeable change Non-electrolyte
Disscussion
1 Electrolytes can conduct electricity because they the ionic bond. The ions are free to move in
have freely moving charged ions. the molten state. Hence ionic compounds are
2 In the solid state, an ionic compound is not an electrolytes in the molten state.
electrolyte because the ions are held together by 4 When ionic compounds are dissolved in water,
strong ionic bonds and are not free to move. the water molecules separate the ions into freely
3 When an ionic compound is heated to its melting moving ions. Hence aqueous solutions of ionic
point, the heat energy supplied overcomes compounds are electrolytes.
Electrochemistry 136
5 Covalent compounds such as glucose and Conclusion
naphthalene do not conduct electricity because
1 Lead(II) bromide is an electrolyte in the liquid
they consist of molecules which are uncharged
state but not in the solid state.
particles.
2 Potassium iodide is an electrolyte in aqueous
6 When electricity passes through molten lead(II)
solution but not in the solid state.
bromide, the brown gas evolved is bromine gas.
3 Lead(II) bromide and potassium iodide are ionic
7 When electricity passes through aqueous potassium
compounds. Ionic compounds are electrolytes
iodide solution, the brown iodine solution is formed.
in the molten state or aqueous solution but are
8 The presence of freely moving ions enable a
non-electrolytes in the solid state.
molten compound or aqueous solution to conduct
4 Naphthalene and glucose are covalent compounds
electricity.
and are non-electrolytes in any state.
6
6.2 Electrolysis of Molten
All liquid or aqueous solutions of ionic compounds are Compounds
electrolytes.
All covalent compounds (except those that can dissociate Meaning of Electrolysis and Electrolytic
to form ions when dissolved in water) are non-electrolytes.
An electrolyte can conduct electricity because it has
Cell
freely moving ions.
• Electrolysis is a process of decomposition of an
electrolyte by an electric current.
6.1 • An electrolytic cell consists of batteries, a
1 (a) (i) What is meant by the term electrolyte?
cathode, an anode and an electrolyte consisting
Give two examples of electrolytes. of cations and anions.
(ii) What is meant by the term non-electrolyte? • During electrolysis, anions (negatively-charged
Give two examples of non-electrolytes. ions) move towards the anode and cations
(b) State the difference between a conductor and (positively-charged ions) move towards the
an electrolyte. cathode.
2 Classify the ten substances below into electrolytes • Graphite or platinum is usually used as
and non-electrolytes. electrodes because they are inert; they do not
Molten sulphur, molten zinc oxide, zinc oxide solid, react with the electrolyte or the products of
aqueous zinc chloride solution, zinc metal, molten electrolysis.
zinc, acetone, aqueous glucose solution, aqueous
ethanoic acid solution, molten sodium chloride.
3 Explain why magnesium chloride solid cannot
conduct electricity but becomes an electrolyte
when it is in the molten state. Electrons flow from the anode to the
cathode through the connecting wire
in the external circuit.
A rheostat can be used to control the quantity

of electric current that flows through the
electrolyte.
An ammeter or a bulb can be used to
indicate the flow of electric current.
• Anode is the electrode connected to the
positive terminal of the batteries.
• At the anode, anions discharge by
donating electrons.
Example: 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e– • Cathode is the electrode that
is connected to the negative
terminal of the batteries.
An electrolyte conducts electricity in aqueous solution or in • At the cathode, cations discharge
the molten state as a result of the presence of freely moving by accepting electrons,
cations (positive ions) and anions (negative ions). Example: Na+ + e– → Na
Figure 6.3 Electrolytic cell
Electrolysis Process
1 In the solid state, the cations and anions 2 When the solid is heated until it melts (in
of an electrolyte are unable to move freely the molten form), the heat energy supplied
because they are held together by strong is used to overcome the electrostatic force
ionic bonds in fixed positions in a lattice. of attraction between the ions. Hence, the
cations and the anions are free to move.
3 Generally, a molten compound AnBm

produces Am+ cations and Bn– anions.
SPM
6
’09/P1
AnBm(s) → nAm+(l) + mBn–(l)
cation anion
4 Two steps occur during electrolysis.
Example: (a) Movement of ions to the electrodes
Cations (positive ions) move towards
PbBr2(s) → Pb2+(l) + 2Br–(l) the cathode (negative electrode) whereas
lead(II) ion bromide ion anions (negative ions) move towards
the anode (positive electrode).
• Examples of cations are hydrogen ions, (b) Discharge of ions at the electrodes
H+, ammonium ions, NH4+ and metal Cations are discharged by accepting
ions such as K+, Mg2+, Pb2+ and Al3+. (gaining) electrons. Generally:
• Examples of anions are Cl–, Br–, I–, OH–, An+ + ne– → A
SO42– and NO3–. Anions are discharged by donating
(losing) electrons. Generally:
Bn– → B + ne–
5 The electrons donated by anions at the anode are accepted by the cations at the cathode.
The discharge of ions at the anode and cathode results in the
(a) conduction of electricity by the electrolyte.
(b) decomposition of the electrolyte into its component elements.
Writing Half-equations for the Discharge of Ions at the Anode and the Cathode
1 The reactions that take place at the anodes 4 Addition of the two half-equations at the
or the cathodes involve ions and electrons. anode and cathode gives the overall chemical
The equations representing these reactions are equation for the reaction.
known as half-equations.
2 The half-equation of the anode shows the Half-equation at the anode:
discharge of the anions by the loss of electrons
to produce neutral atoms. Bn– → B + ne– ………… equation 1

Half-equation at the anode: Bn– → B + ne– Half-equation at the cathode:

3 The half-equation of the cathode shows An+ + ne– → A ………… equation 2

the discharge of the cations by the gain of
Overall chemical reaction equation:
electrons to produce neutral atoms.
Half-equation at the cathode: An+ + ne– → A An+ + Bn– → A + B …… equation 1 + equation 2
1
Write the half-equation for the discharge of oxide Step 2: Balance the number of atoms on both sides
ions, O2– at the anode. of the equation.
Solution 2O2– → O2
Step 1: Write the formulae of the reactant and the
product of the reaction. Step 3: Balance the charge by adding in the right
number of electrons.
O2– → O2
2O2– → O2 + 4e–
6
2
When molten aluminium oxide, Al2O3 is electrolysed, At the cathode: Cations receive electrons
aluminium metal and oxygen gas are produced.
(a) Write half-equations for the reactions at the Al3+ + 3e– → Al ……… (2)
anode and cathode. (b) Write the overall chemical
(Number of electrons donated at the anode
equation of electrolysis.
= number of electrons accepted at the cathode)
Solution
Equation (1)  3: 6O2– → 3O2 + 12e–
At the anode: Anions lose electrons
Equation (2)  4: 4Al3+ + 12e– → 4Al
2O2– → O2 + 4e– ……… (1) Overall chemical equation:
4Al3+(l) + 6O2–(l) → 4Al(l) + 3O2(g)
To investigate the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide SPM

’06/P2
Apparatus
Crucible, spatula, graphite electrodes, batteries, light
bulb, ammeter, switch, rheostat, connecting wires,
tripod stand, clay pipe triangle and Bunsen burner.
Materials
Lead(II) bromide.
Procedure
1 A crucible is half-filled with lead(II) bromide
solid.
2 The solid lead(II) bromide is heated strongly
until it melts to a molten state.
3 Two carbon electrodes are dipped in the molten
lead
(II) bromide and are then connected to
Activity 6.1
batteries, rheostat, switch and light bulb by the

connecting wires (Figure 6.4). Figure 6.4 To investigate the electrolysis of lead(II)
4 Electric current is allowed to flow through for 15 bromide
minutes and the changes that occur at the light
bulb, ammeter, cathode and anode are recorded.
Results
Apparatus Observation Inference
Light bulb Light bulb lights up Molten lead(II) bromide
conducts electricity
Ammeter Ammeter needle is deflected
Anode Pungent brown gas that changes damp blue litmus paper to red is Bromine gas is evolved
evolved
Cathode Shiny grey metal is deposited Lead metal is formed
Discussion 5 At the cathode, a lead(II) ion discharges by

accepting 2 electrons to form a lead metal atom.
1 Solid lead(II) bromide consists of lead(II) ions,
Pb2+ and bromide ions, Br– that are held by
6
Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb
strong ionic bonds.
2 When heated until it melts to form the molten 6 A larger quantity of the products would be
state, lead(II) ions and bromide ions are free to formed at the anode and the cathode if the
move. electroysis is carried out
PbBr2(s) → Pb2+(l) + 2Br –(l) (a) for a longer time period,
(b) with a larger current.
3 During electrolysis, bromide ions are attracted
to the anode while lead(II) ions are attracted to Conclusion
the cathode. 1 The lighting up of the bulb and the deflection of
4 At the anode, a bromide ion discharges by the ammeter needle shows that molten lead(II)
releasing one electron to form a bromine atom. bro
mide is an electrolyte and can conduct
Two bromine atoms combine to form a bromine electricity.
molecule that exists as a brown gas. 2 Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide produces
bromine gas at the anode and lead metal at the
2Br – → Br2 + 2e–
cathode.
Prediction of the Products of Electrolysis formed at the cathode while the non-metal
of Molten Electrolytes component is formed at the anode.
2 Products of electrolysis of molten electrolytes
1 When molten compound is electrolysed, can be predicted by the following steps.
the metal component of the compound is
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Identifying the cations and Identify the cathode and Write the half-equations for
anions that are present in the anode and the movement the discharge of the ions at the
molten electrolyte. Generally, of ions in the electrolyte electrode.
a salt with formula AxBy will to the electrodes. • At the cathode: Cations
produce ions as below. • Cations move to discharge (losing the positive
cathode (electrode charge) by accepting electrons.
connected to the
negative terminal of Ay+ + ye– → A
AxBy → xAy+ + yBx– the battery).
cation anion • Anions move to • At the anode: Anions discharge
anode (electrode (losing the negative charge) by
connected to the donating electrons.
positive terminal of
the battery). Bx– → B + xe–
Electrolysis of molten sodium Electrolysis of molten lead(II) oxide, PbO
chloride, NaCl
1 Cations and anions produced from the
1 The cations and anions produced from molten lead(II) oxide are lead(II) ions, Pb2+
molten sodium chloride are sodium ions, and oxide ions, O2–.
Na+ and chloride ions, Cl–.
PbO → Pb2+ + O2–
NaCl → Na+ + Cl– 2 Lead(II) ions are attracted to the cathode
while the oxide ions are attracted to the anode.
2 The sodium ions are attracted to the cathode 3 At the cathode, a lead(II) ion accepts 2 electrons
while the chloride ions are attracted to the to form a lead metal atom (grey metal).
anode.
3 At the cathode, a sodium ion accepts an Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb
6
electron to form a sodium metal atom 4 At the anode, an oxide ion donates 2 electrons
(grey metal). to form an oxygen atom. Two oxygen atoms
combine to form an oxygen gas molecule.
Na+ + e– → Na
2O2– → O2 + 4e–
4 At the anode, a chloride ion donates an
electron to form a chlorine atom. Two
chlorine atoms combine to form a chlorine
molecule (greenish-yellow gas).
The term electrolysis was introduced by Michael
2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e– Faraday. ‘Lysis’ means loosening in Greek. Electrolysis
means loosening by electric current.
6.2
1 Write the formulae of the ions produced in the molten chemical compounds in the table below. Identify the ions that
move to the anode and to the cathode respectively during electrolysis by completing the table below.
Ions that move to the

Name of compound Ions produced
anode cathode
(a) Zinc chloride
(b) Magnesium oxide
2 For every compound below, write the half-equations that occur at the anode and the cathode, as well as the products
formed during electrolysis.
Half-equation at the Products formed at the

Name of compound
anode cathode anode cathode
(a) Calcium oxide
(b) Aluminium iodide
3 The figure shows the arrangement of apparatus used in an experiment. The switch is turned
on for 20 minutes.
(a) Predict the observations at (i) electrode P, (ii) electrode Q.
(b) What are the products formed at (i) electrode P, (ii) electrode Q?
(c) Write the half-equations for the reactions that take place at (i) electrode P, (ii) electrode Q.
6.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous (A) Positions of ions in the electrochemical
series
Solutions
1 The tendency of ions to be selectively discharged
at electrodes depends on their positions in a
Identifying Cations and Anions in series known as the electrochemical series.
Aqueous Solutions 2 The tendency of the ions to be discharged is
shown below in ascending order.
1 A molten salt consists of one type of
cation and one type of anion only. During Cation Anion
electrolysis, the products formed are the K+ F–
component elements of the compound. Na+ SO42–
2 An aqueous solution is produced when a Mg2+ NO3–
solute is dissolved in water. An aqueous Al3+ tendency Cl–
6
solution of a salt consists of two types of Zn2+ to Br–

cations (cations of the salt and hydrogen Fe2+ discharge I–
ions, H+) and two types of anions (anions of Sn2+ increases OH–
the salt and hydroxide ions, OH–). Pb2+
3 H+ ions and OH– ions are always present H+
together with the ions produced from the Cu2+
dissociation of salts in aqueous solutions. Hg+
This is because water dissociates partially to Ag+
form hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion.
3 The lower the position of the ion in the
H2O H+ + OH– electrochemical series, the easier the ion
will be discharged.
4 For example, in an aqueous sodium chloride 4 For example, in the electrolysis of aqueous
solution, 4 types of ions are present in the sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) solution, with
solution from the dissociation of NaCl and H2O. carbon electrodes,
Na2SO4 → 2Na+ + SO42–
cation anion
NaCl ⎯→ Na+ + Cl– H2O H+ + OH–
H2O H
+
+ OH– The cations present are Na+ ions and H+
ions. The anions present are SO42– ions and
The four types of ions present are Na+, Cl–, H+ OH– ions.
and OH–. 5 Both the Na+ ions and the H+ ions are
5 During electrolysis of an aqueous salt solution, attracted to the cathode. However, only the
2 types of cations will move to the cathode H+ ions are discharged at the cathode because
while 2 types of anions will move to the anode. the H+ ion is lower in position than the Na+
For example, during electrolysis of aqueous ion in the electrochemical series.
sodium chloride solution, the cations that move Half-equation at the cathode:
to the cathode are Na+ ions and H+ ions. The
2H+ + 2e– → H2
anions that move to the anode are Cl– ions and
OH– ions. However, only one type of cation and Hence, hydrogen gas is produced at the
anion will be discharged at each electrode. cathode.
6 Both the SO42– ions and the OH– ions are
attracted to the anode. However, only the
Factors that Determine the Selective
OH– ions are discharged at the anode because
Discharge of Ions at the Electrodes the OH– ion is lower in position than the
The factors that determine the types of ions to be SO42– ion in the electrochemical series.
discharged at the electrodes are: Half-equation at the anode:
(a) Positions of ions in the electrochemical series 4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e–
(b) Concentration of ions in the solution
Hence, oxygen gas is produced at the anode.
(c) Types of electrodes used
SPM
(C) Effect of types of electrodes used ’04/05
(B) Effect of concentration of ions in the P2
solution 1 The common materials used as electrodes are

carbon and platinum because they are inert.
1 When the concentration of a particular type Both of these materials do not react with the
of ion is high, that ion will more likely to electrolytes or the products of electrolysis.
2 The types of electrodes used can determine
be discharged in electrolysis irrespective of
the types of ions discharged in electrolysis.
its position in the electrochemical series.
3 For example, in the electrolysis of aqueous
2 Usually, in the electrolysis of concentrated
copper(II) sulphate (CuSO4) solution,
halide (Cl–/Br–/I– ions) solutions, the
concentration of the halide ion is always CuSO4 → Cu2+ + SO42–
higher than the hydroxide ion, OH–. Hence, H2O H+ + OH–
halide ions will be selectively discharged at
6
the anode. both the anions, sulphate ions, SO42– and
3 For example, in the electrolysis of aqueous hydroxide ions, OH– are attracted to the
copper(II) chloride solution, CuCl2 with anode.
carbon electrodes, (a) If carbon is used as the electrodes,
OH– ions are discharged at the anode
because of the position of OH– ion in
CuCl2 → Cu2+ + 2Cl– the electrochemical series.
H2O H+ + OH– Half-equation at the anode:
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e–
Hence, oxygen gas is produced at the
Both types of anions, chloride ion, Cl– and
anode.
hydroxide ions, OH– are attracted to the
(b) If copper is used as the anode, both SO42–
anode.
ions and OH– ions are not discharged.
(a) If a concentrated solution is electrolysed,
Instead the copper anode dissolves by
chloride ions, Cl–, will be selectively
releasing electrons to form copper(II)
discharged at the anode because the
ions, Cu2+.
concentration of the chloride ions is Half-equation at the anode:
higher than that of the hydroxide ions.
Half-equation at the anode: Cu → Cu2+ + 2e–
Hence, the mass of anode decreases.
2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e– Copper acts as an active electrode here
because it takes part in the chemical
reaction during electrolysis.
Hence chlorine gas is evolved at the
anode.
(b) If a dilute solution is electrolysed,
hydroxide ions, OH–, will be discharged
at the anode because the concentration Generally, in the electrolysis of a halide solution using
of the chloride ions is low and OH– ion carbon electrodes:
• A concentration of more than 0.5 mol dm–3 halide
is more easily discharged because of its
solution is concentrated solution whereby the halide
position in the electrochemical series. ions will be selectively discharged at the anode.
Half-equation at the anode: • A concentration of less than 0.005 mol dm–3 halide
solution is considered a dilute solution whereby the
hydroxide ions will be selectively discharged at the
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e–
anode.
• Electrolysis of a solution with a concentration of
Hence, oxygen gas is evolved at the between 0.005 mol dm–3 and 0.5 mol dm–3 may
anode. result in two types of products: halogen and oxygen
to be produced at the anode.
6.2
To investigate the effect of the positions of ions in the electrochemical series on the
selective discharge of ions and the products of electrolysis of aqueous solutions
How do the positions of ions in the electrochemical 1 Aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution is put into
series determine the types of ions selectively an electrolytic cell with carbon electrodes.
discharged during electrolysis? 2 Two test tubes, filled with copper(II) sulphate
solution are inverted over the carbon anode and
Hypothesis
cathode respectively (Figure 6.5).
If an aqueous solution consists of more than one
type of ion, the lower the position of the ion in the
6
electrochemical series, the higher the tendency it is

for the ion to be discharged.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Position of ions in the
electrochemical series
(b) Responding variable : Types of ions discharged at
the anode and the cathode
(c) Constant variable : Concentration of electro
lytes, types of electrodes,
duration of electrolysis
Apparatus Figure 6.5 Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate
Batteries, electrolytic cell, carbon electrodes, ammeter, solution
switch, connecting wires with crocodile clips and
test tubes. 3 The switch is turned on and electric current is
allowed to flow for 15 minutes.
Materials 4 Steps 1 to 3 of the experiment are repeated by
Aqueous 0.5 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4 replacing copper(II) sulphate solution with dilute
solution, 0.5 mol dm–3 dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4 sulphuric acid and sodium nitrate solution in
and 0.5 mol dm–3 sodium nitrate, NaNO3 solution. turn.
Results
Electrolyte Observation Inference
Copper(II) sulphate At the cathode
solution • Brown deposit is formed Copper metal is deposited
At the anode
• Gas bubbles are formed Oxygen gas is produced
• Gas produced lights up a glowing wooden splint
Colour of electrolyte
• The blue colour of the solution becomes paler Concentration of Cu2+ ion decreases
Dilute sulphuric At the cathode
Experiment 6.2
acid and sodium • Gas bubbles are formed Hydrogen gas is produced
nitrate solution • When a lighted wooden splint is placed near the
mouth of the test tube, a ‘pop’ sound is produced
At the anode
• Gas bubbles are formed Oxygen gas is produced
• Gas lights up a glowing wooden splint
Discussion 8 The ions present in the sodium nitrate solution
are Na+ ions, NO3– ions, H+ ions and OH– ions.
1 The ions present in the aqueous copper(II)
sulphate solution are Cu2+ ions, SO42– ions, H+ NaNO3 → Na+ + NO3–
ions and OH– ions.
H2O H+ + OH–
CuSO4 → Cu2+ + SO42–
H2O H+ + OH– 9 Both types of cations, H+ ions and Na+ ions are
attracted to the cathode. H+ ions are selectively
2 Both types of cations, Cu2+ ions and H+ ions are discharged at the cathode because the position
attracted to the cathode. Cu2+ ions are selectively of the H+ ion is lower than that of the Na+ ion
discharged at the cathode because the position in the electrochemical series. Hydrogen ions are
of the Cu2+ ion is lower than that of the H+ discharged to form hydrogen gas.
ion in the electrochemical series. A Cu2+ ion is Half-equation at the cathode:
6
discharged by accepting 2 electrons to form a
2H+ + 2e– → H2
copper atom at the cathode.
Half-equation at the cathode: 10 Both types of anions, NO3– and OH– ions are
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu attracted to the anode. OH– ions are selectively
discharged at the anode because of the position
3 Both types of anions, SO42– ions and OH– ions are of the OH– ion in the electrochemical series.
attracted to the anode. OH– ions are discharged Hydroxide ions are discharged to form water and
at the anode because the position of the OH– ion is oxygen.
lower than that of the SO42– ion in the electroche Half-equation at the anode:
mical series. 4OH– ions are discharged by donating
4 electrons to form water and oxygen. 4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e–
Half-equation at the anode:
11 Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid and sodium
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e–
nitrate solution is actually electrolysis of water
4 The blue colour of the copper sulphate solution because H+ ions and OH– ions are discharged.
is due to the presence of copper(II) ion, Cu2+. The decrease in the concentrations of H+ ions
The blue colour of the electrolyte becomes paler and OH– ions in the solution results in the
during electrolysis because the Cu2+ ion concen increase of sulphuric acid and sodium nitrate
tration decreases when Cu2+ ions are discharged. concentration during electrolysis.
5 The ions present in the dilute sulphuric acid are 12 The ratio of H2 gas to O2 gas produced is 2 : 1.
SO42– ions, H+ ions and OH– ions. This is because the release of 4 electrons in the
for
ma tion of 1 molecule of O2 results in the
H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO42– formation of 2 molecules of H2 when these 4
H2O H+ + OH– electrons are accepted by 4 H+ ions.
6 Hydrogen ions are attracted to the cathode. H+ Conclusion

ion is discharged by receiving one electron to 1 Electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulphate
form a hydrogen atom. Two hydrogen atoms will solution using carbon electrodes produces copper
combine to form a hydrogen gas molecule. at the cathode and oxygen gas at the anode.
Half-equation at the cathode: 2 Cu2+ ions and OH– ions are selectively
discharged because of their lower positions in
2H+ + 2e– → H2
the electrochemical series.
7 Both types of anions, SO42– ions and OH– ions are 3 Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid and sodium
attracted to the anode. OH– ions are selectively nitrate solution using carbon electrodes produces
discharged at the anode because of the position hydrogen gas at the cathode and oxygen gas at
of the OH– ion in the electrochemical series. Four the anode.
OH– ions are discharged to form water and oxygen. 4 H+ ions and OH– ions are selectively discharged
Half-equation at the anode: because their positions are lower in the
electrochemical series.
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e–
The hypothesis is accepted.
6.3 SPM
’09/P2
To investigate the effect of the concentration of ions on the selective discharge of

ions and the products of electrolysis of aqueous solutions
Problem statement
How does the concentration of ions determine the
types of ions discharged during electrolysis?
Hypothesis
Ions of higher concentration will be selectively
discharged during electrolysis.
Variables
6
(a) Manipulated variable: Concentration of ions in

the solution
(b) Responding variable: Types of ions to be
discharged at the anode and cathode
(c) Constant variables: Types of ions in the electrolyte, Figure 6.6 Electrolysis of copper(II) chloride
types of electrodes, duration of electrolysis. solution
Apparatus
2 Two test tubes, filled with copper(II) chloride
Batteries, electrolytic cell, carbon electrodes, ammeter, solution are inverted over the carbon anode and
switch, connecting wires with crocodile clips and
cathode respectively (Figure 6.6).
test tubes.
3 The switch is turned on and electric current is
Materials allowed to flow for 15 minutes.
Aqueous 2.0 mol dm–3 copper(II) chloride, CuC12 4 Any change in colour of the electrolyte and
solution and aqueous 0.001 mol dm–3 copper(II) any other changes that occur around the carbon
chloride solution. electrodes are recorded.
Procedure 5 Steps 1 to 4 of the experiment are repeated
1 Concentrated aqueous copper(II) chloride using the dilute copper(II) chloride solution of
solution of 2.0 mol dm–3 is put into an electrolytic 0.001 mol dm–3 to replace the concentrated
cell with carbon electrodes. copper(II) chloride solution.
Results
Electrolyte Observation Inference
Concentrated At the cathode:
copper(II) Brown deposit is formed Copper metal is produced
chloride solution
At the anode:
of 2.0 mol dm–3
Bubbles of pungent greenish-yellow gas are Chlorine gas is produced
produced. The gas turns the damp blue litmus
paper to red and then bleaches it
Colour of electrolyte: Concentration of Cu2+ ions in
The blue colour of the solution becomes paler copper(II) chloride solution decreases
Dilute copper(II) At the cathode:
Brown deposit is formed Copper metal is produced
Experiment 6.3
chloride solution
of 0.001 mol dm–3 At the anode:
Bubbles of colourless gas are produced. Oxygen gas is produced
The gas lights up a glowing wooden splint
The blue colour of the solution becomes paler copper(II) chloride solution decreases
Discussion Cu2+ ions are discharged because the position
of Cu2+ ions is lower than that of H+ ions
1 Aqueous copper(II) chloride consists of Cu2+
in the electrochemical series. Hence copper
ions, H+ ions, OH– ions and Cl– ions.
metal is deposited.
CuCl2 → Cu2+ + 2Cl–
H2O H+ + OH–
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
2 Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous copper(II)
chloride solution (2 mol dm–3): (b) The blue colour of the solution becomes paler
At the anode: 2 types of anions, Cl– ions and because the concentration of the Cu2+ ions
OH– ions are attracted to the anode. Cl– ions are decreases when Cu2+ ions are discharged at
discharged because the concentration of Cl– the cathode during electrolysis.
ions is higher than that of OH– ions.
6
Conclusion
1 In the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous
2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e– copper(II) chloride solution, copper metal
is produced at the cathode and chlorine gas is
Hence chlorine gas is produced. produced at the anode. At the anode, the Cl– ions
3 Electrolysis of dilute aqueous copper(II) chloride are selectively discharged, producing chlorine
solution (0.001 mol dm–3): gas because the con centration of Cl– ions is
At the anode: 2 types of anions, Cl– ions and higher than that of OH ions.
–
OH– ions are attracted to the anode. OH– ions 2 In the electrolysis of dilute aqueous copper(II)
are discharged because the concentration of Cl– chloride solution, copper metal is produced at
ions is lower than that of OH– ions. the cathode and oxygen gas is produced at the
anode. At the anode, OH– ions are selectively
discharged, producing oxygen gas because the
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e– concentration of Cl– ions is low.
3 The type of ions that is selectively discharged at
Hence oxygen gas is produced. the electrode is determined by the concentration
4 (a) At the cathodes of both concentrated and of the ions.
dilute aqueous copper(II) chloride solution: The hypothesis is accepted.
6.4 SPM
’09/P3
To investigate the effect of the types of electrodes on the selective discharge of ions
and the products of electrolysis of aqueous solutions
Problem statement (c)
Constant variables
: Types of ions in the
How do the types of electrodes determine the types electrolyte and the concen
of ions discharged during electrolysis? tration of ions
Hypothesis Apparatus
The products of electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate Batteries, electrolytic cell, carbon electrodes, copper
Experiment 6.4
solution with copper electrodes are different from electrodes, ammeter, switch, rheostat, connecting
that with carbon electrodes. wires with crocodile clips and test tubes.
Variables Materials
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of electrodes Aqueous 1.0 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate, CuSO4
(b) Responding variable : Products of electrolysis solution
Procedure
1 Aqueous 1.0 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate solution
is put into an electrolytic cell with carbon electrodes.
2 A test tube filled with copper(II) sulphate solution
is inverted over the carbon anode (Figure 6.7).
3 The switch is turned on and the electric current is
allowed to flow for 15 minutes.
4 Any change in colour of the electrolyte and
any other changes that occur around the carbon
electrodes are recorded.
Figure 6.7 Electrolysis of copper(II)
5 Steps 1 to 4 of the experiment are repeated using sulphate solution
copper electrodes to replace carbon electrodes.
6
Results
Type of electrodes Observation Inference
Carbon At the cathode:
Brown deposit is formed Copper metal is produced
At the anode:
Bubbles of colourless gas are produced Oxygen gas is produced
The gas lights up a glowing wooden splint
Colour of electrolyte: Concentration of Cu2+ ions
The blue colour of the solution becomes paler decreases
Copper At the cathode:
Formation of brown deposit makes the cathode thicker Copper metal is produced
At the anode: Copper anode dissolves to form
Anode corrodes and becomes thinner Cu2+ ions
The blue colour of the solution remains copper(II) sulphate remains
unchanged constant
Discussion 4 The colour intensity of the blue solution

decreases because the concentration of Cu2+
1 Aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution consists of
ions in the copper(II) sulphate decreases.
Cu2+ ions, H+ ions, SO42– ions and OH– ions.
5 During electrolysis, the concentration of OH–
2 During electrolysis, OH– ions and SO42– ions
ions decreases, leaving H+ ions behind. As a
move to the anode. If a carbon electrode is used
result, the solution becomes acidic.
as the anode, OH– ion is selectively discharged
6 If copper is used as the anode, both SO42– ions
due to its position in the electrochemical series.
and OH– ions are not discharged. Instead, the
Oxygen gas is produced.
copper anode dissolves by releasing electrons
to form Cu2+ ions. Hence, the mass of the anode
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e– decreases and the anode becomes thinner. The
types of electrodes (copper electrode is an active
3 Cu2+ ions and H+ ions move to the cathode. Cu2+ electrode) determine the product formed at the
ion which is at a lower position than the H+ ion anode during electrolysis.
in the electrochemical series will be discharged. Half-equation at the anode:
Copper metal is produced. Cu → Cu2+ + 2e–
Half-equation at the cathode:
7 Cu2+ ions are still discharged at the cathode,
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu producing copper metal. This causes the mass
of the cathode to increase and the cathode Conclusion
becomes thicker. 1 In the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulphate
Half-equation at the cathode: solution:
(a) If a carbon electrode is used as the anode,
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
OH– ions are discharged and oxygen gas is
produced.
8 The colour intensity of the blue solution does (b) If a copper electrode is used as the anode, both
not change because the concentration of Cu2+ OH– ions and SO42– ions are not discharged.
ions is constant. The number of moles of Cu2+ Instead the copper anode dissolves to produce
ions discharged at the cathode is the same as the Cu2+ ions.
number of moles of Cu2+ ions produced at the (c) Cu2+ ions are discharged at the cathode producing
anode. copper metal whether the cathode used is a
9 The mass of the electrodes can be weighed before carbon electrode or a copper electrode.
6
and after electrolysis using an electronic balance. 2 The types of electrodes used during electrolysis
10 The decrease in the mass of the copper anode determine the types of ions discharged and the
is the same as the increase in the mass of the products of electrolysis.
copper cathode. The hypothesis is accepted.
How to Predict the Products of Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions
1 ’08
The diagram shows the arrangement of apparatus for the electrolysis of silver nitrate solution.
Write the half-equation representing the reaction at electrode Q.

Comments
The ions present in the electrolyte are Ag+, NO3–, H+ and OH–.
Electrode Q is the anode as it is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. OH– ions are discharged at the
anode producing oxygen gas. (Factor: positions of ions in the electrochemical series)
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e–
The cations at a higher position in the electrochemical series are very stable. These ions are unlikely to accept electrons
to form neutral atoms. Hence K+ ions and Na+ ions are never discharged in an aqueous solution in electrolysis. The
cations at the lower position of the electrochemical series are less stable. They are more likely to accept electrons to
form neutral atoms.
Similarly with anions. Anions at a higher position in the electrochemical series are never discharged in an aqueous
solution in electrolysis. Hence F –, SO42– and NO3– ions are stable compared to the lower anions at a lower position in
the electrochemical series. Cl–, Br –, I– or OH– ions will be discharged instead depending on their ionic concentration in
the aqueous solution.
How to predict the products of electrolysis of aqueous solutions. SPM
’10/P2, ’11/P2
Step 1 Step 2
Identify the cations and anions that are Identify the anode and cathode
present in the aqueous solution. • Anode is the electrode connected to
Generally, an aqueous solution of MaXb the positive terminal of the battery.
will produce ions as follows: Positive electrode attracts negative ions
(anions).
Cation Anion
• Cathode is the electrode connected to
From MaXb : M b+ , X a–
the negative terminal of the battery.
From H2O : H+ , OH–
Negative electrode attracts positive ions
(cations).
6
Step 4 Step 3
Identify the ions to be discharged at the Identify the movements of ions

cathode • M b+ ions and H+ ions move to the
H+ ions are discharged at the cathode cathode.
(producing H2 gas) except if Mb+ is Cu2+ • X a– ions and OH– ions move to the
or Ag+ (because these ions are lower than anode.
H+ ions in the electrochemical series).
• H+ ions discharge by accepting
electrons to form H2 gas.
2H+ + 2e– → H2
• Cu2+ ions or Ag+ ions discharge by Step 5
accepting electrons to form metal atom.
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu Identify the types of electrode as anode
Ag+ + e – → Ag Inert electrode: carbon or platinum.
Active electrode: Ag or Cu.
SPM
Inert electrode ’09/P1 Active electrode
OH – ions are discharged (producing O2 gas) except Anions are not discharged. Instead
if X b– ions are Cl–/Br –/I – of high concentration. anode dissolves to form ions.
• OH– ions discharge by donating electrons to Examples:
form water and O2 gas.
Ag → Ag+ + e–
4OH– → O2 + 2H2O + 4e– Cu → Cu2+ + 2e–
• Cl–/Br –/I– of high concentration discharge by
donating electrons to form halogen.
Example: 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e–.
Electrolysis of dilute acids and alkalis Electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) nitrate
1 Electrolysis of all dilute acids (HCl/H2SO4/ solution, Cu(NO3)2 with copper electrodes
HNO3) and dilute alkali solutions (NaOH/
KOH) is actually the electrolysis of water. 1 At the cathode: Cu2+ ions are discharged.
2 At the cathode: H+ ions are discharged Copper metal is deposited. Mass of cathode
producing hydrogen gas. will increase. (Factor: positions of ions in
the electrochemical series).
2H+ + 2e– → H2
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
3 At the anode: OH– ions are discharged
producing oxygen gas. 2 At the anode: Copper dissolves from the
anode forming Cu2+ ions. Mass of the anode
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e– will decrease. (Factor: types of electrodes).
6
4 The removal of H+ ions and OH– ions from Cu → Cu2+ + 2e–
the solution during electrolysis causes the
concentration of the acid or alkali to increase.
Electrolysis of aqueous silver nitrate solution,
Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium AgNO3 with carbon electrodes
chloride solution, NaCl with carbon electrodes
1 At the cathode: Ag+ ions are discharged.
1 Cations present : Na+ ions, H+ ions SPM
’08/P2
Silver metal is deposited. (Factor: positions
Anions present : Cl– ions, OH– ions of ions in the electrochemical series).
2 At the cathode: H+ ions are discharged
producing hydrogen gas. (Factor: positions
Ag+ + e– → Ag
of ions in the electrochemical series).
2H+ + 2e– → H2 2 At the anode: OH– ions are discharged

producing oxygen gas. (Factor: positions of
3 At the anode: Cl– ions are discharged producing ions in the electrochemical series).
chlorine gas. (Factor: concentration of ions).
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e–
2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e–
Electrolysis of aqueous silver nitrate solution,

Electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) nitrate
AgNO3 with silver electrodes
solution, Cu(NO3)2 with carbon electrodes
1 Cations present : Cu2+ ions, H+ ions 1 At the cathode: Ag+ ions are discharged.
Anions present : NO3– ions, OH– ions Silver metal is deposited. Mass of silver
2 At the cathode: Cu2+ ions are discharged. cathode will increase. (Factor: positions of
Copper metal is deposited. (Factor: positions ions in the electrochemical series).
of ions in the electrochemical series).
Ag+ + e– → Ag
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
3 At the anode: OH– ions are discharged 2 At the anode: silver anode dissolves forming
producing oxygen gas. (Factor: positions of Ag+ ions. Mass of silver anode electrode will
ions in the electrochemical series). decrease. (Factor: types of electrodes).
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e– Ag → Ag+ + e–
such as sodium, calcium, magnesium
6.3
and aluminium are extracted from their
1 Write the formulae of the ions present in the compounds using electrolysis.
aqueous solutions below. Identify the ions that will 2 Electrolysis is used because these reactive
be discharged at the anode and the cathode during metals cannot be extracted from the minerals
electrolysis using carbon electrodes in every case. by reduction using carbon.
Ions Ions Ions 3 Examples are:
Aqueous present discharged discharged (a) Extraction of aluminium from aluminium
solution in the at the at the oxide, Al2O3.
solution cathode anode
(b) Extraction of sodium from sodium
(a) Aqueous chloride, NaCl.
nitric acid
(b) Silver Extraction of aluminium metal from the
nitrate
6
mineral bauxite (Hall-Heroult process)

(c) Very dilute
copper(II) 1 Bauxite is the major ore of aluminium
chloride consisting of aluminium oxide, Al2O3.
2 Cryolite (Na3AlF6) is added to aluminium
2 oxide to lower its melting point from 2000°C
to about 950°C.
3 Molten aluminium oxide is electrolysed using
carbon as electrodes in the electrolytic cell
as shown in Figure 6.8.
The figure above shows the arrangement of

apparatus in an electrolysis experiment.
(a) Name all the ions present in Cell I and Cell II.
(b) Electrolysis is carried out for 20 minutes.
(i) Predict the observations at electrodes P
and Q.
(ii) What will be the change in colour in Cell I? Figure 6.8 Extraction of aluminium metal from
Explain your answer. aluminium oxide.
(iii) Predict the observations at electrodes R
and S. 4 Molten aluminium oxide dissociates into
(iv) Write the half-equations at electrodes P and R. aluminium and oxide ions as follows:
(c) What is the factor that determines the formation
of the products in Al2O3(l) → 2Al3+(l) + 3O2–(l)
(i) electrode Q? (ii) electrode R?
(a) At the cathode: Al3+ ions discharge to
form aluminium metal
6.4 Electrolysis in Industries
Al3+ + 3e– → Al
Uses of Electrolysis in Industries SPM
’09/P1 (b) At the anode: O2– ions discharge to
form oxygen gas
1 Electrolysis process is used widely in industries.
2 Some common industrial applications of 2O2– → O2 + 4e–
electrolysis are
(a) extraction of reactive metals Overall equation of electrolysis:
(b) purification of metals
(c) electroplating of metals 2Al2O3 → 4Al + 3O2
5 The carbon anode is required to be replaced

(A) Extraction of Reactive Metals Using Electrolysis
from time to time because the oxygen gas
generated oxidises the carbon anode to
1 Metals that are very reactive (placed at the
form carbon dioxide.
top positions of the electrochemical series)
Extraction of sodium metal from sodium chloride (Downs process)
1 Sodium chloride is the most abundant and 4 Molten sodium chloride dissociates into
cheapest sodium compound. ions as follows:
2 Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride is
carried out using iron as cathode and carbon NaCl(l) → Na+(l) + Cl–(l)
as anode as in Figure 6.9.
(a) At the cathode: Na+ ions discharge
chlorine
gas to form sodium metal. Sodium metal
is less dense and floats on top of the
electrolyte to be collected.
sodium is
molten sodium produced here
chloride Na+ + e– → Na
6
cathode (iron)
(b) At the anode: Cl– ions discharge to
form chlorine gas. Chlorine gas is a
anode (carbon) useful by-product.
Figure 6.9 Extraction of sodium metal from
molten sodium chloride 2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e–
3 Calcium chloride is added to lower the Overall chemical equation of the

melting point of sodium chloride. electrolysis:
2NaCl → 2Na + Cl2
(B) Purification of Metals Using Electrolysis the anode to the cathode. After electrolysis,
the mass of anode is reduced while that of the
1 Impure metals containing impurities can be cathode is increased.
purified using electrolysis as outlined below. 3 For example, in the purification of impure
(a) The impure metal is used as the anode. copper metal:
(b) A piece of pure metal is used as the cathode. (a) Anode: impure copper
(c) The electrolyte is a solution containing (b) Cathode: pure copper
the ions of the metal to be purified. (c) Electrolyte: copper(II) ion solutions such
2 In the process of purification of a metal as copper(II) sulphate
using electrolysis, metal is transferred from
To investigate the purification of copper metal using SPM

’10/P1
electrolysis
Apparatus 2 A piece of impure copper plate is connected to

Batteries, electrolytic cell, beaker, connecting wires the positive terminal of the batteries. This plate
with crocodile clips, ammeter and rheostat. acts as the anode.
3 A piece of pure copper metal is connected to the
Materials negative terminal of the batteries. This plate acts
1 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate solution, pure copper as the cathode.
Activity 6.2
plate and impure copper plate. 4 The circuit is completed using the connecting
wires, rheostat and ammeter. The two copper
Procedure plates are immersed in the copper(II) sulphate
1 About 200 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate solution. The solution is electrolysed for 30
solution is poured into a beaker. minutes (Figure 6.10).
Discussion
1 At the anode: Copper dissolves from the anode
by releasing electrons to form Cu2+ ions. The
mass of the anode decreases.
Half-equation: Cu → Cu2+ + 2e–
2 At the cathode: Cu2+ ions are discharged by

receiving electrons to form copper atoms.
Figure 6.10 Purification of copper metal
Copper metal is deposited on the surface of the
cathode. As a result, the copper cathode becomes
thicker. The mass of the cathode increases.
Results
6
Observation Inference Half-equation: Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
At the anode: 3 In this process, Cu2+ ions are transferred from the
• The copper anode Copper anode anode to the cathode and are deposited as pure
becomes thinner dissolves to form Cu2+ copper metal. Impurities that are collected below
• Impurities are ions the anode are known as anode mud.
deposited below the 4 The colour intensity of the blue solution does not
anode change because the concentration of Cu2+ ions
remains constant throughout electrolysis. The
At the cathode: Copper metal is rate of formation of Cu2+ ions at the anode is the
• The copper cathode deposited at the same as the rate of discharge of Cu2+ ions at the
becomes thicker cathode cathode.
Conclusion
Colour of electrolyte:
• Colour intensity of Concentration of Cu 2+ When copper(II) sulphate solution is electrolysed
the blue solution ions in the electrolyte using pure copper as the cathode and impure copper
does not change does not change as the anode, purification of copper takes place. Pure
copper is deposited at the cathode.
(C) Electroplating of Metals Using Electrolysis
1 Electroplating is a process carried out to coat (a) The object to be electroplated is used as
the surface of metal objects with a thin and the cathode.
even layer of another metal. (b) The anode is the electroplating metal.
2 Two main aims of electroplating metals are (c) The electrolyte is a solution that contains
(a) to prevent corrosion. For example, iron the electroplating metal ions.
objects are plated with a thin layer of 4 An even and lasting layer of metal can be
chromium or nickel metal to protect the produced if
iron from rusting. (a) the surface of the object to be electroplated
(b) to improve the appearance. For example, is first polished using sandpaper.
electroplating with gold, platinum and (b) a low electric current is used so that
silver makes the surface of the objects electroplating is carried out slowly during
appear shiny and more attractive. the electroplating process.
3 In general, there are three conditions in the (c) the object to be plated is rotated steadily
SPM electroplating of metal. during electrolysis.
’08/P1
Comments
2 SPM
’10/P1
At the anode, the silver foil dissolves by releasing
electrons, thus becoming thinner:
The diagram shows the set-up of the apparatus
used to electroplate an iron key with silver. Ag → Ag+ + e–
At the cathode, silver ions discharge by receiving

electrons to form silver atoms, forming a shiny grey
deposit on the iron key:
Ag+ + e– → Ag
Answer B
What is observed at the anode and cathode after
6
30 minutes?
Anode Cathode
A Shiny grey deposits Silver foil becomes
are formed thicker Presently, plastic electroplating is carried out to coat a
B Silver foil becomes Shiny grey deposits thin layer of metal onto the surface of plastic objects.
The object produced will have the advantanges of
thinner are formed
plastic: light, cheap, resistant to corrosion as well as
C Shiny grey deposits Gas bubbles are having a shiny surface like a metal. As plastic is an
are formed released electric insulator, a layer of graphite powder is coated
D Silver foil becomes Gas bubbles are onto the surface of the plastic, so that it can conduct
thinner released electricity, before electroplating is carried out.
6.5
To investigate the electroplating of an iron spoon with copper using electrolysis

Problem statement
How is electrolysis used to electroplate an iron spoon with copper metal?
Hypothesis
Electroplating of an iron spoon with copper occurs if the iron spoon is used as the cathode, copper metal is
used as the anode and aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution as the electrolyte.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : The position of the iron spoon as an electrode
(b) Responding variable : The deposition of copper on the iron spoon
(c) Constant variable : Type of electrolyte and arrangement of apparatus
Apparatus
Batteries, electrolytic cell, beaker, connecting wires with crocodile clips, ammeter and rheostat.
Materials
Experiment 6.5
0.5 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate solution, copper plate and iron spoon.
Procedure
1 About 200 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate solution is poured into a beaker.
2 An iron spoon is polished using sandpaper and is connected to the negative terminal of the batteries. The
spoon acts as the cathode.
3 A piece of copper metal, as the anode, is connected to the positive terminal of the batteries.
4 The circuit is completed using the connecting
wires, rheostat and ammeter. The iron spoon and
the copper metal are immersed in the copper(II)
sulphate solution. The solution is electrolysed for
30 minutes using a small current (0.5 A).
5 Steps 1 to 4 of the experiment are repeated by
interchanging the positions of the iron spoon and
copper metal, whereby the iron spoon is made
the anode and the copper metal is made the Figure 6.11 Electroplating of an iron spoon
cathode. with copper
Set Observation Inference

6
Set 1: Iron spoon as At the cathode:

the cathode, copper A brown metal is deposited on the The iron spoon is plated with
metal as the anode surface of the iron spoon copper metal
At the anode: The copper anode dissolves to form

The copper anode becomes thinner Cu2+ ions
Colour of the electrolyte:

Colour intensity of the blue solution Concentration of Cu2+ ions in the
does not change electrolyte remains constant
Set 2: Copper metal At the cathode: Copper metal is deposited on the copper
as the cathode, iron The copper plate becomes thicker electrode
spoon as the anode
At the anode:
No noticeable change in the appearance Electroplating of copper on the iron
of the iron spoon spoon does not take place
Colour of the electrolyte:

The blue colour of the solution becomes Concentration of Cu2+ ions in the
paler electrolyte decreases
Discussion 3 The colour intensity of the blue solution does not

change because the concentration of Cu2+ ions
1 The brown metal deposited on the iron spoon is
remains constant throughout the electroplating
copper metal.
process.
(a) At the anode: copper dissolves from the
4 A slow electrolysis process using a small current
anode by releasing electrons to form Cu2+
will ensure that the layer of copper sticks firmly
ions.
to the surface of the iron spoon.
Half-equation: Cu → Cu2+ + 2e–
Conclusion
(b) At the cathode: Cu2+ ions are discharged
by accepting electrons to form copper atoms. 1 In electroplating an iron spoon with copper using
Copper metal is deposited on the surface of electrolysis, the iron spoon is made the cathode
the iron spoon. and a piece of copper metal is made the anode.
2 Copper metal is transferred from the copper
Half-equation: anode to the iron spoon and is deposited as a thin
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu layer of copper metal.
2 In this process, Cu2+ ions are transferred from 3 Electroplating does not take place if the iron
the anode to the cathode (iron spoon) and are spoon is made the anode.
deposited as a thin and even layer of copper metal. The hypothesis is accepted.
Benefits and Harmful Effects of Electrolysis in Industries
1 Table 6.1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of using electrolysis.
Table 6.1 Advantages and disadvantages of using electrolysis.
Advantages of using electrolysis Disadvantages of using electrolysis
1 Electrolysis is an effective method of extracting 1 Electrolysis is a process that uses a large

reactive metals from their compounds. Some quantity of electricity. For example, the recycling
chemical substances such as chlorine and sodium of aluminium requires only 9% of the electrical
can be manufactured in large quantities using energy used to produce the same quantity of
electrolysis. aluminium in electrolysis.
2 In electroplating, the whole surface area of a 2 The problem of environmental pollution
metal such as iron is coated with a thin, even especially in the electroplating process.
6
and valuable metal (such as gold, platinum (a) In the electroplating of iron by chromium
and silver). This layer of metal protects iron and nickel, the waste chemicals contain
from being exposed to air and water so as chromium ions and nickel ions that can
to prevent corrosion. Besides that, the layer endanger human health as well as pollute
of metal also gives an attractive appearance. water sources.
Electroplating can also be performed using (b) In silver electroplating, potassium silver
polymers as the coating material. This has cyanide, KAg(CN)2 solution is sometimes
been used to coat new cars with paint. The used as an electrolyte. The waste chemical
advantage of this process is that it can be done of the electrolyte contains cyanide ions
in water thereby eliminating the use of volatile which are toxic.
organic solvents used in spray-paints. (c) Metal objects to be electroplated are
3 Electrolysis process is used to purify metals cleaned by acids to remove the layer
such as zinc, silver, nickel, copper, lead and of metal oxide on the surface before
aluminium. This process is also known as electro- electroplating. The used acid wastes will
refining. pollute water in the drains, rivers and
lakes, thus destroying aquatic life.
2 Steps taken to overcome the problems of (b)

Waste chemicals in electrolyte from
electrolysis in industries electroplating are treated to remove the
(a) Recycling such as the recycling of aluminium toxic substances before being drained
cans is encouraged to reduce the use of out as effluent.
electrolysis in the extraction of aluminium.
6.4
1 State three main uses of the electrolysis process in (a) What is a suitable metal that can be used as
industries. metal M?
2 (b) State two observations that will be obtained in
this experiment.
(c) Write the half-equations for the reactions that
take place at
(i) the iron key
(ii) the metal M
(d) How will the concentration of silver nitrate
solution change after electrolysis? Explain your
answer.
A student carried out an experiment to electroplate (e) Explain how the student can ensure that an even
an iron key with silver using the apparatus as shown and lasting layer of silver metal stays on the
in the above figure. surface of the iron key.
series) will accept electrons and acts as the
6.5 Voltaic Cells positive terminal (cathode).
5 A continuous flow of electrons from the
Simple Voltaic Cells (Chemical Cells) SPM
’09/P2 negative terminal to the positive terminal of
the cell through the external circuit produces
1 A simple voltaic cell can be made by an electric current.
immersing two different types of metals in 6 The flow of electric current can be detected
an electrolyte and connecting the two metals by the lighting up of a light bulb or the
by wires in the external circuit. deflection of a galvanometer needle.
2 In a simple voltaic cell, electrons flow from 7 Voltaic cells are also known as galvanic cells
one metal to another metal through the or chemical cells.
connecting wires in the external circuit. 8 The potential difference (voltage) of the cell
3 The more electropositive metal (metal that is the electromotive force (e.m.f.) that moves
is at a higher position in the electrochemical
6
electrons and can be measured by a voltmeter.

series) will release electrons and thus acts as 9 The further the distance between the positions
the negative terminal (anode) of the voltaic of two metals in the electrochemical series, the
cell. bigger the voltage of the cell. For example, a
4 The less electropositive metal (metal that magnesium/copper cell will produce a higher
is at a lower position in the electrochemical voltage than a zinc/copper cell.
6.6
To investigate the production of electricity from chemical reactions in a simple SPM

’05/P2
voltaic cell
How does a chemical reaction produce electrical 1 A piece of magnesium plate and a piece of
energy in a simple voltaic cell? copper plate are polished with sandpaper.
2 Both pieces of the magnesium and copper plates
Hypothesis are immersed in 200 cm3 of aqueous sodium
chloride solution in a beaker as shown in
Electric current is produced when two different
Figure 6.12.
metals connected by wires are immersed in an
3 Both plates are connected by the connecting wire
electrolyte.
to a voltmeter.
4 The experiment is repeated using two pieces of
Variables copper plates as electrodes.
(a) Manipulated variable : Pairs of different metals
(b) Responding variable : Deflection of a voltmeter
needle by the electric
current produced
(c) Constant variable : Types of electrolyte and
arrangement of apparatus
Apparatus
Experiment 6.6
Voltmeter, beaker, connecting wires with crocodile

clips and sandpaper.
Materials
1 mol dm–3 sodium chloride solution, copper plates
and magnesium plate. Figure 6.12
Results
Type of metal used as
Observation Inference
electrodes
Magnesium metal and • Voltmeter needle deflects but the • Electric current is produced. The
copper metal deflection decreases after awhile voltage produced is not constant and
decreases rapidly
• Magnesium metal corrodes • Magnesium dissolves to form Mg2+
ions
• Bubbles of colourless gas are • Hydrogen gas is produced
evolved around the copper metal
Two pieces of copper • Voltmeter needle does not show a • Electric current is not produced
6
metal deflection
• No noticeable change occurs at the • No reaction occurs
copper electrode
Discussion
1 The deflection of the voltmeter needle shows that
an electric current is produced. The decreasing
deflection indicates that the electric current
decreases rapidly.
2 Magnesium metal is more electropositive
than copper (at a higher position in the
electrochemical series). Hence, it has a higher
tendency to donate electrons than copper.
3 Magnesium atoms will donate electrons to form
magnesium ions, Mg2+ in the solution, hence Figure 6.13 Movement of electrons and ions in
magnesium metal corrodes. a simple Mg/Cu cell using sodium
chloride solution as the electrolyte
Half-equation: Mg → Mg2+ + 2e–
8 If copper(II) solution is used as the electrolyte,
4 Electrons accumulate at the surface of the Cu2+ ions will receive electrons and are
magnesium metal. This makes magnesium act discharged because its position is lower than H+
as the negative terminal (also known as the ions and Mg2+ ions in the electrochemical series.
anode) of the cell. Copper metal is produced. The overall equation
5 The electrons flow through the external circuit of the cell will be
from the magnesium metal (negative terminal) to
the copper metal (positive terminal or cathode Mg + Cu2+ → Mg2+ + Cu
of the cell) producing electricity.
6 When sodium chloride solution is used as the
electrolyte, H+ ions (from water), Na+ ions and Conclusion
Mg2+ ions move towards the copper metal. H+ 1 An electric current is produced when a chemical
ions will accept electrons from the copper metal reaction occurs in a simple voltaic cell consisting
and be discharged because its position is lower of two different metals, connected by wires
than Na+ ions and Mg2+ ions in the electro externally and immersed in an electrolyte.
chemical series. Hydrogen gas is produced. 2 In a simple voltaic cell, chemical energy released
from chemical reactions is converted into
Half-equation: 2H+ + 2e– → H2 electrical energy.
3 No electric current will be produced if both
7 The overall chemical equation in the cell is:
electrodes are of the same material because there
is no potential difference between them.
Mg + 2H+ → H2 + Mg2+
3 ’04
The diagram shows the set-up of the

apparatus of a simple chemical cell. Metal P Metal Q
A Iron Aluminium
What are metals P and Q?
B Copper Magnesium
C Zinc Iron
D Lead Magnesium
Comments
The diagram shows that electrons flow from metal P to
metal Q. Metal P must be more electropositive (higher
in position in the electrochemical series) than metal Q.
6
This is because the more electropositive metal will release

electrons to become the negative terminal of the chemical
cell.
Answer C
SPM
Different Types of Voltaic Cells ’10/P2
oltaic cells can be divided into two categories as

V
shown in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Two categories voltaic cells

Primary cells Secondary cells
Figure 6.14 Daniell cell using a salt bridge
• Non-rechargeable • Rechargeable cells
cells (cells that can be (b) A porous pot as shown in Figure 6.15.
(cells that cannot be charged again)
charged again)
• Examples • Examples
(a) Daniell cell (a) Lead-acid
(b) Dry cell accumulator
(c) Mercury cell (b) Nickel/cadmium
(d) Alkaline cell cell
Figure 6.15 Daniell cell using a porous pot
Daniell Cell 4 A salt bridge contains inert ions or salt that

does not react with the electrolyte. Examples
1 A Daniell cell has copper metal as the positive are sodium chloride, potassium chloride,
terminal and zinc metal as the negative potassium nitrate, ammonium chloride and
terminal. dilute sulphuric acid.
2 The zinc metal is immersed in zinc sulphate 5 A simple salt bridge can be made by immersing
solution and the copper metal is immersed in a piece of filter paper in sulphuric acid or in a
copper(II) sulphate solution. salt solution.
3 The two solutions of the Daniell cell are 6 A porous pot has fine pores that allow ions
connected using either of the following: to flow through but can prevent the two
(a) A salt bridge as shown in Figure 6.14. different aqueous solutions from mixing.
7 The functions of salt bridges and porous pots are 2 The electrolyte is ammonium chloride in the
SPM (a) to allow the flow of ions so that the form of a paste.
’11/P1
circuit is completed. 3 The cross-section of a dry cell is shown in
(b) to prevent the two aqueous solutions Figure 6.16.
from mixing. This will prevent displace
ment reaction between a more electro
positive metal and the salt solution of the
less electropositive metal from taking place.
8 In a simple voltaic cell made by immersing
both the zinc metal and copper metal in
copper(II) sulphate solution,
(a) zinc metal reacts directly with copper(II)
sulphate solution in a displacement Figure 6.16 Dry cell
6
reaction.
4 When the dry cell is in use, the zinc metal
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu releases electrons and dissolves to form Zn2+
ions.
As a result, the zinc metal will be coated
At the negative terminal:
by a layer of copper metal.
(b) the electric current decreases rapidly.
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e–
9 The salt bridge or porous pot prevents the
zinc from reacting directly with the copper(II)
5 Electrons flow from the zinc metal casing
sulphate solution.
through the external circuit to the carbon rod,
10 When the negative terminal (zinc) is connec
where NH4+ ions receive electrons to produce
ted to the positive terminal (copper), the
ammonia gas and hydrogen gas.
highest voltage produced is 1.10 V if both zinc
sulphate solution and copper(II) sulphate At the positive terminal:
solution have a concentration of 1.0 mol dm–3.
11 The reactions that take place in a Daniell cell 2NH4+ + 2e– → 2NH3 + H2
are as follows:
At the negative terminal: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e– 6 When the cell produces an electric current,
zinc metal dissolves. When the zinc metal
At the positive terminal: Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu casing is perforated and the electrolyte starts
to leak out, the dry cell can no longer be used.
Overall chemical equation of cell:
7 Usually a dry cell produces quite a stable
Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu voltage of about 1.5 V.
12 When the Daniell cell is in use,

(a) the copper metal becomes thicker (mass
increases),
(b) the zinc metal becomes thinner (mass
decreases),
(c) the concentration of copper(II) sulphate
solution decreases, hence the blue colour
of the solution becomes paler,
Dry cells of different sizes
(d) the concentration of zinc sulphate solution
increases.
Dry Cell
Dry cells that are out of electricity (old) need to be
1 A dry cell consists of a carbon rod (positive removed from the electrical appliance. This is because
when the container is corroded, the electrolyte will
terminal) and a metal casing made of zinc
leak out to damage the electrical appliance.
(negative terminal).
Lead-acid Accumulator 6 In the recharging process,
(a) reverse reactions occur at both electrodes.
1 A lead-acid accumulator is made of pieces (b) lead(II) sulphate is converted back into
of lead plates immersed in moderately lead(IV) oxide and hence lead(II) sulphate
concentrated sulphuric acid as shown in dissolves.
Figure 6.17. (c) sulphuric acid is formed.
7 An accumulator normally consists of 6 pairs
of plates and produces a voltage of 12 V.
Other Types of Voltaic Cells
Mercury cell
6
1 A mercury cell consists of zinc (negative

Figure 6.17 Lead-acid accumulator is used as car terminal), mercury(II) oxide, HgO (positive
batteries. terminal) and a mixture of potassium
hydroxide, KOH and zinc oxide, ZnO as
2 When the accumulator is used to produce electrolyte.
current, the following changes occur.
(a) At the negative terminal, a lead atom

donates 2 electrons to form a Pb2+ ion.
Pb → Pb2+ + 2e–
(b) At the positive terminal, lead(IV) oxide

accepts electrons and reacts with H+ ions
in dilute sulphuric acid to form Pb2+ ions.
Mercury cells are small
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e– → Pb2+ + 2H2O
2 Mercury cells are small and long-lasting,
producing a constant voltage of 1.3 V.
(c) Lead(II) ions from both electrodes 3 Mercury cells are used in hearing aids,
combine with SO42– ions in sulphuric acid digital watches and heart pacemakers.
to produce lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4.
Pb2+ + SO42– → PbSO4 Alkaline cell
The overall chemical reaction is represented

by the equation below:
Pb + PbO2 + 4H+ + 2SO42– → 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
3 In this reaction, sulphuric acid is used up and

water is produced. Hence, sulphuric acid
becomes more dilute and its density decreases.
4 Lead(II) sulphate is insoluble and exists as a
white precipitate. When the precipitate covers 1 Alkaline cells are non-rechargeable cells.
the surface of both electrodes, further reaction 2 An alkaline cell consists of zinc (negative
is prevented and no electric current will be terminal), carbon rod (positive terminal)
produced. surrounded by manganese(IV) oxide, MnO2
5 The accumulator can be recharged by passing and alkali (potassium hydroxide and sodium
an electric current in the opposite direction hydroxide) as the electrolyte.
to renew the cell.
Nickel-cadmium cell
A nickel-cadmium cell Other new types of cells include

consists of cadmium lithium ion, nickel hydride and
polymeric cells. These cells are
(negative terminal),
rechargeable cells. Unlike the
nickel(IV) oxide, NiO2 lithium ion and nickel hydride cells
(positive terminal) which require battery casings, the
and alkali, potassium polymeric cell is flexible and can
Nickel-cadmium cells are
hydroxide, KOH as the be specifically shaped to fit the
rechargeable cells electrolyte. device it will power.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Types of Voltaic Cells
6
Table 6.3 Advantages and disadvantages of various types of voltaic cells
Type of cell Advantages Disadvantages
1 Daniell cell • Can be prepared easily in the • A type of wet cell, the electrolyte
laboratory spills easily
• Voltage is not constant
2 Dry cell • Cheap • Does not last long

• No spillage as it is a dry cell • Cannot be recharged
• Produces a moderately constant • Zinc metal casing dissolves and the
current and voltage electrolyte that leaks out may corrode
• Portable, can be carried around easily electrical instruments
• Available in different sizes • Current and voltage produced is low
3 Alkaline cell • Lasts longer than a dry cell • Cannot be recharged

• Produces a higher and more stable • Cost more than a dry cell
voltage • If leakage occurs, electrolyte is
• Portable corrosive
4 Mercury cell • Can be made into very small sizes • Expensive

• Produce a constant voltage for a long • Cannot be recharged
period • Mercury which is produced is toxic
• Can last for a long period of time
5 Lead-acid accumulator • Can be recharged repeatedly • Acid may spill

• Produces a high current (175 A), • Heavy and is difficult to be carried
suitable for heavy work such as around
starting a car engine • Loss of charge occurs if not used for a
• Produce a high voltage (12 V) for a long time
long period • Lead plates are easily corroded after a
long period of usage
6 Nickel-cadmium cell • Can be charged repeatedly • Expensive

• No spillage occurs because it is a dry • Requires a transformer for the
cell recharging process
• The size is smaller that an accumulator
Comparison of Voltaic Cells and Electrolytic Cells SPM
’10/P2
1 Table 6.4 below shows several similarities and differences between an electrolytic cell and a voltaic cell.
Table 6.4
Electrolytic cell Voltaic cell
Figure 6.18 Electrolytic cell Figure 6.19 Voltaic cell

6
Similarities
• Contains an electrolyte • Positive ions and negative ions move in the

• Consists of an anode and a cathode electrolyte
• Electrons move from the anode to the cathode in • Chemical reactions involve the donation (at the
the external circuit (connecting wires) anode) or acceptance (at the cathode) of electrons
Differences
Electrolytic cell Voltaic cell
• A battery is required to supply • A battery is not required to

electrical energy supply electrical energy
• Graphite (carbon) is usually • Graphite (carbon) is not used

Basic structure
used as electrodes as electrodes
• Electrodes are not made up of • Electrodes are made up of two

different metals different metals
• Electrical energy is converted Energy conversion • Chemical energy is converted

into chemical energy into electrical energy
• Anode (positive electrode): • Cathode (positive electrode):

Anions (negative ions) lose Transfer of electrons at Oxidising agent accepts
electrons at the anode the positive electrode electrons from the cathode
2X – → X2 + 2e– ... oxidation Cu+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)
… reduction
• Cathode (negative • Anode (negative electrode):

electrode): Cations (positive Transfer of electrons Reducing agent releases
ions) accept electrons from the at the negative electrons
cathode electrode
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
Y 2+ + 2e– → Y ... reduction … oxidation
• Electrons flow from the anode • Electrons flow from the anode
Transfer of electrons
(positive electrode) to the (negative electrode) to the
in the external circuit
cathode (negative electrode) cathode (positive electrode)
The table shows the differences between the terminals in voltaic and electrolytic cells as a result of the transfer of electrons.
Transfer of electrons
Electrons are donated Electrons are accepted
Type of cells
Voltaic cells At the negative terminal (anode) At the positive terminal (cathode)
Electrolytic cells At the positive terminal (anode) At the negative terminal (cathode)
6.5
6
1 (a) Draw the circuit diagram for a simple voltaic (d) Predict the observations obtained after the
cell consisting of iron metal, copper metal and voltaic cell is used for some time.
copper(II) sulphate solution. Show the direction 2 Compare the advantages and disadvantages of dry
of the flow of electrons in the circuit diagram. cells and alkaline cells.
(b) Which metal serves as the negative terminal?
3 Give an example of a voltaic cell that can be recharged.
(c) Write the half-equations for the reactions that
Explain how the reactions occur at the positive terminal
occur at both electrodes.
and the negative terminal to produce an electric current.
4 The electrochemical series can be constructed

6.6 The Electrochemical by two methods.
Series (a) The potential difference (voltage difference)
between pairs of metals
1 The electrochemical series is an arrangement (b) The ability of a metal to displace another
of elements according to their tendencies to metal from its salt solution.
form ions.
2 In the electrochemical series, a metal that has (A) To Construct the Electrochemical
a higher tendency to ionise and form positive Series Based on the Potential SPM
’08/P1
ions (by releasing electrons) is placed at a higher Difference (Voltage Difference) ’09/P2
position in the series. Hence, metal ions at
the upper positions of the electrochemical 1 Metals are arranged in the electrochemical
series are less likely to receive electrons to series according to their tendencies to donate
form metal atoms. electrons to form cations.
3 Part of the electrochemical series (for metal 2 The electrochemical series can be constructed
elements) is shown below. based on the measurement of the potential
difference between two metals in voltaic cells.
Metals Positive ions (cations) 3 When two different metals (immersed in their
K ⎯⎯⎯→ K+ + e– respective salt solutions) are connected in the
Na ⎯⎯⎯→ Na+ + e– external circuit through a voltmeter and a salt
Ca ⎯⎯⎯→ Ca2+ + 2e– Tendency bridge:
Tendency (a) The metal that serves as the negative terminal
of metal
Mg ⎯⎯⎯→ Mg2+ + 2e– of cations
Al ⎯⎯⎯→ Al3+ + 3e– to accept
of the voltaic cell has a higher tendency to
atoms to
Zn ⎯⎯⎯→ Zn2+ + 2e– electrons release electrons. Hence, that metal is placed
donate
Fe ⎯⎯⎯→ Fe2+ + 2e– to form at a higher position in the electrochemical
electrons
to form Sn ⎯⎯⎯→ Sn2+ + 2e– metals series. Conversely, the metal that serves as
ions Pb ⎯⎯⎯→ Pb2+ + 2e– increases the positive terminal is placed at a lower
increases H ⎯⎯⎯→ H+ + e– position in the electrochemical series.
Cu ⎯⎯⎯→ Cu2+ + 2e– (b) The further apart the positions of two
Ag ⎯⎯⎯→ Ag+ + e– metals in the electrochemical series, the
greater the potential difference (voltage).
6.7
To construct the electrochemical series through the potential difference (voltage) SPM
’06/07
of pairs of metals P3

How to construct the electrochemical series based
on the measurement of the potential differences
between pairs of metals in simple voltaic cells?
Hypothesis
Two principles are used in the construction of the
electrochemical series:
6
(a) A metal that serves as the negative terminal

of a cell is placed at a higher position in the Figure 6.20
(b) The bigger the voltage differences of the voltaic 1 Pieces of zinc, magnesium, iron, aluminium and
cells, the further apart the positions of the two silver metals are polished with sandpaper.
metals in the electrochemical series. 2 A piece of zinc metal and a piece of copper metal
are connected to a voltmeter by the connecting
Variables wires with crocodile clips.
(a) Manipulated variable : Pairs of metals as elec- 3 The two metals are then dipped in the sodium
trodes chloride solution in a beaker as shown in
(b) Responding variable : Voltage values of voltaic Figure 6.20.
cells 4 The highest cell voltage obtained is recorded.
(c) Constant variables : Type and concentra tion 5 The direction of the flow of electrons is also noted
of electrolytes to determine the terminals of the voltaic cell.
Apparatus Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the
positive terminal. If the voltmeter reading shows
Voltmeter, beaker, connecting wires with crocodile
a negative value, the metal pairs connected to the
clips and sandpaper.
terminals of the voltmeter should be reversed.
Materials 6 Zinc metal is then replaced by other metals in
Sodium chloride solution of 1.0 mol dm–3, pieces of turn: magnesium, iron, aluminium and silver.
copper, zinc, magnesium, iron, aluminium and silver The highest cell voltage of every pair of metals
metals. is recorded.
Results
Pairs of metals Positive terminal Negative terminal Potential difference (V)
Zn/Cu Copper Zinc 1.1
Mg/Cu Copper Magnesium 2.7
Fe/Cu Copper Iron 0.8
Al/Cu Copper Aluminium 2.0
Ag/Cu Silver Copper 1.1
Experiment 6.7
Conclusion 2 Silver serves as the positive terminal when it is

connected to copper. Hence, silver is placed at a
1 Copper metal serves as the positive terminal of
lower position than copper in the electrochemical
the voltaic cells when paired with zinc, magne
series.
sium, iron and aluminium metal. Hence, copper
3 The further apart the distance between the metals
is at a lower position than zinc, magnesium, iron
in the electrochemical series, the greater the
and aluminium in the electrochemical series.
potential difference (voltage).
4 The arrangement of the metals in the electrochemical series based on the voltage (potential difference)
of the cell is as follows:
Magnesium
Aluminium
2.0 V 2.7 V
Higher tendency The bigger the voltage
Zinc reading, the further the
to release
1.1 V
electrons distance between the
Iron
metals
0.8 V
Copper
1.1 V
Silver
6
4 SPM
’10/P1
The table shows information about three simple cells. Comments

• In the metal pair of P and Q, P is the positive
Potential Positive terminal. Hence P is placed below Q in the
Metal pairs
difference (V) terminal electrochemical series. Similarly, S is placed below
P and Q 1.7 P Q in the electrochemical series.
• The potential difference between Q and S is bigger
Q and S 2.1 S than that between Q and P. Thus S is placed below P.
R and S 0.6 R • In the metal pair R and S, R is the positive terminal.
Hence R is placed below S.
What is the potential difference of the metal pair P • The arrangement of the metals according to their
and R? increasing tendencies to form metal ions is as
follows:
Q
1.7 V 2.1 V
Higher tendency to release P The bigger the voltage reading, the
electrons further the distance between the
S metals.
0.6 V
R
Answer The potential difference between P and R = (2.1 – 1.7) + 0.6 = 1.0 V
(B) To Construct the Electrochemical (a) metal M is more likely to release electrons
Series from the Displacement than metal N.
Reactions of Metals (b) metal M is more electropositive than
metal N.
1 The electrochemical series can also be (c) metal M is placed at a higher position than
constructed based on the ability of a metal metal N in the electrochemical series.
to displace another metal from its salt 3 Alternatively, if metal P is immersed in an
solution. aqueous Q2+ ion solution and no reaction
2 If metal M can displace metal N from an takes place, then metal P is at a lower position
aqueous N salt solution, then than metal Q in the electrochemical series.
6.8
SPM
’08/P2,
To construct the electrochemical series from displacement reactions ’07/P1,
’04/P2
Problem statement 3 A piece of magnesium metal is placed in the

How to construct the electrochemical series based on solution of every test tube except that of its salt
the ability of a metal to displace another metal from solution (Figure 6.21).
its salt solution?
Hypothesis
A metal that can displace another metal from its
salt solution is placed at a higher position in the
electrochemical series. The greater the number of metals
6
that can be displaced by a metal from their solutions, the

higher its position in the electrochemical series.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Different types of metal
and their salt solutions
(b) Responding variable : Deposition of metals or
colour change in the salt
solutions
(c) Constant variable : Concentration of nitrate
salt solutions
Apparatus Figure 6.21
Test tubes, test-tube rack and sandpaper. 4 Observations are made after awhile to check if
Materials (a) there is any colour change in the solution,
(b) there are any solid deposits on the
Pieces of magnesium, zinc, iron, tin, lead and copper
magnesium metal,
metals, solutions of copper(II) nitrate, lead(II)
(c) magnesium metal dissolves.
nitrate, tin(II) nitrate, iron(II) nitrate, zinc nitrate and
5 If any of the above occurrences (a), (b) or (c)
magnesium nitrate (concentration and volume of all salt
is observed, displacement reaction has taken
solutions are 0.5 mol dm–3 and 10 cm3 respectively).
place: a tick symbol, (✓) is marked in the table
Procedure of results.
1 Pieces of magnesium, zinc, copper, tin, lead and 6 If there is no noticeable observation, a cross
iron metals are polished with sandpaper. symbol, (✗) is marked at the table to indicate that
2 10 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 solutions of copper(II) displacement reaction did not take place.
nitrate, lead(II) nitrate, tin(II) nitrate, iron(II) 7 The experiment is repeated using different
nitrate, zinc nitrate and magnesium nitrate are metals and fresh solutions of ions. The results of
placed into separate test tubes. the experiment are shown in the table below.
Results
Solution
Cu(NO3)2 Pb(NO3)2 Sn(NO3)2 Fe(NO3)2 Zn(NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2
Metal
Magnesium, Mg ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ –
Experiment 6.8
Zinc, Zn ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – ✗
Iron, Fe ✓ ✓ ✓ – ✗ ✗
Tin, Sn ✓ ✓ – ✗ ✗ ✗
Lead, Pb ✓ – ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Copper, Cu – ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗ ✗
Conclusion 4 The result of the experiment shows that the
order of the positions of the metals in the
1 Metals can be arranged according to the number
electrochemical series is:
of tick symbols (3) recorded (or the number of
metals displaced in reactions). The more (3)
Mg Zn Fe Sn Pb Cu
symbols, the more reactive the metal is and
the position of the metal is placed higher in the
Electropositivity of metal decreases
2 Magnesium is placed at the highest position in
5 The electrochemical series can be constructed
the electrochemical series because it can displace
from displacement reactions.
all the other metals from their solutions.
3 Copper is placed at the lowest position in the
electrochemical series because copper cannot
displace any other metals in this experiment.
6
The Uses of the Electrochemical Series
To determine the terminals of voltaic cells To predict the ability of a metal to displace
another metal from its salt solution
1 When two different metals are connected by
wires and then immersed in an electrolyte, 1 A metal that is at a higher position in the
a simple voltaic cell is formed. The metal electrochemical series can displace another
that is placed at a higher position in the metal that is lower than itself in the electro
electrochemical series will become the chemical series from its salt solution.
negative terminal of the cell. The metal that 2 For example, aluminium is above iron in the
is placed lower in the electrochemical series electrochemical series, hence aluminium can
will become the positive terminal of the cell. displace iron from an iron(II) salt solution
2 The metal that is placed higher in the (such as iron(II) sulphate solution).
electrochemical series is more electropositive
and has a higher tendency to release electrons.
Electrons will flow from the negative terminal
to the positive terminal.
3 For example, in the zinc/copper simple To predict whether a metal can displace
voltaic cell, zinc metal will become the hydrogen from an acid
negative terminal of the cell because zinc is
above copper in the electrochemical series. 1 Hydrogen ion is placed between lead(II) ion
Copper metal will become the positive and copper(II) ion in the electrochemical
terminal of the cell. series.
2 All other metals that are placed at higher
positions than hydrogen ion in the
electrochemical series can displace hydrogen
To compare the standard voltage of from acids.
SPM
the voltaic cell ’09/P1 For example, zinc is above hydrogen in
1 The further the distance between two the electrochemical series; hence zinc can
metals in the electrochemical series, the displace hydrogen from hydrochloric acid.
greater the cell voltage will be.
2 For example, the distance between magnesium Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
and copper is further than that between
zinc and copper in the electrochemical 3 Metals below hydrogen ion in the electro
series. Hence the cell voltage produced by chemical series cannot displace hydrogen
a magnesium/copper voltaic cell is greater from acids. Examples are copper, mercury
than that from a zinc/copper voltaic cell. and silver.
6.9
To confirm the predictions of displacement reactions

How can the prediction of the displacement reaction Pieces of magnesium, iron and copper, solutions of
of a metal from its salt solution by another metal be copper(II) sulphate, iron(II) sulphate and magnesium
confirmed? sulphate (concentration and volume of all salt
solutions are 0.5 mol dm–3 and 10 cm3 respectively).
Hypothesis
If metal X is at a higher position than metal Y in Procedure
the electrochemical series, then metal X can displace 1 Pieces of magnesium, copper and iron metals are
metal Y from a salt solution of metal Y. polished with sandpaper.
6
2 10 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 solutions of copper(II)

Variables sulphate, iron(II) sulphate and magnesium
(a) Manipulated variable : Different types of metals sulphate are put into different test tubes.
and salt solutions 3 Magnesium, copper and iron metals are placed in
(b) Responding variable : Deposits of metal or different salt solutions in the test tubes.
colour change in the salt 4 Observations are made after 20 minutes to check
solution if there is
(c) Constant variable : Concentration of salt (a) any change in colour of the solution,
solutions (b) any deposits of metal,
(c) any corrosion of metal.
Apparatus 5 The result of the experiment is tabulated in the
Test tubes, test-tube rack and sandpaper. table below.
Results
Metal + salt solution Prediction Observation
Magnesium + iron(II) sulphate solution Displacement occurs because • Grey deposit is formed
magnesium is more • The colour of the green solution
electropositive than iron becomes paler
• Magnesium dissolves
Magnesium + copper(II) sulphate Displacement occurs because • Brown deposit is formed
solution magnesium is more • The colour of the blue solution
electropositive than copper becomes paler
• Magnesium dissolves
Iron + magnesium sulphate solution Displacement does not occur No noticeable change
because iron is less
electropositive than magnesium
Iron + copper(II) sulphate solution Displacement occurs because • Brown deposit is formed
iron is more electropositive • The blue coloured solution
than copper changes to green
• Iron dissolves
No noticeable change
Experiment 6.9
Copper + magnesium sulphate solution Displacement does not

occur because copper is less
electropositive than magnesium
Copper + iron(II) sulphate solution Displacement does not No noticeable change
occur because copper is less
electropositive than iron
Discussion Fe + Cu2+ → Cu + Fe2+
1 A more electropositive metal can displace a less
electropositive metal from its salt solution. 4 Copper cannot displace either magnesium or iron
2 Magnesium is at a higher position than iron from their salt solutions because copper is below
and copper in the electrochemical series. Hence mag nesium and iron in the electrochemical
magnesium can displace iron from iron(II) series.
sulphate solution and copper from copper(II)
sulphate solution. Conclusion
The prediction that a metal at a higher position in
Mg + Fe2+ → Mg2+ + Fe the electrochemical series can displace a metal
Mg + Cu2+ → Mg2+ + Cu which is at a lower position from its salt solution
is confirmed.
3 Iron is at a higher position than copper in the The hypothesis is accepted.
6
electrochemical series. Hence iron can displace
copper from copper(II) sulphate solution.
Electrochemical series: This series is used to:

A series of metals based on their
Potassium, K (a) predict the tendency of a metal to
tendencies to form metal ions
form ions.
Sodium, Na
(b) predict the ability of a metal to
A metal placed higher in the Calcium, Ca
displace another metal from its ionic
series has a higher tendency to Magnesium, Mg solution.
form positive ions (it is more Aluminium, Al (c) determine the terminals and voltage
electropositive). For example: Zinc, Zn of a voltaic cell.
Zn is more electropositive than Fe.
Iron, Fe In a voltaic cell, the metal that becomes
Tin, Sn the negative terminal is the metal that is
A metal placed at a lower position
Lead, Pb higher in position in the electrochemical
in the series can be displaced by a
metal above it. Hydrogen, H series as it has a higher tendency to form
Copper, Cu ions.
Silver, Ag The further the distance between the
Gold, Au metal pairs in a voltaic cell, the greater the
cell voltage will be.
6.6
1 The table below shows the voltages obtained from (i) Which metal will become the negative
three voltaic cells using different pairs of metals. terminal of the cell?
(ii) Predict the voltage of the cell.
Positive (c) Predict what will happen if
Voltaic cell Metal pairs Voltage (V) electrode (i) metal Y is immersed in a solution of Z salt.
(ii) metal X is immersed in a solution of Y salt.
1 X and Y 1.2 X
(iii) metal W is immersed in a solution of X salt.
2 X and Z 0.9 X 2 Silver is placed at a position lower than copper and
3 Y and W 0.4 Y magnesium in the electrochemical series. Predict
the observation and reaction that will occur in the
(a) Based on the observation above, arrange the following experiment:
metals W, X, Y and Z in an ascending order (a) Silver in copper(II) sulphate solution,
according to their electropositivity. (b) Copper in silver nitrate solution,
(b) A voltaic cell is made from metal Z and metal W. (c) Magnesium in silver nitrate solution.
2 However, a safe and systematic method of
6.7 Developing Awareness disposal of used batteries and industrial
and Responsible by-products in electrochemical industries is
Practices when Handling important to prevent environmental pollution.
Chemicals used in the (a) Used batteries should be separated from
other household disposal. They are
Electrochemical Industries
required to be disposed off separately
1 Electrochemical industries play an important to prevent the chemicals of the batteries
role in our daily life by improving our quality from leaking and polluting water sources.
of life. Parts of batteries that are useful should be
(a) For example, useful metals such as recycled.
aluminium, sodium and magnesium are (b) Chemical wastes from electrolytic
extracted from their minerals or compounds industries should be treated to remove
6
using electrolysis. poisonous chemicals before being disposed

(b) Useful chemical substances such as chlorine as industrial waste. For example,
and sodium hydroxide are manufactured (i) acids that are used to clean metals
on a large scale using electrolysis. before electroplating should be
(c) Electroplating of iron with chromium diluted and neutralised before
protects the iron components of machinery draining off as waste water.
from corrosion. Silver-plating is commonly (ii) metal ions that are toxic and hazardous
used in the making of fine cutleries. to human health such as cadmium
(d) Various voltaic cells are used in different ion, chromium ion and nickel ion
devices such as radio, torchlight, quartz need to be treated and removed from
watch, handphone and others. industrial effluent.
1 An electrolyte is a chemical compound which conducts 8 The factors that determine the types of ions to be
electricity in the molten state or in an aqueous discharged at the electrodes are
solution and undergoes chemical changes. (a) positions of ions in the electrochemical
2 A non-electrolyte is a chemical compound which series: The lower positioned ion will be
does not conduct electricity in any state. discharged
3 Electrolysis is the decomposition of an electrolyte (b) concentration of ions in the solution: The
(molten or in aqueous solution) by the passage of more concentrated ion will be discharged
an electric current. (c) types of electrodes used
4 Graphite or platinum is usually used as electrodes 9 Uses of electrolysis in industries
because they are inert. (a) Extraction of reactive metals. For example:
5 The anode is the electrode connected to the Extraction of aluminium from molten bauxite
positive terminal of the batteries. (Al2O3) using carbon electrodes.
6 The cathode is the electrode connected to the (b) Refining of metals. For example: Purification of
negative terminal of the batteries. copper.
7 Two steps occur during electrolysis. (c) Electroplating of metals. For example: Copper
(a) Movement of ions to the electrodes: plating or silver plating.
Cations (positive ions) move towards the 10 There are two types of voltaic cells:
cathode (negative electrode) whereas anions (a) Primary cells: Non-rechargeable cells (cells
(negative ions) move towards the anode that cannot be charged again).
(positive electrode). (b) Secondary cells: Rechargeable cells (cells that
(b) Discharge of ions at the electrodes: can be charged again).
Cations discharge by receiving electrons. 11 The electrochemical series is an arrangement of
Generally: An+ + ne– → A elements based on their tendencies to form ions.
Anions discharge by releasing electrons.
Generally: Bn– → B + ne–
6
6.1 4 Which of the following A Zinc metal is formed at
Electrolytes and Non- statements are true about an electrode X.
electrolytes ’06 electrolyte? B Chlorine gas is formed at
1 Which of the following can I It has ions that conduct electrode Y.
conduct electricity? electricity in the solid state. C Zinc ions are attracted to the
A Ethanol II It can conduct electricity anode.
6
B Solid lead(II) nitrate in the molten state or in D Chloride ions are discharged
C Magnesium chloride solution aqueous solution. at the positive electrode.
D Liquid tetrachloromethane III It is a compound with ionic
bonds only. 7 When molten lead(II) iodide
2 Calcium carbonate powder does IV It can be decomposed by solution is electrolysed using
not conduct electricity because electric current. carbon electrodes, which of
A it does not contain ions. A I and II only the following represents the
B it contains covalent B III and IV only half-equation that occurs at the
molecules. C II and IV only cathode?
C it contains calcium ions and D I, II, III and IV A Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb
carbonate ions that are not B Pb → Pb2+ + 2e–
free to move. 5 Which of the following statements C I2 → 2l– + 2e–
D all the atoms in calcium are true about electrolysis? D 2I– + 2e– → I2
carbonate are bonded by I The cathode is the positive
electrode. 8 Which of the following
strong covalent bonds.
II Molten covalent compounds substances will produce
3 The diagram shows the set-up of can be used as electrolytes. aluminium metal when
apparatus to test the conductivity III Platinum can be used as electrolysis is carried out using
’06 of the chemical in the beaker. inert electrodes. carbon electrodes?
It was found that there is no IV A compound is decomposed A Aqueous aluminium sulphate
deflection on the ammeter by electric current. solution
needle. A I and II only B Aqueous aluminium chloride
B III and IV only solution
C II, III and IV only C Solid aluminium oxide
D I, III and IV only D Molten aluminium oxide
6.2 Electrolysis of Molten 6.3 Electrolysis of Aqueous

Compounds Solutions
6 9 Which of the following compounds
A produces oxygen gas and
hydrogen gas during electrolysis?
Which of the following action A Aqueous potassium
? @
will cause a deflection of the hydroxide solution
ammeter’s needle? B Saturated sodium chloride
A Add more dry cells in the solution
circuit C Aqueous copper(II) nitrate
B Add water to glacial ethanoic solution
heating
acid D Concentrated hydrochloric acid
C Add ethanol to glacial
ethanoic acid Which of the following occurs 10 The diagram below shows
D Substitute the platinum when molten zinc chloride is the apparatus set-up for the
6/9 ’09 electrolysis of potassium nitrate
electrodes with carbon electrolysed in the apparatus as
electrodes shown in the diagram? solution, KNO3.
B Chlorine gas is evolved at the 17 In an experiment, dilute
cathode. aqueous potassium iodide
C Copper metal deposits at the solution is electrolysed using
anode. carbon electrodes. Which of the
carbon D The intensity of the blue following statements are true
electrode Y
colour of the solution remains about this experiment?
potassium constant. I A gas that produces a small
nitrate ‘pop’ sound when tested with
solution a lighted wooden splint is
carbon
14 The diagram shows the set-up
electrode X of apparatus for the electrolysis produced at the cathode.
’03 of iron(II) nitrate solution. II A gas that rekindles a glowing
What are the products formed at
wooden splint is produced at
electrodes X and Y ?
TC 54
the anode.
X Y III The solution around the
6
anode changes to brown

A Nitrogen Hydrogen colour.
gas gas IV The concentration of
B Nitrogen Potassium potassium iodide solution
dioxide gas increases.
C Oxygen gas Hydrogen What is formed at electrode X ? A I and II only
gas A Iron B II and IV only
B Oxygen C I and III only
D Hydrogen Oxygen gas
C Hydrogen gas D I, II and IV only
gas
D Nitrogen dioxide gas 18 Metal Y is placed at a high
11 The products formed at the position in the electrochemical
electrodes during the electrolysis of 15 When aqueous magnesium series. When a dilute Y chloride
aqueous sodium sulphate solution sulphate solution is electrolysed solution is electrolysed using
using carbon electrodes are using graphite electrodes, carbon electrodes, the product
A the mass of cathode formed at the cathode is
Cathode Anode increases. A hydrogen
A Sodium Sulphur B the mass of anode B oxygen
decreases. C chlorine
B Hydrogen Sulphur dioxide
C magnesium metal deposits at D metal Y
C Hydrogen Oxygen the cathode.
D Sodium Oxygen D the concentration of
magnesium sulphate solution
6.4 Electrolysis in Industries
12 Electrolysis of dilute sodium increases.
chloride solution using carbon 19 Electrolysis is used to extract
electrodes produces oxygen 16 Electrolysis of aqueous sodium aluminium metal from molten
and hydrogen at the anode iodide solution is carried out aluminium oxide. Which
and cathode respectively. ’09 using carbon electrodes. Which chemical is used to lower the
The products formed at the half-equation shows the reaction melting point of aluminium
electrodes will change if at the cathode? oxide to 900°C?
A platinum is used as the A 2I– → I2 + 2e– A Cryolite
cathode. B 4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e– B Bauxite
B a bigger current flows C Na+ + e– → Na C Silicon dioxide
through the circuit. D 2H+ + 2e– → H2 D Calcium carbonate
C a concentrated sodium
chloride solution is used. 20 What are the suitable chemicals and apparatus used to electroplate a
D the distance between the spoon with silver metal by electrolysis?
electrodes is reduced.
13 Which of the following is true Anode Cathode Electrolyte
about the electrolysis of aqueous A Silver Spoon Silver chloride solution
copper(II) chloride solution using B Spoon Silver Silver nitrate solution
copper electrodes?
C Carbon Spoon Silver nitrate solution
A The mass of cathode
decreases. D Silver Spoon Silver nitrate solution
21 The presence of foreign metals 6.5 26 Voltaic cells that are used in
in copper metal can reduce Voltaic Cells watches and calculators are
the conductivity of copper 24 The diagram below shows A dry cells
wire. Which of the following a simple chemical cell. Two B alkaline cells
is suitable to be used as the ’11 different metals are used as C mercury cells
cathode in the purification of electrodes. D nickel-cadmium cells
copper by electrolysis?
A Pure copper 2 3
27 The diagram shows the set-up
of apparatus of a chemical cell.
1 4
0 5
B Impure copper
’05
C Carbon
zinc
D Platinum copper plate
plate
sodium
chloride
22 The diagram shows the solution
6
arrangement of apparatus to
’06 electroplate a metal key with Which of the following metals
chromium. It is found that can be used to replace the zinc
electroplating does not occur. plate to obtain the brightest light
How would you change the in the light bulb and the highest
arrangement of the apparatus voltage reading? Which of the following occurs in
in order to plate a layer of A Magnesium the chemical cell?
chromium on the surface of the B Iron A The magnesium rod becomes
key? C Aluminum thicker.
D Lead B The iron rod becomes thinner.
C Electrons flow from iron to
25 When magnesium metal and magnesium.
copper metal are connected D The green colour of iron(II)
by wire and then immersed in sulphate becomes paler.
copper(II) sulphate solution,
which of the following does not 28 The diagram shows the set-up of
happen? apparatus for an electrochemical
A Replace chromium nitrate
A Electron flows from copper cell.
solution with chromium
chloride solution metal to magnesium metal.
B Change the supply of direct B Mass of copper increases.
current to alternating current C Mass of magnesium
C Reverse the terminals of the decreases.
batteries D The colour intensity of blue
D Replace the chromium copper(II) sulphate solution
electrode with carbon decreases.
23 The diagram shows the set-up of the apparatus used for the purification of a
metal through electrolysis.
observations are true for this
experiment?
I Zinc electrode becomes
thinner.
II Brown colour is formed
Which of the following combinations is suitably used for the purification of
around electrode X.
copper metal?
III Gray deposit is formed at
Electrode X Electrode Y Electrode Z electrode Y.
IV Intensity of blue colour in
A Pure copper Impure copper Copper(II) sulphate beaker M becomes paler.
B Impure copper Pure copper Copper(II) nitrate A I and III only
C Pure copper Impure copper Sulphuric acid B II and III only
C II and IV only
D Impure copper Pure copper Copper(II) carbonate D I, II and IV only
29 The diagram shows the set-up B Concentration of magnesium
Metal Potential
of apparatus for a simple cell. Negative ion in the solution decreases.
electrode difference
terminal C A brown deposit is formed.
pairs (V)
D Zinc ions are formed.
Q-P Q 2.7
R-P R 1.1 36 The table below shows
information about three voltaic
S-T S 1.3
’10 cells. Metals P, Q, R and S are
S-P S 2.1 used as electrodes in the cells.
What is the potential difference
Which of the following pairs of a voltaic cell made of metal Voltaic Negative Positive Voltage
of metals gives the highest electrode pair Q-T ? cell terminal terminal (V)
voltmeter reading? A 0.8 V I P Q 0.9
B 1.4 V II R Q 1.3
Metal X Metal Y
6
C 1.9 V
A Magnesium Iron D 3.5 V III R S 2.1
B Zinc Copper
33 If a piece of metal X is What is the order of the metals
C Aluminium Silver from the most electropositive to
immersed in copper(II) sulphate
D Silver Copper solution, a brown deposit is the least electropositive?
formed. Metal X may be A P, Q, R, S
30 A voltaic cell is made using A copper B P, R, Q, S
metal X and Y as the electrodes. B platinum C R, P, Q, S
If electrons flow from metal X C aluminium D S, Q, P, R
to metal Y, metal X and metal Y D silver
may be 37 Which of the following pairs can
34 Two voltaic cells are constructed undergo a displacement reaction?
Metal X Metal Y as shown in the diagram. The A Magnesium and potassium
voltmeter reading of cell I is 1.1 chloride solution.
A Iron Silver B Calcium and zinc sulphate
V while that of cell II is 2.5 V.
B Silver Copper solution.
C Iron Magnesium C Iron and calcium nitrate
solution.
D Copper Zinc
D Copper and magnesium
nitrate solution.
31 Which of the following
statements is not true about 38 When an iron nail is immersed
lead-acid accumulator? in X solution, Fe2+ ions are
A The electrolyte used is produced. Solution X may be
sulphuric acid. Which of the following is true of A magnesium sulphate
B Lead plate is the negative a voltaic cell constructed using B zinc nitrate
terminal. metal Q and metal R? C copper(II) nitrate
C Carbon is the positive A Metal Q will be the negative D sodium chloride
terminal. terminal.
D Lead(II) sulphate is formed B Electrons will flow from metal 39 Excess metal X powder is added
when the cell is being R to metal Q. to copper(II) sulphate solution
used. C The cell will produce a and is stirred. After half an hour,
reading of 3.6 V. the solution becomes colourless
6.6 D R ions and Q ions are and brown deposit is formed.
The Electrochemical
formed. Metal X may be
Series
I calcium
32 An experiment is carried out 35 A piece of zinc metal is II aluminium
to measure the potential immersed in a beaker containing III magnesium
’06 differences produced in voltaic a mixture of copper(II) sulphate IV silver
cells made from metal electrode and magnesium nitrate solution. A I and II only
pairs Q-P, R-P, S-T or S-P metals. Which of the following does not B III and IV only
The results of the experiment is happen? C I, II and III only
recorded in the table below. A Zinc metal dissolves. D II, III and IV only
40 The diagram shows four simple chemical cells. In each cell, copper is one In which cell does copper act as
of the electrodes. the negative terminal?
’05 A Cell I
B Cell II
C Cell III
D Cell IV
6
1 In an experiment, different chemical substances are 2 In an experiment, electrolysis of 0.001 mol dm–3
tested using the set-up of apparatus as shown in hydrochloric acid is carried out using a electrolytic cell
Diagram 1. as shown in Diagram 2. Gases are collected at both
the electrodes.
Diagram 1
(a) When naphthalene is used as the chemical in Diagram 2
the experiment, the light bulb does not light up. (a) Write the formulae of all the ions present in
Explain this observation. [1 mark] hydrochloric acid. [1 mark]
(b) When lead(II) bromide solid is used as the (b) Name a suitable material that can be used as the
chemical in the experiment, the light bulb does electrodes in this experiment. [1 mark]
not light up but lights up when lead(II) bromide
(c) (i) Name gas X and gas Y. [2 marks]
is heated to the molten form. Explain this
(ii) Write the half-equation for the reaction that
observation. [2 marks]
occurs at the anode. [1 mark]
(c) Predict the observation that will take place
(d) After the electrolysis is carried out for 50 minutes,
at the anode and the cathode when molten
the concentration of hydrochloric acid increases
lead(II) bromide is used as the chemical in this
and a different gas is collected at the anode.
experiment. [2 marks]
(i) Explain why the concentration of
(d) Write the half-equations for the reactions that hydrochloric acid increases. [2 marks]
occur at the anode and the cathode in (c). (ii) Name the new gas collected at the anode
[2 marks] and explain why this gas is produced.
(e) Predict the products that will be formed if molten [2 marks]
zinc chloride is used instead of lead(II) bromide (iii) Write the half-equation for the reaction that
in this experiment. [2 marks] occurs at the anode in (ii). [1 mark]
3 Diagram 3 shows the arrangement of apparatus in an (a) Write the formula of all the cations present in the
electrochemistry experiment. copper(II) sulphate solution. [1 mark]
(b) State the direction of the flow of electrons in Cell
Q. [1 mark]
(c) (i) State the observation at the cathode of Cell
P. [1 mark]
(ii) Write a half-equation for the reaction that
occurred at the cathode of Cell P. [1 mark]
(iii) Predict the change of colour intensity of the
copper(II) sulphate solution of cell P.
Diagram 3 [1 mark]
(iv) Name the product formed at the anode if
(a) What is the difference between the energy copper electrodes in Cell P are replaced by
change in Cell A and Cell B? [2 marks] carbon electrodes. [1 mark]
6
(b) Write half-equations for the reactions that occur (d) Based on cell Q:
at the (i) State the observation on the zinc plate.
(i) magnesium electrode in Cell A. [1 mark] [1 mark]
(ii) copper electrode in Cell A. [1 mark]
(ii) Write the half-equations for the reaction that
(c) (i) Name the electrode that serves as the occurs at the zinc plate. [1 mark]
negative terminal in Cell B. [1 mark] (iii) Write an overall ionic equation for the
(ii) State the reason for your answer in (i). reaction that has taken place. [1 mark]
[1 mark] (iv) What happens to the cell voltage if the
(iii) State the direction of the flow of electrons copper plate is replaced with a silver plate?
in Diagram 3. [1 mark] [1 mark]
(d) In Cell B,
(i) name the product formed at the carbon 5 Diagram 5 shows a voltaic cell that is formed from
electrode Q and write an equation for the copper metal and lead metal.
reaction that occurs. [2 marks]
(ii) name the product formed at the carbon
electrode P and write an equation for the
reaction that occurs. [2 marks]
(e) What would happen if the magnesium electrode
in Cell A is replaced with a silver electrode?
[1 mark]
(f) What would happen if carbon electrodes P and Q
are replaced with copper electrodes? [1 mark] Diagram 5
(a) State the positive terminal and the negative
4 Diagram 4 shows two types of cell.
terminal of the voltaic cell. [2 marks]
(b) Write ionic equations showing the reactions that
occur at
(i) the negative terminal of the cell. [1 mark]
(ii) the positive terminal of the cell. [1 mark]
(c) Write the overall ionic equation of the cell.
[1 mark]
(d) What is the function of the salt bridge? [1 mark]
(e) The voltage of the above cell is 0.57 V. If
magnesium is above lead in the electrochemical
series, what would be the expected voltage
produced from a magnesium/copper voltaic cell?
[1 mark]
6 An electrolysis process is carried out using the

arrangement of apparatus as shown in Diagram 6.
Diagram 4
(c) Write the ionic equation that occurs at
(i) electrode L
(ii) electrode M [2 marks]
(d) What is the product of electrolysis formed at
(i) electrode R?
(ii) electrode S? [2 marks]
(e) Predict any colour change of the solution that
Diagram 6 may occur in beakers I and II after electrolysis
(a) Name the electrodes that serve as the anode. has been carried out for an hour. [2 marks]
[2 marks] (f) (i) Name instrument Q in the diagram.
(b) Write the formulae of all the ions present in (ii) What is the function of instrument Q?
beaker I. [2 marks] [2 marks]
6
Essay Questions
1 (a) What is meant by the term electrolysis? [2 marks] (b) Using a labelled diagram, describe an experiment
(b) Discuss in terms of ionic theory, the reasons why to show how you can electroplate an iron spoon
solid magnesium chloride (crystals) does not with another metal. In your description, give the
conduct electricity whereas molten magnesium observation and equations for the reactions that
chloride does. [4 marks] occur. [8 marks]
(c) You are supplied with magnesium chloride

3 (a) What is the difference between an electrolytic cell
crystals and all the necessary apparatus.
and a voltaic cell? [4 marks]
Describe an experiment to extract magnesium metal
from magnesium chloride crystals using electrolysis. (b) You are supplied with metal P, metal Q, their
What would you observe in this experiment? nitrate salt solutions and all the necessary
Using ionic theory, explain how the products are apparatus. Metal P is higher than metal Q in the
formed at the cathode and the anode. electrochemical series and both metals have
[14 marks] a valency of 2. Describe an experiment to show
how you can produce an electric current from
2 (a) The products of electrolysis may be different even chemical reactions. Include a circuit diagram and
though the same type of electrolyte is used. Using show how you can detect the flow of electric
a suitable electrolyte, explain how current in your description. [12 marks]
(i) the types of electrodes, (c) Predict what will happen when a piece of metal
(ii) the concentration of ions can determine P is placed in Q nitrate solution.
the products of electrolysis of an aqueous Explain your answer. [4 marks]
solution. [12 marks]
Experiments
1 A group of students carried out three experiments to determine the products of electrolysis of sodium
hydroxide solution, potassium iodide solution and aqueous X solution using carbon electrodes.
The results of the experiment obtained is tabulated in Table 1.
Experiment Chemical substance Observation at the cathode Observation at the anode
I 0.1 mol dm–3 Colourless gas is evolved Colourless gas is evolved

sodium hydroxide which produces a ‘pop’ sound which lights up a glowing
solution when a lighted wooden splint wooden splint.
is placed near the mouth of
the test tube.
Experiment Chemical substance Observation at the cathode Observation at the anode
II 0.5 mol dm–3 Colourless gas is evolved A brown solution is formed.

aqueous potassium which produces a ‘pop’ sound
iodide solution when a lighted wooden splint
is placed near the mouth of
the test tube.
III 0.5 mol dm–3 Brown deposit is formed. A brown gas is evolved which
aqueous X solution changes blue litmus paper
to red and decolourises the
litmus paper subsequently.
Table 1
(a) (i) In experiment I, name the products formed at the anode and cathode.
6
(ii) What factor determines the type of ions discharged at the cathode? [3 marks]
(b) (i) What is the product formed at the anode in experiment II?
(ii) Suggest a test to identify the product of (i).
(iii) What factor determines the type of ions discharged at the anode in experiment II? [3 marks]
(c) Write ionic equations for the formation of the product(s)
(i) at the anode and the cathode in experiment II.
(ii) at the anode in experiment I. [3 marks]
(d) In experiment III, aqueous X solution is blue in colour.
(i) What is the brown deposit formed at the cathode?
(ii) Name the brown gas produced at the anode.
(iii) Suggest a chemical substance that may be X. [3 marks]
2 Diagram 1 and Diagram 2 show the set-ups of two electrolytic cells using copper(II) chloride solutions
of different concentrations. Plan an experiment to investigate the factor that affects the products of
electrolysis of aqueous solutions as shown in Diagrams 1 and 2.

Diagram 1 Diagram 2
Your planning should include the following aspects:
(a) Aim of experiment
(b) Statement of hypothesis
(d) List of substances and apparatus
(e) Procedure of the experiment
CHAPTER FORM 4
7
Acids and Bases

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 2 1
Number of questions 5 – – — – 5 – – — 1 3 1 – – 1 4 1 – — –
2 3 2
ONCEPT MAP
pH scale: measurement of the H+ ion

Concentration: units in
concentration
• g dm–3
• Acids: pH < 7
ACIDS AND BASES • mol dm–3
• Alkalis: pH > 7
Relationship between pH values
• pH value changes with the concentration
and concentration
and strength of acids/bases
Bases: compounds that react with acids to form salts

Acids: compounds that produce H+ ions in water and water
• Strong acids: complete ionisation to form H+ ions in • Alkalis: soluble bases that produce OH– ions in water
water • Strong alkalis: complete ionisation to form OH– ions
• Weak acids: partial ionisation to form H+ ions in in water
water • Weak alkalis: partial ionisation to form OH– ions in
water
Properties of Acids: Neutralisation: Properties of Bases:

• Colour change with indicators • Reactions between acids and • Colour change with indicators
• React with bases bases • React with acids
• React with reactive metals • Uses of acids/bases and • React with ammonium salt on
• React with metal carbonates neutralisation heating
• Determination of end point in • React with metal ions to form
titration using acid/base indicators metal hydroxide
or a computer interface
5 Without the presence of hydrogen ions, a
7.1 Characteristics and substance does not show any acidic property.
Properties of Acids and Dry hydrogen chloride gas, HCl(g) dissolved
Bases in an organic solvent (such as methylbenzene),
glacial ethanoic acid and solid ethanedioic
The Meaning of Acids acid do not show any acidic property.
6 Acids can be divided into two types: mineral
1 The definition of acids according to Arrhenius acids and organic acids. Mineral acids are
Theory: an acid is a chemical compound that obtained from minerals and most do not
produces hydrogen ions, H+ or hydroxonium contain the element carbon. Organic acids are
ions, H3O+ when it dissolves in water. extracted from living things and contain the
2 A substance has acidic properties because element carbon.
of the formation of hydrogen ions or
Table 7.1 Examples of mineral acids and organic
7
hydroxonium ions in water.

acids
3 Dissociation of acids in water produces
SPM hydrogen ions and anions. Examples: Type of acid Examples
’09/P1
H2O Mineral acid Hydrochloric acid, HCl, sulphuric

(a) HCl(g) ⎯⎯→ H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) acid, H2SO4 and nitric acid, HNO3
hydrogen hydrogen chloride
chloride ion ion Organic acid Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH),
methanoic acid (HCOOH),
H2O ethanedioic acid (H2C2O4), citric
(b) HNO3(l) ⎯⎯→ H+(aq) + NO3–(aq) acid, tartaric acid, malic acid and
nitric acid hydrogen nitrate ascorbic acid.
ion ion
H2O
(c) H2SO4(l) ⎯⎯→ 2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
sulphuric hydrogen sulphate
acid ion ion Malic acid is found in apples.
Citric acid is found in citrus fruits
such as oranges.
H2O Tartaric acid is found in grapes.
(d) CH3COOH(l) H+(aq) + CH3COO–(aq) Ascorbic acid is vitamin C.
ethanoic hydrogen ethanoate Ethanoic acid is found in
acid ion ion vinegar.
Lactic acid is found in sour milk.
4 In actual fact, the hydrogen ion, H+ does not Tannic acid is found in tea
exist individually but is combined with a water leaves.
molecule (hydrated) to form a hydroxonium
ion.
H+ + H2O → H3O+
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions
in the presence of water.
However, H3O+ is usually written as H+(aq) in
the simplified way.
Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and sulphuric acid are

acids that are usually used in the school laboratories.
Our stomachs contain hydrochloric acid that is required
for digestion of food. Aspirin, which is used as an
Figure 7.1 The dissociation (ionisation) of a hydrogen analgesic (a type of medicine for reducing pain), is
chloride molecule to produce hydroxonium also a type of acid.
ion in water.
Acids and Bases 182

The Meaning of Bases and Alkalis 6 A chemical substance has alkaline properties
because of the formation of freely moving
1 A base is defined as a chemical substance that hydroxide ions, OH– in water.
can neutralise an acid to produce salt and 7 In the presence of water, an alkali dissociates
water only. For example, to hydroxide ions and cations.
Examples:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
acid base salt water (a) NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
ammonia ammonium hydroxide
ion ion
2 Examples of bases are metal oxides and metal
H2O
hydroxides that contain oxide ions, O2– and (b) KOH(s) ⎯→ K+(aq) + OH–(aq)
hydroxide ions, OH– respectively. Examples: potassium potassium hydroxide
copper(II) oxide, magnesium hydroxide.
7
hydroxide ion ion
3 The reaction between an acid and a base is
known as neutralisation. In neutralisation the H2O
(c) NaOH(s) ⎯→ Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
O2– ions or the OH– ions of a base react with
sodium sodium hydroxide
the H+ ions of an acid to form water.
hydroxide ion ion
O2– + 2H+ → H2O H2O

(d) Ca(OH)2(s) ⎯→ Ca2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)
OH– + H+ → H2O
calcium calcium hydroxide
hydroxide ion ion
4 Most bases are not soluble in water. Bases that
are soluble in water are known as alkalis. 8 A compound does not show any alkaline property
5 An alkali is defined as a chemical compound in the absence of freely moving hydroxide ions.
that dissolves in water to produce freely Examples: dry ammonia gas, ammonia gas
moving hydroxide ions, OH–. dissolved in organic solvent (such as propanone),
solid sodium hydroxide and solid potassium
hydroxide do not show alkaline properties.
Figure 7.2 Venn diagram for bases and alkalis

Figure 7.4 The association (ionisation) of an ammonia
molecule to produce a hydroxide ion
Bases
• An alkali is a compound that produces hydroxide

Bases that are Bases that are soluble ions in the presence of water.
insoluble in water in water (alkalis) • A base is a compound that neutralises an acid and
examples examples produces salt and water only.
Zinc oxide, zinc Sodium oxide,

hydroxide, copper(II) sodium hydroxide,
oxide, copper(II) potassium oxide, Theories on acids and alkalis:
hydroxide potassium hydroxide, (a) Arrhenius theory: An acid is a compound that
calcium hydroxide, produces hydrogen ions when it dissolves in water.
An alkali is a compound that produces hydroxide
ammonia
ions when it dissolves in water.
(b) Brnsted–Lowry theory: An acid is a proton
Figure 7.3 Flowchart showing types and examples (hydrogen ion) donor. An alkali is a proton acceptor.
of bases
183 Acids and Bases

1 ’07
Which of the following statements is true about all Comments

bases? All bases react with acids to form salts. Only soluble
A React with acids bases (alkalis) dissolve in water to produce hydroxide
B Dissolve in water ions that change red litmus paper to blue.
C Produces hydroxide ions Answer A
D Change red litmus paper to blue
Uses of Acids, Bases and Alkalis in SPM 3 Examples of bases and their uses are given in
Our Daily Life
’08/P2,
’09/P1
Table 7.3.
7
1 Acids and bases are widely used in our everyday Table 7.3 Uses of bases
life in agriculture, medicine, industry and in Base Uses
the preparation of food.
2 Examples of acids and their uses are given in Sodium hydroxide To make soaps, detergents,
Table 7.2. bleaching agents and
fertilisers
Table 7.2 Uses of acids
Ammonia To make fertilisers, nitric
Acid Uses acid, grease remover and
Sulphuric acid To make paints, to maintain latex in liquid
detergents, polymers, form
fertilisers, as an Calcium hydroxide To make cement, limewater
electrolyte in lead-acid and to neutralise the acidity
accumulators of soil
Hydrochloric acid To clean metals before Magnesium To make toothpaste, gastric
electroplating hydroxide medicine (antacid)
Nitric acid To make fertilisers, Aluminium To make gastric medicine
explosive substances hydroxide (antacid)
(such as T.N.T.), dyes and
plastics
Benzoic acid To preserve food
Carbonic acid To make gassy
(carbonated) drinks
Ethanoic acid A component of vinegar
Tartaric acid To make baking powder
Cleaning agent contains ammonia
Methanoic acid is used

in the coagulation of
rubber latex
Fertilisers are made Soaps and detergents are made from sodium
from acids and alkalis hydroxide
Acids and Bases 184

7.1 SPM
’09/P2, ’10/P3, ’11/P2
To investigate the role of water in showing the properties of acids

Problem statement Conclusion
Is water needed for an acid to show its acidic 1 Aqueous ethanoic acid turns blue litmus paper to
properties? red, indicating its acidic property.
Hypothesis 2 Ethanoic acid in a dry condition or dissolved
in organic solvents does not show any acidic
An acid will only show its acidic properties when
property.
dissolved in water.
3 Ionisation of acids will only occur in the presence
Variables of water to produce hydrogen ions which are
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of solvents-water responsible for the acidic properties.
7
and propanone 4 Water is essential for the formation of hydrogen
(b) Responding variable : Change in the colour of ions which gives the acidic properties in an acid.
blue litmus The hypothesis is accepted.
(c) Constant variable : Type of acid and blue
litmus paper Discussion
Apparatus 1 In the presence of water, an acid dissociates into
Test tube and droppers. hydrogen ions that cause acidity in an acid.
Materials 2 Dry acids do not show any acidic properties
Glacial (dry) ethanoic acid, aqueous ethanoic acid, in the absence of water because dry acids exist
ethanoic acid dissolved in dry propanone and blue as covalent molecules. Hydrogen ions are not
litmus paper. produced.
3 Solvents such as methylbenzene, propanone
Procedure
and trichloromethane cannot replace water for
1 A piece of dry blue litmus paper is placed in a an acid to show its acidic properties. This is
test tube. because an acid exists as covalent molecules in
2 A few drops of glacial ethanoic acid are placed these organic solvents; H+ ions are not produced
onto the blue litmus paper using a dropper. in these solutions.
3 The effect of the glacial ethanoic acid on the 4 Glacial ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) consists of
blue litmus paper is recorded. acid molecules only. CH3COOH molecule is a
4 Steps 1 to 3 of the experiment are repeated using covalent compound.
aqueous ethanoic acid and ethanoic acid dissolved 5 Figure 7.5 shows the types of particles that are
in propanone to replace glacial ethanoic acid. present in ethanoic acid dissolved in propanone
5 The observations are then tabulated. and in water.
Results
Condition of
ethanoic acid
Glacial (dry) No noticeable Does not show
colour change any acidic
in the litmus properties
paper
Aqueous Blue litmus Shows acidic
(dissolved in paper has properties
Experiment 7.1
water) changed to red

Dissolved in No noticeable Does not show
propanone colour change any acidic
in the litmus properties
Figure 7.5 Particles in ethanoic acid dissolved in
paper
(a) propanone (b) water
185 Acids and Bases

7.2
To investigate the role of water in showing the alkaline properties of alkali

Problem statement
Is water essential for an alkali to show its alkaline 2 The test tube must be stoppered immediately
properties? after the red litmus paper is put in.
Hypothesis Results
An alkali will only show its alkaline properties when
Condition of
dissolved in water. Observation Inference
ammonia
Variables Dry No colour Does not
7
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of solvents–water change in the red show alkaline
and propanone litmus paper property
(b) Responding variable : Change in the colour of
red litmus paper Aqueous Red litmus has Shows
(c) Constant variable : Type of alkali and red (dissolved in changed to blue alkaline
litmus paper water) properties
Dissolved in No colour Does not
Apparatus Test tubes and droppers. propanone change in the red show alkaline
litmus paper property
Materials Dry ammonia gas stoppered in a
test tube, ammonia gas dissolved Conclusion
in propanone, aqueous ammonia 1 Aqueous ammonia solution turns the red litmus
solution and red litmus paper. paper to blue, indicating its alkaline property.
Procedure 2 Dry ammonia gas or ammonia gas dissolved in
organic solvents does not show any alkaline
1 A piece of dry red litmus paper is put into a stoppered
property.
test tube of dry ammonia gas and the test tube is then
3 An alkali shows its alkaline properties only in
stoppered back immediately (Figure 7.6).
the presence of water. When water is present,
2 The effect of the dry ammonia gas on the red
ammonia ionises to produce OH– ions that are
litmus paper is recorded.
responsible for its alkaline properties.
3 Another piece of dry red litmus paper is put in
4 Water is essential for the formation of
5 cm3 of aqueous ammonia solution in a separate
hydroxide ions that cause alkalinity in an alkali.
test tube.
4 Step 3 of the experiment is repeated using ammonia
dissolved in propanone to replace aqueous ammonia Discussion
solution. 1 In the presence of water, an alkali ionises to form
hydroxide ions, OH– that change red litmus
paper to blue.
2 Aqueous ammonia solution (ammonia dissolved
in water) consists of NH4+ ions, OH– ions and
NH3 molecules. An aqueous ammonia solution
is alkaline due to the presence of hydroxide ions.
Figure 7.6 Testing for the alkaline properties NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH–
Experiment 7.2
of ammonia gas 3 Dry alkalis, solid alkalis (such as solid calcium

Safety precautions hydroxide and barium hydroxide) and alkalis
dissolved in organic solvents (such as propanone)
1 Ammonia gas is poisonous. This experiment do not show any alkaline properties. This
involving dry ammonia gas should be carried out is because the alkalis do not dissociate into
in a fume cupboard. hydroxide ions.
Acids and Bases 186

Glacial ethanoic acid is the pure and dry form of ethanoic acid. It is named ‘glacial’ because it appears as ice when it
solidifies below its melting point.
Chemical Properties of Acids
1 If the electrical conductivity of ethanoic acid in pro 1 Acids are sour in taste.
panone and aqueous ethanoic acid is tested in 2 Acid solutions have pH values of less than 7.
turn, only the aqueous solution of acid conducts 3 Acids change colours of indicators as shown
electri
city (light bulb is lighted up or ammeter in Table 7.4.
7
needle is deflected). 4 Acids can react with
2 This shows the presence of freely moving ions in (a) bases to produce salts and water,
an aqueous solution of acid. (b) metals to produce salts and hydrogen gas,
CH3COOH(l) CH3COO –(aq) + H+(aq) (c) carbonates to produce salts, carbon
ethanoic acid ethanoate ion hydrogen ion dioxide gas and water.
H+ ions and CH3COO– ions H+ ions change blue Table 7.4 Effects of acids on indicators
conduct electricity litmus to red
Colour of indicator
Indicator
3 Dry acids do not conduct electricity. This is because in acidic solution
there are no freely moving ions. Dry acid exists as
covalent molecules. Blue litmus paper Red
4 Similarly, ammonia dissolved in propanone does not
conduct electricity. It exists as covalent molecules. Universal indicator Orange and red
5 An aqueous ammonia solution can conduct electricity,
showing the presence of freely moving ions. Methyl orange Red
To investigate the chemical properties of acids SPM

’10/P2
Apparatus Test tube, test tube holder, spatula,

Bunsen burner, delivery tubes with
stopper and wooden splint.
Materials 1.0 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid, copper(II)
oxide, zinc powder, sodium carbonate
powder and limewater.
Procedure
1 A little copper(II) oxide is added to 5 cm3 of Figure 7.7 An acid with Figure 7.8 An acid with
sulphuric acid in a test tube. The mixture is a base a metal
heated slowly (Figure 7.7) and any changes that
occur are recorded.
2 A little zinc powder is added to 5 cm3 of dilute
sulphuric acid in a test tube. The gas evolved is
Activity 7.1
tested by placing a lighted wooden splint near

the mouth of the test tube (Figure 7.8).
3 A little sodium carbonate powder is added to 5 cm3
of dilute sulphuric acid in a test tube. The gas
evolved is tested with limewater (Figure 7.9). Figure 7.9 An acid with a metal carbonate
187 Acids and Bases

Results
Test on acid Observation Inference
Heating with copper(II) • Black powder dissolved
oxide • Blue solution is formed • Copper(II) salt solution is
formed
Test with zinc powder • Effervescence occurred
• Gas produced a ‘pop’ sound when it is • Hydrogen gas is produced
tested with a lighted wooden splint
• Zinc powder dissolved • A salt solution is formed
Test with sodium carbonate • Effervescence occurred
• Gas evolved turned limewater milky • Carbon dioxide gas is produced
7
• White solid of sodium carbonate • A salt solution is formed

dissolved
Discussion (b)
Magnesium dissolves in ethanoic acid
to form a salt, magnesium ethanoate and
1 A dilute acid reacts with a base to produce salt
hydrogen gas.
and water only.
Acid + base → salt + water Mg(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) →

Mg(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2(g)
If the salt solution is evaporated until saturated,
salt crystals will form upon cooling. 3 A dilute acid will react with a metal carbonate to
Examples: produce a salt, carbon dioxide gas and water.
(a) Black copper(II) oxide powder (a base)
dissolves in dilute sulphuric acid to produce a
acid + metal carbonate →
salt, copper(II) sulphate (blue colour) and water.
salt + carbon dioxide + water
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) Examples:
(a) Sodium carbonate reacts with dilute sulphuric
(b) Copper(II) oxide dissolves in ethanoic acid to acid to produce a salt, sodium sulphate, carbon
form a salt, copper(II) ethanoate and water. dioxide gas and water.
CuO(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Na2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) →

Cu(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2O(l) Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(c) Nitric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide (an (b)

Calcium carbonate reacts with dilute
alkali) to produce a salt, sodium nitrate and hydrochloric acid to produce a salt, calcium
water. chloride, carbon dioxide gas and water.
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →

CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2 A dilute acid will react with a reactive metal to
produce a salt and hydrogen gas.
Conclusion
acid + reactive metal → salt + hydrogen 1 Sulphuric acid reacts with a base (copper(II)
oxide) to produce salt and water.
Examples: 2 Sulphuric acid reacts with a reactive metal (zinc)
(a) Zinc dissolves in sulphuric acid to form a to produce a salt and hydrogen gas.
salt, zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas. 3 Sulphuric acid reacts with a metal carbonate
(sodium carbonate) to produce a salt, water and
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) carbon dioxide gas.
Acids and Bases 188

Chemical Properties of Alkalis
Non-reactive metals such as copper and silver do 1 Alkalis are bitter in taste and feel soapy.
not react with dilute acid. Very reactive metals such 2 Alkaline solutions have pH values of more
as sodium and potassium will react with dilute acid than 7.
vigorously and may produce an explosion. 3 Alkalis change the colours of indicators as
shown in Table 7.5 below.
2 ’01
Table 7.5 Effects of alkalis on indicators
Colour of indicator in
Which of the following compounds reacts with Indicator
alkaline solution
limestone powder to produce a gas that turns lime-
water milky? Red litmus paper Blue
A Nitrogen dioxide gas
7
Universal indicator Blue or purple
B Hydrogen chloride gas dissolved in tetra
chloromethane Methyl orange Yellow
C Sulphur dioxide gas dissolved in propanone
D Sulphur dioxide gas dissolved in water
4 An alkali reacts with an acid to produce salt
Comments and water. For example:
An acidic gas must first dissolve in water before
reacting with calcium carbonate (limestone) KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
powder to produce carbon dioxide gas which turns
limewater milky. 5 When an alkali is heated with an ammonium
Answer D salt, ammonia gas is produced. For example:
NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq) → NH3(g) + H2O(l)
from ammonium salt from alkali

Generally,
(a) metal oxides and metal hydroxides are basic. For 6 An aqueous alkali forms metal hydroxide as
example: precipitate when added to an aqueous salt
MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2 solution. For example:
magnesium oxide magnesium hydroxide
(b) non-metal oxides are acidic. For example, SO2,
NO2 or CO2.
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3
from copper(II) from alkali copper(II) hydroxide
sulphur dioxide sulphurous acid salt solution as blue precipitate
To investigate the chemical properties of alkalis
Apparatus
Test tubes, test tube holder, spatula, Bunsen burner, changes that occur are recorded.
delivery tubes with stopper and red litmus paper. 2 A little ammonium chloride powder is added to 5
Materials cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution in a test tube.
2.0 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution, benzoic The mixture is heated gently. The gas evolved is
tested with a piece of damp red litmus paper.
Activity 7.2
acid powder, ammonium chloride powder, 1.0 mol

3 5 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution is added to
dm–3 iron(III) sulphate solution.
5 cm3 of iron(III) sulphate solution in a test tube.
Procedure Any changes that occur are recorded.
1 A little benzoic acid powder is added to 5 cm3
of sodium hydroxide solution in a test tube. Any
189 Acids and Bases

Results NaOH(aq) + C6H5COOH(s) →
Test on sodium C6H5COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
hydroxide
2 If the salt solution is evaporated in an evaporating
With benzoic White powder A salt solution dish until a saturated solution is formed, white
acid powder dissolves and is formed crystals of sodium benzoate will be crystallised
added a colourless upon cooling.
solution is 3 When sodium hydroxide is heated with ammonium
formed chloride (an ammonium salt), ammonia gas is
Heating with A pungent gas Ammonia gas produced.
ammonium that turns damp is produced
NH4Cl(s) + NaOH(aq) →
chloride red litmus paper
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)
powder blue is evolved
7
With iron(III) A brown Iron(III) In this reaction, ammonium ions react with
sulphate precipitate is hydroxide is hydroxide ions to produce ammonia gas. The ionic
solution added formed formed equation for this reaction is
Conclusion NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq) → NH3(g) + H2O(l)

1 Sodium hydroxide reacts with benzoic acid to 4
Sodium hydroxide solution dissociates to
produce salt and water. hydroxide ions in water.
2 When sodium hydroxide is heated with
ammonium chloride, ammonia gas which turns NaOH → Na+ + OH–
red litmus to blue is produced.
3 Sodium hydroxide solution reacts with an Hydroxide ions combine with iron(III) ions from
aqueous iron(III) solution to produce a brown iron(III) sulphate solution to form insoluble
precipitate, iron(III) hydroxide. iron(III) hydroxide as a brown precipitate.
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s)
Discussion
1 Sodium hydroxide as an alkali reacts with benzoic
acid, C6H5COOH to produce a salt, sodium from iron(III) from sodium iron(III) hydroxide as
sulphate hydroxide brown precipitate
benzoate and water in a neutralisation reaction.
Basicity of Acids CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO–(aq) + H+(aq)
1 Basicity of an acid is the number of moles of Three H atoms bonded to Only one H atom
carbon do not dissociate dissociates to form H+ ion
OH– ions that are required to react with one
mole of the acid. 4 A diprotic acid (or dibasic acid) is an acid
2 Since one mole of OH– ions reacts with one that will produce two moles of H+ ions from
mole of H+ ion, the basicity of an acid is also one mole of the acid in water.
the number of moles of H+ ion that can be For example:
produced by one mole of the acid when it H2SO4(aq) → 2H+ (aq) + SO42–(aq)
dissolves in water. 1 mol sulphuric 2 mol sulphate ion
3 A monoprotic acid (or monobasic acid) is acid hydrogen ions
an acid that will produce one mole of H+ 5 A triprotic acid (or tribasic acid) is an acid
ion when one mole of the acid dissolves in that will produce three moles of H+ ions
water. from one mole of the acid in water.
For example, although ethanoic acid has four For example:
hydrogen atoms in the molecule, only one of H3PO4(aq) 3H+(aq) + PO43–(aq)
the hydrogen dissociates to form H+ ion in
water. 1 mol 3 mol phosphate ion
phosphoric acid hydrogen ions
Acids and Bases 190

Table 7.6 Examples of monoprotic acid and diprotic acid
Examples of Hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3), Basicity of an acid is not the same
monoprotic acid ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) and methanoic acid as the number of H atoms in the
(HCOOH) formula of the acid.
Examples of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), ethanedioic acid (H2C2O4), Basicity is the number of moles of
diprotic acid carbonic acid (H2CO3) and chromic acid (H2CrO4) H+ ions produced by one mole of
acid in water.
7.1
1 (a) Explain what you understand by the term 3 Identify the chemicals Q, R, X, Y and gas Z in the
(i) an acid following reactions:
7
(ii) a base (a) H2SO4 + Q → MgSO4 + H2O + CO2
(iii) an alkali (b) Ca(OH)2 + 2R → Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O
(b) What is the effect of an acid and an alkali on (c) 2Al + 6X → 2AlCl3 + 3H2
moist litmus paper? heat
(d) Y + NH4NO3 ⎯⎯→ KNO3 + H2O + Z
2 Identify the correct uses of the following acids and
4 Write equations to show the reactions between
bases.
(a) sulphuric acid and magnesium oxide
Acids or bases: H2SO4, HNO3, CaO, Ca(OH)2, (b) nitric acid and aluminium metal
Mg(OH)2, NH3, NaOH (c) hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate
(d) ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide
Uses Acids or bases (e) potassium hydroxide and ammonium chloride
To make antacid when heated
5 Effervescence occurs when magnesium powder is
To make fertiliser
added to aqueous hydrochloric acid. However, no
To make soap noticeable change takes place when magnesium
powder is added to hydrogen chloride dissolved in
To neutralise acidity in soil
methylbenzene. Explain why.
Acid Alkali
dissolves in water dissolves in water
produces H+ ions produces OH– ions
reacts with reacts with
carbonate metal base acid ammonium salt metal ions
heat
salt salt + hydrogen salt + water ammonia gas metal

+ hydroxides
carbon dioxide
+
water
191 Acids and Bases

• pH > 7 ⇒ alkaline solution
7.2 The Strength of Acids 3 pH is actually a measurement of the concen
and Alkalis tration of hydrogen, H+ ions in a solution.
4 The higher the concentration of the H+ ions,
The pH Scale the lower the pH value and the more acidic
the solution.
1 The pH scale is a set of numbers used to 5 The higher the concentration of the OH–
indicate the degree of acidity or alkalinity of ions, the higher the pH value and the more
a solution. alkaline the solution.
2 The values of the pH scale range from 0 to 14. 6 The relationship between the pH scale, acidity
• pH < 7 ⇒ acidic solution or alkalinity and concentration of H+ ions is
• pH = 7 ⇒ neutral solution shown below.
7
• All acids have pH < 7. • All alkalis have pH > 7.

• The lower the pH value, the higher the H+ ion • The higher the pH value, the higher the OH– ion
concentration. concentration.
Measurement of pH Value of a Solution 4 A pH meter is an

electric meter that is
1 The pH value of a solution can be measured used to measure the
by using pH value of a solution
(a) universal indicator or pH paper accurately. A pH meter
(b) a pH meter (with or without a computer will show the pH
interface) value when its probe is
2 Universal indicator is a mixture of indicators immersed in a solution
pH meter
that gives different colours corresponding to to be tested.
different pH values as shown in Table 7.7. 5 With a computer interface,
3 Universal indicator is used in the form of the exact pH value can be displayed on the
(a) solution, or computer screen when the pH meter is placed
(b) paper strips (also known as pH paper). in the solution.
Table 7.7 Colours of universal indicator
pH value 0, 1, 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12, 13, 14
Colour red orange orange orange yellow green greenish- blue blue bluish- purple
red yellow blue purple
To measure the pH values of some solutions used in daily life

Activity 7.3
Apparatus Materials
Beakers, universal indicator solution, dropper, Soap solution, carbonated drink, tap water, orange
standard colour chart of universal indicator. fruit juice, distilled water, milk, tea, dilute sodium
hydroxide and hydrochloric acid.
Acids and Bases 192

Procedure
1 About 10 cm3 of soap solution is placed in a small beaker.
2 Two drops of universal indicator solution are added to the soap solution. The solution is then stirred.
3 The colour of the solution produced is matched against the standard colour chart of universal indicator. The
corresponding pH value of the colour is noted and recorded.
4 The experiment is repeated using carbonated drink, tap water, orange fruit juice, distilled water, milk, tea,
dilute sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid in place of the soap solution.
Results
Solution Soap Carbonated Tap Orange Distilled Milk Tea Dilute Dilute
solution drink water juice water sodium hydrochloric
hydroxide acid
7
pH value 10 5 6 4 7 6 5 13 1
Conclusion
1 Different solutions have different pH values.
2 The pH value of a solution can be measured using the universal indicator solution.
Degree of Dissociation HCl → H+ + Cl–

HNO3 → H+ + NO3–
1 The strength of an acid or an alkali depends H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO42–
on the degree of dissociation (also known as
the degree of ionisation). (The one–way arrow → indicates complete
2 The degree of dissociation measures the dissociation)
percentage or fraction of molecules that 3 Complete dissociation (100%) in water by a
dissociates into ions when dissolved in water. strong acid produces a high concentration of
3 For example, the degree of dissociation of H+ ions and hence a low pH.
hydrochloric acid is 100% or 1. This means 4 Weak acids are chemicals that dissociate
that all the hydrogen chloride molecules in partially (incomplete dissociation) into
hydrochloric acid will ionise to form H+ ions hydrogen ions H+ in water.
and Cl– ions when dissolved in water. 5 Most of the organic acids such as ethanoic
4 In a 1.0 mol dm–3 aqueous ethanoic solution, acid, ethanedioic acid, methanoic acid, citric
only 4 out of 1000 molecules of ethanoic acid acid and tartaric acid are weak acids.
dissociate to form ions. Degree of dissociation
of a 1.0 mol dm–3 aqueous ethanoic solution is CH3COOH CH3COO– + H+
4
—— —— = 0.004 or 0.4%. H2C2O4 2H+ + C2O42–
1000
5 Acids can be divided into 2 categories: strong (The two–way arrow indicates reversible
acids and weak acids, depending on their reaction)
degree of dissociation.
6 Alkalis can be divided into 2 categories: strong
alkalis and weak alkalis, depending on their Examples of weak acids
degree of dissociation. Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
SPM
Methanoic acid, HCOOH
Strong and Weak Acids ’08/P2,
’09/P1,
Ethanedioic acid, H2C2O4
’10/P3 Carbonic acid, H2CO3
1 A strong acid is a chemical substance that Phosphoric acid, H3PO4
dissociates completely (degree of dissociation Chromic acid, H2CrO4
is 100%) into hydrogen ions, H+ in water. Nitrous acid, HNO2
2 Mineral acids such as hydrochloric acid, nitric Sulphurous acid, H2SO3
acid and sulphuric acid are strong acids.
193 Acids and Bases

6 In a weak acid solution, a big portion of the Strong and Weak Alkalis SPM
’08/P1,
weak acid exists as molecules and only a ’09/P1
small portion dissociates to ions. 1 A strong alkali is a chemical substance that

dissociates completely (100%) to hydroxide
ions, OH– in water.
2 Examples of strong alkalis are sodium
A concentrated acid does not mean that it is a strong hydroxide and potassium hydroxide.
acid. For example, concentrated ethanoic acid is still a
weak acid. NaOH → Na+ + OH–
Consequently, a dilute acid does not mean that it is a KOH → K+ + OH–
weak acid. For example, dilute hydrochloric acid is still
a strong acid.
(The one–way arrow → indicates complete
dissociation)
7
3 A weak alkali is a chemical substance that

7 For two different acids of the same concentration, dissociates partially (incomplete dissociation)
the acid with the lower pH value is the stronger to hydroxide ions, OH– in water.
acid. 4 Examples of weak alkalis are aqueous
8 Partial dissociation of a weak acid results in a ammonia, calcium hydroxide and
low H+ ion concentration. magnesium hydroxide.
9 Strong and weak acids have the same
chemical properties, but the rate of reaction
and electrical conductivity of a weak acid is NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH–
lower as shown in Table 7.8. Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2OH–
Table 7.8 Comparison between a strong acid (HCl)

(The two–way arrow indicates partial dissociation)
and a weak acid (CH3COOH)
5 Partial dissociation of a weak alkali results in
Solution a low concentration of OH– ions. Hence, the
0.1 mol dm –3
0.1 mol dm –3
HCl CH3COOH pH value of a weak alkali is lower than that of

Test a strong alkali with the same concentration.
6 Table 7.9 shows the comparison of properties
Universal Red colour, pH~1 Orange red of a strong alkali (sodium hydroxide solution)
Indicator colour, pH~4 with a weak alkali (aqueous ammonia
solution).
Magnesium Hydrogen gas Hydrogen gas Table 7.9 Comparison of properties of a strong alkali
(NaOH) with a weak alkali (NH3)
ribbon evolves evolves slowly
vigorously Solution 0.1 mol dm–3 0.1 mol dm–3
NaOH solution aqueous NH3
Test
Calcium CO2 gas evolves CO2 gas evolves
Universal Purple colour, Blue colour,
carbonate vigorously slowly
Indicator pH~13 pH~10
Electrical Light bulb lights Light bulb lights Electrical Light bulb lights Light bulb lights
conductivity up brightly up dimly conductivity up brightly up dimly
Conclusion • High • Low

Conclusion • High • Low concentration concentration
concentration concentration of OH– ions of OH– ions
of H+ ions of H+ ions • NaOH is a • Aqueous NH3
• HCl is a strong • CH3COOH is a strong alkali is a weak
acid weak acid alkali
Acids and Bases 194

Decreasing pH Increasing pH
1 7 14
Strong acids: Weak acids: Weak alkalis: Strong alkalis:
• Complete ionisation • Partial ionisation • Partial ionisation • Complete ionisation
• High H+ ion concentration • Low H+ ion concentration • Low OH– ion concentration • High OH– ion concentration
• pH value: 1–2 • pH value: 3–6 • pH value: 8–12 • pH value: 13–14
To measure the pH values of solutions with the same SPM

’10/P1
concentration
7
Apparatus Conclusion
50 cm3 beaker and pH meter. 1 Acids have pH values of less than 7.
2 Different acids with the same concentration have
Materials different pH values. The pH of hydrochloric
0.1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, 0.1 mol dm–3 acid is lower than ethanoic acid of the same
ethanoic acid, 0.1 mol dm–3 aqueous ammonia and concentration.
0.1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution. 3 Alkalis have pH values of more than 7.
4 Different alkalis with the same concentration
Procedure have different pH values. The pH of sodium
1 About 15 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid hydroxide solution is higher than aqueous
is placed in a small beaker. ammonia of the same concentration.
2 The probe of a pH meter is rinsed with distilled
water. Discussion
3 The pH meter probe is then immersed in the acid
1 Hydrochloric acid, HCl, and ethanoic acid,
in the beaker. The reading registered on the pH
meter after it has stabilised is recorded. CH3COOH, are both acidic as their pH values
4 Steps 1 to 3 of the experiment are repeated using are less than 7.
ethanoic acid, ammonia solution and sodium 2 However, the pH value of HCl is less than that
hydroxide solution to replace the hydrochloric of CH3COOH with the same concentration
acid. indicating that the concentration of hydrogen
ions in HCl is higher than that in CH3COOH.
Results 3 HCl is an example of a strong acid which
Solution of pH undergoes complete ionisation. CH3COOH is an
Inference example of a weak acid which undergoes partial
0.1 mol dm–3 value
ionisation.
Hydrochloric 1 • High concentration 4 Ammonia, NH3, and sodium hydroxide solution
acid, HCl of H+ ions are both alkaline as their pH values are more
• A strong acid than 7.
5 However, the pH value of NaOH is more
Ethanoic acid, 3 • Low concentration of
than that of NH3 with the same concentration
CH3COOH H+ ions
indicating that the concentration of hydroxide
• A weak acid
ions in NaOH is higher than that in NH3.
Aqueous 10 • Low concentration of 6 NaOH is an example of a strong alkali which
ammonia, NH3 OH– ions undergoes complete ionisation. NH3 is an
• A weak alkali example of a weak alkali which undergoes
Activity 7.4
partial ionisation.
Sodium 13 • High concentration
7 The strength of an acid (strong or weak) and the
hydroxide, of OH– ions
strength of an alkali (strong or weak) depends on
NaOH • A strong alkali
the degree of dissociation.
195 Acids and Bases

3 ’03
7.2
1 Six solutions A, B, C, D, E and F with concentration
Information about two solutions is given below: of 1.0 mol dm–3, have pH values as shown in the
table below:
Concentration of nitric acid = 1.0 mol dm–3
Concentration of carbonic acid = 1.0 mol dm–3 Solution A B C D E F
pH values 13 7.0 10 4.0 1.0 3.5

Which of the following statements are true about
the two solutions given above?
(a) Which of the above solutions has
I Nitric acid is a stronger acid than carbonic acid. (i) the highest concentration of H+ ions?
II The pH value of nitric acid is higher than carbonic (ii) the highest concentration of OH– ions?
acid. (b) Which of the above solutions is
7
III The degree of dissociation of nitric acid in (i) a strong acid? (iii) a weak acid?
water is higher than that of carbonic acid. (ii) a strong alkali? (iv) a weak alkali?
IV The concentration of H+ ions in nitric acid is (c) Which of the above solutions may be
higher than that in carbonic acid. (i) sodium chloride solution?
A I and II only (ii) hydrochloric acid?
B III and IV only (iii) aqueous ammonia?
C I, III and IV only (iv) sodium hydroxide solution?
D I, II, III and IV 2 Using suitable examples, explain the terms strong
acid and weak acid. Predict the difference in pH
Comments values of the two acids with the same concentration.
Nitric acid is a stronger acid (I correct), has a 3 The degree of dissociation of ethanoic acid is
higher degree of dissociation (III correct) and higher than that of propanoic acid but is lower
hence a higher degree of H+ ions concentration (IV than that of methanoic acid.
correct) but a lower pH value than carbonic acid, (a) Arrange the above three acids in ascending
which is a weak acid (II incorrect). order of the strength of acidity.
Answer C (b) If the pH value of 1.0 mol dm–3 ethanoic acid
is 3, predict the pH value of 1.0 mol dm–3
methanoic acid and propanoic acid.
4 ’07
Which of the following statements describe a 7.3 Concentration of Acids

strong alkali? and Alkalis
I Has a high pH value
II Ionises completely in water The Meaning of Concentration and
III Has a high concentration of hydroxide ions
Molarity, and Their Relationship
IV Exists as molecules in water
A I and II only 1 A solution is formed when a solute dissolves
B III and IV only in a solvent.
solute + solvent → solution
D I, II, III and IV
For example, when sodium hydroxide (solute)
Comments dissolves in water (solvent), sodium hydroxide
A strong alkali ionises completely in water to solution is formed.
produce a high concentration of hydroxide ions in 2 Concentration and molarity are measurements
water and hence a high pH value. (I, II and III are of the amount of solutes dissolved in a given
correct) volume of solvent when a solution is formed.
A strong alkali exists as ions in water. (IV is 3 The amount of a solute can be measured in
incorrect) the unit of ‘gram’ or ‘mole’. The quantity of a
Answer C solution produced is usually measured in the
unit of volume, dm3.
Acids and Bases 196

4 The concentration of a solution is the mass Solution
(in grams) or the number of moles of solute Mass of copper(II) sulphate = 5.00 g Convert volume from
dissolved in a solvent to form 1.0 dm3 (1000 Volume of solution = 500 cm3 cm3 to dm3
cm3) of solution. Hence the concentration of 500
=— —
— —
— dm3 = 0.5 dm3
a solution can be defined in two ways: 1000
Hence, concentration of copper(II) sulphate solution
Mass of solute dissolved (g) 5.00 g
Concentration = —
———————— ———————— ————————— =— —— ———
Volume of solution (dm3) 0.5 dm3 Concentration (g dm–3)
(g dm )
–3
= 10.0 g dm–3 Mass of solute dissolved (g)
=——————— ———— ———— ——————— ——
Number of moles of Volume of solution (dm3)
solute (mol)
Concentration = —
— ————
—— ———— ————————————
—
–3 Volume of solution (dm3)
(mol dm )
2
7
5 For example, What is the mass of sodium carbonate required to
• a 23.0 g dm–3 NaOH solution has 23.0 g of dissolve in water to prepare a 200 cm3 solution that
NaOH in 1.0 dm3 solution. contains 50 g dm–3?
• a 0.5 mol dm–3 NaOH solution has 0.5 mol
of NaOH in 1.0 dm3 solution. Solution
6 Concentration in terms of mol dm–3 is more Volume of solution = 200 cm3
commonly known as molarity. In chemistry, 200 Convert volume
=— ——
— dm3 = 0.2 dm3
the measurement of concentration in mol 1000 from cm3 to dm3
dm–3 (molarity) is more useful because all Concentration

mass of Na2CO3 dissolved (g)
changes in chemical reactions occur in terms =—
—— ———— ————— ——— ——— ———— —
—
(g dm–3) volume of solution (dm3)
of moles.
7 Concentration (in g dm–3) can be converted Mass of Na2CO3 required
SPM to molarity by dividing concentration (in = 50 g dm–3  0.2 dm3 Mass = Concentration (g dm–3) 
’08/P1
g dm–3) by the molar mass. The molar mass is = 10 g Volume of solution (dm3)
the mass of 1 mol of substance.
Concentration (g dm–3) 3
Molarity (mol dm–3) = ————
— ——————————— ——
———
Molar mass (g mol–1)
Calculate the number of moles of ammonia in 150
cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 aqueous ammonia.
Solution M = molarity, V = volume in cm3
The relationship between the number of mols with MV

Number of moles = — ——
—
molarity, M and volume, V can be represented by the 1000
formula below: 150
MV Number of moles of ammonia = 2  — — — — = 0.3
Number of moles = — ——
——
——
——
— 1000
1000
where M = molarity of solution (mol dm–3)
V = volume of solution (cm3). 4
A 250 cm3 solution contains 0.4 mol of nitric acid.
Calculations Involving Concentrations Calculate the molarity of the nitric acid.
and Molarity Solution
MV 250
Number of moles = —
— —
— =M—
———
1 1000 1000
5.00 g of copper(II) sulphate is dissolved in water to 0.4  1000
Molarity of nitric acid, M = —— ————— —
—
form 500 cm3 solution. Calculate the concentration 250
of copper(II) sulphate solution in g dm–3. = 1.6 mol dm–3
197 Acids and Bases

5 Concentration (g dm–3)
Molarity = —— —————— —
— — ——
—— — ——
Calculate the volume in dm of 0.8 mol dm
3 –3 Molar mass (g mol–1)
sulphuric acid that contains 0.2 mol of H2SO4. 16
=— — — Convert g dm–3
106 to mol dm–3
Solution = 0.15 mol dm –3
MV
Number of moles = — —— — Number of moles
1000
0.2 mol
Volume of sulphuric acid = —— ——————— — 8
0.8 mol dm–3
= 0.25 dm3 Molarity, M
The concentration of a potassium hydroxide
solution is 84.0 g dm–3. Calculate the number of
moles of potassium hydroxide present in 300 cm3
of the solution.
7
6 [Relative atomic mass: H, l; O, 16; K, 39]

Dilute hydrochloric acid used in school laboratories Solution
usually has a concentration of 2.0 mol dm–3. Molar mass of KOH = 39 + 16 + 1 = 56
Calculate the mass of hydrogen chloride in 250 cm3
Molarity of KOH
of the hydrochloric acid? Molarity (mol dm–3)
84.0
[Relative atomic mass: H, l; Cl, 35.5] =— — — Concentration (g dm–3)
=— ———— ————— ——
—— — —
————
56 Molar mass (g mol–1)
Solution = 1.5 mol dm–3
Number of moles of HCl Number of moles of KOH
2.0  250 MV 1.5  300
=— —— ————
— Number of moles = —
——— =— — ——
——— —
1000 1000 1000
MV
———
1000
= 0.5 = 0.45
Molar mass of HCl = 1 + 35.5
= 36.5 g mol–1
Mass of HCl = 0.5  36.5 g 9
= 18.25 g
Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen ions
Mass = Number of moles  Molar mass
present in 200 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid.
Solution
Number of moles of H2SO4
7 0.5  200
=— — —————
—
—
MV
—
–—
4.0 g of sodium carbonate powder, Na2CO3, is 1000 1000
dissolved in water and made up to 250 cm3. = 0.1
What is the molarity of the sodium carbonate H2SO4 → 2H+ + SO42–
solution?
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12; O, 16; Na, 23] Sulphuric acid is a diprotic acid, which means 1 mol
of sulphuric acid will produce 2 mol of H+ ions.
Solution Hence, 0.1 mol of sulphuric acid will produce
Volume of sodium carbonate solution 0.1  2 = 0.2 mol of H+ ions.
= 250 cm3 = 0.25 dm3 Convert volume
from cm3 to dm3
Mass (g)
Concentration = ———— —
— ———— — Preparation of Standard Solutions
Volume (dm3)
4.0 Convert mass to 1 A standard solution is a solution with a
=— ——

0.25 concentration known concentration.
=16 g dm–3
2 A volumetric flask (also known as standard
flask) is an apparatus with a known volume.
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = (2  23) + 12 + (3  16) Examples are: 100 cm3, 200 cm3, 250 cm3,
= 106 g mol–1 500 cm3 and 1000 cm3.
Acids and Bases 198

3 Volumetric flasks are used to prepare standard
The steps involved in the preparation of a
solutions. Beakers are not suitable for this
standard solution
purpose because volumes measured by
beakers and measuring cylinders are not very 1 Calculate the mass (m g) of the chemical
accurate. required to prepare v cm3 of solution where
4 A volumetric flask can measure the volume of v is the volume of the volumetric flask.
a liquid accurately, up to one decimal point. 2 Weigh out the exact mass (m g) of the
chemical accurately in a weighing bottle
using an electronic balance.
3 Dissolve m g of the chemical in a small
amount of distilled water.
4 Transfer the dissolved chemical into the
volumetric flask.
7
5 Add enough water until the graduation
mark.
Figure 7.10 A 100 cm3 volumetric flask
To prepare 100 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 aqueous sodium SPM

’06/P2
hydroxide solution Q4
Apparatus 4 Using a filter funnel and

Electronic balance, 100 cm3 volumetric flask, filter a glass rod, the dissolved
funnel, dropper and washing bottle. sodium hydroxide is
transferred to a 100 cm3
volumetric flask.
Materials
5 The small beaker, the
Sodium hydroxide solid and distilled water. weighing bottle and
the filter funnel are all
Procedure rinsed with distilled
1 The mass of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) required water and the contents
to prepare 100 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 aqueous are transferred into the
sodium hydroxide is calculated as follows: volumetric flask.
Mass of NaOH required 6 Distilled water is then
= Number of moles  molar mass of NaOH added slowly until
MV the water level is near
= (————)  (23 + 16 + 1)
1000 the level mark of the
volumetric flask. A
2.0  100 dropper is then used
=— — —— —
——— 40
1000 to add water drop by
= 8.0 g drop to finally bring the
2 8.0 g of sodium hydro volume of solution to
xide, NaOH solid is the 100 cm3 graduation
weighed accurately in mark.
a weighing bottle using 7 The volumetric flask is
an electronic balance. closed with a stopper.
3 Sodium hydroxide solid The volumetric flask
is transferred to a small is then shaken several
Activity 7.5
beaker. Sufficient dis times to mix the solution

tilled water is added to completely. The solution
dissolve all the solid prepared is 100 cm3 of
sodium hydroxide. 2.0 mol dm–3 aqueous
sodium hydroxide.
199 Acids and Bases

The Correct Techniques Used in the Preparation 2 When a solution is diluted, the volume of
of Standard Solution solvent increases but the number of moles of
solute remains constant. Hence the concentration
1 The chemical is weighed in a weighing bottle of the solution decreases.
and not on a piece of filter paper. Some 3 If a solution with volume of V1 cm3 and molarity
chemicals such as sodium hydroxide can of M1 mol dm–3 is diluted to become V2 cm3,
absorb moisture from the air and become wet the new concentration of the diluted solution,
and may stick to paper. M2 mol dm–3 can be determined as follows:
2 After transferring the dissolved solute to the Number of moles of M1V1
volumetric flask, the weighing bottle, the =—
————
solute before dilution 1000
small beaker that contained the solution
Number of moles of M2V2
as well as the filter funnel are rinsed with = ———
——
distilled water. The content is then transferred solute after dilution 1000
7
to the volumetric flask to ensure that all the However, the number of moles of solute
mass of the chemical that has been weighed is before dilution is the same as the number of
transferred to the volumetric flask. moles of solute after dilution,
3 The addition of distilled water to the M1V1 M2V2
volumetric flask must be carried out carefully ————— = ————— or M1V1 = M2V2
so that the level of the solution does not 1000 1000
exceed the graduation mark of the volumetric
flask. The last few cm3 of water should be The steps involved in the preparation of a
added drop by drop using a dropper. standard solution by dilution
4 A volumetric flask and not a beaker must be 1 The volume of the stock solution, V1
used to prepare a standard solution because a required is calculated.
volumetric flask is calibrated to a high degree 2 The required volume of stock solution is
of accuracy. pipetted into a volumetric flask.
5 The volumetric flask is stoppered after the 3 Enough distilled water is added to the
standard solution is prepared to prevent the volumetric flask to the required volume, V2.
evaporation of water which can change the
concentration of the solution prepared.
Preparation of a Solution with a Specified The formula used in dilution is M1V1 = M2V2
Concentration Using the Dilution Method
where M1 = Initial molarity of solution
M2 = Final molarity of solution
1 Dilution is a process of diluting a concentrated V1 = Initial volume of solution
solution by adding a solvent such as water to V2 = Final volume of solution
obtain a more diluted solution.
To prepare 100 cm3 0.2 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide from a

2.0 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution by the dilution method
Apparatus M1V1 = M2V2

100 cm3 volumetric flask, 10 cm3 pipette, pipette
2.0 3 V1 = 0.2 3 100
filler, filter funnel, dropper and washing bottle.
Materials 0.2 3 100
V1 = —
———
———
— = 10 cm3
2.0 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution and distilled 1.0
Activity 7.6
water.
where M1 = Initial molarity of alkali
Procedure M2 = Final molarity of alkali
(A) To calculate the volume of sodium hydroxide V1 = Initial volume of alkali
solution that is required for dilution V2 = Final volume of alkali
Acids and Bases 200

(B) To prepare 100 cm3 0.2 mol dm–3 sodium 3 The flask is stoppered and is inverted several
hydroxide by the dilution method times to mix the solution. The solution prepared
1 Using a pipette and a pipette filler, 10.0 cm3 is 0.2 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution.
of 2.0 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution is
transferred to a 100 cm3 volumetric flask. Conclusion
2 Using a washing bottle, distilled water is added to the A 0.2 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution can be
alkali in the volumetric flask until near the graduation prepared by diluting 10 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 of
mark. A dropper is then used to add water slowly in sodium hydroxide solution to 100 cm3.
the volumetric flask up to the graduation mark.
Relationship between pH Values and (a) The higher the degree of dissociation of
Molarities of Acids or Alkalis an acid, the lower the pH value of the acid.
(b) The higher the degree of dissociation of an
7
1 The pH value of an acid or an alkali depends alkali, the higher the pH value of the alkali.
on two factors, that is 3 For an acid or alkali, its pH value depends on
(a) degree of dissociation and the molarity of the solution.
(b) molarity or concentration. (a) The higher the molarity of an acid, the
2 At the same concentration, the pH value of lower the pH value.
an acid or an alkali depends on the degree of (b) The higher the molarity of an alkali, the
dissociation. higher the pH value.
7.3 SPM
’09/P3
To investigate the relationship between pH values and the molarity of an acid or an alkali
Problem statement 0.001 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid as shown in
What is the relationship between pH values and the Figure 7.11.
molarity of an acid or an alkali? 3 The pH value
Hypothesis shown on the pH
(A) When the molarity of an acid increases, its pH meter is recorded.
value decreases. 4 The pH values
(B) When the molarity of an alkali increases, its pH of hydrochloric
value increases. acid solutions with
Figure 7.11 Using a pH
Variables different molarities meter to measure the pH
are measured one value
(a) Manipulated variable : Molarity of acid or alkali
by one in dry
(b) Responding variable : pH values
beakers as in Steps 1 to 3.
(c) Constant variable : Type of acid or alkali used
5 The experiment is repeated using sodium
Apparatus hydroxide solutions with different molarities to
pH meter, 100 cm3 beakers and 100 cm3 measuring replace the hydrochloric acid.
cylinders.
Materials Results
Hydrochloric acids and sodium hydroxide solutions
Molarities of
with molarities of 0.001 mol dm–3, 0.01 mol dm–3, 0.001 0.01 0.05 0.08 0.10
HCl (mol dm–3)
0.05 mol dm–3, 0.08 mol dm–3 and 0.10 mol dm–3.
Experiment 7.3
Procedure pH values 3.0 2.0 1.3 1.1 1.0

1 30 cm3 of 0.001 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is
put in a dry beaker. Molarities of
0.001 0.01 0.05 0.08 0.10
2 The probe of a pH meter that has been washed NaOH (mol dm–3)
with distilled water is immersed in 30 cm3 of the pH values 11.0 12.0 12.7 12.9 13.0
201 Acids and Bases

Discussion 4 The graph of pH values versus molarity of
an alkali is an increasing curve as shown in
1 The graph of pH values versus molarity of
Figure 7.13.
an acid is a decreasing curve as shown in
5 When the molarity of an alkali increases, the
Figure 7.12.
concentration of OH– ions in the alkali increases
2 When the molarity of an acid increases, the
and the solution becomes more alkaline. Hence
concentration of H+ ions in the acid increases
the pH value increases.
and the solution becomes more acidic. Hence the
pH value decreases.
3 From the graph, we can predict
(a) the pH value, if the concentration of H+ ions
of the solution is known.
(b) the concentration of H+ ions in the solution, if
the pH value is known.
7
Figure 7.13 Graph of pH versus molarity of NaOH

Conclusion
1 The higher the molarity of hydrochloric acid,
the lower the pH value. The pH value of an acid
decreases with the increase in molarity.
2 The higher the molarity of an alkali, the higher
the pH value. The pH value of an alkali increases
Figure 7.12 Graph of pH versus molarity of HCl with the increase in molarity.
Numerical Problems Involving Molarity 0.8  250

M2 = — —————— = 0.2 mol dm–3
of Acids and Alkalis 1000
Molarity of potassium hydroxide solution produced
1 The molarity of an acid will change when is 0.2 mol dm–3.
(a) water is added to it,
(b) an acid of a different concentration is
added to it, 11
(c) an alkali is added to it.
What is the volume of distilled water required to be
added to 60 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid to
10
produce a 0.3 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid?
What is the molarity of the potassium hydroxide
Solution
solution produced when 750 cm3 of distilled water
M1V1 = M2V2
is added to 250 cm3 of potassium hydroxide solution
of 0.8 mol dm–3? 2.0  60 = 0.3  V2
Solution 2.0  60 Calculate the total volume
V2 = ———— —
—
— — of acid produced
Final volume of alkali, V2 = 250 cm3 + 750 cm3 0.3
= 1000 cm3 = 400 cm3
M1V1 = M2V2
Volume of distilled water needed to be added to
0.8  250 = M2  1000 60 cm3 H2SO4 = (400 – 60) cm3 = 340 cm3.
Acids and Bases 202

12
500 cm3 of a solution that contains 2.0 mol sodium
Two units for concentration
hydroxide is added to 1500 cm3 of a solution that
contains 4.0 mol sodium hydroxide. Calculate the
molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution produced.
Solution  molar mass
g dm–3 mol dm–3
Total number of moles of NaOH  molar mass
= 2.0 + 4.0
Calculate the total number of moles determined by determined by
= 6.0 of alkali from the two solutions.
Total volume of NaOH Mass of solute (g) o. of moles of solute (mol)

N
———
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
— ———
——
——
——
——
———
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
———
——
——
——
= (500 + 1500) cm3 Volume of solution (dm3) Volume of solution (dm3)
7
= 2000 cm3 Calculate the total volume of alkali
= 2 dm3 from the two solutions
7.3
Molarity of Number of moles
=— — ————— —
—— ——
——
NaOH produced Volume (dm3) 1 Calculate the mass of potassium hydroxide required

6.0 mol to produce
=— — ———— (a) 2.0 dm3 of 46.4 g dm–3 solution
2 dm3 (b) 100 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 solution
= 3.0 mol dm–3 [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; O, 16; K, 39]
2 2.12 g of sodium carbonate is dissolved in 500 cm3
of distilled water. What is the concentration of the
solution in
13 (a) g dm–3?
(b) mol dm–3?
200 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is added to [Relative atomic mass: C, 12; O, 16; Na, 23]
300 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid. Calculate 3 The concentration of sodium hydroxide solution is
the molarity of the hydrochloric acid produced. 8.0 g dm–3.
(a) What is the molarity of the solution?
Solution (b) What is the molarity of the solution produced
Number of moles in 200 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 HCl when 100 cm3 of distilled water is added to
MV 2.0  200 100 cm3 of this solution?
=— ———= ——————— —
1000 1000 (c) What is the molarity of the solution produced
= 0.4 Calculate the total
when 20 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide
number of moles of solution is added to 100 cm3 of this solution?
Number of moles in 300 cm3 acid from the two [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; O, 16; Na, 23]
solutions.
of 0.5 mol dm–3 HCl
MV 0.5  300
=— — ——= — ———————
1000 1000
= 0.15 7.4 Neutralisation
Total number of moles of HCl = 0.4 + 0.15
= 0.55 The Meaning of Neutralisation and the
Equation for Neutralisation
Total volume of solution = (200 + 300) cm3
= 500 cm3 1 Neutralisation is the reaction between an
Calculate the total volume of
= 0.5 dm3 acid from the two solutions. acid and a base to produce salt and water
only.
Molarity of Number of moles of HCl 2 In a neutralisation reaction, the acidity of an
=—
— —— ——— ——
— —— ————— —
—— acid is neutralised by an alkali. At the same
HCl produced Volume of HCl
0.55 mol time, the alkalinity of the alkali is neutralised
=—
— ——— ——— = 1.1 mol dm–3 by the acid. Salt and water are the only
0.5 dm3
products of neutralisation.
203 Acids and Bases

3 Some examples of neutralisation reactions are
as follows: The ionic equation for neutralisation between
strong acids and strong alkalis is
acid base salt water H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
H2SO4 + CuO → CuSO4 + H2O
2HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 → Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O 7 In a neutralisation reaction, H+ ions from
the acid react with OH– ions from the base to
produce water. The pH value for water is 7,
4 In the reaction between ammonia and acid and a neutral condition is achieved.
such as hydrochloric acid, ammonium salt is
formed.
5 ’03
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
7
Which of the following pairs of compounds will

Although there is no water formed in the
react in a neutralisation reaction?
above equation, in actual fact there is a little
I Hydrochloric acid and potassium hydroxide
water formed together with NH4Cl. This is
II Sulphuric acid and solid copper(II) oxide
because a portion of ammonia, NH3 exists as
III Nitric acid and solid calcium carbonate
NH4+ ions and OH– ions in aqueous solution.
IV Hydrochloric acid and zinc metal
OH– ions and H+ ions (from acid) react to
A I and II only
produce water, H2O.
B III and IV only
5 Acids, bases and salts dissociate to form free
C I, III and IV only
ions. Only water exists as molecules.
D I, II, III and IV
For example,
Comments
H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH–(aq) → Neutralisation is a reaction between an acid and a

from HCl from NaOH base to form salts and water only. Reactions in I
Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2O(l) and II are neutralisation because the two reactants
water react to form salts and water only. Reaction III is
from NaCl molecule not neutrali
sa tion because carbon dioxide gas is
formed in addition to salt and water. Reaction IV is
6 Since Na+ ions and Cl– ions do not undergo not neutralisation because hydrogen gas is formed
any changes in the reaction, these ions can be in addition to salt.
omitted from the equation. Thus, the equation Answer A
can be simplified.
Applications of Neutralisation in Daily Life

Neutralisation is used in various fields such as agriculture, health and industries.
SPM
In agriculture ’09/P1,
’10/P1
1 Controlling the acidity of water is important

in the rearing of freshwater fish and prawns.
Lime (consisting of calcium oxide, CaO)
which produces calcium hydroxide in water is
used to control the acidity in aqua farming.
2 Plants do not grow well in acidic soil or basic
soil. Lime or calcium carbonate is used to
neutralise acidic soil. Basic soil is treated
with compost which can release acidic gas to Calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide are used to
neutralise the alkali in basic soil. neutralise acidic soil
Acids and Bases 204

SPM
In health ’08/P1
produced. This will prevent the corrosion of

teeth enamel.
2 Antacids are medicine which contain bases
such as magnesium hydroxide, aluminium
hydroxide, calcium carbonate and calcium
bicarbonate. Magnesia milk contains
magnesium hydroxide. Antacids and milk of
magnesia are used to neutralise the excess
Toothpastes contain magnesium hydroxide to
hydrochloric acid in the stomachs of
neutralise acids in teeth
gastric patients.
1 Food trapped in gaps between teeth decompose 3 Alkaline creams or baking powder are applied
7
into organic acids by bacteria. An alkaline to cure bee stings and ant bites which are
compound such as magnesium hydroxide acidic. Vinegar which contains ethanoic acid
in toothpastes neutralises the organic acids is used to cure alkaline wasp stings.
In industries
1 Bacteria in latex produces organic acids which
coagulate latex. Ammonia is used to neutralise
the organic acids produced by bacteria to
prevent coagulation, so that latex can remain
in the liquid state.
2 Calcium carbonate is used as a base to remove
acidic gas such as sulphur dioxide emitted by
power stations and industries.
3 Effluent from factories which is acidic is
treated with lime, which will neutralise the
acids in it before being discharged.
4 Neutralisation reaction is also used in the
industry to produce manufactured products Acidic gas emitted by factories must be removed
such as fertilisers, soaps and detergents. before being discharged
Acid-base Titration (a) The use of acid–base indicators such as

methyl orange, phenolphthalein and
1 Titration is a quantitative analysis that involves litmus paper which changes colour at the
the gradual addition of a chemical solution end point.
from a burette to another chemical solution of (b) Measurement of the pH values during
known quantity in a conical flask. titration using a computer interface.
2 In acid-base titration, the volume of the alkali 5 Titration technique can be used to determine
is measured using a pipette and transferred the concentration of an acid (or an alkali).
into a conical flask. The acid solution from a
burette is then added slowly to the alkali in
the conical flask until neutralisation occurs. The Use of Acid-base Indicators in
3 The end point of a titration is when neutralisation Titrations
occurs, that is, when the acid has completely
neutralised the alkali. 1 Acid–base indicators are chemicals that show
4 Since both the reactants (acid and alkali) and different colours when the pH value of the
the products formed (salt and water) are all solution changes.
colourless, the end point of neutralisation is 2 Table 7.10 shows the colour of three common
determined as follows: types of indicators at different pH values.
205 Acids and Bases

Table 7.10 Colours of three common types of 3 The pH meter records changes in pH values
indicators in alkaline, neutral and during titration. The information is linked to
acidic conditions a computer by the interface. The change of
Colour in pH values along the progress of titration is
Colour in Colour in displayed on the computer screen.
Indicator neutral
alkali acid
solution
Methyl orange Yellow Orange Red
Phenolphthalein Light pink Colourless Colourless
Litmus Blue Purple Red
3 Methyl orange shows a yellow colour

in an alkaline solution. At the point of
7
In computer interface, the pH is displayed on a screen

neutralisation, the colour changes from yellow
to orange. 4 A graph of pH value versus volume of alkali
4 Phenolphthalein shows a light pink in an alkaline added is shown as in Figure 7.14. It is found
solution. The first drop of acid that decolourises that the pH value of the solution changes
the light pink colour of phenolphthalein sharply at the end point of neutralisation.
indicates the end point of titration. The neutralisation point can be determined
from the midpoint of the sharp pH change.
The Use of Computer Interface in
Titration
1 When an alkaline solution is added slowly
from a burette to an acid in a conical flask,
the pH value of the mixture solution increases
slowly.
2 In titrations using a computer interface, the
probe of a pH meter, immersed in the solution
to be titrated, is connected to the pH module Figure 7.14 Graph of pH value versus volume of
of the computer interface. alkali added
To find the end point of an acid-base titration during SPM

’10/P2
neutralisation using an acid-base indicator
Apparatus 3 A 50 cm3 burette is rinsed with distilled water and

25 cm3 pipette, pipette filler, 50 cm3 burette, retort stand, then rinsed with a little of the sulphuric acid.
retort clamp, conical flask, filter funnel and white tile. 4 The burette is then filled with sulphuric acid
and is clamped to a retort stand. The initial
Materials burette reading is recorded.
Sulphuric acid of unknown concentration, 1.0 mol dm–3 5 The conical flask containing 25 cm3 of potassium
potassium hydroxide and methyl orange. hydroxide is placed below the burette. A piece
of white tile is placed below the conical flask
Procedure
for clearer observation of the colour change
1 A clean 25 cm3 pipette is rinsed with distilled
(Figure 7.15).
water and then rinsed with a little of the
6 Sulphuric acid is added slowly from the burette
potassium hydroxide solution.
Activity 7.7
to the potassium hydroxide solution in the

2 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 potassium hydroxide is
conical flask while swirling the flask gently.
transferred using the pipette to a clean conical
7 Titration is stopped when the methyl orange
flask. Three drops of methyl orange indicator
changes colour from yellow to orange. The
are added to the alkali and the colour of the
solution is noted. final burette reading is recorded.
Acids and Bases 206

8 Steps 1 to 7 are repeated until accurate titration 19.95 + 20.05
values are obtained, that is, until the difference =— ————— ———— — = 20.00 cm3
2
in the volumes of sulphuric acid used in two Hence, 20.00 cm3 of H2SO4 is required to
consecutive experiments is less than 0.10 cm3. completely neutralise 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3
KOH.
Discussion
1 In this experiment, the pipette has to be rinsed with
potassium hydroxide solution so that water droplets
on the inner wall of the pipette do not dilute the
concentration of the potassium hydroxide used.
2 The burette is rinsed with sulphuric acid so that
water droplets at the inner wall of the burette do not
7
dilute the concentration of the sulphuric acid used.
3 The conical flask does not need to be rinsed with
Figure 7.15 Titration of sulphuric acid with
potassium hydroxide so that the volume of the
potassium hydroxide
potassium hydroxide in the conical flasks will
Results accurately be 25.0 cm3. Otherwise, droplets of
potassium hydroxide in the conical flask may
Volume of sulphuric acid Rough Accurate
cause the volume of potassium hydroxide to
Final burette reading (cm3) 21.00 40.95 20.15 exceed 25.0 cm3.
Initial burette reading (cm )
3
0.00 21.00 0.10 4 The end point of titration is when the colour of
the indicator changes sharply. The colour of
Volume of sulphuric acid 21.00 19.95 20.05 methyl orange is yellow in potassium hydroxide
used (cm3) solution (because pH > 7). At the end point,
the colour of methyl orange changes to orange
Conclusion (pH = 7). If methyl orange changes to a red
1 The volume of sulphuric acid used is calculated colour, excess sulphuric acid has been added.
as follows: 5 In acid-base titrations, only 2 or 3 drops of
Volume of sulphuric acid used indicator should be used. This is because most
= Final burette reading – Initial burette reading of the indicators are weak acid or base that will
2 Average volume of sulphuric acid used affect the pH of the solution if used in excess.
To find the end point of acid–base titration during

neutralisation using a computer interface
Apparatus 3 A 50 cm3 burette is rinsed with distilled water and

25 cm3 pipette, pipette filler, 50 cm3 burette, retort then with a little of the sodium hydroxide solution.
stand, retort clamp, 250 cm3 beaker, filter funnel, 4 The burette is then filled with sodium hydroxide
magnetic stirrer, magnetic stirrer bar, pH meter, solution and is clamped to a retort stand.
computer interface and computer. 5 A magnetic stirrer bar is placed in the beaker
containing 25 cm3 of hydrochloric acid. The beaker
Materials is then placed on a magnetic stirrer below the burette.
1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid and 1.0 mol dm–3 6 A pH meter is connected to a computer using
sodium hydroxide. a computer interface. The pH meter probe is
then dipped into the acid. The magnetic stirrer
Activity 7.8
Procedure is switched on and the computer is set to record

1 A 25 cm3 pipette is rinsed with distilled water and display the pH (Figure 7.16).
and then with a little of the hydrochloric acid. 7 Sodium hydroxide solution is added drop by
2 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is drop from the burette at a constant rate, into the
transferred using the pipette to a clean beaker. acid in the beaker.
207 Acids and Bases

8 A graph of pH change against the volume of sodium hydroxide in cm3 is printed using the computer printer
when 50 cm3 of sodium hydroxide is added to the beaker.
Figure 7.16 Using a pH meter and a computer interface to measure pH changes during neutralisation
7
Results Conclusion
1 A graph of pH against the volume of sodium 1 The pH value of hydrochloric acid is 1.0 at the
hydroxide in cm3 as displayed by the computer beginning of titration. As sodium hydroxide is
is shown in Figure 7.17. added to the acid, the pH value of the solution
increases.
2 The pH value increases sharply at the end point
of neutralisation. The midpoint of the sharp pH
change is 7. At pH 7, the volume of sodium
hydroxide used from the graph is 25.0 cm3.
3 When 1.0 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide is titrated
against 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric
acid, the end point of titration during neutralisation
occurs at pH 7 when 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 of
sodium hydroxide solution has been added.
4 By using a computer interface to measure
pH changes, the end point of titration during
nuetralisation can be determined accurately.
Figure 7.17 Graph of pH against the volume of
sodium hydroxide in cm3
6 ’95
Describe an experiment to determine the concentration The equation for the neutralisation reaction between
of a solution of sulphuric acid by titrating it with a potassium hydroxide and sulphuric acid is
1.0 mol dm–3 potassium hydroxide solution.
2KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2H2O
Solution
A titration experiment similar to Activity 7.7 is carried According to the equation, 2 mol of KOH requires
out in which sulphuric acid of unknown concentration 1 mol of H2SO4 for complete neutralisation.
is titrated against 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 potassium 0.025 mol KOH will require
hydroxide using methyl orange (or phenolphthalein) 1
0.025 3 — = 0.0125 mol H2SO4
as an indicator. 2
Let's say the volume of sulphuric acid required to MV
Number of moles of H2SO4 = ———
neutralise completely 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 potassium 1000
hydroxide is V cm3.
Number of moles of KOH in 25.0 cm3 of Molarity of sulphuric acid, M = 0.0125 3 1000/V
MV 1.0 3 25.0 12.5
1.0 mol dm–3 solution = ——— = ——————— = 0.025 = ——— mol dm–3
1000 1000 V

Acids and Bases 208

Calculation Involving Neutralisation SPM
’09/P2
14 SPM
’11/P1
Using Balanced Equations

In an experiment, 25.0 cm3 of a sodium hydroxide
1 Say, in a balanced equation, a mol of acid solution of unknown concentration required
reacts with b mol of base as represented by the 26.50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid for
equation below: complete reaction in titration. Calculate the molarity
of sodium hydroxide.
aA + bB → products Solution
b=2
2 Say, the molarity of an acid is MA mol dm –3
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
and the molarity of a base is MB mol dm–3. If
in a titration, VA cm3 of acid neutralises VB cm3 MBVB 2 a=1 where
————= —
of base MAVA 1 MB = molarity of NaOH
7
MA = molarity of H2SO4
MB  25.0 2 VB = volume of NaOH
MAVA — —— —————— = —
Number of moles of acid = —
——— 1.0  26.50 1 VA = volume of H2SO4
1000
26.50
MBVB MB = 2  ———
——
Number of moles of base = —
——— 25.0
1000 = 2.12 mol dm–3
Hence, the molarity of sodium hydroxide solution

In the stoichiometry equation, a mol of acid is 2.12 mol dm–3.
HA reacts completely with b mol of base,
M(OH)X. Hence the mole ratio of acid to base
is SPM
15 ’10/P1,
’11/P2
MAVA
———— What is the volume of 1.5 mol dm–3 aqueous
1000 a MAVA a ammonia required to completely neutralise 30.0 cm3
— ———= — or ———
—— = —
MBVB b MBVB b of 0.5 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid?
— ———
1000 Solution
3 From the above relationship, the ratio of a b=2
and b can be obtained from the balanced 2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
equation. Any one of the four variables: MA,
VA, MB, VB, can be determined if three of the MBVB 2 where
————= — a=1
other variables are known. MAVA 1 MB = molarity of NH3
MA = molarity of H2SO4
1.5  VB 2 VB = volume of NH3
— —— ——
— ——= —
0.5  30.0 1 VA = volume of H2SO4
1 The volume of a solution in a burette is read from
the top to the bottom. 2  30.0  0.5
VB = —
———
———
————— = 20 cm3
2 The accuracy of a burette reading is until 2 decimal 1.5
places.
3 The accuracy of a pipette reading is until 1 decimal Hence, the volume of aqueous ammonia required is
place. 20 cm3.
209 Acids and Bases

16
Calculate the volume (cm3) of 2.0 mol dm–3 • In an aqueous solution, the concentration of H+
hydrochloric acid that is required to react completely ions in CH3COOH is lower than HCl of the same
with 2.65 g of sodium carbonate. concentration. This is because CH3COOH dissociates
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12; O, 16; Na, 23] partially in water.
• However, both CH3COOH and HCl of the same
Solution concentration require the same amount of NaOH
Molar mass of Na2CO3 for complete neutralisation. This is because both are
= (23  2) + 12 + (16  3) = 106 g monoprotic (monobasic) acids. In the presence of
mass NaOH, CH3COOH dissociates completely to react
Number of moles of Na2CO3 = — ———————
—— with NaOH.
molar mass
• In an acid-base titration, the preferred chemical to be
2.65 put in the burette is the acid. This is because alkali
=—
——— = 0.025
7
106 can react with silica in glass to form silicate, thus

dissolving the thin glass wall of the burette slowly.
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
From the equation, 1 mol of Na2CO3 reacts with
2 mol of HCl.
Hence, 0.025 mol of Na2CO3 will react with
0.025  2 = 0.05 mol of HCl.
MV where 7.4
Number of moles =—— ——
1000 M = molarity of HCl
1 Complete the blanks in the equations below:
2.0 V V = volume of HCl
0.05 = ————
——— (a) 2HCl + Mg → +
1000
0.05  1000 (b) H2SO4 + Zn(OH)2 → +
V=— —— —
—— ———— = 25 cm3 (c) + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
2.0
Hence, the volume of hydrochloric acid required is (d) + → CaSO4 + 2H2O
25 cm3. 2 Nitric acid reacts with magnesium hydroxide solution
to produce magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2 and
water.
17 (a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction
between nitric acid and magnesium hydroxide.
15 cm3 of an acid with the formula HaX of 0.1 mol dm–3 (b) 10.0 cm3 of nitric acid is required to neutralise
required 30 cm3 of 0.15 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide 0.001 mol of magnesium hydroxide. Calculate
solution for complete neutralisation. Calculate the value the concentration of the nitric acid in mol
of a and hence determine the basicity of the acid. dm–3.
Solution 3 Sodium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid as

represented by the equation below:
HaX + aNaOH → aH2O + NaaX
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
MAVA 1
—
————= — 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
MBVB a
Calculate the volume (cm3) of 1.25 mol dm–3
0.1 3 15 1 hydrochloric acid that is required to react completely
————————= — with 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 sodium carbonate.
0.15 3 30 a
a=3 4 15.0 cm3 of sulphuric acid neutralises 25.0 cm3
of 2.0 mol dm–3 aqueous ammonia. Calculate the
Hence HaX is a tribasic acid. molarity of the sulphuric acid used.
Acids and Bases 210

1 An acid is a chemical compound that produces (c) Reacts with a metal carbonate to produce a
hydrogen ions, H+ or
hydroxonium ions, H3O+ salt, carbon dioxide gas and water.
when it dissolves in water. 8 Chemical properties of an alkali:
2 Dry acids without water do not show any acidic (a) Reacts with an acid to produce a salt and
property because they do not dissociate to H+ ions. water.
3 A base is defined as a chemical substance that can (b) When heated with an ammonium salt,
neutralise an acid to produce a salt and water. ammonia gas is produced.
Most bases are not soluble in water. Bases that are 9 The pH scale is a set of numbers range from (0
soluble in water are known as alkalis. to 14) used to measure acidity or alkalinity of a
4 An alkali is defined as a chemical compound that substance.
7
dissolves in water to produce free moving hydroxide 10 The pH value of an acid or alkali depends on
ions, OH–. (a) the degree of dissociation (strength of acid or
5 Dry alkalis do not show alkaline property. alkali),
6 Physical properties of acids and alkalis: (b) the concentration of the acid or alkali.
11 A standard solution is a solution of known
Acids Alkalis
concentration.
Acids are sour in taste Alkalis are bitter in 12 The concentration of a solution is measured in
taste and feel soapy g dm–3 or mol dm–3.
pH values of less pH values of more 13 Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and
than 7 than 7 a base to produce a salt and water only.
14 When a mol of acid reacts completely with b mol of
Changes blue litmus Changes red litmus alkali in a reaction:
paper to red paper to blue MAVA a M = molarity of acid
———– = —— , where A
7 Chemical properties of an acid: MBVB b VA = volume of acid
(a) Reacts with a base to produce a salt and water. MB = molarity of alkali
(b) Reacts with a reactive metal to produce a salt
VB = volume of alkali
and hydrogen gas is evolved.
7
7.1 D X dissolves in water to
Characteristics and
produce H+ ions.
Properties of Acids and
Bases 2 Which of the following
statements is true of all bases?
1 Chemical X is an acid. Which of ’07 A Dissolve in water
the following may not be true
B Contain hydroxide ions
about the property of X?
C Have a pH value of between
A A pink colour is produced Which of the following is solution
12 and 13
when phenolphthalein is Z?
D Produce ammonia gas when
added to a solution of X. A Glacial ethanoic acid
heated with ammonium salts
B Hydrogen gas is evolved B Ethanoic acid in
when zinc powder is added 3 The diagram shows the set-up methylbenzene
to a solution of X. of apparatus for the reaction C Concentrated ethanoic acid
C A solution of X reacts with an ’06 between solution Z and D Hydrogen chloride dissolved
alkali to produce salt and water. magnesium ribbon. in propanone
211 Acids and Bases

4 The colours of indicator X in with magnesium powder to 13 Ethanoic acid is a weak acid
solutions of different pH values liberate hydrogen gas? because
are shown below. A W and X A it is an organic acid.
B X and Y B it dissolves slightly in water.
pH value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 C X and Z C it is a weak conductor of
←⎯→ ←⎯→ ←⎯⎯→ ←⎯→ ←⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ ←⎯→ ←⎯→
Colour red orange yellow green bluish-green blue purple D Y and Z electricity.
D it ionises partially to form
Indicator X will show a green 9 Sulphuric acid is known as a hydrogen ions in water.
colour in a solution of 0.1 mol diprotic acid because
dm–3 of A there are two hydrogen atoms 14 Which of the following solutions
A sodium hydroxide solution in one molecule of sulphuric has the highest pH value?
B sodium chloride solution acid. A Ethanoic acid, 0.01 mol dm–3
C aqueous ammonia B one mole of sulphuric acid B Hydrochloric acid, 0.01 mol
D ethanoic acid contains two moles of dm–3
hydrogen atoms. C Aqueous ammonia, 0.01 mol
7
5 Which of the following C one mole of sulphuric acid dm–3

substances can change red dissociates into two moles of D Sodium hydroxide solution,
litmus paper to blue when hydrogen ions in water. 0.01 mol dm–3
dissolved in water? D sulphuric acid can be neutralised
A Carbon dioxide gas by two types of bases. 15
B Glacial ethanoic acid
C Solid sodium oxide 10 Which of the following particles
D Solid sodium sulphate in a solution of ammonia is
responsible for its alkaline
6 The acidity of hydrogen chloride properties?
gas cannot be shown when A NH3
it dissolves in the following B OH–
solvents: C H+
I Water D NH4+ Which of the following
II Ethanol statements is true of the two
III Methylbenzene aqueous solutions shown above?
IV Propanone 7.2 A Both solutions are strong
The Strength of Acids
A I and II only acids.
and Alkalis
B III and IV only B The pH of both solutions are
C I and III only 11 A chemical that dissociates equal.
D II, III and IV only completely in water to produce C Both solutions are strong
hydroxide ions is a electrolytes.
7 Zinc carbonate powder is added A strong acid D 25.0 cm3 of each solution
to liquid X. A gas which turns B weak acid requires 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol
limewater milky is evolved. X C strong alkali dm–3 sodium hydroxide to be
could be D weak alkali neutralised.
A glacial ethanoic acid.
B aqueous citric acid. 12 The table shows the degree of 16 Which of the following solutions
C hydrogen chloride gas dissociation of four solutions contains the highest number of
dissolved in methylbenzene. of acids which have the same ’11 hydrogen ions?
D hydrogen chloride gas concentration A 50 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3
dissolved in propanone. ethanoic acid
Solution Degree of
dissociation B 40 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3
8 The table shows the pH for four sulphuric acid
aqueous solutions, W, X, Y and Z. W High
C 30 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 nitric
X Medium acid
Aqueous
W X Y Z Y Very high D 50 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3
solutions
Z Low hydrochloric acid
pH 2 7 12 13
Which solution has the highest 17 Which of the following is true
When two of the solutions with pH value? when water is added to an
the same volume are added A W C Y aqueous sodium hydroxide
together, which mixture will react B X D Z solution?
Acids and Bases 212

A The pH value decreases. 21 Calculate the mass of potassium 25 When 2.8 g of potassium
B The degree of ionisation hydroxide that is required to hydroxide is dissolved in 250
decreases. prepare 250 cm3 of 2.0 mol cm3 of distilled water, which of
C The hydroxide ion dm–3 solution. [Relative atomic the following are true about the
concentration increases. mass: H, 1; O, 16; K, 39] solution produced? [Relative
D The alkalinity increases. A 22.4 g C 56 g atomic mass: H, 1; O, 16; K, 39]
B 28 g D 112 g I It has a molarity of 0.05 mol
18 An aqueous solution of Q has a dm–3.
pH value of 1. Q may be 22 0.2 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid is II It contains 11.2 g in 1 dm3.
I 0.1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric added slowly to a conical flask III The solution produces 0.2
acid containing 20.0 cm3 of 0.2 mol mol of hydroxide ions.
II 0.001 mol dm–3 sulphuric dm–3 potassium hydroxide and IV It contains 2 mol in 10 dm3 of
acid 10 cm3 of water. What is the total solution.
III 0.1 mol dm–3 nitric acid volume (in cm3) of the solution A I and II only
B I and III only
7
IV 0.1 mol dm–3 ethanoic acid in the flask when the solution is
A I and III only completely neutralised? C III and IV only
B II and IV only A 30 C 50 D II and IV only
C I, II and III only B 40 D 60
D I, III and IV only 26 What is the mass of sodium
23 The table shows four different hydroxide contained in 50 cm3 of
19 Which of the following statements test tubes P, Q, R and S 0.4 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide
is true of both nitric acid and containing different acids. solution? [Relative atomic mass:
sulphuric acid? H, 1; O, 16; Na, 23]
A Both are organic acids. A 0.4 g
Test tube Content
B Both are diprotic acids. B 0.8 g
C Both undergo complete P 15 cm of 0.5 mol dm–3
3
C 1.6 g
dissociation in water. hydrochloric acid D 3.2 g
D Both react with copper to Q 15 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3
produce hydrogen gas. ethanoic acid 27 Calculate the number of moles
of hydroxide ions in 2 dm3 of
R 10 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3
calcium hydroxide solution with
nitric acid
7.3 a concentration of 14.8 g dm–3.
Concentration of Acids S 10 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; O,
and Alkalis sulphuric acid 16; Ca, 40]
20 Steps I to V below show the A 0.20
five steps that are involved in Which test tube will produce the B 0.26
the preparation of a standard biggest volume of hydrogen gas C 0.40
solution of sodium hydroxide, with excess magnesium? D 0.44
NaOH which may not be A P C R
arranged in correct order. B Q D S 28 Which of the following
I Add distilled water until the substances will react with glacial
graduation mark 24 Which of the following sodium ethanoic acid?
II Weigh the mass of sodium hydroxide solutions have a A Zinc metal
hydroxide concentration of 0.5 mol dm–3? B Ammonia gas
III Transfer the solid sodium [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; O, C Potassium hydroxide solid
hydroxide into the volumetric 16; Na, 23] D Aqueous sodium carbonate
flask I 5 g NaOH in 250 cm3 of water solution
IV Rinse the weighing bottle and II 20 g NaOH in 1 dm3 of water
pour the solution into the III 250 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3
volumetric flask NaOH to which distilled water 7.4 Neutralisation
V Shake the volumetric flask is added until it becomes
Which of the following is the 1 dm3 29 The ionic equation for the reaction
correct order of steps in the IV 1 mol dm–3 NaOH diluted to between nitric acid and sodium
preparation? twice its volume hydroxide is represented by
A I, II, III, IV, V A I and III only A 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
B II, III, I, IV, V B II and III only B H+ + OH– → H2O
C II, III, IV, I, V C III and IV only C 2H+ + O2– → H2O
D II, I, III, IV, V D I, II, III and IV D Na+ + NO3–→ NaNO3
213 Acids and Bases

30 Plants do not grow well in acidic 34 IV CuO(s) + H2(g) →
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2
soil. Which of the following are Cu(s) + H2O(l)
used to neutralise acidic soil? A I and III only
I Sodium hydroxide Based on the equation above, B II and III only
II Calcium hydroxide calculate the mass of iron C I, II and III only
III Potassium hydroxide that will react with excess D II, III and IV only
IV Calcium oxide hydrochloric acid to produce
A I and III only 60 cm3 of hydrogen gas at 38 The reaction between dilute
B II and IV only room temperature. [Relative hydrochloric acid and calcium
C I, II and III only atomic mass: Fe, 56; 1 mol of carbonate is represented by the
D I, II, III and IV gas occupies 24 dm3 at room equation as follows.
temperature]
A 0.14 g CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
31 Antacid is used to neutralise B 0.28 g CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
excess acid in the stomach. C 3.36 g
7
Which of the following chemicals D 22.4 g

is found in antacid? What is the minimum volume
A Sodium hydroxide of 2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric
B Potassium hydroxide acid that is required to react
35
C Magnesium hydroxide 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → completely with 5 g of calcium
D Ammonia Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) carbonate?
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12;
The equation above shows O, 16; Ca, 40]
32 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 A 5 cm3
the neutralisation reaction
sulphuric acid is added to 20 B 25 cm3
between sodium hydroxide and
cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 sodium C 50 cm3
sulphuric acid. Calculate the
hydroxide. Which of the following D 100 cm3
number of moles of sodium
statements are true?
hydroxide that is required to
I Neutralisation reaction takes 39 In a titration process, 0.1 mol
neutralise 25 cm3 of 2.0 mol
place. dm–3 sulphuric acid from a
dm–3 sulphuric acid.
II The solution produced is ’03 burette is added slowly to
A 0.05 mol
acidic. 20 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3
B 0.10 mol
III 0.02 mol of water is aqueous ammonia solution in a
C 0.50 mol
produced. conical flask with methyl orange
D 1.00 mol
IV The solution contains sodium indicator until neutralisation
sulphate and water only. occurs. What is the total volume
A I and II only 36 10.0 cm3 of a certain 0.5 mol in the conical flask at the end
B III and IV only dm–3 acid requires 50.0 cm3 point of titration?
C II and III only of 0.3 mol dm–3 sodium A 10 cm3
D I, III and IV only hydroxide solution for complete B 20 cm3
neutralisation. C 30 cm3
33 The equation shows the reaction Which of the following is the D 40 cm3
between calcium carbonate and possible molecular formula for
hydrochloric acid. this acid? 40 The equation below represents
A HNO3 the neutralisation reaction of
’10 aqueous W hydroxide and
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O B H2SO4
hydrochloric acid.
C H3PO4
D CH3COOH
What is the mass of calcium W(OH)2 + 2HCl → WCl2 + 2H2O
carbonate required to react
completely with 10 cm3 of 2.0 37 Which of the following reactions What is the volume of 0.5 mol
mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid? represent neutralisation? dm–3 hydrochloric acid needed
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12; O, I CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → to neutralise 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol
16; Ca, 40] dm–3 aqueous W hydroxide?
CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
A 0.5 g A 10 cm3
II H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
B 1.0 g B 20 cm3
C 2.0 g III Ba(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) C 30 cm3
D 4.0 g → BaSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) D 40 cm3
Acids and Bases 214

1 Diagram 1 shows the arrangement of apparatus used [Relative molecular mass of NaOH = 40]
to prepare hydrogen chloride in methylbenzene and [2 marks]
in water respectively. (c) (i) Explain if a measuring cylinder is suitable to
be used to measure the volume of water in
the preparation of the standard solution.
[1 mark]
(ii) Name a suitable apparatus that is required
to be used in the preparation of the
standard solution. [1 mark]
(d) What are the two parameters that should be
measured accurately to prepare the standard
solution of sodium hydroxide?
7
Parameter I:
Parameter II: [2 marks]
(e) State two steps that should be taken to ensure
that the standard sodium hydroxide solution is
exactly 100 cm3 with a molarity of 0.5 mol dm–3.
[2 marks]
Diagram 1 3 An experiment is carried out in the laboratory to

determine the concentration of a strong diprotic acid,
(a) What is the purpose of using the filter funnels in H2 A, by titration. A few drops of phenolphthalein
Diagram 1? [1 mark] indicator is added to 25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3
(b) (i) What is observed when a piece of magnesium potassium hydroxide solution and then titrated with
ribbon is placed in beakers A and B the acid, H2 A, of unknown concentration. The results
respectively? [2 marks] obtained are shown in Table 1.
(ii) State the reason for your answer in (i).
Experiment
[2 marks]
(c) Name the particles present in Volume of I II III
(i) beaker A H2 A
(ii) beaker B [2 marks]
Final burette reading (cm3) 26.55 36.15 27.20
(d) The magnesium ribbon is removed. Water is
added to the solution in beaker A and the Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.50 10.00 1.10
mixture is then shaken. When sodium carbonate
Volume of H2 A used (cm ) 3
… … …
powder is added, effervescence occurs.
(i) Name the gas and suggest a suitable test to Table 1
identify the gas evolved. [1 mark]
(ii) State the role of water in the reaction that (a) What is meant by a diprotic acid? [1 mark]
caused the evolution of the gas. [1 mark] (b) Write an equation for the neutralisation reaction
(iii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction between the acid, H2 A and potassium hydroxide.
involving the evolution of the gas. [1 mark] [1 mark]
(iv) What is the conclusion that can be made (c) State the colour change of the phenolphthalein
from the observation? [1 mark]
indicator at the end point of titration. [1 mark]
2 A student is required to prepare a standard solution (d) (i) Calculate the volume of the acid, H2 A used
of 100 cm3 sodium hydroxide solution with a molarity in the titration and complete Table 1.
’06 of 0.5 mol dm–3 in the laboratory. He is given all the [1 mark]
necessary apparatus required. (ii) Calculate the average volume of the acid,
H2 A used in the experiment. [1 mark]
(a) State the meaning of
(i) a standard solution. [1 mark] (e) Calculate the concentration of the acid H2 A used
(ii) molarity of the solution. [1 mark] in the experiment. [2 marks]
(b) Calculate the mass of sodium hydroxide that the (f) Draw a diagram to show the arrangement of the
student needs to prepare a 100 cm3 solution apparatus used in the above experiment.
with a molarity of 0.5 mol dm–3. [2 marks]
215 Acids and Bases

4 Excess magnesium ribbon is
Experiment I
put in 10.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3
sulphuric acid
Experiment II Excess magnesium ribbon is
put in 10.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3
ethanoic acid
Table 2
Table 2 shows two experiments carried out.

(a) The reactions in experiment I and II can be
represented by the same ionic equation, involving
a certain particle in both acids.
(i) Write the formula of this particle. [1 mark]
7
(ii) Write the ionic equation for the reactions Diagram 2

that occur in both experiments. [1 mark]
(b) The rates of reactions are different in experiments
(a) Mark the pH value on the graph in Diagram 2
I and II.
when complete neutralisation occurs. What is the
(i) Which reaction is more vigorous? [1 mark]
pH value? [2 marks]
(ii) Give a reason for your answer in (i).
[3 marks] (b) Mark the volume of the nitric acid required for
complete neutralisation on the graph in Diagram
(c) Compare and explain the difference between the
2. What is this volume? [2 marks]
pH values of sulphuric acid and ethanoic acid.
[2 marks] (c)
Write a balanced equation for the reaction
between nitric acid and sodium hydroxide.
(d) What will be the change in pH value if 10.0 cm 3
[1 mark]
of water is added to the sulphuric acid before
the magnesium ribbon is added in experiment I? (d) If methyl orange is added to the sodium
Explain your answer. [2 marks] hydroxide solution at the initial stage of the
experiment, what is the change in colour that will
5 An experiment was carried out to determine the
take place at the end point of titration? [1 mark]
end point of titration during neutralisation using a
computer interface. Nitric acid is added 0.5 cm3 by (e) Calculate the concentration of nitric acid used in
0.5 cm3 from a burette to 25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 this experiment. [2 marks]
sodium hydroxide in a beaker. The graph in Diagram (f) If the experiment is to be repeated by titrating
2 shows the change in pH value of the solution in sodium hydroxide against nitric acid, sketch a graph
the beaker against the volume of nitric acid used in of the change in pH value against the volume of
cm3 as measured by the computer interface. sodium hydroxide that will be obtained. [2 marks]
Essay Questions
1 (a) Using suitable examples, explain what is meant by the chemical formula of magnesium hydroxide
neutralisation. [4 marks] and explain its function in antacid. Name another
(b) Explain why sodium hydroxide solution and aqueous chemical found in antacid. [4 marks]
ammonia of the same concentration have different (b) Diagram 1 shows two beakers containing 0.1
pH values. [6 marks] mol dm–3 solution X and solution Y and their pH
(c) Explain how you would prepare 250 cm3 of 1.0 readings.
mol dm–3 potassium hydroxide, starting from solid
potassium hydroxide. Subsequently, explain how
you would prepare 250 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3
potassium hydroxide from the above solution.
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; O, 16; K, 39]
[10 marks]
2 (a) Magnesium hydroxide is one of the chemical

compounds found in antacid medicine. Write Diagram 1
Acids and Bases 216

(i) Compare and contrast the two solutions X (iii) Calculate the concentration of the solution
and Y in terms of their physical and chemical that will be produced when 80 cm3 of
properties. Give a suitable example for each water is added to 20 cm3 of solution X.
of the solutions X and Y. [10 marks] [2 marks]
(ii) Predict and explain, with suitable ionic 3 (a) Using a suitable example, explain the role of water
equations, what will happen when equal in causing the acidic properties of an aqueous
volumes of solution X and solution Y are solution of an acid. [8 marks]
mixed together. [4 marks]
(b) Briefly describe three tests (other than the use
of an indicator) that can be used to confirm an
acidic solution. Explain your tests with suitable
equations. [12 marks]
Experiments
7
1 An experiment is carried out to determine the relationship between the concentrations of H+ ions and
the pH values of nitric acid solutions. The pH values of six nitric acid solutions with concentrations of
0.100 mol dm–3, 0.060 mol dm–3, 0.040 mol dm–3, 0.025 mol dm–3, 0.015 mol dm–3 and 0.010 mol
dm–3 are each measured using a pH meter. The corresponding pH values and the concentrations of the
nitric acid solutions are shown in Diagram 1.
Diagram 1
(a) State the variables involved in this experiment.

• Manipulated variable:
• Responding variable:
• Constant variable: [3 marks]
(b) State the hypothesis for this experiment. [3 marks]
(c) Construct a table to record the results of this experiment. [3 marks]
(d) Based on the results of this experiment, draw a graph of pH value versus concentration of H ions on a+
graph paper. [3 marks]

(e) Using the graph you have drawn in (d), predict the pH value of a 0.020 mol dm–3 nitric acid solution. [3 marks]
2 The volume of a sample of sulphuric acid required to neutralise a potassium hydroxide solution can
be determined by titration. Design a laboratory experiment to determine the volume of the sulphuric
acid required to neutralise 25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 potassium hydroxide solution. In designing your
experiment, the following items must be included.
(b) All the variables involved
(c) Statement of the hypothesis
(d) List of materials and apparatus
(e) Procedure
217 Acids and Bases

CHAPTER FORM 4
8
Salts

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1 1
Number of questions 2 – – — – – – – — – 3 1 – – – 3 – – – 1
2 3
ONCEPT MAP
SALTS
preparation qualitative analysis
Soluble salts Insoluble salts Anions Cations
by by test by test by
Reaction of acids with Precipitation in double (a) Heating and (a) Sodium hydroxide
(a) alkalis decomposition reactions identifying (b) Aqueous ammonia
(b) metal oxides (i) the gases (c) Specific reagents
(c) metal carbonates evolved
(d) metals (ii) the colour change
of products
formed
(b) Reagents such as
barium chloride, silver
nitrate and brown ring
test
8.1 Salts
Generally, the formula of salt is
The Meaning of Salts
Cations Anions
Salt = +
1 Salt is an ionic compound that is formed (other than H+) (other than O2– or OH–)
when the hydrogen ion in an acid is replaced
by a metal ion or ammonium ion (NH4+). 3 Diprotic acids and triprotic acids contain
2 The chemical formula of a salt is comprised more than one H+ ions that can be replaced.
of a cation (other than hydrogen ion) and an Hence, it is possible for these acids to form more
anion (other than oxide ion and hydroxide than one type of salt as shown in Table 8.2.
ion).
Table 8.2 Examples of diprotic and triprotic salts
3 The cations and the anions of a salt are
bonded by strong ionic bonds. Types of
8
Type of Example salts that Example
Examples of Salts acid of acid can be formed of salt
1 Examples of salts formed from their Diprotic H2SO4 2 NaHSO4,

corresponding acids are shown in Table 8.1. acid Na2SO4
Table 8.1 Examples of salts formed from their Triprotic H3PO4 3 NaH2PO4,
corresponding acids acid Na2HPO4,
General Na3PO4
Acid Example of salt
name of salt
Hydrochloric Chloride NaCl, KCl, CuCl2,
acid, HCl salts ZnCl2, NH4Cl
A salt consists of cations and anions, but the anions
Nitric acid, Nitrate salts NaNO3, KNO3, must not be oxide ion or hydroxide ion. This is
HNO3 Mg(NO3)2, Pb(NO3)2, because if the anions are O2– or OH– ions, the
NH4NO3 compound is a base, not a salt.
Sulphuric acid, Sulphate Na2SO4, K2SO4,

H2SO4 salts FeSO4, CaSO4,
(NH4)2SO4
Carbonic acid, Carbonate Na2CO3, CaCO3, Generally, the type of salts can be classified according
to the cation or anion. For example, sodium chloride is
H2CO3 salts MgCO3, ZnCO3,
known as a type of sodium salt or alternatively it can
PbCO3
also be classified as a chloride salt.
2 Chloride salts are formed when H+ ions in hydrochloric acid, HCl is replaced by a metal
ion or ammonium ion (NH4+).
KCl (potassium chloride)
H+ replaced by K+
NaCl H+ replaced HCl H+ replaced NH4Cl

(sodium chloride) by Na + (hydrochloric acid) by NH + (ammonium chloride)
4
H+ replaced by Mg2+ H+ replaced by Zn2+
MgCl2 ZnCl2
(magnesium chloride) (zinc chloride)
219 Salts
Uses of Salts in Daily Life
In food preparation
1 Sodium chloride (NaCl), table salt, is

used for seasoning food.
2 Monosodium glutamate (M.S.G.)
is used to enhance the taste of food.
3 Self-raising flour contains sodium
bicarbonate (NaHCO3) which helps
breads and cakes to rise. Sodium chloride is
used to flavour food
8
In food preservation so that food can be

kept longer without spoiling.
1 Sodium chloride is used as a food

preservative in food such as salted fish and
salted eggs. Salts play an
2 Sodium benzoate (C6H5COONa) is used important role
as a food preservative in food such as
in our daily life.
tomato sauce, oyster sauce and jam.
3 Sodium nitrite
Here are few
(NaNO2) is used to examples of salts
preserve processed and their uses.
meat such as burgers,
sausages and ham.
Sodium benzoate is used as

a food preservative in sauce
In agriculture: to increase the production of food.
1 Nitrate salts such as potassium nitrate

(KNO3), sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
and ammonium salts such as
ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4,
ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3),
ammonium phosphate (NH4)3PO4
are nitrogenous fertilisers.
2 Salts such as copper(II) sulphate Copper(II) sulphate is a pesticide
(CuSO4), iron(II) sulphate used to kill fungi
(FeSO4) and mercury(I) chloride
(HgCl) are used as pesticides.
Fertilisers used in agriculture are
ammonium salts
Salts 220
In medicine
1 Antacid medicine contain calcium carbonate patients to be seen clearly in X-ray

(CaCO3), and calcium hydrogen carbonate films.
Ca(HCO3)2 that are used to reduce acidity 7 Iron pills containing iron(II)
in the stomachs of gastric patients. sulphate are taken to increase the
2 Smelling salts contain ammonium chloride supply of iron for anaemic patients.
(NH4Cl).
3 Plaster of Paris, used to support fractured
bones, contains calcium sulphate.
4 Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate
heptahydrate) and Glauber salt (sodium
8
sulphate decahydrate) are used as laxatives
to clear the intestines.
5 Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is used
as an antiseptic to kill germs.
6 Barium sulphate, BaSO4, enables the
intestines of suspected stomach cancer Plaster of Paris consists of a calcium sulphate
Other uses
1 Fluoride toothpaste contains tin(II) fluoride,

SnF2, that is used to prevent tooth decay.
Salts play an Silver bromide, AgBr, is used to produce black
2 and white photographic films.
important role Sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl, is used as
in our daily life. 3 a bleaching agent in soap powders and
Here are few detergents.
examples of salts
and their uses.
Fluoride salt in toothpaste prevents tooth decay
Naturally occuring salts

• Lead(II) sulphide (galena, PbS), calcium fluoride
(fluorite, CaF2) and magnesium sulphate (Epsime,
MgSO4) exist as minerals in the earth’s crust.
• Corals, stalactites, stalagmites and limestone
Stalactites and
consist of calcium carbonate, (CaCO3). stalagmites
221 Salts
Soluble Salts and Insoluble Salts
1 Solubility is the ability of a compound to
dissolve in a solvent. Some salts are soluble in
water while others are not.
2 The solubility of a salt in water depends on
the types of cations and anions present as
shown in Table 8.3.
Table 8.3 Types of salt and their solubility in water Figure 8.1 Separation of a soluble salt and an
Type of salt Solubility in water insoluble salt by filtration
Sodium, potassium All are soluble 5 The methods of preparing salts depend on the
and ammonium salts solubility of salts.
8
Nitrate salts All are soluble 6 Soluble salts can be prepared in the laboratory
by four methods as follows:
Chloride salts All are soluble except (a) Reaction between an acid and an alkali
PbCl2, AgCl and HgCl (b) Reaction between an acid and a metal
Sulphate salts All are soluble except (c) Reaction between an acid and a metal
PbSO4, BaSO4 and CaSO4 carbonate
(d) Reaction between an acid and a metal
Carbonate salts All are insoluble except
oxide or hydroxide
Na2CO3, K2CO3 and
7 Insoluble salts can be prepared by precipitation
(NH4)2CO3
in double decomposition reactions.
3 Information on the solubility of salts is useful

in
(a) the separation of salts in a salt mixture. • If a salt is soluble in water, a solution is formed. The
(b) choosing the methods to prepare a salt. solution may be coloured if the cation is copper(II),
(c) identifying the types of ions in a salt in iron(II) or iron(III). Otherwise, a colourless solution is
the qualitative analysis of salts. formed.
• If a salt is insoluble in water, a cloudy mixture is
4 Filtration can be used to separate an insoluble
formed when stirred. The undissolved salt will settle
salt (as the residue) from a soluble salt (as the down as a precipitate.
filtrate) as shown in Figure 8.1.
8.1
To study the solubility of nitrate, sulphate, carbonate and chloride salts

Are nitrate, sulphate, carbonate and chloride salts Various types of salts and distilled water.
soluble in water?
Procedure
Hypothesis
1 0.2 g of copper(II) nitrate is put in a test tube
Some salts are soluble in water while some are not. using a spatula.
Variables 2 5 cm3 of distilled water is added to the above test
Experiment 8.1
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of salts tube. The mixture is stirred and the solubility of
(b) Responding variable : Solubility in water the salt is noted.
(c) Constant variable : Quantity of salts, volume 3 Steps 1 and 2 are repeated using magnesium
and temperature of water nitrate, zinc nitrate, lead(II) nitrate, calcium
nitrate, copper(II) sulphate, magnesium sulphate,
Apparatus zinc sulphate, lead(II) sulphate, barium sulphate,
Test tubes, glass rods, spatulas and test tube holder. calcium sulphate, copper(II) chloride, magnesium
Salts 222
chloride, zinc chloride, lead(II) chloride, silver Solubility
chloride, mercury(I) chloride, sodium carbonate, Type of salt Formula of salt
in water
potassium carbonate, ammonium carbonate,
copper(II) carbonate, magnesium carbonate and Carbonate Na2CO3, K2CO3, Soluble
zinc carbonate to replace the copper(II) nitrate. (NH4)2CO3
Results CuCO3, MgCO3, ZnCO3 Insoluble
Solubility
Type of salt Formula of salt Conclusion
in water
1 All nitrate salts are soluble in water.
Nitrate Cu(NO3)2, Mg(NO3)2, Soluble 2 All sulphate salts are soluble in water except
Zn(NO3)2, Pb(NO3)2, lead(II) sulphate, PbSO4, barium sulphate,
Ca(NO3)2 BaSO4 and calcium sulphate, CaSO4.
3 All chlorides salts are soluble in water except
8
Sulphate CuSO4, MgSO4 and Soluble
lead(II) chloride, PbCl2, silver chloride, AgCl,
ZnSO4
and mercury(I) chloride, HgCl.
PbSO4, BaSO4, CaSO4 Insoluble 4 All carbonates are insoluble in water except
sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, potassium carbonate,
Chloride CuCl2, MgCl2, ZnCl2 Soluble K2CO3 and ammonium carbonate, (NH4)2CO3.
5 Some salts are soluble while some are not. The
PbCl2, AgCl, HgCl Insoluble
hypothesis is accepted.
Preparation of Soluble Salts Table 8.4 Some examples of acids and alkalis used in
the preparation of soluble salts
The preparation of soluble salts can be divided Type of Type of Example Type of
into two categories. soluble salt alkali used of salt acid used
(a) Soluble salts of sodium, potassium and
ammonium. NaCl HCl
Salts of Sodium
(b) Soluble salts which are not salts of sodium, sodium hydroxide, NaOH CH COONa CH COOH
3 3
potassium and ammonium.
Salts of Potassium K2SO4 H2SO4
Soluble Salts of K+, Na+ and NH4+ potassium hydroxide, KOH KNO3 HNO3
1 The cation of a salt comes from the alkali Salts of Aqueous NH4NO3 HNO3
while the anion comes from the acid. Hence ammonium ammonia, NH3 (NH4)2SO4 H2SO4
the type of salt produced depends on the acid
and alkali used.
For example: 5 Impure soluble salts can be purified by
recrystallisation. When an impure soluble salt is
Na2SO4 dissolved in enough distilled water, the insoluble
impurities can be removed by filtration. The
from NaOH from H2SO4 filtrate is evaporated to remove excess water to
form a saturated solution. When the saturated
2 Soluble salts of sodium, potassium and solution is cooled to room temperature, the salt
ammonium can be prepared from the reaction will recrystallise to form pure crystals.
between an acid and an alkali, NaOH, KOH 6 Soluble salts in a mixture of a few salts can
or NH3(aq) as in Table 8.4. also be purified by recrystallisation. This is
3 Titration method is used to ensure that all the because salts have different solubility in water.
acid is completely reacted with the alkali. A salt with a lower solubility will recrystallise
4 The flowchart in Figure 8.2 shows the steps earlier than a salt with a higher solubility. The
involved in the preparation of soluble salts of process of recrystallisation may be repeated a
sodium, potassium and ammonium. few times to obtain a pure salt.
223 Salts
Acid + alkali 1
The alkali in the conical flask is titrated with acid

in the burette
1 titration method
Dilute salt solution

After titration, the dilute salt solution is heated to
8
hasten evaporation
2 evaporation
2
Saturated salt solution

The saturated salt solution is then cooled to
precipitate out the salt
3 cooling
3
Salt crystals in saturated salt solution
The salt crystals are then filtered out from the
solution using filter paper
4 filtration
4
Salt crystals
The salt crystals are then dried with more filter
paper
5 drying
Dry salt crystals 5

The resulting salt crystals of sodium, potassium
or ammonium are produced
Figure 8.2 Preparation of soluble salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium
Salts 224
Preparation of Soluble Salts of Sodium, Potassium and Ammonium
To prepare potassium chloride by the reaction between SPM

an acid and an alkali ’04/P2
Apparatus by dropping a drop of the solution on a piece

of glass plate. If crystals are formed, then the
25 cm3 pipette, pipette filler, 50 cm3 burette, retort
solution is saturated.
stand, retort clamp, conical flask, filter funnel, filter
9 The saturated solution is then cooled to allow
paper, beaker, tripod stand, wire gauze and Bunsen
crystallisation to occur.
burner.
10 The white crystals formed are then filtered,
rinsed with a little distilled water and dried by
Materials
8
pressing between filter paper.
2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid and 2 mol dm–3
potassium hydroxide and phenolphthalein indicator.
Procedure
1 25 cm3 of potassium hydroxide is pipetted into a
clean conical flask.
2 Three drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added
to the alkali and the colour of the solution is
noted.
3 A 50 cm3 burette is then filled with hydrochloric
acid and is then clamped to a retort stand. The
initial burette reading is recorded.
Figure 8.3 Titration of potassium hydroxide
4 Hydrochloric acid is added gradually from the
with hydrochloric acid
burette to the potassium hydroxide solution in
the conical flask while swirling the flask gently.
Discussion
5 Titration is stopped when phenolphthalein changes
from a light pink colour to colourless. The final 1 In the preparation of potassium chloride, the acid
burette reading is recorded. used is hydrochloric acid and the alkali used is
6 The volume of hydrochloric acid used is calculated potassium hydroxide.
as follows:
KOH + HCl → KCl + H2O
V cm3 = Final burette – Initial burette
reading reading
2 Phenolphthalein is used as an indicator at the
7 The experiment is repeated by adding V cm3 of beginning of the experiment to determine the
hydrochloric acid to 25 cm3 of potassium hydroxide volume of hydrochloric acid that is required
in a beaker without using phenolphthalein as an to react with 25 cm3 of potassium hydroxide.
indicator. However, the experiment is repeated without
8 The colourless solution in the beaker is using phenolphthalein so that the salt prepared
evaporated to form a saturated solution (to about will not be contaminated by the indicator.
1 3 The salt solution is not heated until dry because
— of the original volume). This can be tested
3 the salt may decompose when heated strongly.
Activity 8.1
In the preparation of soluble salts of Na+/K+/NH4+, neutral salt using an indicator. Once the exact volumes
titration is carried out to determine the exact amount of acid and alkali required are known, the indicator is
of acid required to neutralise all the alkali to form a not required to prepare the pure salt.
225 Salts
To purify potassium chloride by recrystallisation
Apparatus 3 The hot solution is filtered into a clean conical

flask to remove the impurities.
Beaker, glass rod, Bunsen burner, conical flask,
4 The filtrate is evaporated until a saturated
spatula, filter funnel and filter paper.
solution is formed.
Materials 5 The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to
Impure potassium chloride and distilled water. room temperature for crystallisation.
6 The filtered crystals are then rinsed with distilled
Procedure water and dried between two pieces of filter
1 Impure potassium chloride is placed in a beaker. paper.
2 A little distilled water, enough to cover the
8
crystals is added. The mixture is heated while Conclusion

stirring, and more distilled water is added slowly Impure potassium chloride can be purified by
until all the crystals are dissolved. recrystallisation.
Soluble Salts which are not salts of Na+, K+, NH4+ ensure that all the acid is reacted completely,
excess solids are used. The non-reacted excess
1 Three methods are used to prepare soluble salts solids can be removed by filtration.
which are not salts of sodium, potassium and
ammonium. This involves the reaction between Table 8.5 Examples of some salts and chemicals used
(a) an acid and a metal in their preparation
(b) an acid and a metal carbonate Chemicals that react with
(c) an acid and a metal oxide or hydroxide Type of the acid
Example
2 Table 8.5 shows the chemicals suitable for acid
of salt Metal Metal
the preparation of soluble salts which are not used Metal
oxide carbonate
salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium.
3 In the reaction of an acid with a metal, metals ZnCl2 HCl ZnO Zn ZnCO3
that are less electropositive than hydrogen such as
copper and silver do not react with dilute acids. Mg(NO3)2 HNO3 MgO Mg MgCO3
4 Metals, metal oxides and metal carbonates are
CuSO4 H2SO4 CuO _ CuCO3
solids that do not dissolve in water. Hence, to
Preparation of Soluble Salts which are Not Salts of Sodium, Potassium and Ammonium
To prepare copper(II) nitrate by the reaction between SPM

’04/05
an acid and a metal oxide P2
Apparatus
Beaker, glass rod, 100 cm3 measuring cylinder, wire gauze, tripod stand, Bunsen burner, conical flask, spatula,
Activity 8.2 & 8.3
filter funnel and filter paper.
Materials
1 mol dm–3 nitric acid and copper(II) oxide powder.
Salts 226
Procedure 1
1 About 30 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 nitric acid is put in
a beaker and is heated.
2 Using a spatula, copper(II) oxide powder is
added a little at a time, to the hot nitric acid
while stirring continuously with a glass rod. The
addition of copper(II) oxide is stopped when
some black solids remain undissolved.
3 The mixture is filtered to remove the excess
copper(II) oxide.
4 The filtrate is evaporated until a saturated
solution is formed.
5 The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to 2
8
room temperature.
6 The blue crystals formed are removed by
filtration, rinsed with a little distilled water and
dried between filter paper.
Discussion
1 Copper(II) oxide is a black powder. It dissolves
in nitric acid to form a blue solution. The
equation for the reaction is
CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) →
Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O(l) 3
2 Neutralisation reaction takes place between

copper(II) oxide and nitric acid. The ionic
CuO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)
3 The salt solution is not heated until dry because

the salt may decompose when heated strongly.
4 The copper(II) nitrate crystals prepared may be 4
purified by recrystallisation.
5 Copper(II) nitrate can also be prepared by the
reaction between nitric acid and copper(II)
carbonate. However, copper metal does not react
with dilute nitric acid because copper is below
hydrogen in the electrochemical series. 5
Conclusion
Copper(II) nitrate can be prepared by the reaction
between copper(II) oxide and nitric acid.
227 Salts
To prepare iron(II) sulphate by the reaction of an acid and a
metal
Apparatus Discussion
Beaker, glass rod, 100 cm3 measuring cylinder, 1 Iron metal is grey in colour. It dissolves in
Bunsen burner, conical flask, spatula, filter funnel sulphuric acid to form a green solution with
and filter paper. effervescence. The gas evolved is hydrogen gas.
The equation for the reaction is
Materials
Iron powder and 2 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid.
Fe(s)+ H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Procedure
1 30 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid is put in a 2 The ionic equation for the reaction between iron
8
beaker. and H+ ion in acid is

2 Iron powder is gradually added to the sulphuric
acid while stirring continuously with a glass rod, Fe(s)+ 2H+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + H2(g)
until a slight excess of iron is present.
3 The mixture is filtered to remove the excess iron
powder. 3 Iron(II) sulphate can also be prepared by the
4 The filtrate is evaporated until a saturated reaction of sulphuric acid with iron(II) oxide or
solution is formed. The saturated solution is then iron(II) carbonate.
allowed to cool to room temperature.
5 The green crystals formed are removed by Conclusion
filtration, rinsed with a little distilled water and Iron(II) sulphate can be prepared by the reaction
dried between filter papers. between iron metal and sulphuric acid.
To prepare magnesium chloride by the reaction of an acid and

a metal carbonate
Apparatus Discussion
Beaker, glass rod, 100 cm3 measuring cylinder, 1 Magnesium carbonate is white in colour.
Bunsen burner, conical flask, spatula, filter funnel Effervescence occurs when it dissolves in
and filter paper. hydrochloric acid to form a colourless solution.
Materials The gas evolved is carbon dioxide gas. The
Magnesium carbonate powder and 2 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid. MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
Procedure MgCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
1 Magnesium carbonate powder is added a little
at a time, to 30 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric 2 The ionic equation for the reaction between
acid in a beaker while stirring continuously. magnesium carbonate and H+ ion in acid is
The addition is stopped when there is no more
effervescence, and a little magnesium carbonate MgCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) →
powder remains undissolved. Mg2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2 The mixture is filtered to remove the excess
magnesium carbonate powder.
Activity 8.4 & 8.5
3 Magnesium chloride can also be prepared by the

3 The filtrate is evaporated until a saturated solution reaction of hydrochloric acid with magnesium
is formed. oxide or magnesium metal.
4 The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to
room temperature. Conclusion
5 The white crystals formed is removed by filtration, Magnesium chloride can be prepared from the
rinsed with a little distilled water and dried between reaction between magnesium carbonate and
filter papers. hydrochloric acid.
Salts 228
1 Preparation of Insoluble Salts SPM
’10/P1
1 Insoluble salts can be prepared by precipitation

Can sodium nitrate be prepared by adding sodium
in double decomposition reactions.
chloride solution to nitric acid?
2 In the precipitation method, an insoluble salt
Comments is precipitated when two aqueous solutions
There is no reaction between sodium chloride containing the cations and the anions are
solution and nitric acid. mixed together. The precipitate is then obtained
by filtration.
NaCl(aq) + HNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + HCl(aq)
3 In double decomposition, one of the aqueous
Solution consist of Solution consist of solutions contains the cations of the insoluble
Na+, Cl–, H+ and Na+, Cl–, H+ and salt, while the other aqueous solution contains
NO3 ions
–
NO3– ions the anions of the salt.
8
Sodium nitrate is usually prepared by the reaction
Cation M+ Anion X– Insoluble salt,
between nitric acid (HNO3) and sodium hydroxide
(from a (from a MX
(NaOH). H2O formed does not dissociate. +
soluble salt soluble salt → (formed as
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) solution) solution) precipitate)
4 In double decomposition, the ions of the two

aqueous solutions interchange to produce a
Physical Characteristic of Salt Crystals
new compound which is insoluble.
5 The general equation can be represented as
1 Salt crystals are formed when a saturated
follows
salt solution is cooled.
2 A salt is made up of positive ions and
negative ions. When these ions are packed MY(aq) + NX(aq) → MX(s) + NY(aq)
closely with a regular and repeated solution solution precipitate solution
arrangement in fixed positions, a solid
with definite geometry known as crystal
lattice is formed. 6 The precipitate produced is obtained by
3 The repeating basic unit in this orderly filtration. The residue is the insoluble salt,
structure is called a unit cell. which is then rinsed with distilled water to
remove any other ions as impurities.
4 All crystals have these physical
Example
characteristics:
(a) Fixed geometrical shapes (e.g. cubic,
hexagonal or rhombic). Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq) →
(b) Flat surface, straight edges and sharp
angles. PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
(c) Fixed angle between two adjacent precipitate
surfaces.
5 All crystals of the same salt have the same
7 Precipitation of lead(II) chloride can be
shape although the sizes may be different.
simplified as follows:
6 The size of a crystal formed depends on the
rate of crystallisation. Fast crystallisation
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) → PbCl2(s)
(from fast cooling) will yield smaller
crystals than slow crystallisation.
7 Crystals are hard and brittle, and can be Sodium ions, Na+ and nitrate ions, NO3–
cut into different shapes. This is because do not undergo any change in the reaction.
the particles of salt crystals are arranged in They are known as spectator ions and can be
regular layers. ignored in the ionic equation.
229 Salts
8 The following guidelines show the steps used in writing an ionic equation for the formation
of an insoluble salt.

Identify the insoluble salt Separate the cations and Balance the charges of
and write it as the product anions of the salt and write the cations and anions
on the right-hand side of them as the reactants on by adding the correct
the equation. the left-hand side of the coefficient as the number
equation. of moles reacting.
→ PbCl2(s)
Pb2+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) →
PbCl2(s) PbCl2(s)
9 The following guidelines show the steps used in the selection of aqueous solutions in the
8
preparation of an insoluble salt.

Identify the cation and Identify a soluble salt that Identify a soluble salt that
anion of the insoluble can supply the cation, can supply the anion,
salt. example, a nitrate salt (all example, a sodium or
Example nitrate salts are soluble). potassium salt (all
PbCl2: Cation = Pb2+ Example sodium or potassium
Anion = Cl– Pb(NO3)2 solution or salts are soluble in water).
Pb(CH3COO)2 solution Example
NaCl or KCl solution
PbCl2
from Pb(NO3)2 or Pb(CH3COO)2 from NaCl or KCl or HCl
Table 8.6 Some examples of insoluble salts

Lead(II) salt Barium salt Silver salt
Name Formula Name Formula Name Formula
Lead(II) chloride PbCl2 Barium sulphate BaSO4 Silver chloride AgCl
Lead(II) bromide PbBr2 Barium chromate(VI) BaCrO4 Silver bromide AgBr
Lead(II) iodide PbI2 Barium carbonate BaCO3 Silver iodide AgI
Lead(II) sulphate PbSO4 Silver carbonate Ag2CO3
Lead(II) chromate(VI) PbCrO4
Lead(II) carbonate PbCO3
2 ’04
Can lead(II) sulphate be prepared by adding sulphuric two aqueous solutions, one containing the lead(II) ions
acid to lead(II) oxide? (example, lead(II) nitrate) and the other containing the
sulphate ions (example, sodium sulphate).
Comments
Both lead(II) sulphate and lead(II) oxide are insoluble Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) →
in water. Hence, when lead(II) sulphate is formed, PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
it cannot be separated from the mixture of lead(II)
sulphate and lead(II) oxide. Similarly, lead(II) sulphate cannot be prepared by adding
Lead(II) sulphate as an insoluble salt, is usually sodium sulphate solution to lead(II) chloride. Both lead(II)
prepared from double decomposition reaction between sulphate and lead(II) chloride are insoluble in water.
Salts 230
To prepare insoluble salts: lead(II) iodide, lead(II) SPM
’08/P2
chromate(VI) and barium sulphate by precipitation reaction
Apparatus 4 The residue is rinsed with distilled water and

dried using filter papers.
Beakers, glass rods, conical flasks, filter funnels and
filter paper.
Discussion
Materials 1 The chemical equation for the reaction that occur
in the preparation of lead(II) iodide is
0.5 mol dm–3 solutions of lead(II) nitrate, potassium
iodide, potassium chromate(VI), sodium sulphate
and barium chloride. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
8
Procedure The ionic equation for the reaction is
(A) Preparation of lead(II) iodide
1 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 potassium iodide solution Pb2+(aq) + 2I–(aq) → PbI2(s)
is added to 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 lead(II)
nitrate solution in a beaker. Lead(II) iodide is a yellow precipitate.
2 The mixture is stirred thoroughly with a glass 2 The chemical equation for the reaction that occurs
rod. A yellow precipitate is formed immediately. in the preparation of lead(II) chromate(VI) is
3 The mixture is filtered to obtain the yellow
solids of lead(II) iodide as the residue. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2CrO4(aq) →
4 The residue is rinsed with distilled water to PbCrO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
remove any trace of other ions in it.
5 The yellow solid is dried by pressing between The ionic equation for the reaction is
two pieces of filter papers.
Pb2+(aq) + CrO42–(aq) → PbCrO4(s)
(B) Preparation of lead(II) chromate(VI)
1 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 lead(II) nitrate solution
is added to 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 potassium Lead(II) chromate(VI) is a yellow precipitate.
chromate(VI) solution in a beaker. 3 The chemical equation for the reaction that
2 The mixture is stirred thoroughly with a glass occurs in the preparation of barium sulphate is
rod. A yellow precipitate is formed immediately.
3 The mixture is filtered to obtain the yellow solids BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
of lead(II) chromate(VI) as the residue.
4 The residue is rinsed with distilled water and The ionic equation for the reaction is
dried using filter papers.
Ba2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → BaSO4(s)
(C) Preparation of barium sulphate
1 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 barium chloride solution
is added to 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 sodium Barium sulphate is a white precipitate.
sulphate solution in a beaker.
2 The mixture is stirred thoroughly with a glass Conclusion
rod. A white precipitate is formed immediately. Insoluble salts of lead(II) iodide, lead(II) chromate(VI)
3 The mixture is filtered to obtain the white barium and barium sulphate can be prepared by precipitation
sulphate as the residue. in double decomposition reactions.
Preparation of a Specified Salt

Activity 8.6
2 The following flowchart shows the procedure

1 The method of preparing a salt depends on for the selection of the methods of preparing
(a) whether or not the salt is soluble in water, a specified salt (Figure 8.4).
(b) whether the salt is a salt of sodium,
potassium or ammonium for soluble salts.
231 Salts
Method of preparing a salt
Is the salt soluble in water?
Yes No
Is it the salt of sodium, potassium or ammonium?
Yes No Precipitation by double

decomposition reaction
8
Neutralisation Reaction of an acid with

using titration • a metal Select two aqueous solutions
• a metal oxide/metal hydroxide that can supply the cations and
• a metal carbonate the anions of the salt
Filtration to remove excess solids (keep the filtrate)
Salt solution Filtration (keep the residue)
1 evaporation
2 cooling (crystallisation)
3 filtration
4 recrystallisation (if necessary)
Salt crystals
1 rinse with distilled water 2 dry with filter paper
Pure salt crystals
Figure 8.4
3 ’03
You are supplied with sodium carbonate solution, Step 1 Magnesium nitrate is converted to magnesium
sulphuric acid and magnesium nitrate solution. Plan carbonate by double decomposition between
a scheme to prepare a sample of magnesium sulphate sodium carbonate solution and magnesium
using the above chemicals. Write equations for the nitrate.
reactions involved.
Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) →
Comments MgCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Magnesium sulphate is a soluble salt which is not a
salt of sodium, potassium and ammonium.
Step 2 Magnesium carbonate that is produced is
Magnesium sulphate can be prepared by the reaction then added to sulphuric acid until in excess.
of sulphuric acid with magnesium metal/magnesium
oxide/magnesium carbonate. Hence, a scheme of MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
preparing magnesium sulphate is as follows: MgSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Salts 232
Ionic Equations of Insoluble Salts Table 8.7 Formation of ionic equations from the mole
ratio of ions
1 An ionic equation for the formation of a salt No. of moles No. of moles
can be written if Ionic equation
of cation of anion
(a) the formula of the salt is known (from
the charges of cation and anion), 1 mol Pb2+ 2 mol Cl– Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) →
(b) the number of moles of ions required to PbCl2(s)
form the salt is known. 1 mol Pb2+ 1 mol CrO42– Pb2+(aq) + CrO42–(aq)
2 The following guidelines show the construction → PbCrO4(s)
of the ionic equation for the formation of an
2 mol Ag+ 1 mol CrO42– 2Ag+(aq) + CrO42–(aq)
insoluble salt from the charges of cation and
→ Ag2CrO4(s)
anion.
4 The number of moles of the cation and anion
8
Step 1 can be calculated if the volume and molarities
MV
If the charge of cation M is b and the charge are known using the formula — ———.
1000
of anion X is a, the formula of the salt is MaXb,
MaXb 1
charge of X charge of M 6.0 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 Xn+ solution reacts completely
with 4.0 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 Ym– solution to form a salt
For example, the formula of iron(III) carbonate XmYn. Write the ionic equation and hence determine
is Fe2(CO3)3. the empirical formula of the salt in this reaction.
Solution
MV
0.2 6 ———
—
1000
Number of moles of Xn+ ions = –––––––
1000
= 0.0012
Step 2 MV
0.1  4 ———
—
1000
Number of moles of Ym– ions = –––––––
This show that a mol of M ions has combined
b+
1000
with b mol of Xa– ions. = 0.0004
Fe2(CO3)3 shows that 2 mol of Fe3+ ions Mole ratio of Xn+ ions : Ym– ions
combines with 3 mol of CO32– ions. = 0.0012 : 0.0004
0.0012 : 0.0004
= –––––––– –––––––
0.0004 0.0004
= 3 : 1
Hence 3 mol of Xn+ react with 1 mol of Ym–.
Step 3
Ionic equation is : 3Xn+ + 1Ym– → X3Y
Thus the ionic equation for the formation of Empirical formula of the salt is X3Y.
MaXb is
aMb+(aq) + bXa–(aq) → MaXb(s)
Constructing Ionic Equations Using the
The ionic equation for the formation of
Continuous Variation Method
Fe2(CO3)3 is
2Fe3+(aq) + 3CO32–(aq) → Fe2(CO3)3(s) 1 The mole ratio of ions that react to form a
salt can be determined from an experiment
through the continuous variation method.
3 The examples in Table 8.7 show the method of 2 In this method, fixed volumes of a reactant
writing ionic equations based on the simplest X are added to varying volumes of a second
mole ratio of cations to anions combined to reactant Y in different test tubes. If the salt
form the salts. formed is an insoluble salt, the amount of
233 Salts
precipitate produced will increase until all of the ions in solution X have reacted completely.
The height of the precipitate will remain constant despite the increasing volumes of solution
Y.
3 The flowchart of Figure 8.5 shows the steps involved in the continuous variation method.
To determine the ionic equation of the reaction between X ions and Y ions
Carry out an experiment to investigate the reaction between

• fixed volumes of solution X and
• different and varying volumes of solution Y
Determine the volume of Y ions that reacts with all of the X ions
8
Calculate the number of moles of X ions and the number of moles of Y

ions that have reacted using the formula:
MV
Number of moles = — ———
1000
Determine the simplest mole ratio of X ions to the Y ions in the reaction
to construct the ionic equation
Figure 8.5 Flowchart for the steps in the continuous variation method
8.2 SPM
’11/P3
To construct a balanced ionic equation for the precipitation of lead(II) chromate(VI)

using the continuous variation method
How to determine the ionic equation for the 1 A burette is filled with 0.5 mol dm–3 lead(II)
precipitation of lead(II) chromate(VI)? nitrate solution and another burette is filled with
Hypothesis 0.5 mol dm–3 potassium chromate(VI) solution.
The height of precipitate will increase with the 2 Eight test tubes are labelled 1 to 8 and placed in
increase in volume of lead(II) nitrate solution until a test tube rack.
all the potassium chromate(VI) has reacted. 3 5.00 cm3 of potassium chromate(VI) solution
Variables from the burette is placed in every test tube.
Potassium chromate(VI) solution is yellow in
(a) Manipulated variable : Volumes of lead(II)
colour.
nitrate solution
4 Using another burette, 1 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 of
(b) Responding variable : Height of yellow preci-
pitate lead(II) nitrate solution is added to the first test
(c) Constant variable : Volume of potassium tube. Progressively increase the volume of the
chromate(VI) solution lead(II) nitrate solution by 1 cm3 to the rest of the
and the size of test tubes test tubes until 8 cm3 of lead(II) nitrate solution is
Experiment 8.2
added to the eighth test tube (Figure 8.6(a)).

Apparatus
5 Every test tube is well shaken in order to mix
Test tubes of the same size, test tube rack, 50 cm3
the solutions completely. The test tubes are then
burette, retort stand with clamp and ruler.
allowed to stand for 20 minutes for the yellow
Materials precipitate, lead(II) chromate(VI) to settle
0.5 mol dm–3 lead(II) nitrate solution and 0.5 mol (Figure 8.6(b)).
dm–3 potassium chromate(VI) solution.
Salts 234
6 The height of the precipitate formed in every test tube is measured accurately using a ruler. The colour of the
solution above the precipitate is noted.
7 The result obtained is recorded in Table 8.8.
1.1
8
Figure 8.6 Continuous variation method
Results
Table 8.8
Test tube number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Volume of potassium 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
chromate(VI) solution (cm3)
Volume of lead(II) nitrate 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
solution (cm3)
Height of precipitate (cm) 0.6 0.9 1.8 2.2 2.8 2.8 2.8 2.8
Colour of solution yellow yellow yellow yellow colourless
Calculation MV 0.5  5.0

=
— — —
— =—
———
———— = 2.5 3 10–3
1 A graph showing the height of precipitate versus 1000 1000
the volume of lead(II) nitrate solution is drawn Number of moles of CrO42– ions in 5.0 cm3 of
(Figure 8.7). 0.5 mol dm–3 potassium chromate(VI) solution
MV 0.5  5.0
=
— — —
— =—
— ————— — = 2.5 3 10–3
1000 1000
4 Hence, 2.5  10–3 mol of Pb2+ ions react completely
with 2.5  10–3 mol of CrO42– ions.
∴ 1.00 mol of Pb2+ ions will react completely
with 1.00 mol of CrO42– ions.
The ionic equation for the reaction is
Figure 8.7 Graph of height of precipitate versus the Pb2+(aq) + CrO42–(aq) → PbCrO4(s)
volume of lead(II) nitrate solution 1 mol 1 mol 1 mol
2 From the graph, it is found that the height of 5 Consequently, the balanced chemical equation for
precipitate increases as the volume of lead(II) the reaction is
nitrate increases. However, a constant height is
reached when 5.0 cm3 of lead(II) nitrate solution Pb(NO3)2(aq) + K2CrO4(aq) →
is added. Thereafter, the height remains constant PbCrO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
despite further increases in the volume of lead(II)
nitrate solution. Conclusion
3 This means that when 5.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 1 Since the diameter of the test tubes are the
lead(II) nitrate solution is used, all the chromate(VI) same, the height of the precipitate is directly
ions in 5 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 potassium proportional to the mass of precipitate formed.
chromate(VI) solution has been precipitated. 2 The ionic equation for the precipitate of lead(II)
Number of moles of Pb2+ ions in 5.0 cm3 of chromate(VI) is Pb2+ + CrO42– → PbCrO4. The
0.5 mol dm–3 lead(II) nitrate solution hypothesis is accepted.
235 Salts
Discussion
From test tubes 1 to 4, the 1 3 From test tubes 6 to 8, the heights of precipitate
formed remains constant because all the
increase of Pb ions from the
2+
chromate(VI) ions in the test tubes have been
increase in volumes of lead(II)
precipitated. There is an excess of Pb2+ ions
nitrate solution added, increases
in the test tubes. The clear solution above the
the mass of precipitate formed.
precipitate which is colourless contains Pb2+ ions,
There are excess (unreacted)
K+ ions and NO3– ions.
CrO42– ions in the test tubes which
produces the yellow colour of the
solutions above the precipitate.
The yellow solution contains
CrO42– ions, K+ ions and NO3–
8
ions. The yellow colour became

paler as more CrO42– ions have
reacted.
2 In test tube 5, the reaction is completed when the precipitate formed reaches a
maximum height. All the chromate(VI) ions have reacted with all the lead(II)
ions. The clear solution contains K+ ions and NO3– ions.
4 ’97
You are supplied with a lead(II) ions solution and a 0.1 From the graph, V cm3 of lead(II) ions solution is
mol dm–3 potassium chromate(VI) solution. Explain how required to react completely with 5 cm3 of potassium
you can determine the concentration of the lead(II) ions chromate(VI) solution, when the height of the precipitate
solution using the precipitation method. becomes constant.
Comments Calculation:
An experiment using the continuous variation method 0.1 35
• Number of moles of CrO42– ions = —————
of precipitating lead(II) chromate(VI), using a constant 1000
volume of potassium chromate(VI) solution and = 0.0005
different volumes of lead(II) ions as in Experiment M 3V
• Number of moles of Pb2+ ions = —————,
8.2 is carried out. A graph of the height of precipitate 1000
against the volume of lead(II) ions solution will be where M is the concentration.
obtained as follows: • Ionic equation of the reaction
Pb + CrO4 → PbCrO4
2+ 2–
• From the equation, 1 mol of Pb2+ ions react with 1 mol

of CrO4 ions.
2–
Mole ratio of Pb : CrO4 = 1:1,

2+ 2–
0.0005 1
that is —————— = —

0.001MV 1
• Concentration of Pb2+ ions, M = 0.5/V mol dm–3
Salts 236
Numerical Problems Involving SPM 1
’09/P1 Hence, 0.2 mol of H2SO4 produce 0.2  —
Calculation of Quantities of Reactants 3
or Products in Stoichiometric Reactions = 0.067 mol of Al2(SO4)3.
1 A balanced equation gives information

Step 3: Relate the number of moles of
regarding the number of moles of reactants chemicals in the equation to that in the
in a reaction and the number of moles of question.
products formed.
2 For example, the equation for the reaction
between magnesium and hydrochloric acid is Type 2: Calculation involving quantities in mass
If the quantities of reactants/products are given in
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) terms of mass in gram, the quantity of solid can be
1 mol 2 mol 1 mol 1 mol converted to moles by the following relationship
8
SPM
The coefficients before the reactants and products ’08/P1
indicate the number of moles of chemicals Mass (g)

————— ——
——— ——— —
————
involved in the reaction. The equation above Molar mass (g mol–1)
shows that 1 mol of magnesium reacts with 2
mol of hydrochloric acid to produce 1 mol of
magnesium chloride and 1 mol of hydrogen gas. 3
3 A balanced chemical equation (stoichiometric
reaction) can be used to calculate the 2.0 g of sodium hydroxide reacts with excess
stoichiometric quantities of the reactants or sulphuric acid. What is the mass of sodium sulphate
products in terms of: produced?
• Mass [Relative atomic mass: H, l; O, 16; Na, 23; S, 32]
• Volume and concentration (of aqueous
Solution
solution)
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
• Volume (of gas)
4 Since the quantities of chemicals involved in a Molar mass of NaOH Step 1: Write a
reaction are in terms of moles, the quantities = 23 + 16 + 1 balanced equation.
of reactants or products (the quantity of = 40 g mol–1
chemicals in terms of volume of gas, volume
of solution, mass, numbers of molecules or 2g Step 2: Convert mass to mol.
2 g of NaOH = —— —————
— ‑
atoms), must first be converted to moles in 40 g mol–1
the initial step of the calculation regarding = 0.05 mol
quantities of reactants and products.
From the equation, 2 mol of NaOH produces 1 mol
of Na2SO4.
Examples of Calculation
Step 3: Get the mole ratio of NaOH
Type 1: Calculation involving quantities in moles and Na2SO4
1
Hence, 0.05 mol of NaOH produce — 0.05
2 2
= 0.025 mol of Na2SO4
Calculate the number of moles of aluminium Step 4: Relate the number
of moles of chemicals in
sulphate produced by the reaction of 0.2 mol of the equation to that in the
sulphuric acid with excess aluminium oxide. Molar mass of Na2SO4 question.
Step 1: Write a balanced equation. = 2(23) + 32 + 4(16)
Solution
3H2SO4 + Al2O3 → Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2O = 142 g mol–1
3 mol 1 mol Step 2: Get the mole ratio 0.025 mol of Na2SO4 Step 5: Convert mol
of H2SO4 and Al2(SO4 )3 . to mass.
= 0.025 mol  142 g mol–1
From the equation, 3 mol of H2SO4
= 3.55 g
produce 1 mol of Al2(SO4)3
237 Salts
Type 3: Calculation involving volumes of gas Or: Number of moles = molarity of solution
If the quantities of reactants or products are given in (mol dm–3)  volume of solution (dm3)
terms of volumes of gas, the volume of gas can be
converted to moles by the following relationship:
5
At s.t.p. (0°C and 1 atm):
What is the mass of magnesium required to react
Volume of gas (dm3) with 20 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid to
Number of moles = —————
— —————— —————
22.4 dm3 mol–1 produce 120 cm3 of hydrogen at room temperature?
[Relative atomic mass: Mg, 24; 1 mol of gas
At room conditions (25°C and 1 atm) : occupies 24 dm3 at room temperature]
Solution Step 1: Write a
Volume of gas (dm3) balanced equation.
——— —
—— ——
— ——— ———— Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
24.0 dm3 mol–1
8
1 mol of gas occupies 24 dm3. Step 2: Convert

volume to mol.
4 120
120 cm3 gas = —
———————— mol = 0.005 mol
24  1000
What is the volume of carbon dioxide gas evolved From the equation, 1 mol of H2 is produced by
at s.t.p. when 2.1 g of magnesium carbonate reacts 1 mol of Mg.
Step 3: Get the mole ratio of Mg and H2.
with excess nitric acid?
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12; O, 16; Mg, 24; 1 mol
Hence, 0.005 mol of H2 is produced by 0.005 mol
of gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.]
of Mg
Step 1: Write a balanced equation.
Solution Step 4: Relate the number of moles of chemicals
in the equation to that in the question.
MgCO3 + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
0.005 mol of Mg
Molar mass of MgCO3 = 0.005  24 g
= 24 + 12 + 3(16) = 84 g mol–1 Step 2: Convert = 0.12 g Step 5: Convert mol to mass.
mass to mol.
2.1
2.1 g MgCO3 = — — = 0.025 mol
84
From the equation, 1 mol of MgCO3 produces 1 mol 6
of CO2.
Step 3: Get the mole ratio of MgCO3 and CO2. What is the volume of 2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric
acid required to dissolve 10 g of marble (calcium
Hence, 0.025 mol of MgCO3 produce 0.025 mol of
carbonate)?
CO2.
Step 4: Relate the number of moles of chemicals [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; O, 16; C, 12; Ca, 40]
in the equation to that in the question.
Solution
1 mol of gas occupies 22.4 dm3. Step 5: Convert Step 1: CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
mol to volume.
Hence, 0.025 mol of gas CO2 gas occupies 10 10

Step 2: 10 g of CaCO3 = ——— ——
— ——— ———= ———
0.025  22.4 = 0.56 dm3 or 560 cm3. 40 + 12 + 3(16) 100
= 0.1 mol
Step 3: From the equation, 1 mol of CaCO3 requires
Type 4: Calculation involving volumes and
2 mol of HCl for a complete reaction.
molarities of solutions
If the quantities of reactants or products involves Step 4: Hence, 0.1 mol of CaCO3 requires 0.1  2
solutions, the quantity of chemicals in a solution = 0.2 mol of HCl for a complete reaction
can be converted to moles using the following Step 5: Number of moles = molarity  volume (dm3)
relationship
Volume of HCl
MV
Number of moles = ———— Number of moles of HCl 0.2 mol
1000 =— — ———————— ——— ————— ——= — ———— ————
Molarity of HCl 2 mol dm–3
Where M = molarity of solution (mol dm–3) = 0.1 dm = 0.1  1000 cm = 100 cm
3 3 3
V = volume of solution (cm3)
Salts 238
7 SPM
’08/P1 5 ’02
4.0 g of magnesium oxide is added to 30.0 cm of 3
2.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid. 5.0 cm3 of a potassium iodide solution requires
What is the mass of magnesium oxide that does not 20.0 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm–3 lead(II) nitrate solution
dissolve in this reaction? to react completely according to the equation below.
[Relative atomic mass: O, 16; Mg, 24] Pb2+(aq) + 2I–(aq) → PbI2(s)
Solution MV hat is the molarity of the potassium iodide
W
Number of moles = ———
—
1000 solution? MV
MgO + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O
1000
———
Comments
2.0  30 20.0
Number of moles of HCl = ——————— — = 0.06 Number of moles of Pb2+ ions = 0.25  ————
1000 1000
8
From the equation, 2 mol of HCl will dissolve = 0.005
1 mol of MgO. From the equation, 1 mol of Pb2+ ions reacts with
Hence, 0.06 mol of HCl will dissolve 2 mol of I– ions.
1 ence, 0.005 mol of Pb2+ ions react with (0.005  2)
H
0.06  — = 0.03 mol of MgO.
2 = 0.01 mol of I– ions. 1000
M = Number of moles 3 —
———
V
0.03 mol of MgO = 0.03  (24 + 16) g = 1.2 g
0.01  1000
∴ Mass of MgO that does not dissolve Molarity of KI solution = —
———
———
——— = 2 mol dm–3
5
= Initial mass of MgO – mass of MgO dissolved
= 4.0 g – 1.2 g = 2.8 g
8
Mass, m
What is the mass of copper(II) carbonate that is n  molar mass m  molar mass
produced when 60 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 sodium carbonate
is added to 50 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate?
[Relative atomic mass H, 1; O, 16; Cu, 64] Mole, n
n  molarity
Solution V  molar V1  molarity
CuSO4 + Na2CO3 → CuCO3 + Na2SO4 volume
n  molar
Number of moles of CuSO4 volume
Calculate the number of
2  50 moles of both reactants
Volume of gas, V Volume of solution, V1
=— ———— = 0.1 to check which of the
1000 reactants is used up in the
reaction. The number of
Number of moles of Na2CO3 moles of product formed
depends on the number
1  60 of moles of reactant that
=— ——— — = 0.06 is used up (the limiting
8.1
1000 reactant).
From the equation, 1 Suggest suitable methods and reactants for the
1 mol of CuSO4 reacts with 1 mol of Na2CO3 to preparation of the following salts.
produce 1 mol of CuCO3. (a) Na2SO4
(b) (NH4)2SO4
Hence, 0.06 mol of Na2CO3 will react completely, (c) Al2(SO4)3
while 0.1 mol of CuSO4 is in excess. (d) Pb(NO3)2
(e) ZnCl2
Thus, 0.06 mol of Na2CO3 will Na2CO3 is the
(f) PbSO4
produce 0.06 mol of CuCO3. limiting factor.
(g) AgCl
0.06 mol of CuCO3 = 0.06  (64 + 12 + 3(16)) g 2 Suggest chemicals that can react with nitric acid
= 0.06  124 g = 7.44 g to produce magnesium nitrate. Write equations for
the reactions that take place.
239 Salts
3 State the mole ratio of the ions in the following Inference from the Colours of Salts or
salts:
(a) CaSO4 (b) Al(OH)3
Salt Solutions
4 Write the ionic equations for the following 1 Initial observation of the physical properties
reactions: of a salt such as colour and solubility in water
(a) 2 mol of silver ions react with 1 mol of enables us to make inferences regarding the
chromate(VI) ions
possible cations or anions present. However,
(b) 0.3 mol of lead(II) ions react with 0.6 mol of
bromide ions
the presence of the cations or anions needs to
be confirmed by other tests.
5 5 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 barium chloride solution
2 Most salts are white in colour and when dissolved
reacts completely with 10 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3
sodium chromate(VI) solution. Calculate the mole
in water, will form colourless aqueous solutions.
ratio of the ions involved in the formation of 3 Cations of transition elements have specific
barium chromate precipitate. colours.
8
Subsequently, write the balanced chemical

4 Table 8.9 below gives the colours of different
equation for the reaction that occurs. cations in the solid form or in aqueous
solutions.
6 In an experiment, 10 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 silver
nitrate reacts completely with 5 cm3 of 0.5 mol Table 8.9 Colours of cations
dm–3 potassium carbonate. Determine the ionic
equation for the precipitation above. Colour Solid Solution
7 Magnesium oxide reacts with excess phosphoric White or Salts of Na , K ,
+ +
Na , K+, NH4+,
+
acid to produce 1.2 mol of magnesium phosphate. colourless NH4+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Ba2+,
(a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction that
Ba2+, Al3+, Pb2+, Al3+, Pb2+, Zn2+
occurs.
Zn2+ (if the anions
(b) Calculate the number of moles of magnesium
oxide that is used in the reaction above. are colourless)
Yellow PbO, PbI2, Fe3+, CrO42–
PbCrO4, BaCrO4
Blue Hydrated Cu2+ salt Cu2+
8.2 Qualitative Analysis of
Salts Green Hydrated Fe2+ Fe2+
salt, CuCO3 and
CuCl2
The Meaning of Qualitative Analysis
Black Cu2+, Fe2+ oxide –
1 Qualitative analysis is a chemical technique or sulphide
used to determine the identities of chemical
Brown/ Hydrated Fe3+ salt Fe3+, CrO72–
substances present in a mixture but not their
orange
quantity.
2 Qualitative analysis of salt is a scheme of tests
carried out to identify the cation and anion 5 Table 8.10 shows the solubility of different
present in the salt. types of salts in water.
3 The technique of qualitative analysis includes: Table 8.10 Solubility of salts in water
(a) Observing the colour of the salt or colour
of the aqueous salt solution. Type of Salt Solubility in water
(b) Observing the solubility of the salt in water. Salts of Na+, All are soluble
(c) Observing the effect of heat on the salt. K+, NH4+
(d) Identifying the gas evolved when a test is
performed on the salt. Nitrate All are soluble
(e) Identifying the precipitate formed when a Sulphate All common sulphates are soluble
specific chemical reagent is added to the except BaSO4, PbSO4 and CaSO4
aqueous salt solution.
Chloride All common chlorides are soluble
(f) Carrying out confirmatory tests, which are
except AgCl, HgCl and PbCl2(soluble
specific chemical tests to confirm the identity
in hot water)
of a cation or an anion present in a salt.
Salts 240
Type of Salt Solubility in water Tests of Gases
Carbonate All common carbonates are 1 Certain gases may be evolved when a chemical
insoluble except Na2CO3, K2CO3 and substance is
(NH4)2CO3 (a) heated,
(b) reacted with a dilute or concentrated acid,
Oxide All oxides are insoluble except Na2O, (c) heated with an alkali.
K2O and CaO (slightly soluble) 2 Based on the gas evolved, information about
Hydroxide All hydroxides are insoluble except the types of ions present can be deduced. For
KOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2 instance, if carbon dioxide gas is evolved in
a reaction, carbonate ions are present in the
Lead halides PbCl2, PbBr2 and PbI2 are insoluble in salt.
cold water but soluble in hot water 3 The physical properties and chemical tests for
8
a few gases are summarised in Table 8.11.
Table 8.11 Physical properties and tests on gases
Smell of Effect on damp
Name of gas Colour of gas Confirmatory test on gas
gas litmus
Oxygen, O2 Colourless No smell No effect When a glowing wooden splint is lowered into the
test tube of oxygen, the glowing splint is lighted
Hydrogen, H2 Colourless No smell No effect When a lighted wooden splint is placed near the
mouth of the test tube of hydrogen, a ‘pop’ sound
is produced
Carbon Colourless No smell Moist blue litmus When carbon dioxide gas is bubbled into limewater
dioxide, CO2 turns to red using a delivery tube, the limewater becomes milky
Ammonia, Colourless Pungent Moist red litmus When a glass rod dipped into concentrated
NH3 turns to blue hydrochloric acid is placed near the mouth of the
test tube with ammonia, white fumes are formed
Chlorine, Cl2 Greenish- Choking Decolourises moist –
yellow red or blue litmus
Hydrogen Colourless Pungent Moist blue litmus When a glass rod dipped into concentrated
chloride, HCl turns to red ammonia is placed near the mouth of the test tube
with hydrogen chloride, white fumes are formed
Sulphur Colourless Pungent Moist blue litmus When sulphur dioxide gas is bubbled into
dioxide, SO2 turns to red acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution,
the purple colour is decolourised (or when it is
bubbled into acidified potassium dichromate(VI)
solution, the colour changes from orange to green)
Nitrogen Brown Pungent Moist blue litmus –
dioxide, NO2 turns to red
Heating Test on Salts (NH4)2CO3(s) → 2NH3(g) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
1 All ammonium, carbonate, nitrate and some (NH4)2SO4(s) → 2NH3(g) + H2SO4(l)

sulphate salts will decompose when heated.
2 All ammonium salts liberate ammonia gas 3 All carbonates except potassium carbonate and
when heated. sodium carbonate produce carbon dioxide
Examples gas when heated. Table 8.12 shows the effect
of heating on metal carbonates.
NH4NO3(s) → NH3(g) + HNO3(g)
241 Salts
Table 8.12 Effect of heat on carbonate salts
Carbonate salt Effect of heat
Potassium carbonate Will not decompose on heating
Sodium carbonate
Decompose to metal oxide and carbon dioxide gas
Calcium carbonate CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3(s) → MgO(s) + CO2(g)
Aluminium carbonate Al2(CO3)3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 3CO2(g)
Zinc carbonate ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
Iron(III) carbonate Fe2(CO3)3(s) → Fe2O3(s) + 3CO2(g)
Lead(II) carbonate PbCO3(s) → PbO(s) + CO2(g)
8
Copper(II) carbonate CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)

Decompose to metal, carbon dioxide gas and oxygen gas
Mercury(II) carbonate 2HgCO3(s) → 2Hg(l) + 2CO2(g) + O2(g)
Silver carbonate 2Ag2CO3(s) → 4Ag(s) + 2CO2(g) + O2(g)
Gold(I) carbonate 2Au2CO3(s) → 4Au(s) + 2CO2(g) + O2(g)
Decompose to carbon dioxide gas, ammonia and water vapour without any residue
Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3(s) → 2NH3(g) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)
4 All nitrates decompose when heated. Table 8.13 shows the effect of heating on metal nitrates.
(a) Sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate produce oxygen gas and nitrites when heated.
(b) Other metal nitrates produce oxygen gas, nitrogen dioxide gas and metal oxides when heated.
Table 8.13 Effect of heat on nitrate salts
Nitrate Salt Effect of heat
Decompose to metal nitrite and oxygen gas
Potassium nitrate 2KNO3(s) → 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
Sodium nitrate 2NaNO3(s) → 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
Decompose to metal oxide, oxygen gas and nitrogen dioxide gas
Calcium nitrate 2Ca(NO3)2(s) → 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Magnesium nitrate 2Mg(NO3)2(s) → 2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Aluminium nitrate 4Al(NO3)3(s) → 2Al2O3(s) + 12NO2(g) + 3O2(g)
Zinc nitrate 2Zn(NO3)2(s) → 2ZnO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Iron(III) nitrate 4Fe(NO3)3(s) → 2Fe2O3(s) + 12NO2(g) + 3O2(g)
Lead(II) nitrate 2Pb(NO3)2(s) → 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Copper(II) nitrate 2Cu(NO3)2(s) → 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
Decompose to metal, nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen gas
Mercury(II) nitrate Hg(NO3)2(s) → Hg(l) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
Silver nitrate 2AgNO3(s) → 2Ag(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
Gold(I) nitrate 2AuNO3(s) → 2Au(s) + 2NO2(g) + O2(g)
Decompose to nitrous oxide gas, water vapour without any residue
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3(s) → N2O(g) + 2H2O(g)
Salts 242
5 Most sulphate salts do not decompose when
heated. Only a few sulphates such as iron(II)
sulphate, zinc sulphate and copper(II) sulphate
decompose to sulphur dioxide or sulphur
trioxide gas when heated.
Examples Figure 8.8

2FeSO4(s) → Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g) + SO3(g)
Table 8.14 Deduction of types of ion present from gas
ZnSO4(s) → ZnO(s) + SO3(g) produced
CuSO4(s) → CuO(s) + SO3(g) Type of gas

Type of ion
produced
6 All chloride salts are stable on heating except
CO2 Carbonate ion, CO32– (except Na2CO3
ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride
8
and K2CO3)
sublimes and decomposes to produce ammonia
gas and hydrogen chloride gas. O2 Nitrate ion, NO3–
NH4Cl(s) → NH3(g) + HCl(g) NO2 and O2 Nitrate ion, NO3– (except NaNO3 and
KNO3)
7 The deduction of the types of ions present based SO2 Sulphate ion, SO42–
on the gas produced is shown in Table 8.14.
8 When a salt is heated, NH3 Ammonium ion, NH4+
(a) the type of gas evolved has to be identified.
This will give information to the type of 9 Most salts that decompose produced metal
anion (or cation, NH4+) present. oxides as residue. The change of colour during
(b) the colour change of the solid in the test tube heating gives a good indication towards the
must be recorded. This will give information type of metal oxide formed as shown in Table
regarding the type of cation present. 8.15.
Table 8.15 Colour change of salts on heating

Original colour of salt Colour of residue after heating Metal oxide produced Cation present in salt
White Yellow when hot, white when cold ZnO Zn2+
White Brown when hot, yellow when cold PbO Pb2+
Blue/green Black CuO Cu2+
Green/yellow Brown Fe2O3 Fe2+/Fe3+
To study the effect of heat on carbonate salts SPM

’10/P2
Apparatus Procedure
Boiling tubes, test tubes, test tube holder, delivery 1 One spatula of potassium carbonate powder is
tube with rubber stopper, spatula and Bunsen burner. placed in a dry boiling tube and the colour of the
Activity 8.7
solid is recorded.
Materials 2 The boiling tube is fitted with a stopper with a
Potassium carbonate, sodium carbonate, calcium delivery tube.
carbonate, magnesium carbonate, zinc carbonate, 3 The carbonate salt is heated slowly and then
lead(II) carbonate, copper(II) carbonate and limewater. strongly.
243 Salts
4 Any gas evolved is passed through the delivery stopped. Otherwise the limewater will be sucked
tube into the limewater. The effect on limewater back into the hot boiling tube.
is recorded (Figure 8.9).
5 When there is no further change, the colour
of the residue when it is hot is recorded. The
colour of the residue when it is cooled to room
temperature is also recorded.
6 Steps 1 to 5 of the experiment is repeated using
other carbonate salts as shown in Table 8.16.
Precaution
Make sure that the end of the delivery tube is
removed from the limewater before heating is Figure 8.9 Heating test on carbonate salts
8
Results
Table 8.16 Heating test on carbonate salts
Colour of salt Colour of residue

Carbonate salt Effect on limewater
before heating When hot When cold
Potassium carbonate, K2CO3 White White White No visible change
Sodium carbonate, Na2CO3 White White White No visible change
Calcium carbonate, CaCO3 White White White Limewater turns milky
Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3 White White White Limewater turns milky
Zinc carbonate, ZnCO3 White Yellow White Limewater turns milky
Lead(II) carbonate, PbCO3 White Brown Yellow Limewater turns milky
Copper(II) carbonate, CuCO3 Green Black Black Limewater turns milky
Discussion 4 Note that if excess carbon dioxide gas is passed

into the limewater, the white precipitate, CaCO3
1 In this experiment, limewater is used to test for the
formed will dissolve to form calcium hydrogen
presence of carbon dioxide gas. Carbon dioxide
carbonate. The limewater will turn clear again.
gas turns limewater milky because calcium
carbonate is formed as a white precipitate. CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) → Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) white precipitate colourless solution
2 When zinc carbonate is heated, zinc oxide and
carbon dioxide gas are produced. Conclusion
1 Potassium carbonate and sodium carbonate will
ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + CO2(g) not decompose on heating.
Zinc oxide is yellow when hot and white when 2 Other metal carbonates decompose on heating to
cooled. produce metal oxides and carbon dioxide gas. A
3 When lead(II) carbonate is heated, lead(II) oxide general equation representing the decomposition
and carbon dioxide gas are produced. of carbonate salt by heat is
PbCO3(s) → PbO(s) + CO2(g) MCO3(s) → MO(s) + CO2(g)
Lead(II) oxide is brown when hot and yellow metal metal

when cooled. carbonate oxide
Salts 244
To study the effect of heat on nitrate salts
Apparatus 4 When there is no further change, the colour of

the residue is recorded when it is hot. The colour
Boiling tubes, litmus paper, test tube holder, wooden
of the residue is recorded again when the residue
splint, spatula and Bunsen burner.
is cooled to room temperature.
Materials 5 Steps 1 to 4 of the experiment are repeated using
Potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, other nitrate salts as shown in Table 8.17.
zinc nitrate, aluminium nitrate, lead(II) nitrate and
copper(II) nitrate.
Procedure
8
1 One spatula of potassium nitrate is placed in a
dry boiling tube and the colour of the solid is
noted.
2 The nitrate salt is heated slowly and then
strongly.
3 Any gas evolved is tested by a glowing wooden
splint (Figure 8.10(a)) and moist blue litmus
paper (Figure 8.10(b)). The results are recorded. Figure 8.10 Heating test on nitrate salt
Table 8.17 Heating test on nitrate salts

Colour of residue Test on gas
Colour of
Nitrate salt salt before Colour of Effect on Effect on
When When
heating glowing wooden moist blue
hot cold gas
splint litmus paper
Potassium nitrate, KNO3 White White White Colourless Rekindles No change
Sodium nitrate, NaNO3 White White White Colourless Rekindles No change
Magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2 White White White Brown Rekindles Turns red
Aluminium nitrate, Al(NO3)3 White White White Brown Rekindles Turns red
Zinc nitrate, Zn(NO3)2 White Yellow White Brown Rekindles Turns red
Lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2 White Brown Yellow Brown Rekindles Turns red
Copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO3)2 Blue Black Black Brown Rekindles Turns red
Discussion
1 The brown gas that changed moist blue litmus Generally, 2MNO3(s) → 2MNO2(s) + O2(g),
paper to red is nitrogen dioxide gas. metal nitrate metal nitrite
2 The gas that rekindles a glowing wooden splint where M = K or Na.
is oxygen gas. 2 Other metal nitrates decompose to metal oxides,
nitrogen dioxide gas and oxygen gas when heated.
Activity 8.8
Conclusion A general equation representing the decomposition

1 All nitrate salts decompose on heating. of other nitrate salts by heat is
Potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate decompose 2M(NO3)2(s) → 2MO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
to oxygen gas when heated. metal nitrate metal oxide
245 Salts
Test for carbonate ions, CO32– Test for nitrate ions, NO3–(brown ring test)
1 When dilute acid (hydrochloric acid, nitric 1 When dilute sulphuric acid and iron(II)
acid or sulphuric acid) is added to an sulphate, FeSO4 solution are added to
aqueous carbonate solution (or solid an aqueous nitrate solution, followed by
carbonate), effervescence occurs. concentrated sulphuric acid added slowly
2 The gas evolved turns limewater milky. Carbon along the side of the test tube, a brown
dioxide gas is produced, indicating the ring is formed in the middle section of the
presence of carbonate ions. solution mixture.
2 The formation of the brown ring (a complex)
CO32–(aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) indicates the presence of nitrate ions.
8
Figure 8.11 Acid test for carbonate ions Figure 8.12 Brown ring test for nitrate ions
SPM
Tests for the Presence of Anions in Aqueous Solutions ’05/P2
Q8
The presence of anions, CO32–, NO3–, SO42–, and Cl– can be identified
by conducting specific tests on the aqueous salt solution.
SPM
Test for sulphate ions, SO42– ’10/P2 Test for chloride ions, Cl–
1 When dilute hydrochloric acid (or nitric 1 When dilute nitric acid is added to an
acid) is added to an aqueous sulphate aqueous chloride solution followed by silver
solution followed by barium chloride nitrate solution, AgNO3, a white precipitate
solution, BaCl2 (or barium nitrate solution, is formed.
Ba(NO3)2), a white precipitate is formed. 2 The white precipitate is silver chloride,
2 The white precipitate is barium sulphate, AgCl.
BaSO4.
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → BaSO4(s)
3 BaNO3 or BaCl2 solution provide the Ba2+ 3 AgNO3 solution provides the Ag+ ions
ions to react with the SO42– ions to produce to react with the Cl– ions to produce the
the insoluble BaSO4 salt. insoluble AgCl salt.
H2SO4 followed by Ba(NO3)2 or BaCl2 solution is not HCl followed by AgNO3 solution is not a suitable test
a suitable test for the presence of SO42– ions. This is for the presence of Cl– ions. This is because the Cl–
because the SO42– ions in H2SO4 will give a positive ions in HCl will give a positive test with AgNO3 solution.
test with Ba(NO3)2 or BaCl2 solution.
Salts 246
To test for the presence of anions in aqueous salt solution
Apparatus sulphate solution, 2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid and

nitric acid, concentrated sulphuric acid and 0.1 mol
Test tubes, delivery tube with rubber stopper, spatula,
dm–3 silver nitrate solution.
test tube holder and Bunsen burner.
Materials Procedure
1 mol dm–3 sodium carbonate solution, sodium The steps to test the aqueous salt solutions as planned
chloride solution, sodium sulphate solution, sodium in Table 8.18 are carried out. The observations and
nitrate solution, barium chloride solution and iron(II) inferences are tabulated.
Results
8
Table 8.18 Tests for the presence of anions in aqueous salt solutions
Test Observation Inference
1 (a) About 2 cm3 of sodium carbonate solution is

placed in a test tube.
(b) About 2 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid is Effervescence occurs. A gas is evolved.
added to the carbonate solution.
(c) Any gas produced is bubbled into lime- Limewater becomes Carbon dioxide gas is evolved.
water. milky.
Carbonate ion, CO32–, is
present.
2 (a) About 2 cm3 of sodium chloride solution is
(b) About 2 cm3 of dilute nitric acid is added to A white precipitate is Chloride ion, Cl–, is
the chloride solution followed by about produced. present.
2 cm3 of silver nitrate solution.
3 (a) About 2 cm3 of sodium sulphate solution is
(b) About 2 cm3 of dilute nitric acid is added to A white precipitate is Sulphate ion, SO42–, is present.
the sulphate solution followed by about produced.
2 cm3 of barium chloride solution.
4 (a) About 2 cm3 of sodium nitrate solution is
(b) About 2 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid is added
to the nitrate solution followed by about
2 cm3 of iron(II) sulphate solution. The
mixture is shaken to mix well.
(c) Concentrated sulphuric acid is added care A brown ring is formed Nitrate ion, NO3–, is
fully to the mixture along the wall of the in the middle of the present.
tilted test tube without shaking the mixture. solution.
Conclusion
1 The presence of carbonate ions can be identified by 3 The presence of sulphate ions can be identified
Activity 8.9
the addition of a dilute acid where carbon dioxide by the addition of barium chloride solution to
gas evolved will turn the limewater milky. an acidified solution when a white precipitate is
2 The presence of chloride ions can be identified by produced.
the addition of silver nitrate solution to an acidified 4 The presence of nitrate ions can be identified by
solution when a white precipitate is produced. the brown ring test.
247 Salts
Tests for Cations Formula of Cation
Observation
metal hydroxide present
1 The cations usually tested are: Al3+, Pb2+, Zn2+,
Mg2+, Ca2+, Fe3+, Fe2+, Cu2+ and NH4+ ions. Brown precipitate Fe(OH)3 Fe3+
2 An aqueous solution of the cation is prepared White precipitate Al(OH)3, Pb(OH)2, Al3+, Pb2+,
by Zn(OH)2, Mg(OH)2, Zn2+, Mg2+,
(a) dissolving the salt in water (if the salt is Ca(OH)2 Ca2+
soluble in water).
No precipitate – Na+, K+,
(b) dissolving the salt in dilute acid and then
NH4+
filtering (if the salt is insoluble in water).
The filtrate contains the cation.
3 The aqueous cation solution is then tested Some metal hydroxides are soluble in excess
with sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia to
8
(a) sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH, form complexes.

(b) aqueous ammonia solution, NH3(aq), 6 Al3+, Pb2+ and Zn2+ ions form metal hydroxides
(c) a specific reagent as a confirmatory test. which are white precipitates that are soluble
4 Sodium hydroxide and aqueous ammonia in excess sodium hydroxide. Furthermore,
supply hydroxide ions, OH– to produce metal zinc hydroxide is also soluble in excess
hydroxide as precipitate with cation solutions aqueous ammonia.
except Na+, K+ and NH4+ ions. 7 Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions form metal hydroxides
which are white precipitates with sodium
Generally, Mn+(aq) + nOH–(aq) → M(OH)n(s) hydroxide, but only Mg2+ ions will produce
precipitate white precipitate with aqueous ammonia.
8 Ammonium ion, NH4+ does not produce any
Example: Pb2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Pb(OH)2(s)
precipitate with sodium hydroxide or aqueous
Al3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) → Al(OH)3(s) ammonia. However, if a mixture of ammonium
5 Transition element cations produce specific ion and sodium hydroxide is heated, ammonia
coloured metal hydroxide, whereas the other gas is produced.
cations produce white precipitate as shown in NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq) → NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Table 8.19.
Table 8.19 Colours of metal hydroxides
SPM
’11/P1
9 All three Cu(OH)2, Fe(OH)2 and Fe(OH)3 do not
dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
Formula of Cation However, Cu(OH)2 (a blue precipitate)
Observation
metal hydroxide present dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to
Blue precipitate Cu(OH)2 Cu2+ form a dark blue solution.
Dirty green Fe(OH)2 Fe2+ 10 A summary of the sodium hydroxide tests and
precipitate aqueous ammonia tests for cations are shown
in Table 8.20.
SPM
Table 8.20 Hydroxide tests for cations ’10/P1
A little sodium Excess sodium hydroxide, A little aqueous Excess aqueous ammonia,
Cation
hydroxide, NaOH(aq) NaOH(aq) ammonia, NH3(aq) NH3(aq)
NH4+ No precipitate forms. No precipitate forms. NH3 No precipitate No precipitate forms
NH3 gas evolves when gas evolves when heated forms
heated
Pb2+ White precipitate White precipitate soluble in White precipitate White precipitate insoluble in
excess NaOH excess NH3(aq)
Zn2+ White precipitate White precipitate soluble in White precipitate White precipitate soluble in
Al3+ White precipitate White precipitate soluble in White precipitate White precipitate insoluble in
Salts 248
A little sodium Excess sodium hydroxide, A little aqueous Excess aqueous ammonia,
Cation
hydroxide, NaOH(aq) NaOH(aq) ammonia, NH3(aq) NH3(aq)
Mg2+ White precipitate White precipitate insoluble White precipitate White precipitate insoluble in
in excess NaOH excess NH3(aq)
Ca2+ White precipitate White precipitate insoluble No precipitate No precipitate forms
in excess NaOH forms
Cu2+ Blue precipitate Blue precipitate insoluble in Blue precipitate Blue precipitate soluble in
excess NaOH excess NH3(aq) to form a
dark blue solution
Fe2+ Dirty green precipitate Dirty green precipitate Dirty green Dirty green precipitate
insoluble in excess NaOH precipitate insoluble in excess NH3(aq)
8
Fe3+ Brown precipitate Brown precipitate insoluble Brown precipitate Brown precipitate insoluble
in excess NaOH in excess NH3(aq)
Confirmatory tests for Fe2+, Fe3+,NH4+ and (a) an iodide solution (e.g. KI), produces a
SPM
’11/P1
Pb2+ ions yellow precipitate of PbI2.
1 Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II), K4Fe(CN)6 (b) a chloride solution (e.g. NaCl), produces
solution, potassium hexacyanoferrate(III), a white precipitate of PbCl2.
K3Fe(CN)6 solution and potassium (c) a sulphate solution (e.g. H2SO4),
thiocyanate, KSCN, solution can be used to produces a white precipitate of PbSO4.
confirm the presence of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions. 4 Both lead(II) chloride, PbCl2 and lead(II)
The observation is shown in Table 8.21. iodide, PbI2 are soluble in hot water and
2 Fe2+ ions can also be confirmed by acidified recrystallise when cooled.
potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4 solution. 5 Nessler reagent is a special reagent to test
If a few drops of KMnO4 solution acidified by the presence of ammonium ion. This reagent
dilute H2SO4 are added to a solution, and the forms a brown precipitate with ammonium
purple colour of the manganate(VII) ion is ion.
decolourised, then the solution contains Fe2+ 6 A summary of the confirmatory tests for Pb2+,
ions. NH4+, Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions is shown in Table
3 Pb2+ ions can be confirmed by adding 8.21.
Table 8.21 Confirmatory tests for Pb2+, NH4+, Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions
Cation Specific reagent Observation
KI, NaI Yellow precipitate, soluble in hot water
and recrystallises when cooled
Lead(II) ions, Pb2+ KCl, NaCl, HCl White precipitate, soluble in hot water
and recrystallises when cooled
K2SO4, Na2SO4, H2SO4 White precipitate, insoluble in hot water
Ammonium ions, NH4+ Nessler reagent Brown precipitate
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II), K4Fe(CN)6 Light blue precipitate
Iron(II) ions, Fe2+
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III), K3Fe(CN)6 Prussian blue (dark blue) precipitate
Acidified KMnO4 Purple colour decolourises
Potassium thiocyanate, KSCN Blood red colour
Iron(III) ions, Fe3+
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II), K4Fe(CN)6 Turnbull’s blue (dark blue) precipitate
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III), K3Fe(CN)6 Greenish-brown solution
249 Salts
Flowchart for the analysis of cations in salts
Unknown cation solution
Test 1: Add NaOH(aq) solution
White precipitate Coloured precipitate No precipitate

Zn , Al3+, Pb2+, Ca2+, Mg2+
2+
Blue Green Brown NH4+
Cu2+ Fe2+ Fe3+
Add excess
NaOH(aq) solution On heating
8
Cation solution
Test 2: Add aqueous Gas turns red litmus

Precipitate Precipitate does not
NH3 to blue. NH3 gas
dissolves dissolve
evolves.
Zn2+, Al3+, Pb2+ Ca2+, Mg2+
NH4+
Coloured precipitate
Blue Green Brown
Cation solution Cation solution Cu2+ Fe2+ Fe3+
Test 2: Add excess Test 2: Add excess
aqueous NH3 aqueous NH3
Add Cation solution
excess Cation
aqueous solution Test 2 Add Nessler
White No NH3 reagent
White White precipitate precipitate Test 3: Add
precipitate precipitate is formed KSCN
dissolves insoluble
Brown
in excess in excess
Dark blue Blood red precipitate
NH3 NH3
solution colour
Mg2+ Ca2+
present present
NH4+
Zn2+ Al3+ or Cu present
2+ Fe present
3+ present
present Pb2+
Cation solution
Cation solution
Test 3: Add K3Fe(CN)6
Test 3: Add KI
Dark blue precipitate
No Yellow
precipitate precipitate Fe2+ present
Al3+ present Pb2+ present
Salts 250
Flowchart for the analysis of anions in salts
Unknown solid anion
Test 1: Heating the solid
Gas rekindles glowing wooden Gas evolves and

Gas evolves and turns
splint and a brown gas is decolourises acidified
limewater milky. No gas evolves
evolved. KMnO4 solution.
CO2 gas is evolved.
O2 and NO2 gas evolve. SO2 or SO3 evolves.
CO32– ion NO3– ion SO42– ion SO42– or Cl–
8
Solid salt or salt Anion solution Anion solution Anion solution
solution
Test 2 Add FeSO4, dilute
Test 2 Add Test 2 Add
H2SO4 and then
Test 2 Add dilute HNO3 and HNO3 and
concentrated H2SO4
acid Ba(NO3)2 Ba(NO3)2
slowly
Brown ring White precipitate No precipitate.

Gas evolves and turns SO42– ion is not
limewater milky. present.
CO2 evolves.
NO3– ion SO42– ion
present present
Anion solution
CO32– ion
present Test 3 Add
HNO3
and
AgNO3
White precipitate
Cl– ion present
Qualitative Analysis to Identify the Ions Present in a Salt

1 Two types of salt analysis: compounds. Carry out chemical tests
SPM (A) To confirm the cation and anion present to identify the anion and cation in
’09/P2
in a named salt solid Y and solution Z.
Example Compound X is lead(II) carbonate. 2 An example of problem A, to confirm the
How do you carry out tests to confirm cation and anion in compound X, is shown
the cation and anion in compound X? in Activity 8.10 To confirm the cation, Pb2+ ions
(B) To identify the cation and anion present and the anion, CO32– ions in compound X.
in an unknown salt 3 An example of problem B, a planned analysis,
Example You are supplied with solid Y and is shown in Activity 8.11 To identify the cations
solution Z. Both Y and Z are ionic and anions in unknown salt Y and salt Z.
251 Salts
To confirm the cation, Pb2+ ions and the anion, CO32– ions in
compound X
Apparatus Procedure
Test tubes, boiling tube, test tube holder, delivery 1 The steps in the experiment which are supplied
tube with stopper, spatula and Bunsen burner. in Table 8.22 are carried out.
2 The observations are recorded and inferences are
Materials made.
Solid lead(II) carbonate, 2 mol dm–3 nitric acid, 3 Care is taken to ensure that all test tubes and
2 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution, limewater spatula are clean to prevent contamination.
and 0.5 mol dm–3 potassium iodide solution.
Results
8
Table 8.22
Experiment Observation Inference
1 (a) A spatula of compound X is heated in a The residue is brown when Lead(II) oxide is formed.
boiling tube, gently at first and then strongly. hot and yellow when cold. Pb2+ ions may be present.
(b) The gas produced is passed into limewater The gas evolved turns lime- Carbon dioxide gas is evolved.
in a test tube using a delivery tube. water milky. CO32– ions may be present.
2 5 cm3 of dilute nitric acid is added to a quarter The gas evolved turns lime- Carbon dioxide gas is
spatula of compound X in a test tube. The gas water milky. evolved. CO32– ions are
evolved is tested with limewater. confirmed to be present.
3 The mixture in step 2 is filtered. The filtrate
which contains the cation is divided into two
portions in two test tubes.
(a) For the first portion, sodium hydroxide A white precipitate is produ Pb2+, Al3+ or Zn2+ ions may be
solution is added gradually until in excess. ced which is soluble in present.
excess sodium hydroxide
solution.
(b) For the second portion, a little potassium A yellow precipitate is Lead(II) iodide may be
iodide solution is added. produced. formed.
(i) A little distilled water is added to the The yellow precipitate The yellow precipitate is
mixture and then heated. dissolves in hot water to lead(II) iodide.
form a colourless solution.
(ii) The mixture is allowed to cool under Upon cooling, golden yellow Lead(II) ions, Pb2+ is
running water. crystals are reformed. confirmed to be present.
Conclusion
It is confirmed that compound X contains lead(II) ions and carbonate ions.
To identify the cations and anions in unknown salt Y and

salt Z
Activity 8.10 & 8.11
Apparatus Materials
Test tubes, boiling tube, test tube holder, delivery Unknown salt Y and salt Z, 2 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide
tube with stopper, wooden splint and Bunsen burner. solution, aqueous ammonia, dilute sulphuric
acid, dilute nitric acid, dilute hydrochloric acid,
concentrated sulphuric acid, silver nitrate solution,
barium chloride solution and iron(II) sulphate
solution.
Salts 252
Procedure
(A) Tests on salt Y

1 Salt Y is heated strongly. A brown gas is produced. Nitrogen dioxide gas and
A gas that rekindles a oxygen gas are produced.
glowing wooden splint is Nitrate ion, NO3– is
also produced. A white present.
residue is formed.
2 The residue formed is cooled and then The white residue The solution contains
dissolved in dilute nitric acid. The resulting dissolves in nitric acid. cations.
solution is divided into 3 portions.
8
(a) Sodium hydroxide solution is added to the White precipitate that Pb2+, Al3+ or Zn2+ ions may
first portion of solution Y until in excess. dissolves in excess sodium be present.
hydroxide is formed.
(b) Aqueous ammonia is added to the second White precipitate that Zn2+ ions are not present.
portion of solution Y until in excess. does not dissolve in excess Pb2+ ions or Al3+ ions may
aqueous ammonia is formed. be present.
(c) Potassium iodide solution is added to the No noticeable change. Pb2+ ions are not present.
third portion of solution Y. Al3+ ions are present.
3 Salt Y is dissolved in distilled water. A little A brown ring is formed. NO3– ions are present.
iron(II) sulphate and dilute sulphuric acid is
added to solution Y. Concentrated sulphuric
acid is then added slowly along the side of the
test tube to the mixture.
(B) Tests on salt Z

1 Salt Z is dissolved in distilled water. The Z dissolves in water. Z is a soluble salt.
solution is divided into 4 portions.
2 Sodium hydroxide solution is added to the first A white precipitate that Mg2+ ions or Ca2+ ions may
portion of solution Z until in excess. does not dissolve in excess be present.
sodium hydroxide is formed.
3 Aqueous ammonia is added to the second A white precipitate that Mg2+ ions are present.
portion of solution Z until in excess. does not dissolve in excess
aqueous ammonia is
formed.
4 Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to the third No noticeable change. SO42– ions are not present.
portion of solution Z followed by barium
chloride solution.
5 Dilute nitric acid is added to the fourth portion A white precipitate is Cl– ions are present.
of solution Z followed by silver nitrate solution. formed.
Conclusion
Compound Y contains Al3+ ion and NO3– ion.
Compound Z contains Mg2+ ion and Cl– ion.
253 Salts
In qualitative analysis of unknown ions, you should not test for the ions present in the reagents used in
analysis. For example, if the salt is dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, do not test for the presence of chloride
ion. In the same way, if aqueous ammonia is added to the salt solution, do not test for ammonium ion.
1 Pb(NO3)2 solution produces insoluble salts as solution is added to Cl– ions solution followed by
precipitate with CO32– ions, SO42– ions and Cl– an acid, a white precipitate that is insoluble in acids
ions. Hence, Pb(NO3)2 solution is not a good will be formed.
test for the presence of the above three types of 3 Ba(NO3)2 or BaCl2 solutions produce insoluble salts
ions. However, a negative test may indicate the with both CO32– ions and SO42– ions. However,
8
presence of NO3– ions. BaCO3 is soluble in acids. Hence, the formation

2 AgNO3 solution produces insoluble salts with of white precipitate with Ba2+ ions solution in
both CO32– ions and Cl– ions. However, Ag2CO3 the presence of acids confirms the presence of
is soluble in acids. Hence, the formation of white SO42– ions. If Ba2+ ions solution is added to SO42–
precipitate with AgNO3 solution in the presence of solution followed by an acid, a white precipitate
acids confirms the presence of Cl– ions. If AgNO3 that is insoluble in acids will be formed.
6 ’05
• Add 2 cm3 of barium nitrate solution to 5 cm3 of

solution from beaker 1. The formation of a white
precipitate will verify the presence of sulphate
ions.
• Add 1 cm3 of Nessler reagent to 5 cm3 of solution
Describe chemical tests that can be used to verify the from beaker 2. The formation of a brown precipitate
cations and anions in beaker 1 and beaker 2. will verify the presence of ammonium ions.
Comments • Add a little of iron(II) sulphate and dilute sulphuric
• Add a little sodium carbonate powder to 5 cm3 of acid to 5 cm3 of solution from beaker 2, followed
solution from beaker 1. The evolution of a gas that by concentrated sulphuric acid added slowly. The
turns limewater milky will verify the presence of formation of a brown ring will verify the presence
hydrogen ions in the acid. of nitrate ions.
8.2
1 The formulae of a few salts are given below: 2 Solid Y is not soluble in water but dissolves in dilute
nitric acid and gives out a gas that turns limewater
PbCl2, ZnSO4, Fe(NO3)3, ZnCO3, Na2CO3, Al2(SO4)3,
milky. The solution produced is yellow in colour and
CuCl2, CuCO3, Mg(NO3)2, Cu(NO3)2
forms a brown precipitate when sodium hydroxide
Which of the above salts solution is added.
(a) is a solid that is insoluble in water? (a) Give the name of salt Y.
(b) is a white solid? (b) Write an equation for the reaction between salt
(c) is soluble in water to produce a blue solution? Y and dilute nitric acid.
(d) forms a white precipitate with barium chloride (c) Predict the reaction that would occur when salt
that is insoluble in acid? Y is heated strongly.
(e) forms a white precipitate that dissolves in (d) Predict the observation that will occur when
sodium hydroxide solution? potassium thiocyanate solution is added to the
(f) forms a white precipitate with aqueous ammonia yellow solution produced from the addition of
but is not soluble in excess aqueous ammonia? nitric acid to salt Y.
Salts 254
(e) Write an equation for the formation of the brown 4 You are given three types of acids: sulphuric acid,
precipitate when sodium hydroxide solution is nitric acid and hydrochloric acid. Using suitable
added to an acidic solution of salt Y. chemical tests, describe briefly how you can identify
the three types of acids.
3 Dilute nitric acid is added to aqueous solutions of
unknown salts P, Q and R respectively. It is found 5 You are given three types of salts: zinc nitrate, lead(II)
that solutions P and Q do not show any noticeable nitrate and calcium nitrate. Using suitable chemical
change, whereas effervescence occurs in solution tests, describe briefly how you can differentiate
R. The gas that is evolved from solution R turns between the three types of salts.
limewater milky. When silver nitrate solution is 6 An experiment was carried out to identify the cation
added to solution P, a white precipitate is formed. and anion present in an unknown salt Z. The tests
When barium nitrate is added to solution Q, a white and observations are tabulated below. Fill in the
precipitate is produced. Identify the anions that are correct inferences in the table and deduce the
present in solutions P, Q and R. cation and anion present in salt Z.
8
1 NaOH solution is added gradually to a little Z A white precipitate which is soluble in excess
solution until in excess. NaOH is produced.
2 Aqueous NH3 is added gradually to a little Z A white precipitate which is soluble in excess
solution until in excess. aqueous NH3 is produced.
3 Solid Z is heated slowly and then strongly. A brown gas and a gas that rekindles a glowing
wooden splint are produced. The residue formed
is yellow when hot and white when cooled.
4 Dilute nitric acid followed by BaCl2 solution is No noticeable change occurs.
added to a little Z solution.
8.3 Practising Systematic and Meticulous Methods when Carrying

Out Activities
1 Correct methods in preparing salt crystals of the test tube towards yourself or
(a) A salt solution is evaporated until towards your fellow students.
saturated so that solid salt may be (c) Gases such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
crystallised. The salt is not heated until dioxide, chlorine, hydrogen chloride and
dry to prevent decomposition of the salt. ammonia are poisonous. Use suitable
(b) The salt crystals formed are removed by quantities as instructed. Do not use excess
filtration and then rinsed with distilled chem icals. This will cause wastage of
water to remove any foreign ions present chemicals and require a longer time to
in the salt. carry out the experiment. Making accurate
2 Correct methods in salt analysis observations will be difficult. Handle all
(a) All observations must be recorded carefully apparatus and chemicals carefully in the
and immediately after every test. The laboratory.
inferences are then recorded as soon as (d) Addition of a reagent to a salt solution should
possible. be carried out drop by drop while shaking the
(b) During heating, do not direct the mouth test tube until no further change occurs.
255 Salts
1 A salt is an ionic compound that is formed when 3 Filtration can be used to separate an insoluble
the hydrogen ion in an acid is replaced by a salt (as the residue) from a soluble salt (as the
metal ion or ammonium ion (NH4 +). filtrate).
2 The solubility of a salt in water depends on the 4 The methods of preparing salts depend on the
types of cations and anions present. solubility of salts.
5 Insoluble salts can be prepared by double
Type of salt Solubility in water
decomposition reaction. Two aqueous solutions
Sodium, potassium and All are soluble containing the cations and the anions are mixed
ammonium and nitrate together. The precipitate is then obtained by
salts filtration.
8
Chloride salts All are soluble except 6 The mole ratio of ions that react to form a salt
PbCl2, AgCl and HgCl can be determined from an experiment through the
Sulphate salts All are soluble except continuous variation method.
PbSO4, BaSO4 and CaSO4 7 Qualitative analysis of salt is a scheme of tests
carried out to identify the cation and anion present
Carbonate salts All are insoluble except
in the salt.
NaCO3, K2CO3 and
(NH4)2CO3
8
8.1 4 Which is the best method to 7 Which of the following pairs of

Salts prepare ammonium nitrate? solutions when added together
1 Which of the following salts is A Double decomposition will produce a precipitate?
insoluble in water? B Neutralisation between an I Potassium carbonate and
A Lead(II) nitrate acid and an alkali silver nitrate
B Calcium chloride C Reaction between an acid II Lead(II) nitrate and sodium
and a metal chromate(VI)
C Magnesium carbonate
D Reaction between an acid III Sodium carbonate and
D Iron(III) sulphate
and a metal carbonate copper(II) sulphate
IV Sodium sulphate and
2 Which of the following 5 A sample of zinc(II) sulphate
potassium carbonate
chemicals is most suitable to bought contained some impurities.
A I and II only
’06 react with HCl to prepare AgCl? The impure salt can be purified
B II and III only
A Silver carbonate by a process known as
B Silver nitrate A distillation
D I, III and IV only
C Silver metal B evaporation
D Silver oxide C crystallisation
D recrystallisation
equations represent a double
3 Which following chemicals 6 Which of the following salts decomposition reaction?
can be added to nitric acid to can be prepared by double I Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq)
prepare copper(II) nitrate? decomposition reaction? → MgCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
A Copper metal A Lead(II) nitrate II CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
B Copper(II) carbonate B Aluminium sulphate CaSO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
C Copper(II) chloride C Silver chloride III BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) →
D Copper(II) sulphate D Sodium sulphate BaSO4(s) + 2HCl(aq)
Salts 256
IV 2Zn(NO3)2(s) → 2ZnO(s) + B Nitric acid and barium III HCl
4NO2(g) + O2(g) chloride solution IV BaCl2
A I and II only C II and III only C Nitric acid and silver nitrate A I and III only
B I and III only D II and IV only solution B II and IV only
D Sodium hydroxide solution C I, II and III only
9 If 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3
aqueous sodium chloride solution 14 Aluminium sulphate solution
is added to 20 cm3 of 1.0 mol and zinc sulphate solution can
16 Solution M reacts with sodium
dm–3 silver nitrate solution, which be differentiated by the
hydroxide solution to form a
of the following ions are present A addition of silver nitrate solution.
white precipitate that is insoluble
in the solution produced? B addition of aqueous ammonia.
in excess sodium hydroxide
I Na+ III NO3– C addition of sodium hydroxide
solution.
II Ag+ IV Cl– solution.
Solution M most probably contains
A I and III only D addition of barium chloride
I lead ion
B II and III only solution.
8
II calcium ion
15 When lead(II) nitrate solution III aluminium ion
D I, II and IV only
is added to solution X, a white IV magnesium ion
10 4.2 g of magnesium carbonate precipitate is produced. Solution A II and III only
reacts with excess hydrochloric X may be B I and III only
acid to produce a salt. Which of I H2SO4 C II and IV only
the following are true about the II HNO3 D I, III and IV only
reaction? [1 mol of gas occupies
24 dm3 at room temperature and 17 A student wants to identify cation X that is present in a salt solution. When
pressure. Relative atomic mass: ammonia solution is added into the salt solution, a green precipitate is
’11 formed.
C, 12; O, 16; Mg, 24; Cl, 35.5]
I Neutralisation reaction takes What is the next test that is needed and the expected observation to
place. confirm cation X?
II 1.2 dm3 of gas is released.
III Mass of salt formed is 4.75 g. Test Observation
IV 4.2 mol of water is formed. A Add potassium iodide solution Yellow precipitate is formed
A I and II only
B Add potassium thiocyanate solution Blood red colour is formed
B III and IV only
C II and III only C Add potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) Light blue precipitate is formed
D I and IV only solution
D Add Nessler reagent Brown precipitate is formed
8.2 Qualitative Analysis of 18 When a gas Z is passed into copper(II) sulphate solution, a blue precipitate is
Salts produced. Gas Z may be
11 When solid X is heated strongly, A ammonia C hydrogen chloride
a gas that turns limewater milky B chlorine D sulphur dioxide
is produced, leaving a white
residue. Which of the following 19 When aqueous iron(III) chloride solution is added to reagent X, a blood
may be solid X? red colour is produced. Reagent X may be
A Lead(II) carbonate A ammonium sulphite C potassium thiocyanate
B Sodium carbonate B potassium iodide D potassium hexacyanoferrate(II)
C Zinc carbonate
D Magnesium carbonate 20 Hydrochloric acid can be differentiated from sulphuric acid by adding
I barium nitrate III silver nitrate
12 Which of the following salts will II barium hydroxide IV sodium carbonate
produce a brown gas on heating? A III only C II and IV only
A Lead(II) bromide B I and II only D I, II and III only
B Ammonium nitrate
C Potassium nitrate 21 When lead(II) nitrate is heated strongly in a test tube, the following can be
D Zinc nitrate observed.
13 Which of the following is used I A brown gas is evolved.
to test for sulphate ions? II A gas that rekindles a glowing wooden splint is evolved.
A Iron(II) sulphate solution and III A gas that changes moist blue litmus to red is evolved.
concentrated sulphuric acid IV A white residue is formed.
257 Salts
A I and II only Solution X may be B A white precipitate, which
B III and IV only I sodium hydroxide dissolves in excess ammonia,
C I, II and III only II aqueous ammonia is formed when aqueous
D I, II, III and IV III Nessler reagent ammonia is added.
IV iron(III) nitrate C A white precipitate is formed
22 Which of the following ions will
A I and II only when lead(II) nitrate solution
form a precipitate that dissolves
B III and IV only is added.
in excess aqueous ammonia?
C I and IV only D A white precipitate is formed
I Copper(II) ions
D I, II and III only when silver nitrate solution is
II Aluminium ions
added.
III Lead(II) ions 26 When solid X is heated strongly, a
IV Zinc ions brown gas that turned moist blue 29 When solution X is added to
A I and IV only litmus paper to red is evolved and sodium chloride solution, a
B II and III only a black residue is formed. Which white precipitate is formed. The
C II and IV only of the following may be solid X? precipitate dissolves when it
8
D II, III and IV only A Copper(II) oxide is heated with a little distilled
B Sodium nitrate water. Which of the following
23 Excess powdered carbonate of
C Copper(II) nitrate will be observed when solution
metal Z is added to sulphuric acid
D Magnesium nitrate X is added to a solution of
and stirred. After a few minutes,
sodium iodide solution?
a light green solution is formed. 27 Lead(II) nitrate solution and A A white precipitate is formed.
Z could be a carbonate of aluminium sulphate solution can B A yellow precipitate is
A iron(II) C copper(II) be distinguished respectively by formed.
B iron(III) D lead(II) adding C A brown solution is formed.
24 Which of the following reagents I sodium hydroxide solution D A purple solution is formed.
can be used to differentiate II potassium sulphate solution
III barium nitrate solution 30 Which of the following reagents
between sodium nitrate and
IV sodium iodide solution can be used to differentiate Fe2+
potassium sulphate?
A I and III only ions from Fe3+ ions?
I Lead(II) nitrate solution
B II and III only I Potassium iodide solution
II Barium chloride solution
C II and IV only II Potassium thiocyanate
III Silver nitrate solution
D III and IV only solution
IV Sodium hydroxide solution
III Potassium
A I and II only
28 Which of the following hexacyanoferrate(III) solution
B I and III only
observations is true for both IV Potassium manganate(VII)
C II and IV only
sodium chloride solution and solution
D I and IV only
zinc sulphate solution? A I and II only
25 When solution X is added to A A white precipitate is formed B III and IV only
iron(III) sulphate solution, a when barium nitrate solution C I, II and III only
brown precipitate is produced. is added. D II, III and IV only
1 Diagram 1 is a flowchart showing a series of reactions starting from lead(II) oxide.
Lead(II) oxide
sodium substance A
hydroxide heat
Precipitate F Lead(II) nitrate Gas B + Gas C + Solid D
potassium iodide
Precipitate E
Diagram 1
(a) (i) Name substance A that is used to react with lead(II) oxide to produce lead(II) nitrate. [1 mark]
(ii) Write a chemical equation for the reaction that takes place in (i). [1 mark]
Salts 258
(b) Gas B is a brown gas while gas C is colourless.
(i) Identify gas B and solid D. [2 marks]
(ii) Suggest a test that you can use to test the presence of gas C. [1 mark]
(c) (i) Name precipitate E. What is the colour of precipitate E? [1 mark]
(ii) Write the ionic equation for the formation of precipitate E. [2 marks]
(d) (i) Name precipitate F. [1 mark]
(ii) Predict the observation that will occur if excess sodium hydroxide is added to precipitate F. [1 mark]
(e) Name another chemical that can replace lead(II) oxide to react with substance A to produce lead(II)
nitrate. [1 mark]
2 Diagram 2 is a flowchart showing a series of reactions starting from magnesium oxide.
Excess magnesium oxide

+
8
Nitric acid
stir and filter
Filtrate Residue A
Process 1: evaporate, cool and filter Process 2: heated strongly

Crystal B Solid C + Gas D + Gas E
Diagram 2
(a) Write a chemical equation showing the reaction between magnesium oxide and nitric acid. [1 mark]
(b) If 50 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 nitric acid is added to excess magnesium oxide, calculate the maximum mass of
salt that can be produced. [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; N, 14; O, 16; Mg, 24] [3 marks]
(c) The filtrate formed from the reaction above is colourless.
(i) Predict what will be observed if aqueous sodium hydroxide is added to the filtrate gradually until
in excess. [2 marks]
(ii) Name crystal B. [1 mark]
(d) In Process 2, the gas D produced is colourless while gas E is brown.
(i) Identify gas E and name solid C. [2 marks]
(ii) Suggest a test that you can use to test the presence of gas D. [1 mark]
3 The flowchart of Diagram 3 shows a series of reactions I to IV carried out to identify the ions present in compound A.
Diagram 3
(a) (i) Identify gas C. [1 mark]
(ii) What is the anion present in compound A? [1 mark]
(b) Based on the observation obtained in reaction III and reaction IV, predict the cation present in
compound A. [1 mark]
(c) Based on (a) and (b), write a balanced equation for the action of heat on compound A. [1 mark]
(d) Predict the colour of residue B when it is hot and when it is cooled. [1 mark]
(e) (i) Write a balanced equation for the formation of solution D in reaction II. [1 mark]
(ii) State an observation that can be noted in reaction II. [1 mark]
259 Salts
(f) (i) Name the white precipitate F formed in reaction IV. [1 mark]
(ii) Write an ionic equation for the formation of the white precipitate F. [1 mark]
(g) Predict the observation that can be obtained when aqueous sodium hydroxide solution is added until
in excess to solution E. [1 mark]
4 Diagram 4 shows the steps involved in the preparation of zinc carbonate.
Step 1 Step 2
Zinc oxide Salt solution P Zinc carbonate
add hydrochloric acid add solution Q
Diagram 4
(a) Write a balanced equation for the formation of salt solution P. [1 mark]
(b) Explain briefly how you can obtain a solution of salt P. [2 marks]
(c) (i) Name solution Q that is required to be added to salt solution P in Step 2 to produce zinc
carbonate. [1 mark]
(ii) Name the type of reaction involved in Step 2.
8
[1 mark]
(iii) Write an ionic equation for the formation of zinc carbonate. [1 mark]
(d) 30 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is reacted with excess zinc oxide.
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12; O, 16; Zn, 65]
(i) Calculate the number of moles of salt P that is formed. [2 marks]
(ii) Calculate the maximum mass of zinc carbonate that is produced. [2 marks]
(e) Suggest how you would convert zinc carbonate back to zinc oxide. [1 mark]
5 The flowchart in Diagram 5 shows the result of a qualitative analysis that is carried out on a mixture of metal Q and a
water soluble salt P.
Gas R
Salt P add NaOH and heat
Salt P add HNO3 + BaCl2

Process A White precipitate S
+
add HCl
metal Q Metal Q Gas T + Solution U
Diagram 5
(a) Name the process A that is used to separate salt P and metal Q. [1 mark]
(b) Gas R is a gas that can change red litmus paper to blue. Name gas R. Consequently what is the
cation present in solution P? [2 marks]
(c) Name the white precipitate S. What is the anion present in solution P? [2 marks]
(d) When gas R is passed into solution U, a white precipitate is first formed but dissolves when
excess gas R is passed through. Identify the cation present in solution U. [1 mark]
(e) From your answer in (d), determine the identity of metal Q and gas T. [2 marks]
Essay Questions
1 (a) The following are three examples of salts that can
Test Procedure Observation
be prepared in the laboratory.
’07 • Sodium sulphate, Na2SO4 I Heating of salt X solid A brown gas is given
• Lead(II) chloride, PbCl2 off and a residue that
• Magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO3)2 is brown when hot,
(i) From these examples, identify the soluble yellow when cooled is
and insoluble salts. [3 marks] formed.
(ii) State the reactants for the preparation of
the insoluble salt in (i). [3 marks] II Add excess aqueous A white precipitate
(b) With the aid of a labelled diagram, explain the sodium hydroxide which is soluble in
crystallisation method for preparing a soluble salt solution to salt X excess sodium hydroxide
from its unsaturated solution. [6 marks] solution until in excess solution is formed.
(c) Table 1 shows the observations from tests carried
out on salt X. Table 1
Salts 260
Based on the information in Table 1: Describe a laboratory experiment to prepare the
(i) Identify an anion that is present in Test I salt. In your description, include the chemical
and describe a chemical test to verify the equations involved. [8 marks]
anion. [4 marks] (c) Three beakers with solutions labelled X, Y and Z
(ii) Identify three cations that are present in may contain the following salt solutions:
Test II. Describe a chemical test to verify the
cation present in salt X based on Test I and • Zinc sulphate
Test II. [5 marks] • Zinc nitrate
• Magnesium sulphate
2 (a) What is meant by a salt? [2 marks]
(b) You are required to prepare a sample of dry You are provided only with ammonia and barium
lead(II) carbonate salt. The following chemicals nitrate solutions. Describe how you could differentiate
are supplied: between the 3 salt solutions by using the two
• Sodium carbonate solution reagents provided. Include your observations and
conclusions.
8
• Dilute nitric acid
• Lead metal powder [10 marks]
Experiment
1 Barium nitrate solution, Ba(NO3)2 and aqueous potassium chromate(VI), K2CrO4 solution react to produce a
yellow precipitate with the formula BaCrO4. A student has carried out an experiment to measure the height of
’03 the precipitate produced by the reaction between 5.0 cm3 of 0.50 mol dm–3 aqueous barium nitrate solution
and aqueous potassium chromate(VI) solution of unknown concentration at different volumes. The data
of the experiment obtained is shown in Table 1.
Volume of barium nitrate Volume of potassium

Test tubes Height of precipitate (cm)
solution (cm3) chromate(VI) solution (cm3)
1 5.0 1.0 0.5

2 5.0 2.0 1.0
3 5.0 3.0 1.4
4 5.0 4.0 1.9
5 5.0 5.0 2.4
6 5.0 6.0 2.4
7 5.0 7.0 2.4
Table 1
(a) Suggest a suitable apparatus that can be used to (ii) Calculate the number of moles of barium
measure the volume of barium nitrate solution ions that is used in this experiment.
and potassium chromate(VI) solution in this [3 marks]
(e) Based on the formula of the yellow precipitate
(b)
State the manipulated variable, responding given, calculate the number of moles of
variable and constant variable in this experiment. chromate(VI) ions used in the volume in (d)
[3 marks] (i). Hence calculate the molarity of the aqueous
(c) Draw a graph of the height of the precipitate against potassium chromate(VI), K2CrO4, solution used in
the volume of potassium chromate(VI) solution. this experiment. [3 marks]
[3 marks] (f) Explain why the height of the precipitate does
(d) (i) What is the minimum volume of potassium not change when 5.0 cm3, 6.0 cm3 and 7.0 cm3
chromate(VI) solution required to react of potassium chromate(VI) solution is added to
completely with 5.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 5.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 barium nitrate solution
barium nitrate solution? in Table 1. [3 marks]
261 Salts
CHAPTER FORM 4
9
THEME: Production and Management of Manufactured Chemicals
Manufactured Substances
in Industry

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Number of questions 3 1 – – – 2 1 – – – 5 – – – – 3 – 1 – –
ONCEPT MAP
MANUFACTURED SUBSTANCES IN INDUSTRY
Sulphuric acid Ammonia Alloys

Uses: To make fertilisers, Uses: To make fertilisers, nitric Purposes:
polymers, detergents, pigments acid and as a cooling agent • To increase hardness and
Manufactured by the Contact (refrigerant) strength
process: Manufactured by the Haber • To prevent corrosion
• Temperature: 450–550 °C process: • To improve the appearance
• Pressure: 1 atmosphere • Temperature: 450–550 °C Examples: Steel, bronze, brass,
• Catalyst: V2O5 • Pressure: 200–500 magnalium, pewter
atmospheres
• Catalyst: Iron
Synthetic polymers Glass and ceramics Composite materials

Examples and uses: Uses: Construction materials, Examples:
• Polythene: To make plastic household items, laboratory • Reinforced concrete
bags, plastic containers and apparatus • Superconductor
toys. Types of glass: • Fibre optic
• Polypropene: To make plastic • Fused glass • Fibreglass
bottles, tables and chairs • Soda glass • Photochromic glass
• PVC: To make water pipes, • Borosilicate glass
raincoats and wire casing • Lead glass
9.1 Sulphuric Acid
1 The manufacture of sulphuric acid is one of 2 Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is a non-volatile
the most important chemical industries at the diprotic acid.
present time. 3 Concentrated sulphuric acid is a viscous
colourless liquid.
Manufacture of fertilisers
1 Calcium dihydrogen phos phate (super
phosphate) is prepared from the reaction H2SO4 + 2NH3 → (NH4)2SO4
between sulphuric acid and tricalcium
ammonium sulphate
phosphate:
9
3 Potassium sulphate is prepared from
2H2SO4 + Ca3(PO4)2 → Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2CaSO4
the reaction between sulphuric acid and
calcium dihydrogen potassium hydroxide.
phosphate
H2SO4 + 2KOH → K2SO4 + 2H2O
2 Ammonium sulphate is prepared from the
reaction between sulphuric acid and aqueous potassium
ammonia. sulphate
Manufacture of Manufacture of
detergents (synthetic The Uses of Sulphuric white pigment
cleaning agents) Acid in Daily Life in paint barium
sulphate, BaSO4
Sulphuric acid reacts
with hydrocarbon to The neutralisation
produce sulphonic Manufacture of In school laboratories between sulphuric
acid. Sulphonic acid synthetic fibres acid and barium
is then neutralised (polymers) 1 As a strong acid hydroxide produces
with sodium 2 As a drying or barium sulphate.
hydroxide to produce Rayon is an example dehydrating agent
the detergent. of a synthetic fibre 3 As an oxidising agent
that is produced from 4 As a sulphonating
the action of sulphuric agent
acid on cellulose. 5 As a catalyst
The Industrial Process in the SPM

sulphur or metal sulphide
Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid ’07/P2

burned in air
sulphur dioxide, SO2

1 Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the Contact
(i) V2O5 as the catalyst
process in industry. (ii) temperature of 450 °C – 550 °C
2 The raw materials used in the Contact process (iii) pressure of 1 atmosphere
are sulphur (or sulphide minerals), air and
sulphur trioxide, SO3
water.
3 The flowchart of the Contact process is shown dissolved in concentrated H2SO4
in Figure 9.1. It describes how sulphur or oleum, H2S2O7
metal sulphide is converted to concentrated diluted with equal volume of H2O
sulphuric acid, H2SO4 through regulated steps
concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4
in the process.
Figure 9.1 Flowchart of the Contact process
263 Manufactured Substances in Industry

The Contact process involves three stages SPM
’04/P2
I II III
sulphur ⎯→ sulphur dioxide ⎯→ sulphur trioxide ⎯→ sulphuric acid
Figure 9.2 shows the three stages in the manufacture of sulphuric acid by the Contact process in industry.
9
Figure 9.2 The production of

concentrated sulphuric
acid in industry.
SPM
Stage I Stage II ’09/P1
Production of sulphur dioxide gas, SO2 Conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur

This can be done by two methods: trioxide, SO3
1 Burning of sulphur in dry air in the 1 The sulphur dioxide gas is dried and
furnace. purified before being added to dry air to
produce sulphur trioxide gas. This is
S + O2 → SO2 (a) to remove water vapour in the air (the
reaction of water with SO3 will produce
2 Burning of metal sulphide such as zinc heat that will vaporise the acid),
sulphide or iron(III) sulphide in dry air. (b) to remove contaminants such as arsenic
2ZnS + 3O2 → 2SO2 + 2ZnO compounds (found in the sulphur or
sulphide minerals) that will poison the
catalyst and make it ineffective.
2 Pure and dry sulphur dioxide with excess
dry oxygen (from air) are passed through a
converter.
3 A high percentage (98%) of sulphur dioxide
is converted into suphur trioxide under the
The production of sulphuric acid is known as the following conditions:
Contact process because the molecules of sulphur (i) The presence of vanadium(V) oxide,
dioxide, SO2 and oxygen, O2 are in contact with the V2O5, as a catalyst
catalyst, V2O5. (ii) A temperature of between 450°C –
The use of V2O5 has replaced the use of platinum as 550°C
a catalyst because (iii) A pressure of one atmosphere
(a) platinum is much more expensive,
(b) platinum is easily poisoned (lose its catalyst effect) 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
by arsenic compounds.
Manufactured Substances in Industry 264

Stage III
Production of sulphuric acid
1 In the absorber, sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated
sulphuric acid to produce oleum, H2S2O7, a viscous liquid.
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7

2 Oleum is then diluted with an equal volume of water to
produce concentrated sulphuric acid (98%).
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4 The burning of fossil fuels causes
environmental pollution, producing
3 The two reactions in stage III are equivalent to adding air pollutants such as carbon
9
sulphur trioxide to water. monoxide, nitrogen monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide and sulphur
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4 dioxide. Scientists are searching for
alternative sources of energy to
However, sulphur trioxide is not dissolved directly in water
replace fossil fuels. Other than wind
to produce sulphuric acid. This is because
energy, solar energy, geothermal
(a) SO3 has a low solubility in water. energy (energy from earth’s
(b) SO3 reacts violently in water, producing a large internal heat) and nuclear energy,
amount of heat which will vapourise sulphuric acid scientists are also researching into
to form acid mist. The mist is corrosive, pollutes the the production of fuels from natural
air and is difficult to condense. products such as palm oil.
Environmental Pollution by Sulphur Dioxide

1 Sulphur dioxide is the intermediate product
SO2 + H2O ⎯⎯→ H2SO3
of the Contact process.
2 Sulphur dioxide is also produced during 2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O ⎯⎯→ 2H2SO4
volcanic eruptions.
3 However, the main source of sulphur dioxide 8 The effects of acid rain are as follows:
is from the burning of fossil fuels such as (a) Corrodes concrete buildings and metal
structures
petroleum. Most of the fossil fuels contain
(b) Destroys trees and plants in forest
some sulphur. Hence sulphur dioxide is
(c) Decreases the pH of the soil which
produced when fossil fuels are burned.
becomes acidic, unsuitable for growth
4 Waste gases from factories and extraction of of plants and destroys the roots of plants
metal from their sulphide ores also release (d) Reacts with minerals in the soil to
sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. produce salts which are leached out
5 The burning of products manufactured of the top soil; essential nutrients for
from sulphuric acid such as rayon will also plants growth are depleted (plants die
produce sulphur dioxide gas. of malnutrition and diseases)
6 Sulphur is a poisonous and acidic gas that (e) Acid rain flows into lakes and rivers.
can cause environmental pollution. Inhaling This increases the acidity of water
sulphur dioxide affects the respiratory system. and may kill fish and other aquatic
It can cause lung problems such as coughing, living things.
chest pains, shortness of breath and 9 Two methods to reduce sulphur dioxide
bronchitis. from the atmosphere:
7 Sulphur dioxide gas dissolves in (a) Use low sulphur fuels to reduce the
atmospheric water to produce sulphurous emission of sulphur dioxide in exhaust
acid, H2SO3 and sulphuric acid, H2SO4. gases.
The presence of these acids in rain water (b) Remove sulphur dioxide from waste air
causes acid rain. by treating it with calcium carbonate
before it is released.

The industrial synthesis of sulphuric acid is
represented by the flowchart.
(a) Name this process.
(b) Name gas X, gas Y and liquid Z.
(c) Write balanced equations for Step 1 and Step
Manufacture by Contact
2.
process:
(d) State the optimum conditions involved in Step
• 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
2.
• Temperature: 450 °C – 550 °C
(e) Why is gas Y not dissolved in water to produce
• Pressure : 1 atm
sulphuric acid?
• Catalyst : V2O5
Uses of Sulphuric Pollution by SO2:

sulphuric acid: acid • Forms acid
• Making paint rain 9.2 Ammonia and Its Salts
9
pigments, detergents • Causes breathing

and fertilisers problems and 1 Ammonia, NH3 is a very important compound
• As an electrolyte lung diseases in industry.
in accumulators 2 The main uses of ammonia:
(a) To manufacture nitrogenous fertilisers such
as ammonium sulphate, ammonium
nitrate and urea
(b) The liquid form is used as a cooling agent
(refrigerant) in refrigerators
9.1
(c) as a raw material for the manufacture of
1 An important use of sulphuric acid is in the nitric acid in the Ostwald process
production of fertilisers. (d) to be converted into nitric acid used for
(a) Name the fertilisers produced and write the making explosives
equations involved when sulphuric acid reacts (e) as an alkali to prevent the coagulation
with of latex so that latex can remain in the
(i) aqueous ammonia
liquid form
(ii) potassium hydroxide
(f) to produce ammonium chloride used as
(b) Barium sulphate, BaSO4, is a white pigment
in paint. Write an equation for the formation an electrolyte in dry cells
of barium sulphate from the reaction between (g) as a cleaning agent to remove grease
sulphuric acid and barium hydroxide. (h) used in the manufacture of synthetic fibres
2 Give three uses of sulphuric acid in daily life. such as nylon
3 The manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers:
3 Concentrated sulphuric acid can be used as a
SPM (a) Ammonium sulphate
dehydrating agent. ’07/P2
(a) What is the function of a dehydrating agent? Ammonia reacts with sulphuric acid by
(b) When concentrated sulphuric acid is added to neutralisation to produce ammonium
glucose, C6H12O6, a black residue is formed sulphate.
after a few minutes.
(i) What is the black residue? 2NH3 + H2SO4 ⎯⎯→ (NH4)2SO4
(ii) Write a balanced equation for the reaction
that has taken place. ammonium sulphate
4
Sulphur
(b) Ammonium nitrate
step 1 step 2 Ammonia reacts with nitric acid by
+ Gas X Gas Y
heating neutralisation to produce ammonium
nitrate.
Oxygen
dilute with
water
NH3 + HNO3 ⎯⎯→ NH4NO3
Sulphuric acid Liquid Z
ammonium nitrate

(c) Urea
Ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide at NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH–
a temperature of 200 °C and a pressure of
200 atmospheres to produce urea. 4 As ammonia is very soluble in water, an
inverted filter funnel is used to prevent the
2NH3 + CO2 ⎯→ (NH2) 2CO + H2O suction of water (Figure 9.3).
urea
4 Liquid ammonia is suitable for use as a cooling

agent (refrigerant) in refrigerators because it
has a low boiling point and is very volatile.
5 In the Ostwald process, ammonia is converted
into nitric acid by the following steps:
9
(a) Ammonia is oxidised to nitrogen monoxide
gas in the presence of platinum as the
catalyst.
Figure 9.3 To dissolve ammonia gas in water
platinum
4NH3 + 5O2 ⎯⎯→ 4NO + 6H2O 5 Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride gas
to form white fumes of ammonium chloride.
(This is used as a test for ammonia gas).
(b) Nitrogen monoxide is further oxidised to
nitrogen dioxide.
NH3 + HCl ⎯⎯→ NH4Cl
2NO + O2 ⎯⎯→ 2NO2
6 Ammonia is alkaline in property and reacts
(c) Nitrogen dioxide is dissolved in water to with dilute acids in neutralisation to produce
produce nitric acid. salts. For example:
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O ⎯⎯→ 4HNO3

2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
6 Nitric acid is used to make explosives such NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3
as TNT when nitric acid reacts with organic
substances such as methylbenzene (common
name: toluene). 7 Aqueous solutions of ammonia produces OH–
7 Ammonia can neutralise the organic acids ions to react with metal ions (except Na+ ion,
that are produced by microorganisms in latex. K+ ion and Ca2+ ion) forming precipitates of
Thus it is used to maintain latex in the liquid metal hydroxides.
form.
8 Ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride to Fe3+ + 3OH– → Fe(OH)3
produce ammonium chloride which is used brown precipitate
as the electrolyte in dry cells.
Mg2+ + 2OH– → Mg(OH)2
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl white precipitate
8 Some metal hydroxides such as zinc hydroxide

The Properties of Ammonia
and copper(II) hydroxide dissolve in excess
1 Ammonia is a colourless and pungent gas. It aqueous ammonia to form complexes. For
is less dense than air. example:
2 Ammonia changes moist red litmus paper to
blue. Thus ammonia is an alkaline gas. Zn(OH)2 + 4NH3 → [Zn(NH3)4]2+ + 2OH–
3 Ammonia dissolves in water to produce a weak
alkali. A 0.1 mol dm–3 ammonia solution has Cu(OH)2 + 4NH3 → [Cu(NH3)4]2+ + 2OH–
a pH value of about 10.

To investigate the properties of ammonia gas
Apparatus 2 The mixture in the test tube is heated. The

ammonia gas produced is tested in turn by using
pH paper, red litmus paper, beaker, glass rod, test tubes,
(a) a piece of moist red litmus paper,
U-tube with soda lime, beaker and delivery tube.
(b) a glass rod dipped in concentrated hydro
Materials chloric acid.
Ammonium chloride, calcium hydroxide, concen 3 Ammonia gas is collected in inverted test tubes
trated hydrochloric acid, distilled water. using downward displacement of air. The test
tubes are then stoppered immediately.
Procedure 4 A little distilled water is added to the test tube of
1 A spatula of ammonium chloride and a spatula ammonia gas which is then shaken. The solution
9
of calcium hydroxide are put in a test tube. The formed is tested with a piece of pH paper.
test tube is then connected to a U-tube with soda 5 A test tube of ammonia is inverted with its
lime as shown in Figure 9.4. mouth below a beaker of water. The stopper of
the test tube is then removed as shown in Figure
9.5. Observation made is recorded.
Figure 9.5 Testing the solubility of ammonia

Figure 9.4 Preparation of ammonia gas in water
Results
1 With moist red litmus paper The red litmus paper changed to a Ammonia gas is alkaline
blue colour
2 With hydrogen chloride vapour White fumes are formed Ammonia gas forms white fumes
of ammonium chloride with
hydrogen chloride gas
3 With pH paper pH paper changed to a blue colour, Aqueous ammonia is a weak
corresponding to a pH value of alkali
about 10
4 A test tube of ammonia is Water rushes in and fills up the Ammonia gas is very soluble in
inverted in a beaker of water whole test tube water
Discussion (b) The ionic equation for the reaction between

ammonium salt and alkali is
1 Ammonia gas is produced when an ammonium
salt such as ammonium chloride is heated with NH4+ + OH– → NH3 + H2O
an alkali such as calcium hydroxide.
(a)
The equation for the reaction between 2 Soda lime in the U-tube is used as a drying agent
Activity 9.1
ammonium chloride and calcium hydroxide to dry the ammonia gas produced. In place of soda
is lime, anhydrous calcium oxide can also be used as
a drying agent. However, concentrated sulphuric
2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O acid cannot be used to dry ammonia gas as it will
react with ammonia in a neutralisation reaction.

3 Ammonia gas is collected in inverted test tubes Conclusion
using downward displacement of air because
1 Ammonia is an alkaline gas which turns red
ammonia is less dense than air.
litmus paper to blue and dissolves in water to
4 Ammonia gas is very soluble in water. As such it
form a weak alkali.
cannot be collected by a downward displacement
2 Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride to
of water.
form white fumes of ammonium chloride.
5 Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride to
3 Ammonia gas is very soluble in water.
form white fumes of ammonium chloride.
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
The Industrial Process in the
9
Manufacture of Ammonia 4 In the Haber process:
SPM (a) A mixture consisting of one volume of
’06/P2
1 The Haber process is the industrial method nitrogen gas and three volumes of pure
used to prepare ammonia gas on a large scale and dry hydrogen gas is compresssed
using nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas. to a pressure between 200 – 500
atmospheres.
(b) The gas mixture is passed through a
catalyst of powdered iron at a temperature
of 450 – 550 °C.
(c) At this optimum temperature and pressure,
ammonia gas is produced.
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
5 The gas mixture produced consists of about

17% ammonia gas. The ammonia gas is
In 1918, Fritz Haber was awarded the Nobel prize liquefied when the gas mixture is cooled. The
for his discovery of the industrial manufacture of unreacted nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas are
ammonia gas from hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas pumped back to the catalytic column to be
reacted again.
2 Nitrogen gas used in the Haber process is
obtained from the fractional distillation of
liquid air.
3 Hydrogen gas used in the Haber process can
be obtained by two methods:
(a) The reaction between steam and heated
coke (carbon).
H2O + C ⎯⎯→ CO + H2
This mixture is known as water gas
(b) The reaction between steam and natural

gas (consists mainly of methane, CH4).
2H2O + CH4⎯⎯→ CO2 + 4H2 Figure 9.6 The manufacture of ammonia gas by the
Haber process

SPM (a) Based on the graph, what is the effect of
’06/P2
Q5
temperature and pressure on the percentage of
1 The reaction between nitrogen gas and hydrogen
ammonia produced?
gas to produce ammonia gas is a reversible (b) State one problem each that is accompanied
reaction. This means that not all the nitrogen with the effects mentioned in (a) when the
gas will react with hydrogen gas completely. The factory wants to increase the percentage of
optimum temperature and pressure are used to ammonia produced.
ensure a satisfactory yield of ammonia. (c) Discuss how the problems in (b) may be
2 The percentage yield of ammonia gas depends on overcome by using an optimum temperature
the temperature and pressure used, as shown in and pressure.
Figure 9.7 below.
Solution
(a) Lower temperature will increase the percentage
of ammonia produced. Higher pressure will
9
increase the percentage of ammonia produced.

(b) Lower temperature will lower the rate of
reaction. Higher pressure will increase the cost
of production.
(c) Using an optimum temperature of 450-550 °C,
the rate of reaction will not be too low and
yet produce a high yield of ammonia. Using
Figure 9.7 Effects of temperature and pressure an optimum pressure of 200-500 atm, the cost
on the yield of ammonia of increasing the pressure and using stronger
(a) The lower the temperature, the higher the pipes will not be too high to produce a high
yield of ammonia. yield of ammonia.
(b) The higher the pressure, the higher the yield of
ammonia.
(c) However, low temperature will lower the rate Ammonium Fertilisers
of reaction. High pressure will increase the
cost of production. 1 Plants require nitrogen to produce protein.
(d) Hence, the most suitable temperature and
Nitrogen is absorbed by plants in the form
pressure to produce a high yield of ammonia
is a temperature of 450 °C–550 °C and a
of nitrates, NO3– which are soluble in water.
pressure of 200–500 atmospheres. 2 Ammonium fertilisers are chemical fertilisers
added to the soil to replace the elements in
soil used up by plants.
3 Ammonium fertilisers contain ammonium
1 ’06 ions, NH4+, that can be converted into nitrate
ions by bacteria living in the soil.
A factory that is manufacturing ammonia carried 4 The effectiveness of ammonium fertilisers is
out a test to determine the percentage of ammonia determined by the percentage of nitrogen
that can be produced at two different conditions: I by mass in them. The fertiliser with a higher
and II. The results are shown in the graph below. percentage of nitrogen is more effective.
5 The percentage of nitrogen by mass can be
calculated using the following formula:
Percentage of nitrogen by mass

Mass of nitrogen
= —————————————————————  100%
Molar mass of fertiliser

1 SPM
’10/P1
Calculate the percentage by mass of nitrogen in = 2[14 + 4 (1)] + 32 + 4(16) = 132

ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4. [Relative atomic 1 mol (NH4)2SO4 consists of 2 mol atoms of nitrogen.
mass: N,14; H.1; S,32; O,16] Percentage of nitrogen in 1 mol of (NH4)2SO4
Solution 2(14)
=— ——— 100% = 21.2%
Relative molecular mass of (NH4)2SO4 132
To prepare ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2SO4, an ammonium

fertiliser
9
Apparatus 5 The ammonium sulphate crystals are then removed
by filtration, washed with distilled water and
25 cm3 pipette, 50 cm3 burette, dropper, retort stand
dried between filter papers.
with clamp and white tile.
Materials
1 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid, 2 mol dm–3 aqueous
ammonia solution and methyl orange indicator.
Procedure
(A) To determine the volume of sulphuric acid re
quired to neutralise 25 cm3 of ammonia solution
1 25 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 aqueous ammonia solution
is transferred using a 25 cm3 pipette to a clean
Figure 9.8 Titration of sulphuric acid with
conical flask. Three drops of methyl orange
ammonia solution
indicator are added to the alkali and the colour
of the solution is noted. Discussion
2 A 50 cm3 burette is filled with sulphuric acid and 1 The equation for the neutralisation of aqueous
clamped to a retort stand. The initial burette ammonia and sulphuric acid is
reading (V1) is recorded.
3 The conical flask containing 25 cm3 of the aqueous 2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
ammonia is placed below the burette. A piece of
white tile is placed below the conical flask for clearer 2 The first titration (Experiment A) is carried out to
observation of the change in colour (Figure 9.8). determine the volume of sulphuric acid required
4 Sulphuric acid is added slowly from the burette to completely neutralise 25 cm3 of aqueous
to the aqueous ammonia solution in the conical ammonia.
flask while the flask is gently swirled. 3 In the second titration (Experiment B), the methyl
5 Titration is stopped when methyl orange changes orange indicator is not used so that the salt
colour from yellow to orange. The final burette produced is not contaminated with the indicator.
reading (V2) is recorded. 4 The ammonium sulphate solution produced is
6 The volume of sulphuric acid required to neutralise not evaporated until dry because ammonium
25.0 cm3 of ammonia solution is (V2 – V1) cm3. sulphate solid will decompose when heated.
(B) To prepare ammonium sulphate crystals 5 Usually, the mass of ammonium sulphate crystals
1 25 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 aqueous ammonia obtained from the experiment is less than the
solution is pipetted into a clean conical flask. theoretical value because not all ammonium
2 (V2 – V1) cm3 of sulphuric acid is added from the sulphate crystals can be crystallised from the
burette to the aqueous ammonia solution. solution. Some ammonium sulphate remains
dissolved in the solution.
Activity 9.2
3 The mixture in the conical flask is transferred

to a beaker and is slowly evaporated until a Conclusion
saturated solution is formed. Ammonium sulphate, an example of ammonium
4 The saturated solution is left to cool. White fertiliser, can be prepared by the neutralisation reaction
crystals of ammonium sulphate are produced. between aqueous ammonia and dilute sulphuric acid.

Ammonium sulphate is an acidic salt. Hence, long term use of ammonium sulphate as a fertiliser will increase the
acidity in the soil. This can be overcome by adding quicklime (calcium oxide) to neutralise the acidic soil.
Manufacture of ammonia: Haber Process

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
• Temperature: 450 °C–550 °C • Catalyst: iron powder
• Pressure: 200–500 atm.
9
Uses Tests
• Manufacture of Ammonia, NH3 • Turns moist red litmus paper blue
fertilisers, nitric acid • Forms white fumes with HCI gas
Reactions Properties
• Produce ammonium salts with acids • Colourless • A weak alkali
• Produce metal hydroxide as precipitate • Pungent smell • Very soluble in water
9.2
1 Ammonia is commercially produced by the Haber The given diagram shows the production of a
process. fertiliser, ammonium nitrate. Step 2 is known as the
(a) Name the raw materials used in the production Ostwald Process.
of ammonia gas. (a) Name gas A, gas B and acid C in the diagram.
(b) Name the catalyst used in the Haber process. (b) Name the industrial process in the production of
(c) State the optimum temperature and pressure gas B in step 1.
used for this process. (c) State the source from which gas A is obtained.
(d) Write a balanced equation for this process. (d) What will be observed if gas B comes in contact
(e) State two uses of ammonia in daily life. with hydrogen chloride gas?
2 (e) Write a balanced equation for step 3.
Gas A (f) Calculate the percentage by mass of nitrogen in
step 1 step 2
+ gas B acid C ammonium nitrate. [Relative atomic mass: H,1;
Ostwald process N,14; O,16]
H2
step 3
ammonium nitrate
2 Pure metals are weak and soft because the

9.3 Alloys arrangement of atoms in pure metals makes
them ductile and malleable.
Meaning and Purpose of Making Alloys 3 Arrangement of pure metal atoms
A pure metal contains atoms of the same size
1 An alloy is a mixture of two or more arranged in a regular and organised closed-
elements with a certain composition in packed structure (Figure 9.9).
which the major component is a metal.

(b) In an alloy, these atoms of different sizes
disrupt the orderly arrangement of the
metal atoms and also fill up any empty
spaces in the metal crystal structure.
Figure 9.9 Arrangement of atoms in a pure metal (c) Hence, the layers of metal atoms are
prevented from sliding over each other
4 Weakness of pure metal easily. This makes the alloy harder and
(a) Ductility stronger, less ductile and less malleable
Pure metals are soft because the orderly than its pure metals.
arrangement of atoms of the same size
enables the layers of atoms to slide over
each other easily when an external force
is applied on them. This makes the metals
ductile and metals can be drawn to form
9
long wires (Figure 9.10). Figure 9.12 Arrangement of atoms in alloys
6 The properties of a pure metal are thus improved

by making them into alloys. There are three
aims of alloying a pure metal:
Figure 9.10 Ductility of pure metal (a) To increase the hardness and strength of
a metal
(b) Malleability (b) To prevent corrosion or rusting
There are imperfections in the natural (c) To improve the appearance of the metal
arrangement of metal atoms. Empty space surfaces, with a better finish and lustre
exists in the structures of pure metals.
When ham mered or pressed, groups
of metal atoms may slide into new
positions in these empty spaces. This
makes metals malleable, able to be made
into different shapes or pressed into thin
sheets (Figure 9.11).
Aluminium and copper wires can be made

because of the ductility of metals
Figure 9.11 Malleability of pure metal
Source: Wikimedia; Rosmaniakos

Golden drinking vessel from Iran was made
in about 5 B.C., proving the use of metal
alloys in early civilization
Pure gold is too soft to make jewellery. 916 gold
consiststs of 91.6% gold SPM
’08/P1,
’09/P2,
5 The making of alloys ’11/P2
(a) In the process of alloying, one or more Pure metals have the following physical properties:
foreign elements are added to molten metal. (a) Ductile (can be drawn into a wire)
When the alloy hardens, the positions of (b) Malleable (can be shaped by hammering)
some of the metal atoms are replaced by (c) High melting and boiling points
(d) High density
atoms of foreign elements, with sizes bigger
(e) Good conductors of electricity
or smaller than the original metal atoms.

Gold is one of the most ductile and malleable metal. Pure gold is too soft and is not suitable for making any type of
jewellery. Gold is thus usually alloyed with copper, silver or palladium. The carat unit is used to measure the purity of
gold. The carat value is the number of parts of gold in 24 parts of the alloy. Hence, 24-carat gold is pure gold. 18-carat
gold consists of 75% of gold by weight.
Aims of alloying
9
To increase the hardness To prevent corrosion To improve the SPM

and strength appearance ’05/P1
Pure metals such as tin and

Alloying improves the iron are easily corroded in Metals are easily tarnished
hardness and strength of a damp, polluted or acidic because of the formation
metal. air. of metal oxides on the
1 The addition of a little 1 The addition of carbon, metal surfaces. The process
carbon to iron metal nickel and chromium of alloying can maintain
produces steel which to iron metal produces the lustre on the surface of
is a very hard alloy of stainless steel. Stainless the metal.
iron. steel is an alloy which 1 Stainless steel is more
2 The addition of can resist rusting. The shiny than pure iron.
magnesium to chromium and nickel 2 Adding a little copper
aluminium metal form chromium(III) and antimony to tin
produces an alloy called oxide and nickel(IV) produces the alloy
magnalium. Magnalium oxide which prevents pewter which is harder
is harder than the iron from rusting. and shinier, and not so
aluminium but still 2 The addition of tin to easily tarnished.
retains the low density copper produces bronze 3 Alloy wheels made from
of aluminium metal. which is able to resist aluminium and other
3 The addition of tin to corrosion and tarnish. elements improve the
copper metal produces look of vehicles.
bronze. Bronze is an
alloy harder than both
tin and copper.
The body of airplanes are made of

magnalium which is harder than
pure aluminium Stainless steel kitchenware resists
rusting
Malaysian pewter is suitable
for making shiny and attractive
ornamental objects

9.1
SPM
’05/P3
To compare the hardness of a pure metal and its alloy ’04/P2
Problem statement
Are alloys harder than pure metals?

Hypothesis
Bronze is harder than copper. When a weight is
dropped onto a ball bearing placed on a metal block
made of copper or bronze, a larger dent will be
produced on the softer copper metal block than on
the bronze block.
9

Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Types of materials (copper
Figure 9.13 To compare the hardness of an
or bronze) to make the
alloy with its pure metal
metal block
(b) Responding variable : Diameter of the dent made Results
by a steel ball bearing
Metal Diameter of the dent (mm)
(c) Constant variable : Size of steel ball bearing,
mass of weight used, height block I II III Average
from which it is dropped
Copper 3.2 3.3 3.2 3.23
Materials
Copper block, bronze block, ball bearing, 1 kg Bronze 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.47
weight, metre ruler, retort stand with clamp,
cellophane tape and thread. Discussion
1 The bigger the average diameter of the dents
Procedure produced by the steel ball bearing on the metal
1 A metre ruler is clamped to a retort stand, and means that it has been pressed deeper into the
a piece of copper block is placed on the base of metal surface.
the retort stand. 2 Thus copper is softer than bronze because the
2 A steel ball bearing is placed on the copper steel ball bearing has been pressed deeper into
block and a piece of cellophane tape is used to the surface of copper metal than that of bronze.
hold the ball bearing in place. 3 Bronze is a type of alloy formed from copper
3 A 1 kg weight is hung at a height of 50 cm above and tin. The tin atoms are larger than the copper
the copper block (Figure 9.13). atoms. They distort the orderly structure of
4 The weight is dropped onto the ball bearing the copper atoms so that the layers of copper
placed on the copper block. atoms can no longer slide easily over one
5 The diameter of the dent made by the ball another. This makes bronze harder than copper.
bearing is measured.
6 The experiment is repeated three times using Conclusion
different areas on the surface of the copper 1 The average diameter of the dents made by the
block. steel ball bearing on the copper block is bigger
7 The average diameter of the dent is calculated. than that on the bronze block.
Experiment 9.1
8 Steps 1 to 7 are repeated using a piece of bronze 2 Hence, bronze, a type of alloy, is harder than
block. pure copper metal. The hypothesis is accepted.

9.2
To compare the rates of rusting of iron, steel and stainless steel SPM
’05/P3

How do the rates of rusting of iron, steel and stainless 1 Three test tubes are half-filled with jelly solution
steel differ? and are labelled as A, B and C.
2 1 cm3 of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution
Hypothesis is added to every test tube.
Pure iron rusts faster than steel while stainless steel 3 An iron nail, a steel nail and a stainless steel nail
does not rust easily. are polished with sandpaper to remove any rust
formed. The nails are then placed in the three
Variables test tubes labelled A, B and C respectively.
9
4 All three test tubes are allowed to stand for 5

(a) Manipulated variable : Types of nails (iron, steel
days before they are examined.
and stainless steel)
(b) Responding variable : Rate of rusting
(c) Constant variable : Size of nails, duration of
rusting and conditions of
experiment (temperature,
supply of water and air)
Materials
Iron nail, steel nail, stainless steel nail, 5% jelly
solution and potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) Figure 9.14 To compare the rates of rusting of
solution and sandpaper. iron, steel and stainless steel
Results
Test tube Type of nail Observation Inference
A Iron nail Blue colour is formed around the nail Rusting occurs
B Steel nail A slight blue colour is formed A little rusting occurs
C Stainless steel nail No blue colour is observed No rusting occurs
Discussion Conclusion
1 When iron rusts, iron(II) ion, Fe2+ is produced. 1 The formation of a blue colour shows that
rusting of iron (corrosion) has occurred.
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e– 2 The presence of a blue colour shows that iron
nail rusts easily (corroded), steel nail rusts
2 Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution is used
slightly and stainless steel does not rust at all.
to test the presence of iron(II) ion. A dark blue
colour will be formed. The intensity of the blue
colour indicates the rate of rusting.
3 A stainless steel alloy which resists rusting, is
produced by adding nickel and chromium to iron
Experiment 9.2
metal.

The Composition, Properties and Uses of Some Common Alloys SPM
’10/P1,
’11/P1
Alloy Composition Properties Uses

Carbon steel 99% iron Hard and strong • Frameworks of buildings and bridges
1% carbon • In the making of tools, framework of
heavy machinery and body of vehicles
Stainless steel 74% iron Shiny, strong and • In the making of cutlery and kitchenware
18% chromium resists rusting • In the making of machine parts and
8% nickel surgical instruments
Bronze 90% copper Hard, strong and • In the making of kitchenware and ships’
10% tin shiny propellers
• In the making of decorative ornaments,
9
statues and art crafts
Brass 70% copper Hard and shiny • In the making of electrical connectors and
30% zinc musical instruments
• In the making of kitchenware and
decorative ornaments
Magnalium 70% aluminium Light, hard and strong • In the making of aircraft body frames
30% magnesium • In the making of rims of racing car tyres
Duralumin 95% aluminium Light, hard and strong • In the making of the bodies of aircrafts
3% copper and bullet trains
1% magnesium • In the making of racing bicycles, fan
1% manganese blades, light electrical cable
Pewter 97% tin Lustrous and strong • In the making of mugs, candlesticks,
3% copper and decorative ornaments and souvenirs
antimony
Solder 50% tin Hard, shiny and with • In the making of solder for electrical wires
50% lead low melting point and metal pipes
Cupro-nickel copper, nickel Hard, shiny and • To make coins of 10 sen, 20 sen, 50 sen
(percentage according resists corrosion
to colour)
Malaysian coins are made An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements in

from cupro-nickel alloy which the major component is a metal.
(75% Cu, 25% Ni)
9.3
1 Steel and stainless steel are two examples of iron (a) Name the elements used to make the alloy
alloys. pewter.
(a) What is an alloy? (b) What are the advantages of pewter compared
(b) What is the element that is added to iron to to its pure metal?
form (c) State a use of pewter.
(i) steel? (ii) stainless steel? 3 Copper is one of the metals used since ancient times.
(c) Draw the arrangement of particles in (a) Explain why copper alloys are more commonly
(i) pure iron (ii) steel used than its pure form.
(d) Explain why stainless steel and not iron is used (b) Name two examples of copper alloys.
to make cutlery. (c) Pure copper is ductile and malleable. Explain this
2 Pewter is an important alloy made in Malaysia. property in terms of the arrangements of atoms.

3 Protein is formed by the polymerisation of
9.4 Synthetic Polymers monomers known as amino acids.
polymerisation
The Meaning of Polymers SPM
’11/P1
amino acids ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ protein
1 The word polymer originated from the Greek (monomers) (polymer)
polumeros which means ‘having many parts’. 4 Carbohydrates such as starch and cellulose
2 Polymers are large molecules made up of consist of monomers known as glucose
many smaller and identical repeating units joined together chemically.
joined together by covalent bonds. These
polymerisation
small molecules that are joined into chains
glucose ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ carbohydrate
are called monomers.
(monomers) (polymer)
3 Polymerisation is the chemical process by
which the monomers are joined together to 5 Natural rubber found in latex consists of
9
form the big molecule known as the polymer. monomers known as isoprene (2-methylbuta-
1,3-diene) joined together chemically.
polymerisation
A A A A A A ⎯→ –A–A–A–A–A–A– H CH3 H H H CH3 H H
monomers polymer ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮
nC=C–C=C → —C–C=C–C —
Or n A → (–A–)n where A = monomer ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮
n = a big number H H H H n
4 A polymer is a macromolecule (a very big isoprene (monomer) natural rubber (polymer)
molecule). Hence, the relative molecular mass
of a polymer is large.
5 The properties of a polymer are different from Synthetic Polymers
its monomers.
6 Polymers can be divided into 2 types: 1 Synthetic polymers are polymers made in the
(a) Naturally occurring polymers industry from chemical substances.
Polymers that exist in living things in 2 Through scientific research, scientists are able
nature (plants and animals) to copy the structures of natural polymers to
(b) Synthetic polymer produce synthetic polymers.
Polymers that are man-made by chemical 3 Many of the raw materials for synthetic
processes in the laboratories. polymers are obtained from petroleum, after
the refining and cracking processes.
Naturally Occurring Polymers 4 The types of synthetic polymers include
(a) plastics
1 Naturally occurring polymers exist in plants (b) fibres
or animals. (c) elastomers
2 Examples of naturally occurring polymers are 5 Plastics
(a) protein : in muscles, skin, silk, hair, wool (a) Thermoplastic is a polymer which, when
and fur. subjected to heat, becomes soft so they
(b) carbohydrates : in starch and cellulose. can be moulded into various shapes.
(c) natural rubber : in latex. (b) The properties of plastics are: light,
strong, inert to chemicals such as acids
and alkali and are insulators of electricity
and heat.
(c) Examples of plastics are polythene
(polyethylene), polyvinylchloride
(PVC), polypropene (polypropylene),
polystyrene, Perspex and Bakelite.
6 Synthetic fibres
Carbohydrates such as starch and cellulose (a) Synthetic fibres are long chained polymers
are polymers that withstand stretching.

(b) Examples of synthetic fibres are nylon (b) Condensation polymerisation occurs when the
and Terylene. monomers with two functional groups combine to
(c) Nylon is used to make ropes, fishing form the polymer through a condensation reaction.
lines, stocking, clothing and parachutes. Examples of condensation polymers are nylon and
Terylene.
(d) Terylene is used to make clothing,
In general:
sleeping bags and fishing nets. Clothes
made from Terylene do not crease easily. nA + nB → —( A – B —
) n + nH2O
7 Elastomer monomer monomer condensation polymer
(a) An elastomer is a polymer that can regain A B
its original shape after being stretched or
pressed.
2
(b) Both natural rubber and synthetic ’05
rubber are examples of elastomers.

The diagram below shows a polymerisation process.
9
(c) Examples of synthetic rubbers are neoprene
and styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR). H H H H
(d) SBR is used to make car tyres. ⎮ ⎮
8 There are two types of polymerisation processes: n C = C ⎯→~C — C~
(a) Addition polymerisation ⎮ ⎮
(b) Condensation polymerisation H Cl H Cl n
9 Plastics such as polythene and PVC are Substance X Substance Y
produced by addition polymerisation, whereas Which of the properties is identical for substance
synthetic fibres such as nylon and Terylene are X and Y?
made by condensation polymerisation. A Density C Relative molecular mass
B Boiling point D Empirical formula
Comments
Substance X is a monomer while substance Y is a
There are two types of polymerisation. polymer. A polymer has a higher density, melting
(a) Addition polymerisation occurs when the monomers point and boiling point than its monomer. The
with double bonds combine to form the polymer relative molecular mass of a polymer is more than
through an addition reaction. Examples of addition
that of a monomer but the percentage composition
polymers are polythene, polypropene, PVC, polystyrene
and Perspex.
and empirical formula are the same.
Examples: Answer D
H H H H
⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮
⎯→ — C — C —
n C = C
⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮
H H H H n 1 Nylon is a type of polyamide polymer, a polymer
with the amide (–CONH–) group.
ethene polythene n = a big number
2 Terylene is a type of polyester polymer, a polymer
H H H H with the ester (–COO–) group.
⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ 3 Neoprene is a type of synthetic rubber made from
n C = ⎯→ — C — C —
C the monomer, chloroprene.
⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ 4 Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) is a type of
CH3 H CH3 H n synthetic rubber made from 2 types of monomers,
styrene and butadiene.
propene, C3H6 polypropene
H H H H
⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮
n C = ⎯→ — C — C —
C
⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮
Cl H Cl H n
chloroethene, polyvinylchloride The making of SBR is used in making
C2H3Cl (PVC) Terylene fibre tyres

Table 9.1 Some examples of synthetic polymers, their monomers and uses
Synthetic Polymer Monomer Uses
1 Polyethylene (PE) Ethene, C2H4 Plastic bags, shopping bags, plastic
IUPAC name: polythene containers, plastic toys, plastic cups and
plates
2 Polypropylene (PP) Propene, C3H6 Plastic bottles, bottle crates, plastic tables
IUPAC name: polypropene and chairs, car battery cases and ropes
3 Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Chloroethene, C2H3Cl Water pipe, shoes, bags, rain clothes,
IUPAC name: polychloroethene artificial leather and wire casing
4 Polystyrene (PS) Phenylethene, Packaging materials, heat insulators, toys,
IUPAC name: polyphenylethene C6H5CH = CH2 disposable cups and plates
9
5 Perspex (PP) Methyl-2-methyl Safety glass, airplane windows, car lamps,

IUPAC name: poly(methyl-2- propenoate traffic signs, lens, reflectors and toys
methylpropenoate) (methylmetacrylate)
CH2 = C(CH3)CO2CH3
6 Teflon (PTFE) Tetrafluoroethene, C2F4 Coatings for non-stick frying pans and
IUPAC name: polytetrafluoroethene electrical insulators
7 Terylene Hexane-1, 6-diol Clothing, sleeping bags, sails, ropes and
and benzene-1, fishing net. Clothes made from Terylene
4-dicarboxylic acid do not crease easily
8 Nylon Hexane-1, 6-diamine Ropes, fishing lines, stocking, clothing,
and hexane-1, 6-dioic carpets and parachutes
acid
Issues of the Use of Synthetic Polymers in Every other micro-organisms. This will cause disposal
Day Life problems as the polymers will not decay like
other organic garbage.
1 Synthetic polymers have been used widely 2 Discarded plastic items may cause blockage of
to replace natural materials such as metals, drainage systems and rivers thus causing flash
wood, cotton, animal skin and natural rubber floods.
because of the following advantages: 3 Plastic bottles and containers that are not
(a) Strong and light buried in the ground will become breeding
(b) Cheap grounds for mosquitoes which will cause
(c) Able to resist corrosion diseases such as dengue.
(d) Inert to chemical reactions 4 Small plastic items that are thrown into the
(e) Easily moulded or shaped and be rivers, lakes and seas are sometimes swallowed
coloured by aquatic animals. These animals may die
(f) Can be made to have special properties from choking.
according to specific needs 5 The open burning of polymers may release
2 The use of synthetic polymers, however, results harmful and poisonous gases that will cause
in environmental pollution problems. air pollution. For example, the burning of
PVC will release hydrogen chloride gas which
contributes to the acid rain problem. The
Pollution Problem Caused by Synthetic
burning of some polymers will release toxic
Polymers gas such as hydrogen cyanide.
6 The main source of raw materials for the
1 Most polymers are non-biodegradable, that making of synthetic polymers is petroleum.
is, they cannot be decomposed by bacteria or Petroleum is a non-renewable resource.

Methods to overcome environmental 9.5 Glass and Ceramics
problems of polymers
1 The raw materials for making glass and
1 Reduce, reuse and recycle synthetic
ceramics are obtained from the Earth’s crust.
polymers
2 The main component of both glass and
(a) Reduce the use of non-biodegradable
ceramics is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2.
polymers.
3 Both glass and ceramics are used widely in
(b) Polymers are collected and reused or
our daily life to replace metals because of the
reprocessed to make new items. The
advantages above as well as their low cost of
biggest problem is the collection and
production.
separation. Not only must the plastics
4 Both glass and ceramics have the same properties
be separated from other types of solid
as follows:
waste but the different types of polymers
(a) Hard but brittle
9
must be separated from each other.
(b) Inert to chemical reactions
2 Develop biodegradable polymers
(c) Insulators of electricity
These polymers can be decomposed by
(d) Poor conductors of heat and electricity
bacteria, other microorganisms or simply
(e) Withstand compression but not tension
by sunlight (photodegradable). One type
(stretching)
of biodegradable polymer was developed
(f) Can be easily cleaned
by incorpora ting starch molecules into
5 The use of glass and ceramics also depends
the plastic materials so that they can
on their differences. Table 9.2 shows the
be decomposed by bacteria. However,
differences between glass and ceramic.
biodegradable polymers are usually more
expensive. Table 9.2 The differences in properties between glass
and ceramic
Glass Ceramic
Transparent Opaque
9.4
1 (a) What is a polymer? Softens when High melting point, hence retains
(b) Name two natural polymers that are used to heated shape on heating
make clothing.
(c) Name two synthetic polymers that are used Impermeable Usually porous except when glazed
to make clothing.
2 Fill in the blanks below.
Monomer Polymer
Ethene In silicon dioxide, every silicon atom is bonded

covalently to 4 oxygen atoms in a tetrahedral shape.
Chloroethene Every oxygen atom is also bonded to two silicon atoms
to form a giant covalent molecule (Figure 9.15).
Polypropene
Polystyrene
3 State two properties of synthetic polymers that

will cause environmental pollution in the disposal
of syn tic polymers. State two methods to
the
overcome these problems. Figure 9.15 Structure of silicon(IV) oxide

Table 9.3 The uses of glass
Property of glass Uses Examples
Inert Household materials Lamp, bottles, glasses, plates, bowls and
kitchen wares
Transparent Building materials Mirrors and window glass
Industrial materials Bulbs, glass tubes for radios, radars and
televisions
Inert and easily Scientific apparatus Lens, burettes, beakers, test tubes, Glass is transparent
cleaned conical flasks, glass tubes and prisms
SPM
Table 9.4 Uses of ceramics ’05/P1
9
Property of ceramics Uses Examples

Hard and strong Building materials Bricks, tiles and cement
Long lasting and non- Materials for decorative Plates, bowls, cooking utensils,
corrosive items porcelain and vases
Electrical insulators To make electrical Insulators in toasters and irons,
insulating parts spark plugs in car engines
Inert and hard In surgical and dental Artificial hands, legs and teeth Ceramic is opaque and
apparatus has higher melting point
than glass
Semiconductor type of As microchips To make microchips in
ceramics computers, radios and televisions
Types, Properties, Composition and Uses the addition of chromium ions will give the glass
of Glass a green hue, cobalt ions will give a blue hue while
manganate ions will give a purple hue to the glass.
1 Fused glass is the simplest type of glass, which
Composition of Ceramics
consists mainly of silica or silicon dioxide.
Occasionally a little boron oxide is added. 1 Ceramic is a manufactured substance made
2 Other types of glass are mainly metal silicates. from clay that is dried and then baked in a
3 Various types of glass can be produced by kiln at high temperature.
changing the composition of glass. Different types 2 The main constituent of clay is aluminate,
of glass have different properties and they are silica and feldspar.
used for various specific purposes. The chemical 3 Kaolinite is an example of high quality white
composition, specific properties and uses of four clay that consists of hydrated aluminosilicate
types of glass are summarised in Table 9.5. crystals.
4 Coloured glass is produced by adding traces 4 Red clay contains iron(III) oxide which gives
of transition metal oxides to it. For example, its red colour.
Table 9.5 Properties, composition and uses of different types of glass
Name of glass Properties Chemical composition Examples of uses
Fused glass • Very high softening point (1700 °C), SiO2 (99%) Telescope mirrors,
hence highly heat-resistant B2O3 (1%) lenses, optical fibres
• Transparent to ultraviolet and infrared light and laboratory glass
• Difficult to be made into different shapes wares
• Does not crack when temperature changes
(very low thermal expansion coefficient)
• Very resistant to chemical reactions

Name of glass Properties Chemical composition Examples of uses
Soda lime • Low softening point (700 °C), hence does SiO2 (70%) Bottles, window-
glass not withstand heating Na2O (15%) panes, light bulbs,
• Breaks easily CaO (10%) mirrors, flat glass,
• Cracks easily with sudden temperature glass-plates and
Others (5%)
changes (high thermal coefficient of bowls. (The most
expansion) widely used type of
• Less resistant to chemical reactions glass)
• Easy to make into different shapes
Borosilicate • Quite high softening point (800 °C), SiO2 (80%) Laboratory apparatus,
glass hence it is heat-resistant B2O3 (15%) cooking utensils,
SPM • Does not crack easily with sudden Na2O (3%) electrical-tubes and
’09/P1,
change in temperature glass pipelines
9
’10/P1
• Transparent to ultraviolet light Al2O3 (1%)
• More resistant to chemical reactions
• Does not break easily
Lead glass • Low softening point (600 °C) SiO2 (55%) Decorative items,
• High density PbO (30%) crystal glasswares,
• High refractive index lens, prisms and
K2O (10%)
• Reflects light rays and appears sparkling chandeliers
Na2O (3%)
Al2O3 (2%)
The Uses of Improved Glass and Ceramics for Specific Purposes
Examples of Improved Glass and Ceramics

Improved glass Improved Ceramics
Photochromic glass Superconductor

• Photochromic glass is a type of glass that is sensitive • Superconductors are a class of ceramics
to light intensity. The glass darkens when exposed that conducts electricity without
to sunlight but becomes clear when light intensity resistance and without loss of electrical
decreases. energy.
• Photochromic glass is produced when a dispersion • Superconductor ceramics are used
of silver chloride, AgCl or silver bromide, AgBr is to make light magnets, electrical
added to normal glass. generators and electric motors.
Conducting glass
• Conducting glass is a type of glass that can conduct Ceramic car engine block
electricity. • Clay heated with magnesium oxide
• Conducting glass is produced by embedding a thin produces a type of ceramic that has a
layer of conducting material in glass. high thermal resistance.
• A type of conducting glass is produced by adding a • This type of ceramic is used for making
layer of indium tin(IV) oxide (ITO) that acts as an car engine blocks because it can resist
electrical conductor. This type of glass is used in the high temperatures.
making of LCD (liquid crystal display) panel.
• At a higher temperature, the combustion
• Another type of conducting glass is made by
of fuel becomes more efficient and
embedding thin gold threads in glass. Water
produces more energy with less
condenses as ice on the window panes of aircraft
at high altitudes and this obstructs the vision of pollution.
the pilot. Hence, windows of aircraft are heated • Ceramic engines offer great advantages
by passing electric current through the gold threads in terms of fuel economy, efficiency,
embedded in the glass. weight savings and performance.

Main component is silica, SiO2
Glass Ceramic
Types of glass Examples of ceramics

• Fused glass (high heat resistance) • Tiles
• Soda lime glass (cannot withstand high temperatures) • Cement
• Borosilicate glass (can withstand high temperatures) • Bricks
• Lead glass (high refractive index) • Porcelain
9
Common properties Differences

• Hard but brittle • Resist compression • Glass is transparent, ceramic is opaque
• Inert to chemicals • Can be easily cleaned • Ceramic can withstand a higher temperature
• Heat and electrical resistance than normal glass
3 In the making of composites, substances (known

9.5
as components) are combined to form new
1 Glass is a manufactured substance in industry. types of materials that can overcome the
(a) What is the major component of glass? limitations of the original materials.
(b) State a cheap source of this component. 4 Most of the composite materials are comprised
(c) State four types of glass. of two phases: a continuous phase (also known
2 Glass and ceramics are both manufactured from as the base) and the dispersed phase (also
materials in the Earth's crust. known as the matrix).
(a) What is the common component found in 5 Composite materials are harder, stronger, lighter
both glass and ceramics? (lower density), more resistant to heat and
(b) State the three similarities and three differences
corrosion and also made for specific purposes.
between glass and ceramics.
(c) State five uses of glass.
6 A few types of composite materials and their
(d) State two examples of the use of ceramics in components are shown in Table 9.6.
the building industry. Table 9.6
3 State one main difference between soda lime
glass and borosilicate glass in terms of
Composite materials Components
(a) composition and (b) property. Reinforced concrete Concrete (cement, sand and
small pebbles) and steel
Superconductor Yttrium oxide (Y2O3),
barium carbonate (BaCO3)
9.6 Composite Materials and copper(II) oxide (CuO)
The Meaning of Composite Materials Fibre optic Glass {silica (SiO2), sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3) and
1 A composite material is a structural material calcium oxide (CaO)} with
formed by combining two or more materials different refractive indices
with different physical properties, producing Fibreglass Glass fibre and polyester
a complex mixture. (a type of plastic)
2 The composite material produced will have
Photochromic glass Glass and silver chloride or
different properties far more superior to the
silver bromide
original materials.

1 Most types of material used in our daily life have (c) Glass and ceramics are brittle.
certain limitations. For example: (d) Plastic and glass cannot resist high
(a) Metals can be easily corroded and are temperatures.
malleable and ductile. 2 With knowledge of the compositions, structures and
(b) Metals are good electrical conductors but the properties of these materials, chemists are able to
existence of resistance results in the loss of a develop new materials to suit specific purposes.
big amount of electrical energy as heat.
Comparison of the Properties of Composite Materials and Their Original Components
SPM
Reinforced concrete ’07/P1, ’08/P1
9
1 Concrete is a composite material made from can support very heavy loads. It is used to
a mixture of sand and small stones bound construct framework for highways, brid
by cement. Concrete is strong in compression ges, oil platforms and high-rise buildings.
but brittle and weak in tension. Concrete
cannot withstand vibrations and will crack
under the action of bending forces.
2 Steel is strong in tension (high tensile
strength). But using thick steel columns
to support a heavy load is expensive.
Furthermore, steel corrodes easily.
3 Reinforced concrete is made by adding the
concrete mixture of cement, water, sand, chips
and small stones into a frame of steel bars or
steel wire netting (Figure 9.16). When set, a
composite material is formed.
4 Reinforced concrete is a stronger building
Figure 9.16 The formation of reinforced concrete
material as it combines the compressive
strength of concrete and tensile strength of
steel. In addition, it does not corrode easily.
Reinforced concrete is also relatively cheap
and can be moulded into any shape.
5 Steel and concrete have about the same coefficient
of expansion. Hence they are good composite
components and do not crack when mixed.
6 Reinforced concrete can withstand very Dams are constructed by reinforced concrete which
high applied forces (high pressure) and is very strong
Superconductors
1 In normal electrical conductors such as copper (known as the transition temperature). This
metal, the existence of resistance causes the low temperature can only be achieved using
loss of electrical energy as heat. Furthermore, liquid helium which is expensive.
resistance increases as temperature increases. 4 When a mixture of copper(II) oxide (CuO),
2 barium oxide (BaO) and yttrium oxide
Superconductors can conduct electricity with
(Y2O3) is heated up, a type of ceramic with
zero resistance when they are cooled to extremely
the formula YBa2Cu3O7 is produced. This
low temperatures. Thus, superconductors
type of ceramic, known as perovskite or
conduct electricity without any loss of energy.
YBCO, can attain superconductivity at 90 K
3 Metals such as copper, can only achieve (–183°C). This temperature can easily be
superconductivity at a very low temperature attained by using the cheaper liquid nitrogen.

5 The metal oxides (CuO, Y2O3 and BaO) are all amplifiers and computer parts. They are
electrical insulators. However when they are also used in magnetic resonance imaging
combined to form a composite, the composite (MRI) – a type of medical imaging device.
is a superconductor that can conduct very Superconductors are also used to make
high current over long distance without any stronger, lighter and more powerful
loss of energy. electromagnets. High – speed levitated trains
6 Superconductors are used to make more (trains that float on the railway track)
efficient generators, magnetic energy-storage involve the use of electromagnets and
systems, transformers, electric cables, superconductors.
SPM
Fibre optics (also known as optical fibres) ’11/P1
1 Optical fibres are bundles of glass tubes with signals faster than metal
9
very small diameters. They are finer than cables and occupies less
human hair and are very flexible. space.
2 Fibre optics is a composite material that can 5 In the field of medicine,
transmit electronic data or signals, voice and a laser beam can be
images in a digital format, in the form of light channelled through
along the fine glass tubes at great speeds. fibre optics in operations
3 Fibre optics consists of a core of glass of higher to remove unwanted Fibre optics
refractive index enclosed by a glass cladding tissues. Fibre optics is
of lower refractive index. A light wave entering also used in endoscopes: instruments that
the fibre will travel along the glass tube due to are inserted into the body through the nose,
total internal reflection (Figure 9.17). mouth or ear, for doctors to examine the
4 In the field of telecommunications, fibre optics internal organs.
is used to replace copper wire in long distance 6 Fibre optics is also used in instruments to
telephone lines, mobile phones, video cameras inspect the interior of manufactured products.
and to link computers within local area networks
(LAN). Fibre optics uses light instead of electrons
to carry data. Fibre optics carry more data (higher
transmission capacity) with less interference, has
a higher chemical stability and a lower material
cost compared to metal communication cables
such as copper. Fibre optics can also send
Figure 9.17 Cross section of a fibre optic
Fibreglass
1 Plastic is light (with a low density), elastic,
flexible, but is brittle, not very strong and is
inflammable (can catch fire).
2 Glass is hard and strong but is brittle, heavy
(with a relatively high density) and has a low
compressive strength.
3 When glass fibre filaments are embedded in Boats built from fibreglass is light and strong.
polyester resin (a type of plastic), fibreglass
which is light, strong, tough, resilient, 4 Fibreglass is an ideal material for making
inflammable, flexible with a high tensile water storage tanks, boat hulls, swimming
strength is produced. It can also be easily coloured, pool linings, food containers, fishing rods,
moulded and shaped. A resilient material is one car bodies, roofing, furniture and pipes.
that returns to its original shape after bending,
twisting, stretching and compression.

Photochromic glass
1 Glass is transparent and is not sensitive to 7 Silver atoms and bromine gas recombine
light intensity. according to the following reaction
2 Silver chloride or silver bromide is sensitive to
light. When exposed to light, these compounds Br2 + 2Cu+ → 2Br– + 2Cu2+ … (1)
decompose to form dark silver particles. Cu2+ + Ag → Cu+ + Ag+ … (2)
3 In photochromic glass, silver chloride
(AgCl) or silver bromide (AgBr) and a little 8 The overall reaction is
copper(I) chloride is embedded into the
structure of glass. 2Ag + Br2 → 2AgBr
4 When exposed to ultraviolet light, the AgCl or
AgBr decomposes to form silver and halogen 9 Photochromic glass is used to make camera
9
atoms. The fine silver which is deposited in lens, car windshields, information display
the glass is black and the glass is darkened. panels, light intensity meters and optical
For example: switches.
uv light
2AgBr ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2Ag + Br2
5 Photochromic glass has the ability to change

colour and become darker when exposed to
ultraviolet light.
6 The photochromic glass will automatically Photochromic glass is used to make lenses
become clear again when the light intensity that change from light to dark, eliminating
is lowered, whereby silver is converted back the neccessity for a separate pair of
to silver halides. sunglasses.
Properties of composite materials compared to their components and the uses of composites
Composite Properties of
Component Properties of composite Uses of composites
material component
Reinforced Concrete Hard but brittle, Stronger, higher tensile Construction of

concrete with low tensile strength, not so brittle, framework for
strength does not corrode highways, bridges and
easily, can withstand high-rise buildings
Steel Hard with high higher applied forces
tensile strength and loads, relatively
but expensive and cheaper
can corrode
Super Conducts electricity To make more
Copper(II) oxide, Insulators of
conductor without resistance efficient generators,
yttrium oxide and electricity
when cooled by liquid transformers, electric
barium oxide
nitrogen cable, amplifiers,
computer parts,
stronger and lighter
electromagnets

Composite Properties of
Component Properties of composite Uses of composites
material component
Fibre optics Glass of low Transparent, does Reflect light rays and Transmit data in
refractive index not reflect light allow light rays to travel the form of light in
rays along the fibre telecommunications
Glass of higher
refractive index
Fibreglass Glass Heavy, strong but Light, strong, Water and food storage
brittle and non- tough, resilient and containers, boats,
flexible flexible, with high swimming pool linings,
Polyester plastic tensile strength, not fishing rods, car bodies
Light, flexible,
inflammable and roofing
elastic but weak
9
and inflammable
Photo Glass Transparent and Sensitive to light: Photochromic optical
chromic not sensitive to darkens when light lens, camera lens, car
glass light intensity is high, windshields, optical
becomes clear when switches, information
Silver chloride or Sensitive to light
light intensity is low display panels and light
silver bromide
intensity meters
2 New materials are required to overcome new

9.6
challenges and problems we face in the
1 (a) State what is meant by the term composite changing world.
materials. 3 Synthetic materials are developed constantly
(b) Give five examples of composite materials due to the limitation and shortage of natural
and name one use for each example. materials.
2 (a) What is fibreglass? Explain how the properties 4 New needs and new problems will stimulate
of fibreglass are superior to that of its original the development of new synthetic materials.
components. For example, the use of new plastic compo
(b) What is reinforced concrete? Give two site material will replace metal in the making
reasons why reinforced concrete is a strong
of a stronger and lighter car body. This will
construction material.
save fuel and improve speed. Plastic compo
3 What is the advantage of using photochromic site materials may one day be used to make
glass in the making of spectacles? Briefly explain
organs for organ transplants in human bodies.
how this glass works.
New superconductors made from composite
materials are developed.
5 The understanding of the interaction between
different chemicals is important for both the
9.7 Appreciating Various development of new synthetic materials and
Synthetic Industrial the disposal of such synthetic materials as waste.
Materials 6 A responsible and systemic method of handling
the waste of synthetic materials and their
1
Continuous research and development by– products is important to prevent
(R & D) is required to produce better materials environmental pollution. The recycling and
used to improve our standard of living. development of environ mentally friendly
synthetic material should be enforced.

1 Sulphuric acid is used to make other manufactured 9 The three aims of alloying are:
substances such as fertilisers, detergents, pesticides, (a) To increase the hardness and strength of a metal
polymers and paint pigments. (b) To prevent corrosion or rusting
2 Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the Contact (c) To improve the appearance of the metal surfaces
process using vanadium(V) oxide as a catalyst. The 10 Polymers are large molecules made up of many
process involves three stages. smaller and identical repeating units (monomers)
I II joined together by covalent bonds.
Sulphur ⎯→ Sulphur dioxide ⎯→ Sulphur trioxide 11 Some examples of synthetic polymers are polythene,
III polypropene, P.V.C., polystyrene, perspex, Terylene
⎯→ Sulphuric acid
and nylon.
3 Sulphur dioxide gas can cause environmental
12 Synthetic polymers are strong and light, cheap, resist
9
pollution such as acid rain.
corrosion and inert to chemical attacks. However,
4 Ammonia is used to make nitrogenous fertilisers
they are nonbiodegradable and cause environmental
and nitric acid, and is used as a cooling agent in
pollution problems.
refrigerators. 13 The main component of glass is silica or silicon
5 Ammonia is produced in the industry by the Haber dioxide, SiO2. The main constituents of ceramics are
process with hydrogen gas and nitrogen gas and clay (aluminosilicate), sand (silica) and feldspar.
using iron powder as a catalyst. 14 Both glass and ceramics have the following properties:
6 An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements (a) Hard but brittle
with a certain fixed composition in which the major (b) Inert toward chemicals
component is a metal. (c) Insulators or bad conductors of heat and electricity
7 A pure metal is weak and soft because it contains 15 Some examples of glass are fused glass, soda lime
atoms of the same size in an orderly arrangement. glass, borosilicate glass and lead glass.
This enables the layers of atoms to slide over each 16 A composite material is a structural material formed
other easily. by combining two or more materials with different
8 In an alloy, foreign atoms of different sizes disrupt physical properties to produce a complex mixture.
the orderly arrangement of the metal atoms. This 17 Some examples of composites are reinforced
prevents the layers of metal atoms from sliding over concrete, superconductors, fibre optic, fibreglass and
each other easily. photochromic glass.
9
9.1 C Ammonia 3 Which of the following is true

Sulphuric Acid D Ammonium sulphate about the manufacture of sulphuric
1 The uses of substance X is given acid by the Contact process?
below. A Sulphur and vanadium(V)
2 Which of the following is a use
oxide are the raw materials.
of sulphuric acid?
• To make fertilisers B Sulphur is converted into
A As an electrolyte in dry cells
• To manufacture detergents sulphur dioxide and then into
B As a raw material in making
• To make paints sulphur trioxide.
explosives
C Sulphur trioxide dissolves in
C As an electrolyte in the
What of the following substances electroplating of metals water to form sulphuric acid.
could be X? D To clean the metal oxide D A pressure of 200
A Nitric acid layer of metals before atmosphere is used in the
B Sulphuric acid electroplating process.

4 The manufacturing of sulphuric 9 Which of the following are true of D To lower the pressure
acid in the Contact process ammonia gas? required in the production of
’06 involves several reactions. Which I It is a colourless and odourless ammonia
of the following is the reaction gas.
that requires a temperature of II It is lighter than air. 14 Which of the following are the
450 – 550°C. III It is sparingly soluble in water. conditions in the production of
A S + O2 → SO2 IV It produces white fumes with ammonia by the Haber process?
B 2SO2 + O2 2SO3 hydrogen chloride gas. I A temperature of about 450 °C
C SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 A I and IV only II A pressure of one atmosphere
D H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4 B II and III only III Equal volumes of nitrogen gas
C II and IV only and hydrogen gas
5 In the Contact process, oleum is D III and IV only IV The use of iron powder as a
produced when catalyst
A sulphur dioxide reacts with 10 Which of the following is a A I and II only
9
oxygen. source of hydrogen for the Haber B I and IV only

B sulphur dioxide dissolves in process? C II and III only
water. A The decomposition of water D I, II and IV only
C sulphur trioxide dissolves in B Fractional distillation of liquid
concentrated sulphuric acid. air 15 Ammonium nitrate is used
D sulphur trioxide dissolves in C Reaction of coke or natural as a fertiliser. What is the
water. gas with steam ’10 percentage by mass of nitrogen
D Reaction of zinc metal with in ammonium nitrate? [Relative
6 Which of the following gas sulphuric acid atomic mass: H, 1; N, 14; O,
’08 dissolves in rainwater and 16]
consequently kills trees and A 17.5%
11 Which of the following is the
corrodes concrete buildings? B 17.7%
effect of using iron powder as
A Ammonia C 28.6%
a catalyst in the production of
B Sulphur dioxide D 35.0%
ammonia in the Haber process?
C Carbon monoxide A The quantity of ammonia
D Carbon dioxide produced is increased.
B The temperature required for
7 Which of the following are caused Haber process is reduced.
by the presence of sulphur C The pressure required for 9.3 Alloys
dioxide in the atmosphere? Haber process is reduced.
I Certain lung diseases and D The rate of reaction between 16 The alloying process increases
bronchitis hydrogen gas and nitrogen the hardness of a metal. This is
II An increase of acidity in gas is increased. because the foreign atoms added
blood to a metal in the alloying process
III An increase of acidity in rain A increases the orderliness of
12 Which of the following the arrangement of the metal
water
compounds reacts with ammonia atoms.
IV Corrodes concrete buildings
to produce urea, a type of B strengthens the bond between
A I and II only
fertiliser? the metal atoms.
B III and IV only
A Carbon dioxide C forms strong bonds between
B Sulphuric acid the metal atoms and the foreign
C Phosphoric acid atoms.
D Ethanoic acid D makes it difficult for the layers
of metal atoms to slide over
13 Which of the following is the each other.
9.2 Ammonia and its Salts function of iron powder in the
8 Which of the following chemicals Haber process? 17 Which of the following is not the
is manufactured using ammonia A To speed up the rate of aim of alloying iron to form steel?
in the industry? production of ammonia A To make it harder
A Sodium hydroxide B To increase the percentage B To make it stronger
B Hydrochloric acid yield of ammonia C To make it more resistant to
C Sulphuric acid C To lower the cost of rusting
D Nitric acid production of ammonia D To increase the melting point

18 Which alloy is correctly matched III Polymers promote excessive
Polymer Monomer
to its uses? growth of algae in water.
’11 I Natural rubber Isoprene IV Polymers release toxic gases
Alloy Uses II Carbohydrate Sucrose when burned.
A I and IV only
III Polypropene Methylmethacrylate
A Duralumin Building of B II and III only
monuments IV PVC Chloroethene C I, III and IV only
D II, III and IV only
B Brass Bodies of A II and III only
aeroplanes B I and IV only
C I, II and III only 9.5 Glass and Ceramics
C Bronze Frameworks of D I, II, and IV only
buildings 27 A transparent solid is formed
24 The diagram shows the repeating when molten sand at high
D Stainless Making of
unit of a synthetic polymer. temperature is cooled quickly.
steel surgical
9
What is this solid?
instruments
H H A Ceramic
⎮ ⎮ B Fused glass
19 The alloy produced by the — C – C — C Soda lime glass
addition of tin to copper metal is ⎮ ⎮ D Borosilicate glass
known as CH3 CH3
A bronze 28 Which of the following are true
B brass Which of the following are true for both glass and ceramic?
C pewter of this synthetic polymer? I They contain a common
D duralumin I It is a type of addition polymer. component, silica.
II It dissolves easily in hot water. II They are electrical insulators.
III It burns in air to produce III They are resistant to
20 Which of the following alloys is
carbon dioxide and water. chemicals.
suitable for the making of an
IV It has a high relative IV They can resist compression.
aircraft body?
molecular mass. A I and II only
A Duralumin
A I and II only B III and IV only
B Bronze
B III and IV only C I, II and III only
C Brass
C II and III only D I, II, III and IV
D Cupro-nickel
29 Material Y has the following
21 Iron is alloyed to produce steel. 25 Which of the following are true properties:
Which of the following property ’09
about Terylene, a type of synthetic
is not true of steel compared to • Resistance towards
polymer?
iron? chemical substances
I It is easily biodegradable.
A Harder • Low coefficient of thermal
II It burns easily.
B More resistant to rusting expansion
III It is a type of fibre.
C More presentable IV Its monomer is ethene.
D A better electrical conductor What is material Y ?
A I and IV only
A Bronze
B II and III only
B Polystyrene
C Borosilicate glass
D I, II and III only
9.4 Synthetic Polymers D Conducting glass
22 The polymer formed from the 26 Uncontrolled disposal of 30 Which of the following glass has
polymerisation of phenylethene synthetic polymers will cause a low softening point and can
is known as environmental pollution. be easily moulded into different
A polythene Which of the following are shapes?
B polypropene the characteristics of synthetic A Fused quartz glass
C polystyrene polymers that causes this B Soda lime glass
D polyvinyl chloride environmental pollution? C Borosilicate glass
I Polymers are non- D Photochromic glass
biodegradable.
23 Which of the following are the II Polymers increase the pH of 31 Lead glass is very suitable for
correct pairs of polymer and the water when dissolved in making fine glassware and art
monomer? water. objects because this type of glass

A has a high refractive B Photochromic glass
index. C Lead glass
B has a high softening D Borosilicate glass
point.
C is most transparent to ultra-
violet and infrared rays.
D is a good heat insulator.
9.6 Composite Materials
32 What is the purpose of adding 35 Which composite material
feldspar to kaolin in the making is made of glass of different
’05 of porcelain?
’08 refractive index?
A To make kaolin softer A Fibreglass
B To make kaolin smoother B Fibre optics
C To make kaolin harder C Photochromic glass
9
D To make porcelain that is D Borosilicate glass

inert towards chemicals
33 The raw materials for making 36 The supporting pillars of flyovers

soda lime glass are of highways are made of
I sodium carbonate ’06 substance X. Based on the diagram, why
II calcium carbonate Substance X has the following is reinforced concrete often
III silicon dioxide properties : strong, not brittle, used more to build buildings
IV boron oxide can withstand erosion and can compared to concrete?
A I and II only withstand weathering. Which of A The steel bars cannot stretch
B II and III only the following is substance X? and make it tough.
C I, II and III only A Concrete B The concrete and the steel
D I, II, III and IV B Steel bars can slide over each
C Marble other and make it flexible.
34 A decorative glassware D Reinforced concrete C The steel bars fix the position
manufacturer wants to make a of the concrete particles and
display panel that is sensitive to make it hard.
the intensity of light. 37 The diagram shows the D The concrete particles are
What is the most suitable formation of a composite evenly dispersed among the
material? ’07 substance from its original steel bars and make it able
A Conducting glass components. to withstand vibrations.
1 Diagram 1 shows a series of steps involved in the (c) (i) Name liquid Z. [1 mark]
production of sulphuric acid in industry starting from (ii) How is liquid Z formed from gas Y?
sulphur. [1 mark]
I II (d) Sulphuric acid is also formed when gas Y dissolves

Sulphur Gas X in water. Why is this not done in the manufacturing
Oxygen Oxygen
of sulphuric acid in industry? [1 mark]
(e) State two uses of sulphuric acid. [2 marks]
Sulphuric IV III
Liquid Z Gas Y 2 Diagram 2 shows how a type of fertiliser is produced.
acid
Diagram 1 Process P
’07 Sulphuric acid
Fertilliser
(a) (i) Name gas X. [1 mark]
Process Q X
(ii) Write a balanced equation for the reaction Ammonia
in step I. [1 mark]
(b) (i) Name gas Y. [1 mark] Diagram 2
(ii) State the conditions used in step II in order (a) Process P and process Q are industrial processes.
to produce a high percentage yield of gas Y. What are the names of each of these processes?
[2 marks] [2 marks]

(b) State the conditions for process Q. [3 marks] (ii) State a natural source of silica. [1 mark]
(c) (i) Name fertiliser X. (iii) W is a an important component of
(ii) Write a balanced equation for the formation borosilicate glass. What is W? [1 mark]
of fertiliser X. [2 marks] (b) (i) Name compound X. [1 mark]
(ii) Compound X can be used to make plastic
(d) Calculate the mass of ammonia that is required chairs and tables. State one advantage of
to react with 0.2 mol of sulphuric acid. this type of material as compared to metals.
[Relative atom mass: H, 1; N, 14] [2 marks] [1 mark]
(e) Name another type of fertiliser that is produced (c) (i) Identify component Y. [1 mark]
when ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide. (ii) Explain why magnalium is harder than pure
[1 mark] aluminium. [2 marks]
3
The flowchart in Diagram 3 shows the conversion of (d) Z can withstand high pressures and can support
nitrogen into various substances in steps I, II, III and IV. very heavy loads. What is Z? [1 mark]
I II (e) (i) Identify the type of compound T. [1 mark]
Nitrogen Ammonia Nitric acid
9
(ii) State a property of compound T. [1 mark]
III IV 5 Bronze, brass and duralumin are examples of alloys.

+ Substance X + Substance Y
(a) What is meant by alloy? [1 mark]
(b) Name the main element added to copper to form
Nitrate salt (i) brass: [1 mark]
(ii) bronze: [1 mark]
Diagram 3
(c) What type of particles are present in pure
(a) Step I is an industrial process. State the conditions copper? [1 mark]
used for a good yield of ammonia in this process.
[3 marks] (d) Draw a diagram to show the arrangement of
particles in
(b) Step II is also an industrial process. (i) pure copper
(i) Name this process. [1 mark] (ii) bronze [2 marks]
(ii) State the catalyst used in this process.
[1 mark] (e) (i) Name the elements that are used to make
the alloy duralumin. [1 mark]
(c) State one physical property and one chemical (ii) What is the advantage of duralumin compared
property of ammonia. to its main component? [1 mark]
Physical property: (iii) State one use of the alloy duralumin.
Chemical property: [2 marks] [1 mark]
(d) Name a possible compound for substance X in 6 Polyethene and polyvinyl chloride are examples of
step III and hence write a balanced equation that synthetic polymers that are widely used in daily life.
occurs in step III. [2 marks]
(a) Name the process in which monomers are
(e) (i) Besides ammonia, name a compound that
joined together to form polymers. [1 mark]
may be substance Y in step IV. [1 mark]
(b) (i) Name the monomer that is used for the
(ii) Write a balanced equation for the reaction
making of polyethene. [1 mark]
in step IV. [1 mark]
(ii) Give a use of polyethene. [1 mark]
4 Table 1 shows the examples and components of five
(c) The following diagram shows a part of the molecular
different types of manufactured substances in industry.
structure of polyvinyl chloride.
Type Example Components H Cl H Cl H Cl
⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐
Glass Borosilicate Silica, sodium oxide and W
⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯
glass
⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐ ⏐
Polymer X Propene H H H H H H
Alloy Magnalium Aluminium and Y (i) Draw the structure of its monomer. [1 mark]
(ii) Polyvinyl chloride is widely used to make
Composite Z Concrete (cement, sand and water pipes. State two advantages of PVC
material small pebbles) and steel pipes compared with iron pipes. [2 marks]
T Photochromic Glass and silver chloride (iii) State two ways in which polyvinyl chloride
glass can cause environmental pollution. [2 marks]
(d) What is the source of the raw material used in
Table 1
producing polyethene and polyvinyl chloride?
(a) (i) Give the chemical name for silica. [1 mark] [1 mark]

Essay Questions
1 (a) Using polyethene as an example, explain the What are composite materials? Use two suitable
terms polymer and monomer. [4 marks] examples to explain the above statement.
(b) Name three examples of [10 marks]
(i) natural polymers and (b) Mr Vellu found that an art sculpture made of
(ii) synthetic polymers. pure metal is easily dented in his workshop but if
State a use for each type of polymer. [6 marks] he were to use an alloy, the sculpture will not be
(c) Explain briefly how sulphuric acid is manufactured dented. Using one suitable example, describe an
in the industry. [10 marks] experiment to show how you can compare the
hardness of an alloy with that of a pure metal.
2 (a) [10 marks]
Composite materials are produced for the
purpose of improving the original materials
9
and to fulfill specific needs.
Experiments
1 Brass is a copper alloy that is used to make (a) Measure the diameters of the two depressions
souvenirs and decorative items. Diagram 1 shows the accurately and record in the spaces provided in
experimental set-up used to compare the hardness Diagram 2. [3 marks]
of pure copper and brass. (b) Construct a table to show all the data in the
(c) State the operational definition for alloy. [3 marks]
(d) What is the relationship between the diameter
of the depression and the hardness of the
materials? [3 marks]
(e) Referring to results obtained from the experiment,
state the conclusion that can be drawn from the
(f) State three variables that must be kept constant
Diagram 1 in this experiment. [3 marks]
The 1 kg weight is dropped onto the steel ball 2

bearing and the diameter of the depression formed
Iron nails that are used in the construction of
on the block is measured.
buildings rust more than stainless steel nails
The experiment is repeated using a copper block to
when exposed to rain.
replace the brass block.
The cross section of the diameter of depression of Referring to the situation above, plan an experiment
the two materials is shown in Diagram 2. to compare the rate of rusting of an iron nail and a
stainless steel nail. Your explanation should have the
following items:
(a) Statement of problem
(c) Statements of hypothesis
(d) List of materials and apparatus
(e) Procedure
Diagram 2 (f) Tabulation of data [17 marks]

CHAPTER FORM 5
1
Rate of Reaction

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Number of questions 2 1 – – – 6 1 – – 1 5 – 1 – 1 4 1 – – 1
ONCEPT MAP
Rate of reaction Measuring the speed of reaction Concentration-time graph

• Average speed is the amount of • from changes in the mass of • The gradient of the graph
reactant used up or the product reactant or product against time. indicates the rate of reaction.
formed per unit time. • from changes in the volume of • The rate of reaction decreases as
1 gas produced against time. the reaction proceeds.
• Rate is proportional to ————————— .
time taken
Applications in daily activities

Concentration • Combustion of charcoal
An increase in concentration • Keeping food in a refrigerator
increases the speed of reaction. • Cooking food in a pressure cooker
Particle size Pressure

RATE OF An increase in pressure increases
A decrease in the particle size (larger
REACTION the speed of reaction (applies only
total surface area) increases the
speed of reaction. to gases).
Catalyst
Temperature
Catalyst increases the rate of reaction.
An increase in temperature increases
the speed of reaction.
Uses of catalysts in industry

Collision theory • Iron in the Haber process
• Explains rate of reaction in terms of effective collisions between reactant N2 + 3H2 2NH3
particles.
• V2O5 in the Contact process
• For effective collisions, the particles must have energy equal to or greater than
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
the activation energy.
• Any factor that increases the rate of effective (successful) collisions will increase • Pt in the Ostwald process
the speed of reaction. 4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O
Reactants: CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
1.1 Rate of Reaction Products: CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The Meaning of Rate of Reaction (b) During the reaction, the following
observable changes take place.
1 During a chemical reaction, the reactants are (i) The mass of calcium carbonate (the
used up as the products are formed. reactant) decreases.
(ii) The concentration of hydrochloric
Example: CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 acid (the reactant) decreases.
Thus, the amounts of reactants decrease (iii) The volume of carbon dioxide (the
(Figure 1.1(a)) while the amounts of product) produced increases.
products increase as the reaction proceeds (c) Thus, the rate of reaction between calcium
(Figure 1.1(b)). carbonate and hydrochloric acid can be
determined by measuring
(i) the decrease in mass of calcium
carbonate per unit time, or
(ii) the increase in volume of carbon
dioxide per unit time.
That is,
Mass of CaCO3 reacted

1
Reaction rate = —
————— ———–—
———— —————— , or
Time taken
Figure 1.1 The graph of amount of substance (mol) Volume of CO2 produced
against time (minutes) Reaction rate = —
—— ——
——— —
–——————— —
—————
Time taken
2 Definition
The rate of reaction is defined as the amount
of a reactant used up or the amount of a
product obtained per unit time.
The gas produced during a reaction can be collected
Amount of reactant used up by using a burette or a gas syringe.
Rate of reaction = ——
———
——— —— ———— ———— ——————
Time taken
5 The rate of reaction is inversely proportional to
or the time taken for the reaction to be completed.
Amount of product obtained 1

Rate of reaction = —
———
————— ——— ——
——— ————— ——— Reaction rate ∝ ————
—— ———
Time taken
Time taken
The reaction is fast if it takes a short time to
3 Methods of measuring reaction rates complete. Conversely, the reaction is slow if it
The amount of a reactant used up or a product
SPM takes a long time for the reaction to complete.
’07/P1,
’09/P1, obtained can be measured in terms of 6 Example of a reaction involving a change in
’11/P1
(a) changes in the mass or concentration of colour
the reactant or product (a) The reaction between potassium
(b) volume of gas produced manganate(VII), KMnO4, and ethanedioic
(c) changes in colour acid, H2C2O4, can be represented by the
(d) formation of precipitate ionic equation below.
(e) changes in mass of the reaction mixture
5C2O42–(aq) + 16H+(aq) + 2MnO4–(aq)
4 Reaction between calcium carbonate and
ethanedioate ion manganate(VII)
dilute hydrochloric acid
ion (purple)
(a) The reaction between calcium carbonate
(marble chips) and dilute hydrochloric → 10CO2(g) + 8H2O(l) + 2Mn2+(aq)

acid can be represented by the equation: colourless

(b) Observable changes: When excess ethanedioic Table 1.1 Example of some fast reactions SPM
’09/P1
acid solution is added to an aqueous solution Type of reaction Example
of potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4, the
purple colour of KMnO4 decolourises slowly Neutralisation Reaction between an acid and an
at room temperature. alkali.
1 Double Reaction between silver nitrate
Reaction rate ∝ —
————— —————— —— ————————
Time taken for the purple decomposition solution and sodium chloride solution
colour to disappear to form silver chloride precipitate.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)
→ AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Combustion Burning fuel to form carbon
A concentrated solution of manganese(II) ions, Mn ,
2+ dioxide and water.
is pink in colour. However, a very dilute solution of CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Mn2+ ions appears colourless.
7 Example of a reaction involving the formation

of a precipitate Other fast reactions include
(a) The reaction between sodium thiosulphate • burning of magnesium
and dilute hydrochloric acid is a slow 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
1
reaction. • reaction of sodium or potassium with water
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2
Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) →
2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s) Table 1.2 Example of slow reactions SPM
yellow ’09/P1
precipitate Type of reaction Example
(b) Observable changes: When dilute hydro- Iron rusting Rusting takes place slowly in the
chloric acid is added to sodium thiosul presence of oxygen and water.
phate solution, the solution becomes 4Fe + 3O2 + 2H2O → 2Fe2O3•H2O
cloudy because sulphur is precipitated. rust
Sulphur is a yellow solid, but in small Fermentation of In the presence of yeast,
quantities, it appears yellowish-white. glucose solution fermentation of glucose solution
produces alcohol and carbon
dioxide.
1 C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Rate of reaction ∝ —
—— ——— ———— —— ——— ——
——
Time taken for a given glucose alcohol (ethanol)
amount of sulphur Photosynthesis During photosynthesis, carbon
precipitate to form dioxide reacts with water to form
glucose and oxygen gas.
8 The units used for the rate of reaction will 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
depend on the changes measured. For example,
glucose
(a) cm3 per unit time (second or minute) for
a gas evolved
(b) g per unit time or mol per unit time for a
solid reactant • The reactions of Groups 1 and 2 metals with oxygen is
(c) mol dm–3 per unit time for a reactant in a fast reaction. However, the reactions of other metals
aqueous solution (such as copper) with oxygen are slow reactions.
9 Different chemical reactions take place at • The rate of decay of the radioactive carbon-14 is very
different rates. Some reactions occur rapidly and low. For example, 1.0 g of carbon-14 takes 5730 years
to disintegrate (decay) to 0.50 g. The rate of decay of
some slowly. Table 1.1 shows some examples
carbon-14 is used in archaeology to estimate the age of
of fast reactions. Table 1.2 shows some examples
ancient artifacts. This method is called carbon dating.
of slow reactions.
297 Rate of Reaction

2
The rate of a reaction depends on various factors A piece of magnesium ribbon weighing 0.1 g is added
(Section 1.2). For example, the rate of rusting of iron to dilute hydrochloric acid. After 5 seconds, all the
is increased if the iron is exposed to acid (such as magnesium had dissolved. What is the average rate
polluted air in industrial areas) or to the salt, sodium of reaction?
chloride in sea air.
Solution
Average rate of Mass of magnesium reacted
=
Measuring Reaction Rates reaction Time taken
1 The rate of reaction can be expressed in two 0.1 g
= = 0.02 g s–1
SPM ways: 5s
’04/P1,
’10/P1, (a) the average rate of reaction over a period
’11/P1 The value obtained is the average rate of
of time, or reaction over a period of 5 seconds.
(b) the rate of reaction at any given time.
2 The average rate of reaction is the average of
the reaction rates over a given period of time. 4 The average rate
We can measure the average rate of reaction of reaction can
by measuring the change in amount (or also be determined
concentration) of a reactant or a product over from the graph.
1
a period of time. Based on Figure

3 For example, the average rate of reaction between 1.2, the average
magnesium and hydrochloric acid can be rate of the first t1
determined by measuring the time taken for a second
piece of magnesium to dissolve completely in V1 Figure 1.2
the acid. =— — cm3 s–1
t1
1 SPM The average rate of reaction from t1 to t2

’04/P1
(V2 – V1)
Calcium carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric =—— ————— cm3 s–1
(t2 – t1)
acid to form carbon dioxide.
After 1.2 minutes, the volume of gas produced is 5 The rate of reaction at any given time is the
100 cm3. Calculate the average rate of reaction in actual rate of reaction at a given time. The
units of (a) cm3 min–1, (b) cm3 s–1. reaction rate at any given time is also known as
Solution the instantaneous rate of reaction.
6 The rate of reaction at a given time can be
Volume of CO2
determined by the following methods.
produced
(a) Average reaction rate = — —— ————— — ———
—— (a) By measuring the gradient of the graph of
Time taken mass of reactant against time (Figure 1.3).

100 cm3
= — ——— ———
1.2 min

= 83.3 cm3 min–1

Volume of CO2
produced
(b) Average reaction rate = — —— ————— — ———
—
Time taken

83.3 cm3 min–1
= — ——— ————— —
——
60 s min–1
Figure 1.3 Measuring the rate of
= 1.39 cm3 s–1 reaction involving a change
in mass at a given time

Determining the gradient of the tangent at time, t: Analysing a reaction rate curve
The following steps are used to determine the (i) The steeper the gradient, the higher the rate
gradient of the tangent at time, t (Figure 1.3). of reaction.
Step 1
Draw the tangent XY at point P.
Figure 1.5 Comparing the rates of reaction for

Step 2 a given reaction at different times
Complete the right-angled triangle XYZ. (ii) Figure 1.6 shows the graph of volume of hydrogen
against time for the reaction between excess
zinc powder and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Step 3
Measure the lengths of XZ and ZY.
1
Step 4
Find the gradient of the line XY. Figure 1.6
a (a) Initially (t1),

Gradient of the line XY = — • the graph is steep,
b
= rate of reaction at • the rate of reaction is high.
time, t (g s–1)
(b) By measuring the gradient of the graph of
volume of gas produced (product) versus time
(Figure 1.4). (b) As the reaction proceeds (t2),
• the graph is less steep,
• the rate of reaction
decreases because
the concentration
of hydrochloric acid
decreases.
(c) Finally (t3),

Figure 1.4 Measuring the rate of reaction at a • the graph becomes
given time involving a change in the horizontal,
volume of a gas • the gradient of the graph
becomes zero,
a • the reaction stops because
Gradient = —
b all the hydrochloric acid
= rate of reaction at time, t has reacted.
(cm3 min–1)

3
Consider the reaction between excess magnesium
and dilute sulphuric acid:
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) There are some parameters which cannot be
The reaction stops at 20 seconds. measured accurately to determine the instantaneous
Plot the graph of rate of reaction, for example the change in colour or
(a) mass of magnesium against time, the formation of precipitate.
(b) concentration of sulphuric acid against time,
(c) concentration of magnesium sulphate against time,
(d) volume of hydrogen gas against time.
Solution
(a) (b) (c) (d)
1
To find the reaction rates at (a) 90 s, (b) 180 s and (c) the
average rate of the reaction between zinc and dilute sulphuric
acid
Procedure
1 The burette is filled with water and inverted over
a basin of water.
2 Using a measuring cylinder, 20.0 cm3 of 0.3 mol
dm–3 sulphuric acid is measured out and poured
into a conical flask.
3 5.0 g of granulated zinc is then added to the
sulphuric acid in the conical flask.
Figure 1.7 4 The conical flask is then closed and the hydrogen
gas produced is collected in the burette by the
Apparatus Conical flask, measuring cylinder, displacement of water as shown in Figure 1.7.
delivery tube, burette, basin, retort 5 The stopwatch is started immediately.
stand, retort clamp and stopwatch. 6 The volume of hydrogen gas collected in the
burette is recorded at 30-second intervals.
Materials Granulated zinc and 0.3 mol dm–3
sulphuric acid.
Results
Time (s) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
Burette reading (cm3) 50.00 33.00 24.50 18.00 13.00 10.00 6.50 5.00 4.00 3.50 3.00 3.00 3.00
Activity 1.1
Volume of H2 released
0.00 17.00 25.50 32.00 37.00 40.00 43.50 45.00 46.00 46.50 47.00 47.00 47.00
(cm3)
Based on the experimental results, a graph of the volume of hydrogen released against time is plotted.

Calculation
(a) The rate of reaction at 90 s
= gradient of the curve at 90 s
YZ (52 – 20) cm3
= —— — =— — ———
–— ——— ——
XY (180 – 30) s
32 cm3
= —— —— — = 0.213 cm3 s–1
150 s
(b) The rate of reaction at 180 s
= gradient of the curve at 180 s
QR (48 – 30) cm3
= —— — =— — ——— ———— ——
PQ (240 – 18) s
18 cm3
= —— —— — = 0.081 cm3 s–1
222 s
(c) The average rate of reaction
Total volume of H2 produced
= —— ———— ———— ———— —— ——— ———
—— Conclusion
Total time taken
47 cm3 The rate of reaction decreases as the reaction
= —— ——— = 0.157 cm3 s–1 proceeds.
300 s
1
To measure the rate of reaction between calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) and excess hydrochloric acid
Apparatus Conical flask, electronic balance, Procedure

measuring cylinder and stopwatch. 1 Using a measuring cylinder, 50 cm3 of 2 mol
dm–3 hydrochloric acid is measured out and
Materials Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) pieces, poured into a dry conical flask. The mouth of the
2.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid and conical flask is covered with some cotton wool.
cotton wool. The cotton wool is inserted into the mouth of the
conical flask to prevent liquid from splashing out
during the reaction.
2 The conical flask is placed on the electronic
balance as shown in Figure 1.8.
3 The mass of conical flask, calcium carbonate,
hydrochloric acid and cotton wool is recorded.
4 The calcium carbonate is then transferred to the
hydrochloric acid in the conical flask and the
stopwatch is started immediately.
5 The mass of the conical flask (and its contents)
Figure 1.8 is recorded at one-minute intervals.
Results
Time (min) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Activity 1.2
Mass of conical
60.0 59.1 58.3 57.9 57.4 57.0 56.8 56.5 56.3
flask + contents (g)
Based on the experimental results, a graph of the mass of conical flask and its contents against time is plotted
(Figure 1.9).

0.9 g
=— ——— —
–—
1.0 min
= 0.9 g min–1
(b) The average rate of reaction between 1.4 minutes
and 2.2 minutes.
Rate of decrease in mass
(58.8 – 58.3) g
=— ———— ———— —— — From the graph (Figure 1.9)
(2.2 – 1.4) min
= 0.625 g min–1
(c) The reaction rate at the 5th minute
a
= gradient of the graph at the 5th minute = —
b
a = 57.5 – 56.4
Figure 1.9 = 1.1 g
b = 7.0 – 3.4
Calculation = 3.6 minutes
(a) The average rate of reaction for the first minute. 1.1 g
Gradient = —————
Decrease in mass = mass of carbon dioxide 3.6 min
produced = 0.306 g min–1
1
= (60.0 – 59.1) g
See table of results.
= 0.9 g Conclusion
Average rate of reaction for the first minute The rate of reaction decreases as the reaction
Mass of CO2 produced proceeds. Finally, the reaction will stop when all the
= ———— ——— —— —— ———— ———
–
Time taken calcium carbonate added have reacted.
SPM Solving Numerical Problems Involving

’08/P2
Rate of Reaction
The graph below shows the total volume of oxygen
gas produced against time for the decomposition of 1 The rate of reaction can be stated in terms of
hydrogen peroxide. (a) the average rate of reaction for a given
period of time, or
(b) the rate of reaction at any given time
(instantaneous rate).
2 The average rate of reaction can be calculated
(a) directly from the data given (Example 2) or
(b) from the graph drawn (Example 4).
3 The reaction rate at a given time can only be
obtained from the gradient of the graph at the
given time (Example 5).
At time, t, the maximum volume of oxygen is collected.

The gradient of the curve at time, t is zero. Hence, The rate of reaction is useful to a chemist because he
the rate of reaction is zero, that is, the reaction has is not satisfied with merely converting one substance
stopped at time, t. to another. In most cases, he wants to obtain the
products in the fastest and most economical way.

4 5
3.0 g of excess marble (CaCO3) are added to 100 Hydrogen peroxide decomposes as represented by
cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid. Figure 1.10 shows the equation:
the graph of volume of carbon dioxide produced
against time. 2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
The results of an experiment on the decomposition

of hydrogen peroxide are given below.
Time (s) 0 15 30 45 60 90
Volume of O2 (cm3) 0 16 30 40 48 56
Calculate the rate of reaction at 40 seconds in units

of (a) cm3 s–1, (b) cm3 min–1.
Solution
(a)
1
Figure 1.10
Calculate
(a) the average rate of reaction,
(b) the concentration of hydrochloric acid in mol
dm–3.
[1 mol of any gas occupies 24 dm3 at room
conditions]
Solution
(a) Total volume of carbon dioxide evolved
= 360 cm3
Time taken = 8.0 minutes
360 cm3
Average rate of reaction = ——— —
— ——
8 min
= 45 cm3 min–1
(b) Number of moles of CO2 evolved

360 cm3
=—————— ——————— — = 0.015
(24  1000) cm3
The rate of reaction at 40 s
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Mole ratio of HCl : CO2 = gradient at 40 s
=2:1 From equation a (49 – 21) cm3 obtained from

=—=— ————— —————
? : 0.015 b (58 – 18) s the graph
According to the equation, number of moles of = 0.70 cm3 s–1

hydrochloric acid used = 2  0.015 = 0.03 mol.
Concentration of hydrochloric acid (b) 1 minute = 60 seconds
Number of moles 0.03 mol ∴Rate of reaction in cm3 min–1
=— — ———
— ——— ———— — =— ——— ———
Volume (in dm3) 0.1 dm3
= 0.3 mol dm–3 = 0.70 cm3 s–1  60 s min–1
From the question: 100 cm3 = 0.1 dm3 = 42 cm3 min –1

1 ’09
Which of the following is correctly matched with its rate of reaction?

High reaction rate Low reaction rate
A Combustion of fuels Respiration
B Combustion of fuels Double decomposition between silver nitrate and sodium
chloride solution
C Rusting of iron Fermentation of glucose solution
D Respiration Neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali
Comments
Combustion, double decomposition and neutralisation are fast reactions. Rusting and respiration are slow
reactions.
Answer A
1
1.1
1 Which of the following reactions occur at (a) a high
rate, (b) a low rate?
I Fe3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s)
II 2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)
III S2O32–(aq) + 2H+(aq) → S(s) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)
IV 4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)
2 You are given the chemicals and apparatus as listed
below.
• A piece of zinc of mass 2.0 g
• A beaker containing sulphuric acid
• A stopwatch
(a) Using the chemicals and apparatus given,
describe an experiment to measure the rate of
reaction between zinc and sulphuric acid.
(b) State the units for the rate of reaction.
(c) State two assumptions for this experiment.
Figure 1.11
3 A student intends to study the rate of reaction
between iron and dilute sulphuric acid. The equation (a) What is the total time required for the magnesium
for the reaction is as follows. ribbon to react completely with hydrochloric
acid?
(b) Based on the graph, is the reaction rate at the
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2(g) first minute higher or lower than the reaction at
the second minute? Explain your answer.
(c) Is this a normal behaviour? Suggest one reason
Suggest two methods that he can use to measure
for this behaviour.
the rate of reaction.
(d) The reaction between hydrochloric acid and
4 The graph in Figure 1.11 shows the results of another metal produces 12 cm3 of hydrogen
an experiment to measure the rate of reaction after 1.0 minute. Is this reaction rate higher or
of magnesium ribbon with an excess of dilute lower than the reaction between magnesium
hydrochloric acid. and hydrochloric acid? Explain your answer.

5 The table below shows the results for two experiments What is the average rate of reaction?
carried out under room conditions. (b) 4.0 g of magnesium is added to excess dilute
sulphuric acid. If the average rate of reaction is
Experiment Reaction Result 0.0030 mol s–1, what is the mass of magnesium
unreacted after 0.5 minute?
I 1 g of nickel powder Time taken to [Relative atomic mass of Mg = 24]
+ 50 cm3 of 1 mol collect 60 cm3 7 In the presence of manganese(IV) oxide, hydrogen
dm–3 hydrochloric of hydrogen peroxide decomposes according to the equation:
acid gas = 120 s
MnO2
II 1 g of zinc powder Time taken to 2H2O2(aq) ⎯⎯→ 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
+ 50 cm3 of 1 mol collect 45 cm3
dm–3 hydrochloric of hydrogen
acid gas = 56 s A sample of hydrogen peroxide decomposed in the
presence of a catalyst and the volume of oxygen
gas produced was collected at regular time intervals.
Based on the information given in the table above, The results of the experiment were recorded in the
predict which metal is more reactive, nickel or zinc? following table.
6 (a) The volume of hydrogen gas collected at regular
intervals for the reaction between granulated
1 1
zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid is shown below. Time (min) 0 1 1— 2 2— 3 4 5

2
2
Time (s) Volume of H2 (cm3)
1
Volume of
0 32 46 56 64 69 74 74
0 0 O2 (cm3)
20 16
Calculate
40 26 (a) the average rate of reaction for the first 144
seconds.
60 32 (b) the average rate of reaction for the overall
reaction in cm3 s–1.
70 36 (c) the average rate of reaction between the first
minute and the 3rd minute.
80 36
(d) the rate of reaction at the 150th second.
1.2 Factors that Affect the

Rate of Reaction SPM
’08/P1
Uranium is the radioactive isotope used for making
nuclear bombs. Uranium decays slowly to form lead.
1 The rate of reaction is affected by the following The decay of uranium and other radioactive elements
factors: is unique. These nuclear reactions are not influenced by
(a) Total surface area (or particle size) of the factors such as surface area, temperature and catalyst.
solid reactant
(b) Concentration of reactant 4 Reaction involving gases
(c) Temperature of reaction (a) Changes in pressure will not affect
(d) Use of catalyst reactions in aqueous solutions.
(e) Pressure (for reactions involving gases) (b) Changes in pressure will only affect
2 When the condition of reaction changes, the reactions involving gases.
rate of reaction also changes. (c) Increasing the pressure will compress
3 Table 1.3 explains briefly how these conditions more gas molecules into a given space.
of reaction affect the rate of reaction between Hence the gaseous particles will collide
zinc metal and dilute sulphuric acid. more frequently and the rate of reaction
increases.

Table 1.3
Surface area (particle size)
• When zinc foil is broken into
smaller pieces, the total surface area
increases.
• The smaller the size of zinc foil, the
greater the total surface area exposed
to the hydrogen ions. Hence the rate
of reaction increases.
Concentration of reactant
• In dilute acid, there are not so many
hydrogen ions present.
• In more concentrated acid, there are
more hydrogen ions in the solution.
Hence the rate of reaction increases.
1
Temperature of reaction
• When the temperature of a reaction
increases, the particles move faster
because they have higher kinetic
energy. Hence the rate of reaction
increases.
Catalyst A catalyst will increase the rate of

Some catalysts used in industry. The catalysts are in pellet form reaction. This will be explained in
for larger surface area. Section 1.3.
SPM Factors that Influence the Rate of Reaction • Manipulated variable: Size (total surface area)
’10/P2
of magnesium
Effect of Surface Area on the Rate of Reaction • Responding variable: Time taken to collect
60 cm3 of hydrogen gas
1 Two experiments are carried out to study the • Constant variables: Temperature, concentration
rate of reaction between magnesium and dilute and volume of sulphuric acid as well as
sulphuric acid under different conditions. mass of magnesium
2 The results of the experiments are shown
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
below.
Time taken to collect Average rate of

Experiment Conditions of experiment
60 cm3 of H2 (s) reaction (cm3 s–1)
I 1.0 g of magnesium ribbon and 50 cm3 30 2
of 1.0 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid
II 1.0 g of magnesium powder and 50 cm3 10 6
of 1.0 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid
The size (surface area) of magnesium is manipulated

3 The results show that the time taken to collect 1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid. This means that
60 cm3 of gas using magnesium powder is the higher the concentration of hydrochloric
shorter than using magnesium ribbon. This acid, the higher the rate of reaction.
is due to the smaller size of particles (total 4 (a) It is important to know
surface area is greater) in magnesium powder • how to plot graphs (on the same axis),
than in magnesium ribbon. or
• how to interpret graphs on rate of
Effect of Concentration of Reactant on the Rate reaction if information on the conditions
of reaction are given.
of Reaction
(b) The two features on the graph to be
considered are
1 Two experiments are carried out to study the
• the gradient of the graph which shows
SPM rate of reaction between magnesium and
’04/P1 the rate of reaction,
’05/P3 hydrochloric acid.
’06/P1 • the height of the graph which shows
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) the total amount of product formed.
• Manipulated variable: Concentration of Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Reaction

hydrochloric acid
• Responding variable: Time taken for 1 Two experiments are carried out to study the
magnesium to dissolve completely rate of reaction between zinc and sulphuric
1
• Constant variables: Size of magnesium acid at different temperatures.
ribbon, volume of hydrochloric acid and
temperature of experiment Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
2 The results of the experiments are shown below.
• Manipulated variable: Temperature of sulphuric
Time taken for acid
Conditions of magnesium to • Responding variable: Volume of hydrogen
Experiment
experiment dissolve gas evolved
completely (s) • Constant variables: Mass of zinc, concentration
I 5 cm magnesium 78 and volume of sulphuric acid
ribbon and 50 cm3 of 2 The results are shown in Figure 1.12.
1 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid
II 5 cm magnesium 39
ribbon and 50 cm3 of
2 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid
Concentration of acid is manipulated
Figure 1.12 Comparing the rates of reaction at

3 The shorter the time taken for a reaction to different temperatures
complete, the higher the rate of reaction.
The results show that the time taken for 3 The results show that the higher the temperature
magnesium to react completely in 2 mol of sulphuric acid, the steeper the graph and
dm–3 hydrochloric acid is shorter than that in hence, the higher the rate of reaction.
Volume of Concentration of Temperature of

Experiment Mass of zinc
sulphuric acid sulphuric acid sulphuric acid
I 1.0 g of zinc powder 20 cm3 0.1 mol dm–3 28 °C
II 1.0 g of zinc powder 20 cm 3
0.1 mol dm –3
35 °C
Conditions remain unchanged Temperature of acid is manipulated

4 In general, the rate of reaction increases if the occurs. In this reaction, manganese(IV) oxide acts
temperature of the reactants is increased. as a catalyst and catalyses the decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide to give oxygen gas and
Effect of Catalysts on the Rate of Reaction water.
MnO2
1 Definition
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate 2H2O2(aq) ⎯⎯⎯→ 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
of a reaction but is itself chemically unchanged
at the end of the reaction. 4 The reaction between zinc and dilute acid is a
2 In contrast, a substance that decreases the rate slow reaction.
of a chemical reaction is called an inhibitor.
3 At room temperature, hydrogen peroxide Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
decomposes very slowly. But when a very small
amount of manganese(IV) oxide is added to When it is catalysed by copper(II) sulphate
hydrogen peroxide, a vigorous effervescence solution, the reaction speeds up.
The Characteristics of Catalysts SPM

’06/P1,
’08/P1,
’10/P1,
’11/P1
Only a small amount • The catalyst remains chemically unchanged after
1
of catalyst is needed the reaction.

to increase the rate of • Thus the chemical properties, mass and chemical
reaction. composition of the catalyst remain unchanged at
the end of the reaction.
The physical appearance

of a catalyst may change at
the end of the reaction. For A catalyst lowers the
example, small pieces of Characteristics activation energy of a
catalyst may become fine of a catalyst reaction (see Section 1.3
powder after the reaction. – The Collision Theory)
A catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction (a) In general, catalysts are highly specific.
but it does not change (increase or decrease) the For example, iron catalyses the reaction:
yield of a chemical reaction. N2 + 3H2 2NH3
CuSO4 but not the reaction:
Zn(s) + H SO (aq) ⎯⎯⎯→ ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
2 4
catalyst 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
(b) However, some catalysts can catalyse
several different reactions. For example,
MnO2 can catalyse the following
reactions:
MnO2
2H2O2(aq) ⎯⎯⎯→ 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
MnO2
2KClO3(s) ⎯⎯⎯→ 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
Catalysts can be poisoned by impurities. When a catalyst is poisoned, its effectiveness as a catalyst is decreased.

Examples of Catalysts
1 Transition metals and compounds of transition metals are often used as catalysts for
industrial processes.
2 Table 1.4 shows some examples of catalysts and the reactions catalysed by them.
Table 1.4 Some common catalysts
Type of reaction Catalyst used
(a) Haber process for the manufacture of ammonia. Iron, Fe
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
(b) Contact process for producing sulphur trioxide. Vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
Sulphur trioxide is used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.
(c) Ostwald process for producing nitrogen monoxide. Platinum, Pt
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Nitrogen monoxide is used for the manufacture of nitric acid.
(d) Manufacture of margarine
1
Nickel, Ni
In the presence of a catalyst at 200 °C, vegetable oils react with
hydrogen to produce margarine. This process is called hydrogenation.
(e) Cracking process Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
When big alkane molecules are passed over a catalyst at 600 °C, a or
mixture of small alkane and alkene molecules is produced. Silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2
This process is called catalytic cracking.
(Refer Sections 2.2 and 2.3 on alkanes and alkenes)
2 Effect of Pressure on the Rate of Reaction

’06
1 The changes in pressure will only affect

Which of the following statements about catalysts
reactions involving gases. An increase in
are true?
pressure increases the rate of reaction. In
I A catalyst is specific in its reaction.
contrast, a decrease in pressure decreases the
II A catalyst changes the quantity of product
rate of reaction. In the following reactions
formed.
involving gases, the rate of reaction increases
III Only a small amount of a catalyst is needed to
if the pressure is increased.
change the rate of reaction.
IV The chemical properties of the catalyst remain N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) (Haber process)
unchanged at the end of a reaction.
A I and II only C I, II and III only 2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) (Contact process)
B II and IV only D I, III and IV only
2 Pressure has no effect on reactions involving
Answer D only solids or liquids. For example, the
following reactions are not affected by changes
in pressure.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
A catalyst takes part in a chemical reaction. In actual fact, a CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
catalyst combines with the reactants to form an unstable
intermediate species. This species then decomposes to 2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
re-form the catalyst and to produce the products.

1.1
To investigate the effect of the surface area of a reactant on the rate of reaction SPM
’06/P2

How does the surface area of a solid reactant affect
the rate of reaction?
Hypothesis
The smaller the size of the marble chips, that is, the
larger the total surface area of the marble chips, the
higher the rate of reaction.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Size of the marble chips Figure 1.13
used
(b) Responding variable : Volume of gas given off at 1 A burette is filled with water and inverted over
30-second intervals a basin containing water. The burette is clamped
(c) Constant variables : Temperature of the to the retort stand. The water level in the burette
experiment, mass of marble chips, concentration is adjusted and the initial burette reading is
and volume of hydrochloric acid recorded.
1
2 5.0 g of marble chips are placed in a small

Apparatus Conical flask, delivery tube, retort conical flask.
stand and clamp, burette, measuring 3 50 cm3 of 0.08 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is
cylinder and stopwatch. added to the marble chips.
Materials Marble chips, powdered marble and 4 The conical flask is then stoppered and the
0.08 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid. stopwatch is started immediately (Figure 1.13).
5 The burette readings are recorded at 30-second
Experiment I intervals.
The rate of reaction using large marble chips
Results
Time (s) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Burette reading (cm3) 50.00 45.50 41.50 38.00 35.00 33.00 31.00 29.00 28.00
Volume of gas (cm3) 0.00 4.50 8.50 12.00 15.00 17.00 19.00 21.00 22.00
Experiment II The rate of reaction using powdered marble Constant variable is also known as
fixed variable or controlled variable.
Procedure
1 Steps 1 to 4 in Experiment I are repeated using 5.0 g of powdered marble. All other conditions such as
temperature, volume and concentration of hydrochloric acid are kept constant.
2 The results of the experiment are recorded in the following table.
Results
Experiment 1.1
Time (s) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
Burette reading (cm3) 50.00 42.00 35.00 29.50 25.50 22.00 19.50 17.50 16.00
Volume of gas (cm3) 0.00 8.00 15.00 20.50 24.50 28.00 30.50 32.50 34.00

Based on the results obtained, a graph of the total volume of the hydrochloric acid used in both the
volume of carbon dioxide produced against time experiments are the same.
for each experiment is plotted on the same axes 3 The gradients of the graphs for Experiments
(Figure 1.14). I and II become less steep as the reactions
proceed. This shows that the rates of reaction
(a) are very high at the beginning of the
reactions,
(b) decrease as the reactions proceed,
(c) become zero when the reactions are
completed. At this time, the graphs become
horizontal.
4 The rate of reaction between the marble and
hydrochloric acid decreases because
(a) the mass of the remaining unreacted marble
decreases,
(b) the concentration of hydrochloric acid
decreases.
5 The reaction in Experiment I stops after t2 minutes
while the reaction in Experiment II stops after t1
minutes, where t1 < t2. This shows that the rate of
reaction for Experiment II (powdered marble) is
1
Figure 1.14 higher than the rate of reaction for Experiment I
Discussion (marble chips).
6 The total volume of carbon dioxide collected
1 Figure 1.15 shows the graphs that will be
in the burette is usually slightly less than the
obtained if the reactions in Experiments I and II
theoretical value (48 cm3 for the experiment
are completed.
above). This is because carbon dioxide is slightly
soluble in water. To overcome this problem, a gas
syringe is used to collect carbon dioxide released
during the experiment (Figure 1.16).
Figure 1.16 Measuring the volume of gas using a

Same maximum volume of CO2
gas syringe
collected because mass of CaCO3,
concentration and volume of HCl are Conclusion
kept constant.
Graph II is steeper than graph I. This shows that the
Figure 1.15 rate of reaction in Experiment II is higher than the
rate of reaction in Experiment I as powdered marble
2 Figure 1.15 shows that both graphs level off at is used in Experiment II. Thus, the rate is higher with
the same value. This indicates that the maximum powdered marble than with marble chips. Hence, we
volume of carbon dioxide collected at the end can conclude that the smaller the particle size, the
of reaction for both Experiments I and II are larger the total surface area exposed for reaction
the same (that is, 44 cm3). This happens because and the higher the rate of reaction. The hypothesis
the mass of the marble, concentration and is accepted.

1.2
To study the effect of concentration on the rate of reaction between sodium SPM
’07/P1,
thiosulphate solution and dilute sulphuric acid ’11/P2
Problem statement Apparatus

How does the concentration of a reactant affect the 10 cm3 and 100 cm3 measuring cylinders, 100 cm3
rate of reaction between sodium thiosulphate and conical flask, white paper marked with a cross ‘X’
dilute sulphuric acid? and stopwatch.
Materials
0.2 mol dm–3 sodium thiosulphate solution, 1.0 mol
dm–3 sulphuric acid and distilled water.
Procedure
1 50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 sodium thiosulphate
solution is measured out using a 100 cm3 measuring
cylinder. The solution is then poured into a clean,
dry conical flask.
2 The conical flask is placed on a piece of paper
Figure 1.17
1
with a cross ‘X’ marked on it (Figure 1.17).

Hypothesis 3 5 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid is measured out
The more concentrated the sodium thiosulphate by using a 10 cm3 measuring cylinder. The acid
solution, the higher the rate of reaction. is then quickly poured into sodium thiosulphate
solution. The stopwatch is started immediately.
Variables 4 The reaction mixture is swirled once and the cross
(a) Manipulated variable: Concentration of sodium ‘X’ is viewed from above. A yellow precipitate
thiosulphate solution will appear slowly in the conical flask.
(b) Responding variable: Time taken for the cross 5 The stopwatch is stopped as soon as the cross
‘X’ to disappear disappears from view and the time taken is recorded.
(c) Constant variables: Concentration and volume of 6 Steps 1 to 5 are repeated with different mixtures
dilute sulphuric acid as well as the temperatures of sodium thiosulphate solution and distilled
of the solutions water as shown in the following table.
Results
Experiment 1 2 3 4 5 Different volumes (V1) of
Na2S2O3 solution are
Volume of Na2S2O3 (cm ) 3
50 40 30 20 10 diluted with water to make
up to 50 cm3 solution (V2).
Volume of water (cm ) 3
0 10 20 30 40
Volume of H2SO4 (cm ) 3
5 5 5 5 5
Concentration of Na2S2O3 (mol dm–3) 0.20 0.16 0.12 0.08 0.04
Time taken (s) 24 30 42 62 111
1
———— (s–1) 0.042 0.033 0.024 0.016 0.009
Time
Experiment 1.2
Discussion The ionic equation is as follows:

1 The following equation shows the reaction
between sodium thiosulphate, Na2S2O3 and dilute S2O32–(aq) + 2H+(aq) → S(s) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
sulphuric acid:
Na2S2O3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → The sulphur is precipitated as fine yellow
Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s) particles that cause the solution to turn cloudy.

2 As the amount of sulphur increases, the cross ‘X’
becomes more and more difficult to see. Finally,
the cross ‘X’ disappears from view when a certain
mass of sulphur is precipitated. Hence, the time
recorded for the disappearance of the cross ‘X’ is
the time taken for the formation of a fixed mass
of sulphur.
Mass of sulphur produced
3 Rate of reaction = — — —————— ———— —— —————— —
Time taken
1
Hence, rate of reaction ∝ —
— —— ———— ——— ————— ———
Time taken for the cross
‘X’ to disappear
4 The concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution
after mixing with water can be obtained by using
the following formula:
M1V1
Concentration of Na2S2O3 = — ——— — Figure 1.19
V2
7 The conical flask used for each experiment must
0.2  Volume of Na2S2O3 used have the same size (for example, 100 cm3 volume).
=—
— ———————————— ————— ————— — mol dm–3 If the conical flask of a larger size is used, the
50
1
time, t, taken for the cross ‘X’ to disappear will
5 Based on the results obtained, two graphs can be increase. Conversely, if a smaller conical flask
plotted. is used, the time taken for the cross to disappear
(a) The graph of concentration of sodium will be shorter.
thiosulphate against time (Graph I, Figure 1.18). 8 If the experiment is repeated with dilute
sulphuric acid of different concentrations, but
the concentration of sodium thiosulphate is kept
constant, the rate of reaction will also be directly
proportional to the concentration of the acid used.
Conclusion
1 (a) From graph I, we can conclude that the
higher the concentration of sodium
thiosulphate, the shorter the time taken for a
certain mass of sulphur to be precipitated, that
is, for the cross ‘X’ to disappear from view.
(b) This means that the higher the
concentration of sodium thiosulphate, the
2 From graph II, it can be concluded that the
concentration of sodium thiosulphate is directly
1
Figure 1.18
proportional to — — —.
time
(b) The graph of concentration of sodium 1
Concentration of Na2S2O3 ∝ — —— …(1)
1 time
thiosulphate against —— — (Graph II, Figure 1.19). 1
time 3 But the rate of reaction is ∝ — —— … (2)
6 Different volumes of distilled water are added time
to sodium thiosulphate solution so that the Hence, combining equations (1) and (2), we have,
final volume of the diluted sodium thiosulphate 1
concentration of Na2S2O3 ∝ — —— ∝ reaction rate
solution is 50 cm3 in each experiment. Hence, time
the concentration of sodium thiosulphate solution is That is, rate of reaction ∝ concentration of
directly proportional to its volume before dilution. Na2S2O3 solution. The hypothesis is accepted.

3 ’06
Which of the following reactants produces the highest

Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
rate of reaction with magnesium powder?
A 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 nitric acid Ethanoic acid is a weak acid and produces very few
B 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 ethanoic acid H+ ions. HNO3, H2SO4 and HCl are strong acids. But
C 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid each mole of H2SO4 produces two moles of H+ ions.
D 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid Hence, 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid contains
Comments the highest concentration of H+ ions.
Magnesium reacts with the hydrogen ions of the acids. Answer C
1.3
To study the effect of temperature on the rate of reaction between sodium SPM
’05/P1
thiosulphate solution and dilute sulphuric acid
Problem statement 5 The stopwatch is started immediately and the
conical flask is swirled gently.
How does temperature affect the rate of reaction between
1
6 The cross ‘X’ is viewed from above. The stopwatch

sodium thiosulphate solution and sulphuric acid?
is stopped as soon as the cross disappears from view
Hypothesis The higher the temperature of the and the time taken is recorded.
reactant, the higher the rate of 7 The solution in the conical flask is poured out.
reaction. The conical flask is washed thoroughly and dried.
50 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 sodium thiosulphate
Variables
solution is poured into the conical flask.
(a) Manipulated variable: The temperature of 8 The solution is heated over a wire gauze until the
sodium thiosulphate solution temperature reaches about 45 °C (Figure 1.21).
(b) Responding variable: The time taken for the
cross ‘X’ to disappear
(c) Constant variables: The concentrations and
volumes of both sodium thiosulphate solution
and dilute sulphuric acid
Apparatus Conical flask, 10 cm3 measuring
cylinder, thermometer, stopwatch,
white paper marked with a cross
‘X’, wire gauze, tripod stand and
Bunsen burner.
Figure 1.20
Materials 0.1 mol dm–3 sodium thiosulphate
solution and 1.0 mol dm–3 sulphuric
acid.
Procedure
1 50 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 sodium thiosulphate
Experiment 1.3
solution is poured into a clean, dry conical flask.

2 The temperature of the sodium thiosulphate
solution is measured with a thermometer.
3 The conical flask is placed on a white paper
marked with a cross ‘X’ (Figure 1.20).
4 5 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid is quickly
poured into the sodium thiosulphate solution. Figure 1.21

9 The hot conical flask is placed over a white paper
marked with a cross ‘X’.
10 5 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid is measured
out using a 10 cm3 measuring cylinder.
11 When the temperature of sodium thiosulphate
solution falls to 40°C, the sulphuric acid is
quickly poured into the thiosulphate solution.
12 The stopwatch is started immediately and the
conical flask is swirled gently.
13 The cross ‘X’ is viewed from the top and the
time taken for the cross to disappear from view is
recorded.
14 Steps 7 to13 are repeated at higher temperatures
as shown in the following table.
1
Results Figure 1.22 Graph of temperature against —
——
time
Experiment 1 2 3 4 5 Discussion
1 The graph shows that the temperature of sodium
Temperature thiosulphate solution is proportional (but not
1
30 40 50 55 60
(°C) 1
linearly) to — ——.
time
Time (s) 52 27 16 13 10 1
2 Temperature ∝ — —— … (1)
time
1 1
———— (s–1) 0.019 0.037 0.063 0.077 0.100 But rate of reaction ∝ —— — … (2)
Time time
Combining equations (1) and (2), we have,
Based on the results of the experiment, a graph of Rate of reaction ∝ temperature
temperature of sodium thiosulphate solution against
Conclusion
1
— —— is plotted (Figure 1.22). The higher the temperature of the experiment, the
time
4 ’05
The rate of reaction between sodium thiosulphate

solution and dilute sulphuric acid can be determined
by using the arrangement of apparatus as shown
below.
Which of the following conditions will cause the mark
‘X’ to take the shortest time to disappear from sight?
Sulphuric acid Sodium thiosulphate solution

Concentration Concentration Temperature (°C)
Volume (cm3) Volume (cm3)
(mol dm–3) (mol dm–3)
A 5 1.0 45 0.5 30
B 5 1.0 45 0.5 35
C 5 0.5 45 0.5 30
D 10 0.5 40 0.5 35

Comments
The shorter the time taken for the mark ‘X’ to disappear, the faster the reaction.
The rate of reaction is affected by temperature and concentration.
The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction. (Answer B or D is correct).
The higher the concentration of sulphuric acid or sodium thiosulphate in the reaction mixture, the faster the
reaction (Answer D is incorrect).
Answer B
1.4
To study the effect of a catalyst on the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

Problem statement
How do catalysts affect the rate of decomposition of 4 0.5 g of manganese(IV) oxide, MnO2, is added to
hydrogen peroxide? hydrogen peroxide and shaken. The changes that
take place in the test tube and on the glowing
Hypothesis
splint are recorded.
Manganese(IV) oxide increases the rate of
1
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

Results
Variables
Observation
(a) Manipulated variable: The presence of
Experiment
manganese(IV) oxide Inside the test On the glowing
(b) Responding variable: The release of oxygen gas tube splint
(c) Constant variables: Volume and concentration of
H2O2 without No effervescence The glowing
hydrogen peroxide
MnO2 splint does not
Apparatus light up.
Test tube and wooden splint
H2O2 with Bubbles of The glowing
Materials MnO2 oxygen gas are splint is
Hydrogen peroxide and manganese(IV) oxide produced rekindled and
burns brightly.
Procedure
1 A test tube is half-filled with hydrogen peroxide.
2 A glowing splint is placed at the mouth of the Discussion
test tube to test for the gas evolved (Figure 1.23).
1 The following equation shows the decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide:
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
2 The glowing splint is rekindled in the presence

of oxygen gas.
Conclusion
Experiment 1.4
The rate of evolution of oxygen gas increases when

Figure 1.23 The effect of a catalyst on the manganese(IV) oxide is added to hydrogen peroxide.
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide This proves that manganese(IV) oxide acts as a
catalyst and speeds up the decomposition of hydrogen
3 The changes that take place inside the test tube peroxide to water and oxygen. The hypothesis is
and on the glowing splint are recorded. accepted.

reaction in Experiment II. We can therefore
conclude that the higher the concentration
The reaction mixture remaining after Experiment 1.4 of hydrogen peroxide, the higher the rate
can be filtered to obtain the manganese(IV) oxide. It of reaction.
is found that (a) the mass of manganese(IV) oxide (c) The maximum volume of oxygen gas
before and after the experiment is the same (0.5 g), produced in Experiment I is twice that
(b) the chemical properties of manganese(IV) oxide produced in Experiment II. This is because
remain unchanged. the number of moles of hydrogen peroxide
used in Experiment I is twice that used in
Experiment II.
The Effect of Concentration of Hydrogen SPM
’05/P1
Peroxide on the Rate of Reaction Explaining the Effectiveness of Different Catalysts
on the Rate of Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide
1 The graphs in Figure 1.24 show the effect of
concentration of hydrogen peroxide on the
1 Figure 1.25 shows the results of an experiment
rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
carried out to study the effect of different
Graph I: more O2 produced and higher rate catalysts (of the same mass) on the rate of
of reaction because larger volume and decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
higher concentration of H2O2 is used.
Maximum volumes of O2 collected are the
same for Experiments I and II because the
1
concentration and volume of H2O2 used
are the same.
Figure 1.24 The effect of concentration of hydrogen

peroxide on the rate of decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide
Figure 1.25 The effect of different catalysts
In Experiment I, 50 cm of 0.14 mol dm of
3 –3 on the rate of reaction
hydrogen peroxide and 0.2 g of manganese(IV)
In Experiment I, 50 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide
oxide are used. In Experiment II, a solution
and 0.5 g of manganese(IV) oxide are used.
containing 25 cm3 of the same hydrogen
In Experiment II, 50 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide
peroxide mixed with 25 cm3 of water and 0.2 g and 0.5 g of iron(III) oxide are used.
of manganese(IV) oxide are used. For both the experiments, the concentration
For both the experiments, the temperature is and volume of hydrogen peroxide as well as
kept constant. the temperature are kept constant.
2 (a) For Experiment I 2 Analysis of the reaction rate curve in Figure 1.25.
Concentration of H2O2 (a) At any particular instant, the gradient of
= 0.14 mol dm–3 higher concentration graph I is greater than the gradient of graph
For experiment 2, hydrogen peroxide is II. This means that the rate of reaction in
diluted. Experiment I is higher than the rate of reaction
(M1V1)before dilution = (M2V2)after dilution in Experiment II. Thus, the experiment
proves that manganese(IV) oxide is a more
Concentration of H2O2 after dilution effective catalyst than iron(III) oxide in the
0.14 mol dm–3  25 cm3 decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
=— ————— —— ———— —— ——
— — ——

50 cm3 (b) The maximum volumes of oxygen gas
= 0.07 mol dm–3 lower concentration
collected in both the experiments are the
(b) At any particular instant, the gradient of same because the volume and concentration
graph I is greater than the gradient of graph of hydrogen peroxide used are the same. This
II. This means that the rate of reaction experiment shows that a catalyst does not
in Experiment I is higher than the rate of change the yield of the products.

Effect of surface area Effect of temperature
Reaction of HCl(aq) with marble chips Reaction of HCl(aq) with zinc powder
Graph I : Large marble chips mass of Graph I : at 30°C mass of zinc (in excess), volume
Graph II : Small marble chips marble is Graph II : at 40°C and concentration of HCl are
Graph III : Powdered marble the same kept constant
Comment: The smaller the size of marble chips, the Comment: When the temperature is raised, the rate
higher the reaction rate. of reaction also increases.
Factors affecting the rate of reaction
Effect of concentration of reactant Effect of catalyst

1
Reaction of HCl(aq) with magnesium Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
Graph I : 0.5 mol dm–3 HCl mass of Mg and Graph I : Fe2O3 used as catalyst
Graph II : 1.0 mol dm–3 HCl volume of HCl (in excess) Graph II : MnO2 used as catalyst
Graph III : 2.0 mol dm–3 HCl are kept constant Graph III : No catalyst
Comment: When the concentration of hydrochloric acid Comment: A catalyst increases the reaction rate. MnO2
increases, the rate of reaction also increases. is a more effective catalyst than Fe2O3.
Effect of concentration and volume of acid used
Reaction of HCl(aq) with magnesium Reaction of HCI(aq) with magnesium
Graph I : Mg in excess Graph I : Mg in excess

20 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 HCI 10 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 HCI
Graph II : Mg in excess Graph II : Mg in excess
20 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 HCl 30 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 HCl
Comment: Comment:
Graph I II Graph I II
Reaction rate Higher Lower Reaction rate Higher Lower
Amount of 0.002 mol 0.001 mol Amount of 0.001 mol 0.0015 mol
H2 released (48 cm3) (24 cm3) H2 released (24 cm3) (36 cm3)

Applications of Factors that Affect Rates is kept in a refrigerator will last longer because
of Reaction in Daily Life and in Industrial the decaying reaction that destroys the food
can be slowed down.
Processes
4 In the supermarkets, fish, meat and other
Combustion of Charcoal types of fresh foods are kept in deep-freeze
compartments where the temperature is about
1 Combustion of charcoal in excess oxygen –20 °C. This keeps the food fresh for a few
produces carbon dioxide and water. Heat months because the very low temperature
energy is released during combustion. slows down the chemical reactions that cause
2 Large pieces of charcoal will not burn easily the food to decay.
because the total surface area exposed to
oxygen is small. Cooking Food in Pressure Cookers
3 If small pieces of charcoal are used, they can
burn easily. This is because the total surface area 1 Pressure cookers are used to speed-up cooking.
exposed to the air increases. Thus, the rate of 2 In the pressure cooker, the higher pressure enables
reaction with oxygen (combustion) increases. SPM water or oil to boil at a temperature higher than
’06/P1
their normal boiling points. Furthermore, an
increase in pressure causes an increase in the
number of water molecules or cooking oil
molecules coming into contact and colliding
Coal is mainly carbon. Coal mining is dangerous
1
with the food particles.
because coal dust present in the coal mine catches
3 At a higher temperature and pressure, the rate
fire very easily. Because of this, serious accidents in
coal mines can happen due to the explosion of coal of reaction becomes higher. Thus, food cooks
dust. Human lives are often lost in such explosions. faster in pressure cookers.
Uses of Catalysts in Industry

Storing Food in Refrigerators
1 Catalysts do not increase the yields of reactions.
1 The decomposition and decay of food is a However, catalysts are used widely in industrial
SPM chemical reaction caused by the action of processes to increase the rates of reactions
’05/P2
/SB microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. so that the same amount of products can be
These microorganisms multiply very rapidly obtained in a shorter time. As a result, the use of
at the temperature range of 10–60 °C. catalysts brings down the cost of production.
2 Room temperature is the optimum temperature 2 In the chemical industry, small pellets of solid
for the breeding of microorganisms in food. catalysts are used instead of big lumps. This is
As a result, food turns bad quickly at room to give a larger surface for catalytic reaction to
temperature. occur and hence a faster reaction will result.
3 At low temperatures, for example, 5 °C (the 3 The table below summarises the raw materials
normal temperature of a refrigerator), the activities and the conditions needed for the Haber,
of bacteria are slowed down. Hence, food that Contact and Ostwald processes.
Industrial process Substances Optimum conditions/equation reaction

Manufacture of ammonia Nitrogen and hydrogen Temperature: 450–500 °C
(Haber process) Pressure: 250 atmospheres
Catalyst: Finely divided iron (Fe)
450 °C, 250 atm

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Fe (catalyst)
Manufacture of sulphuric Sulphur (to make SO2), Temperature: 400–450 °C

acid (Contact process) air and water Pressure: 1–2 atmospheres
Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide, V2O5

Industrial process Substances Optimum conditions/equation reaction
• The following reaction scheme shows the steps
involved in the manufacture of sulphuric acid:
oxidation oxidation
S ⎯⎯→ SO2 ⎯⎯→ SO3 ⎯→ H2S2O7 ⎯→ H2SO4
step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4
• In step 2, sulphur dioxide is oxidised to sulphur trioxide.

450 °C, 1 atm
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
V2O5 (catalyst)
Manufacture of nitric Ammonia, air and water Temperature: 900 °C

acid (Ostwald process) Pressure: 5 atmospheres
Catalyst: platinum
• The following reaction scheme shows the steps
involved in the manufacture of nitric acid.
oxidation oxidation oxidation
NH3 ⎯⎯⎯→ NO ⎯⎯⎯→ NO2 ⎯⎯⎯→ HNO3
step 1 step 2 step 3
1
In step 1, ammonia is oxidised to nitric oxide.

900 °C, 5 atm
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)
Pt (catalyst)
4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Solving Problems on Rate of Reaction
6
Curve I in Figure 1.26 is obtained by treating 5.0 g Mass and Concentration
of granulated zinc with 2.0 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid Temperature
nature of Zn of H2SO4
(in excess) at 30 °C.
C 5.0 g of
2 mol dm–3 40 °C
granulated Zn
D 5.0 g of
1 mol dm–3 30 °C
granulated Zn
Figure 1.26
Comments
Curves I and II show that:
(a) The total volume of hydrogen produced in Experiment
II is the same as that produced in Experiment I.
Which of the following conditions will produce
This means that the amount of zinc used is 5 g
graph II?
and not 2.5 g. Answer A is incorrect.
(b) Reaction II is slower than reaction I.
Mass and Concentration
Temperature This means that zinc powder or a higher
nature of Zn of H2SO4
temperature of 40 °C is not used in Experiment II.
A 2.5 g of Answers B and C are incorrect.
2 mol dm–3 30 °C
granulated Zn The low rate is achieved by using sulphuric acid
B 5.0 g of Zn more dilute than 2 mol dm–3 (1 mol dm–3).
2 mol dm–3 30 °C
powder Answer D

7
Two experiments were carried out to determine (b) Differences in terms of rate of reaction
the rate of oxygen gas production during the Graph II is steeper than graph I because the rate of
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. In Experiment reaction in Experiment II is expected to be higher
I, 20 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide were than Experiment I. When the concentration of
used and the results of the experiment are shown on hydrogen peroxide is increased from 2 mol dm–3
graph I in Figure 1.27. to 4 mol dm–3, the rate of reaction also increases.
Difference in terms of volume of oxygen released
Step 1 To calculate the volume of oxygen
produced in Experiment I
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Number of moles of H2O2 used in Experiment I
2  20
=— ————— = 0.04
1000
Figure 1.27 ∴ Volume of oxygen collected at room
temperature in Experiment I
(a) Sketch a graph on the same axes to show the 1
results of the experiment that will be obtained = —  0.04  24 000 = 480 cm3 (V cm3)
2
if 5 cm3 of 4 mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide were
1
Step 2 To calculate the volume of oxygen
used for the reaction.
produced in Experiment II
(b) Explain your answer in (a).
(c) State the constant variables for both the Number of moles of H2O2 used in Experiment II
experiments. 4  5
=— ———— = 0.02
1000
Solution ∴ Volume of oxygen collected at room
(a) temperature in Experiment II
1 1
= —  0.02  24 000 = 240 cm3 (— V cm3)
2 2
(c) Constant variables:
In both the experiments, the same mass of the
catalyst and the same temperature of reaction
are used.
1.2
1 State three ways that can be used to increase the rate of
reaction of zinc powder with dilute sulphuric acid.
2 Excess calcium carbonate is added to hydrochloric
acid at room temperature. The volume of carbon
dioxide collected is recorded at regular time intervals.
The results of the experiment are shown in Figure
1.28.
(a) At what time does the reaction stop?
(b) Why does the reaction stop at this particular
time?
(c) The experiment is repeated by using the same
hydrochloric acid but at a lower temperature
than room temperature. On the same axes,
plot a graph to show the results of the second
experiment.
(d) State the constant variables for both the
experiments. Figure 1.28

3 Hydrogen peroxide decomposes as represented by (c) Give one inference that can be made from the
the equation: results in Experiment I.
(d) Explain why the initial readings on the electronic
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) balance are different for the three experiments.
(a) On the same axes, sketch two graphs of total 5 Four experiments are carried out to study the rate of
amount (in mol) of oxygen gas given off against reaction between zinc (in excess) and sulphuric acid
time to show the results of Experiments I and II at different conditions.
under the conditions stated below. In each experiment 80 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 sulphuric
acid is used. The time taken to collect 192 cm3 of
Experiment I: hydrogen gas produced are shown below.
100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 H2O2
Experiment II: Temperature Time
300 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 H2O2 Experiment Substances
(°C) (s)
(b) Explain your answer based on the graphs that I Zinc + H2SO4 35 40
you have sketched.
II Zinc + H2SO4 38 18
4 In an experiment carried out at room temperature
III Zinc + H2SO4 + 35 12
(28 °C), 8.0 g of marble chips are added to 100 cm3
1 cm3 of CuSO4
of dilute hydrochloric acid in a conical flask. The mass
of the conical flask and its contents is determined IV Zinc + H2SO4 + 35 40
using an electronic balance at the beginning of the 1 cm3 of Na2SO4
experiment (that is, as soon as the marble chips are
1
added) and then after 1 minute. (a) Sketch the graphs of total volume of hydrogen
The experiment is repeated at 35 °C and 40 °C. The released against time for Experiments I, II and III
experimental results are shown below. on the same axes.
(b) Explain why the reaction rate for (i) Experiment
Electronic Electronic I is different from that of Experiment II, (ii)
balance balance Experiment II is different from that of Experiment
Experiment Temperature reading at reading III.
(°C) the after 1 (c) What conclusion can you make by comparing
beginning (g) minute (g) Experiments III and IV?
I 28 270.35 270.04 (d) The reaction mixture in Experiment III is filtered.
Excess sodium hydroxide is added to the filtrate.
II 35 271.42 270.01 (i) Predict what you would observe.
III 40 268.20 266.00 (ii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction.
(e) Based on your answer in (d), what inference
(a) State a hypothesis for the experiment. can you make with regards to the property of a
(b) State the constant variables for the experiment. catalyst?
SPM particles (atoms, molecules or ions) collide

1.3 The Collision Theory ’05/P1
with each other. However, not all collisions
will result in a chemical reaction to form the
1 According to the kinetic theory of matter, all
products of the reaction. It is likely that the
matter is made up of tiny, discrete particles.
particles collide and bounce back without
These particles are continually moving and so
have kinetic energy. producing any changes. The collisions that are
2 Based on the assumption that the particles in successful in producing a chemical reaction
matter are moving all the time and collide with are called effective collisions.
each other, the collision theory was introduced 4 Collisions of particles that are unsuccessful
to explain in producing a chemical reaction are called
(a) how chemical reactions occur, and ineffective collisions.
(b) the factors (such as particle size, 5 The collision theory states that for a chemical
concentration, temperature, catalyst and reaction to occur, the reacting particles must
pressure) affecting the rates of reactions. (a) collide with each other so that the breaking
3 When the reactants are mixed, the reactant and formation of chemical bonds can occur.

(b) possess energy that is equal to, or more than 5 (a) If two molecules with sufficient energy
the minimum energy called the activation (that is, energy equal to or more than
energy. the activation energy) collide in the
(c) collide in the correct orientation. correct orientation, the chemical bonds
in the reactant molecules will break and
Activation Energy reaction will occur to form new bonds in
the product molecules (Figure 1.31). For
1 Activation energy is the minimum energy that example,
the reactant particles must possess at the time
of collision in order for a chemical reaction to H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
take place.
2 The activation energy can also be considered as
an energy barrier that must be overcome by the
colliding particles in order that collision will
result in the formation of product molecules.
3 Figure 1.29 shows the energy profile diagram
for the exothermic reaction: A + B → C + D.
An exothermic reaction is the reaction that
releases heat energy (Refer Section 4.1). In the Figure 1.31 Effective collision (sufficient energy
energy profile diagram, the y-axis represents the and correct orientation)
1
energy content of the reactants and products,
while the x-axis represents the progress of the (b) However, if two molecules, with energy
reaction (reaction coordinate). equal to or more than the activation energy,
but collide with each other in an incorrect
SPM
’07/P2 orientation, then reaction will not occur.
(c) If two reactant molecules, with energy
less than the activation energy, collide in
the correct orientation, then reaction will
The energy of the products
is lower than the energy
also not occur. The colliding molecules
of the reactants. Therefore will simply rebound and move away from
heat is released during each other.
the reaction.
Figure 1.29 Energy profile diagram for an exothermic Relating the Frequency of Effective
reaction Collisions with Factors Influencing the
Rate of Reaction
4 Figure 1.30 shows the energy profile diagram
for the endothermic reaction: E + F → G + H. 1 Based on the collision theory, two important
An endothermic reaction is a reaction that factors that determine the rate of a chemical
absorbs heat energy. reaction are
(a) the frequency of effective collisions and
The energy of the products (b) the magnitude of the activation energy.
is higher than the energy
of the reactants. Therefore
2 Frequency of effective collisions
heat is absorbed during For a given reaction, if the frequency of collisions
the reaction. between the reactant molecules is high, it follows
that the frequency of effective collisions that
causes a reaction to occur will also be high. As a
result, the rate of reaction increases.
3 Magnitude of activation energy
Reactions that have high activation energy will
occur at a slow rate. This is because only a small
fraction of the molecules possess sufficient
Figure 1.30 The energy profile diagram for an energy to overcome the activation energy for
endothermic reaction the reaction to occur. In contrast, reactions that

possess low activation energy will occur at a Effect of Concentration on the Rate of Reaction
high rate. This is because most of the molecules
have sufficient energy to overcome the activation 1 Magnesium reacts with dilute hydrochloric
energy and this enables the reaction to occur. acid as represented by the equation
4 In general, any factor that increases the rate
of effective collisions will also increase the Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
rate of reaction.
When the concentration of hydrochloric acid
increases, the rate of reaction also increases.
Effect of Size of Reactant (Surface Area) on the
2 Figure 1.33 shows the arrangement of particles
Reaction Rate in 1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid and 2 mol dm–3
(more concentrated) hydrochloric acid.
1 The sodium chloride crystal as shown in Figure
1.32(a) has a total surface area of 16 cm2.
When this crystal is divided into smaller
crystals as shown in Figure 1.32(b), the total
surface area is increased to 24 cm2.
Total surface area of the NaCl crystal in
Figure 1.32(a)
Figure 1.33 Arrangement of particles in dilute and
= (1  2)  4 + (2  2)  2 concentrated solutions
1
= 16 cm2
When the concentration of hydrochloric acid
Total surface area in Figure 1.32(b)
increases, the number of particles per unit
= (1  1)  6  4
volume also increases and the particles are
= 24 cm2
closer together.
3 When the number of particles increases, the
frequency of collisions also increases. As a result,
the frequency of effective collisions increases.
This causes the rate of reaction to increase.
5 ’05
The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide produces

Figure 1.32
oxygen gas. Curve P is obtained when 25 cm3 of 0.1
The smaller the particle size, the greater the mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide undergoes decomposition.
total surface area exposed for reaction to occur.
2 Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with magnesium
as represented by the equation
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
If small pieces of magnesium or magnesium

If the experiment is repeated using another hydrogen
powder are used, the rate of reaction between
peroxide solution, which solution will produce
magnesium and sulphuric acid will increase.
curve Q?
3 The smaller the size of the solid, the larger the
A 10 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide
total surface area exposed for collisions. This
B 15 cm3 of 0.15 mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide
means that the frequency of effective collisions
C 20 cm3 of 0.20 mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide
(that is, collisions with the correct orientation
D 25 cm3 of 0.15 mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide
and with energy equal to or greater than the
activation energy) between reacting particles Comments
will increase. As a result, the rate of reaction • Steepness of curves P and Q
also increases. Curve Q is more steep than curve P. This means

that the rate of reaction is higher. That is, the 3 As a result, increasing the pressure causes the
hydrogen peroxide used for curve Q is more gaseous molecules to collide more frequently.
concentrated. Consequently, the frequency of effective
• Maximum volume of oxygen gas produced in collisions increases and the rate of reaction
curve Q is less than that in curve P. This means also increases.
that the number of moles of hydrogen peroxide
used in curve Q is less than that in curve P.
Number of moles of hydrogen peroxide
An increase in pressure will not increase the speed
concentration (mol dm–3)  volume (cm3) of the reacting particles. In actual fact, the increase in
=— ——— ————— ——— ————— —— ———— ——— ————— ———
1000 rate at high pressures is caused by the particles being
squeezed closer together. This increases the frequency
Relative Number of of effective collisions and hence the rate increases.
Solution
concentration moles of H2O2
For curve P 0.1 mol dm–3 2.5  10–3
A More concentrated Effect of Temperature on the Rate of Reaction
2.5  10–3
B More concentrated 2.25  10–3 1 Calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric
C More concentrated 4.0  10–3 acid to form carbon dioxide as represented by
D More concentrated 3.75  10–3 the following equation
1
Answer B CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Effect of Pressure on the Rate of Reaction Figure 1.35 shows the graphs of total volume
of carbon dioxide given off against the time taken
1 In chemical reactions involving gases, increasing for the reaction between calcium carbonate and
the pressure increases the rate of reaction. dilute hydrochloric acid at 25 °C and 30 °C.
Conversely, decreasing the pressure decreases SPM
’05/P2
the rate of reaction. For example, the rate of ’06/P1
reaction between nitrogen and oxygen to

produce nitrogen monoxide can be increased
by increasing the pressure.
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g)
2 At low pressures, the gaseous molecules are Figure 1.35 Effect of temperature on
spread far apart (Figure 1.34(a)). When the the rate of reaction
pressure is increased, the volume of the gas is
2 At low temperatures, particles of reactants
reduced (Figure 1.34(b)).
move at a slower speed. However, when the
temperature is increased, the particles absorb
the heat energy. As a result, the kinetic energy
of the particles increases. Hence,
(a) the reacting particles move faster, and
(b) the number of reacting particles with the
activation energy required for the reaction
increases.
3 Consequently, the frequency of effective
Figure 1.34 Effect of pressure on gaseous molecules
collisions increases and hence, the rate of
This means that at high pressures, reaction also increases.
(a) the number of gaseous molecules per unit 4 Temperature has a great effect on the rate of
volume is increased, and reaction. For most reactions, the rate of reaction
(b) the gaseous molecules are packed closer approximately doubles when the temperature
together. of reaction increases by 10 °C.

Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rates 4 A catalyst provides an alternative reaction
route (or pathway) for the reaction to occur.
1 The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to In the presence of a positive catalyst, this
water and oxygen occurs very slowly at room alternative route has a lower activation energy.
temperature. In other words, a positive catalyst lowers the
activation energy required for the reaction
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) (Figure 1.37). As a result, more reacting particles
possess sufficient energy to overcome the lower
In the presence of a catalyst, the decomposition
activation energy required for effective collisions.
of hydrogen peroxide occurs rapidly.
Hence, the frequency of effective collisions
2 Figure 1.36 shows the rate of evolution of oxygen
increases and the rate of reaction increases.
for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
without a catalyst and in the presence of a catalyst
Ea = Activation energy
such as manganese(IV) oxide or iron(III) oxide. without catalyst
Ea’ = Activation energy
with catalyst
Ea’ < Ea
Figure 1.37 Effect of catalyst on the activation energy

of a reaction
1
Figure 1.36 The effect of a catalyst on the

decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
3 A chemical reaction occurs when reactant Enzymes are biological catalysts. Enzymes are protein
particles collide with one another. In the presence molecules produced in living cells. The enzyme,
of a catalyst, the reactant particles can collide catalase, is found in the liver. This enzyme can catalyse
with the catalyst and also with each other. This the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (a toxic
causes the reactants to react in a different way. substance produced by metabolism in human bodies)
to harmless substances, that is, water and oxygen.
Thus, the activation energy of the reaction can
Enzymes are also used in detergents to remove protein
be increased or decreased depending on the
stains (for example, food or bloodstains) on clothings.
type of catalyst used.
Effective collisions: Collision theory: a reaction only Activation energy: the

Collisions that produce a occurs if the particles (a) have minimum energy the
reaction. sufficient energy to overcome the reacting substances must
Reaction rate increases when activation energy and (b) collide possess before reaction can
the effective collisions increase. in the correct orientation. occur.
is used to explain the following factors

particle size concentration/pressure temperature catalyst
When the particle size is When the concentration/ When the temperature is A catalyst will lower the
decreased, the total pressure is increased, the increased, the number of activation energy required
surface area exposed for number of particles per particles with the activation for the reaction by providing
reaction increases. unit volume increases. energy required increases. an alternative route with a
lower activation energy.
Frequency of effective collisions increases Rate of reaction increases

6 ’03
Two experiments were carried out to study the rate Comments

of reaction between zinc and excess sulphuric acid at In these two experiments, the constant variables are
room temperature. The table below shows the results • volume, concentration and temperature of sulphuric
of the experiments. acid used,
• mass and surface area of zinc used.
Experiment I II
Experimental Solution
set-up The time taken for Experiment II is shorter. This
implies that the reaction for Experiment II is faster.
Thus, copper(II) sulphate acts as the catalyst.
• If a catalyst is added, the rate of reaction increases
because the catalyst provides an alternative route
with a lower activation energy for the reaction to
occur.
Time taken for • Hence, the minimum energy required for the
all the zinc to 30 12 reaction is less. As a result, more reacting particles
dissolve (s) possess sufficient energy to overcome the lower
Temperature 35 °C 35 °C activation energy required for effective collisions.
1
By using collision theory, explain why the time taken Hence, the frequency of effective collisions
for Experiment II is different from that of Experiment I. increases and the rate of reaction increases.
1.3
1 Which of the following changes will increase the rate 3 Four experiments were carried out to study the rate of
of reaction between sodium thiosulphate solution and reaction between nitric acid and calcium carbonate of
sulphuric acid? different sizes. In Experiment I, V cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3
I By using sulphuric acid of a higher concentration nitric acid is added to big lumps of excess calcium
II By increasing the temperature of sodium thiosulphate carbonate in a conical flask. The total volume of
solution used carbon dioxide produced is plotted against time
III By increasing the volume of sodium thiosulphate taken (Figure 1.38).
used
IV By adding a small amount of sodium hydroxide
solution to the reaction mixture
Explain your answer in terms of the collision theory.
2 An experiment is carried out to study the decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide. In this experiment, 2.0 g of
manganese(IV) oxide is added to 30 cm3 of 0.2
mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide. The volume of oxygen
produced is recorded at 30-second intervals.
(a) Calculate the maximum volume of oxygen gas
produced in the experiment at room conditions.
[1 mol of gas occupies 24 dm3 at room Figure 1.38
conditions]
(b) (i) Sketch a graph of volume of oxygen produced (a) (i) What is the difference between the rate of
against time. reaction at the first minute and the rate of
(ii) Explain the shape of the graph. reaction at the second minute?
(c) (i) What is the function of manganese(IV) oxide (ii) Explain this difference in terms of collision
in this experiment? theory.
(ii) Based on collision theory, explain the effect of (b) The experiment was repeated three times by
manganese(IV) oxide on the decomposition changing the reaction conditions for each experiment
of hydrogen peroxide. as shown below.

(i) Sketch the graphs for Experiments II, III and IV
Experiment Change in conditions of reaction
on Figure 1.38 and label each of these graphs.
II Nitric acid at a lower temperature (ii) Explain the difference between the reaction rates
III Small lumps of calcium carbonate but for Experiments I and II in terms of collision
of the same mass theory.
IV 2.0 mol dm–3 nitric acid but of the 4 With the aid of an energy profile diagram, explain
same volume (V cm3) how a negative catalyst (inhibitor) affects the rate of
reaction.
4 Nowadays, enzymes are used extensively in

1.4 Practising Scientific industry to enable reactions to proceed rapidly
Knowledge to Enhance at room temperature and pressure.
Quality of Life 5 In our daily living, we face many social and
environmental issues that threaten the quality
1 In our homes, we require machines to increase of living. For example, air and water pollution,
the rates of reactions and machines to reduce the food shortages, diseases and so on.
rates of reactions. Examples of such machines are 6 We must use science and technology to
microwave ovens and refrigerators respectively. overcome these problems in a rational and
2 In the hospitals, oxygen tents are used to save systematic way so that the quality of life can
lives. The high concentration of oxygen helps
1
be improved.
patients with difficulty in breathing to breathe 7 We should be thankful for the contribution of
normally. scientists in enhancing the quality of life in
3 In human bodies, enzymes (biological catalysts) modern living.
are needed to catalyse complex biochemical
reactions.
1 The rate of reaction is defined as the amount of • Particle size (surface area) of solid reactant
a reactant used up or the amount of a product • Concentration of reactants
obtained per unit time. • Temperature of reactants
2 The rate of a reaction is inversely proportional to the • Presence of catalyst
time taken for the reaction. • Pressure (for reactions involving gases)
3 Different chemical reactions take place at different 7 Transition metals (Fe, Ni and Pt) and compounds
rates. A fast reaction takes a shorter time to complete of transition metals (MnO2 and V2O5) are often used
than a slow reaction. as catalysts.
4 The rate of reaction can be determined in the school 8 According to the collision theory, a reaction will occur
laboratory by measuring the if the reacting particles
• changes in the mass of the reactant, • collide with each other
• changes in volume of gas produced, • possess activation energy
• time taken for formation of precipitate. • collide in the correct orientation
5 The rate of reaction can be expressed in terms of 9 The collisions that are successful in producing a
(a) the average rate of reaction over a period of chemical reaction are called effective collisions.
time, or (b) the instantaneous rate of reaction at a 10 Any factor that increases the rate of effective
given time. collisions will also increase the rate of reaction.
6 The rate of a reaction is affected by the following
factors:

1
1.1 4 The diagram below shows

Rate of Reaction the apparatus set-up used to
1 Calcium carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce carbon determine the rate of reaction.
dioxide. The total volume of carbon dioxide collected during the reaction is
’11 shown below.
Time (s) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Volume of
0.00 12.00 20.00 26.50 31.00 32.50 33.00 33.00 33.00
CO2 (cm3)
The apparatus set-up is not
What is the overall average rate of reaction? suitable to be used for determining
A 0.825 cm3 s–1 C 1.100 cm3 s–1 the rate of reaction for
B 0.943 cm s
3 –1
D 1.300 cm3 s–1
1
A Na2SO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) →
2 The average rate of reaction of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid is Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)
0.0080 B Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
mol s–1. What is the time taken for 9.60 g of calcium carbonate to MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
completely react with excess hydrochloric acid? C NaHCO3(s) + HNO3(aq) →
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12; NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
O, 16; Ca, 40]
MnO2(s)
A 12 s B 24 s C 120 s D 240 s D 2H2O2(aq) ⎯⎯⎯→
2H2O(l) + O2(g)
3 Calcium carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce carbon
dioxide gas. 5 The graph shows the total
The plot of volume of CO2 produced against time is shown as follows. volume of carbon dioxide
evolved when 10.0 g of calcium
carbonate (in excess) reacts
with 20.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3
dilute hydrochloric acid.
volume of gas(cm3)
Z
Y
X
TC 55
0 t1 t2 t3 time(s)
statements is correct?
A The reaction is faster at point
Y than at point X.
Which of the following can be deduced from the graph? B The reaction is fastest at
I The average rate of reaction is 1.5 cm3 s–1. point Z.
II The rate of reaction decreases with time. C The reaction reaches
III The rate of reaction at 35 seconds is zero. completion at time t3.
IV The gradient of the curve decreases because the concentration of acid D The total volume of carbon
decreases. dioxide evolved is the
A I and II only C I, II and III only same if 12.0 g of calcium
B III and IV only D II, III and IV only carbonate is used.

6 Two experiments on the
decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide were carried out. The
graphs in the following diagram
show the total volume of
oxygen collected against time for
each of the experiments.
The rate of reaction is best determined by

A measuring the volume of SO2 produced at regular time intervals.
B measuring the concentration of hydrochloric acid at regular time intervals.
C recording the time as soon as the ‘cross’ mark disappears.
D recording the time as soon as precipitate appears.
1.2 Factors that Affect the Rate of Reaction

8 Ammonia is produced using the Haber process. The table shows the mass
of ammonia produced at four conditions of temperature and pressure.
’04
Which of the following graphs Condition I II III IV
shows how the rates of reaction Mass of
vary with time for the experiments? ammonia 300 250 150 200
A produced (kg)
1
Time taken 4 hours 2 ½ hours 8 minutes 12 minutes

At which condition is the rate of production of ammonia the highest?
A Condition I C Condition III
B Condition II D Condition IV
9 Zinc powder reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the equation:
B
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
In order to have the highest initial rate, which of the following solutions
should be used for the reaction with zinc powder?
A 30 g of HCl in 1000 cm3 of water C 15 g of HCl in 100 cm3 of water
B 20 g of HCl in 1000 cm3 of water D 4.0 g of HCl in 50 cm3 of water
10 Two experiments were carried out at 25 °C to study the rate of reaction
C
between magnesium carbonate powder (in excess) and an acid. The
volume of carbon dioxide liberated was measured at regular intervals.
Experiment Acid used
I 100 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid
II 100 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid
D Which of the following graphs represents the results obtained in
Experiments I and II?
A C
7 The diagram shows the apparatus

set-up for an experiment to
’07 determine the rate of reaction B D
between sodium thiosulphate
and hydrochloric acid
S2O32–(aq) + 2H+(aq) →
H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s)


11 2.5 g of zinc were allowed to react with 100 cm3 of hydrochloric acid III temperature of hydrogen
under different conditions as shown below. peroxide decreases with time.
Under which conditions will hydrogen gas be given off at the highest rate? IV mass of manganese(IV)
oxide decreases.
Temperature (°C) Concentration (mol dm–3) Form of zinc A I only
30 0.5 Small pieces B I and II only
A
C III and IV only
B 25 1.0 Powder D I, III and IV only
C 35 1.0 Small pieces 15 The following equation shows
D 35 1.0 Powder the reaction between powdered
’03 calcium carbonate and dilute
12 For the following reaction: hydrochloric acid

Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2 , which factor does not affect the rate of reaction? CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
’08 A Surface area of zinc C Volume of sulphuric acid CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
B Concentration of sulphuric acid D Temperature of sulphuric acid
The production of carbon dioxide
13 Graph X in the diagram below shows the result of the decomposition of can be slowed down by
10 cm3 of 0.4 mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide. The experiment was carried I reducing the temperature of
out at 30 °C. hydrochloric acid used.
II adding distilled water to
hydrochloric acid before the
1
reaction.
III using larger pieces of calcium
carbonate.
IV reducing the pressure on the
reaction mixture.
C I, II and IV only
Which of the following conditions produces graph Y if 0.1 g of D I, II, III and IV
manganese(IV) oxide was used as the catalyst for both experiments? 16 A piece of magnesium ribbon is
allowed to react with 100 cm3 of
Volume of H2O2 Concentration of H2O2
Temperature (°C) 1.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid.
(cm3) (mol dm–3)
Which of the following changes
A 10 0.25 30 will increase the rate of reaction?
B 12.5 0.40 30 I Increasing the temperature of
hydrochloric acid.
C 20 0.25 30
II Replacing the magnesium
D 20 0.40 40 ribbon with magnesium
powder.
14 The graph in the diagram below shows the changes in the concentration III Replacing the acid with
of hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, when powdered manganese(IV) oxide is 50 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3
’04 added to it.
hydrochloric acid.
IV Adding 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol
dm–3 hydrochloric acid.
A I and II only
B III and IV only
C II and IV only
D I, II and III only
17 What is the most suitable
method for cooking 100 g of
’06 potatoes within a short time?
A Steam the potatoes in a
The gradients of the graph at times t1 and t2 are different because the steamer
I concentration of hydrogen peroxide decreases. B Fry the potatoes in a copper
II volume of hydrogen peroxide decreases. pot

C Boil the potatoes in a saucepan 21 Which of the following pairs of catalyst and processes are correctly
D Boil the potatoes in a matched?
pressure cooker
Catalyst Process
18 Iron(III) oxide is a brown solid and
iron(III) salts are brown in colour. I Iron Manufacture of ammonia in the Haber process
When iron(III) oxide is added to
II Nickel Manufacture of nitric acid in the Ostwald process
hydrogen peroxide solution in a
test tube, a fast reaction occurs III Vanadium(V) Manufacture of sulphuric acid in the Contact
and oxygen gas is liberated. oxide process
What is left in the test tube at
IV Lead(IV) oxide Production of oxygen by the decomposition of
the end of the reaction?
hydrogen peroxide
A A brown solution only.
B A brown solid and a brown
A I and II only C I, II and IV only
solution.
B II and III only D I, III and IV only
C A brown solid and a
colourless solution.
22 Which of the following reactions C
D A white solid and a
require a catalyst to speed up
colourless solution .
the reaction?
19 The diagram below shows I 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
the total volume of carbon II 2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3
dioxide given off when dilute III SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 D
1
hydrochloric acid reacts with IV Na2S2O3 + H2SO4 →

calcium carbonate powder. Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2 + S
A I and II only
B I and III only
C I, III, and IV only
D II, III and IV only 25 Magnesium ribbons of the same
23 Which of the following reactions length are added separately to
require a catalyst to speed up each of the following solutions
the reaction? of hydrochloric acid.
I N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 In which solution will the
As the reaction proceeds, the II SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 magnesium ribbon disappear first?
gradient of the graph becomes III 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2 [The hydrochloric acid used is in
less steep because IV Na2S2O3 + 2HCl → excess]
I the mass of calcium 2NaCl + H2O + SO2 + S
carbonate decreases. A I and II only Volume Concentration Temperature
II the total surface area of B I and III only of HCI of HCI of HCI
calcium carbonate decreases. C I, III and IV only (cm3) (mol dm–3) (°C)
III the volume of hydrochloric D II, III and IV only A 300 1.0 30
acid decreases.
24 The reaction between sulphuric B 200 1.0 25
IV the temperature of the
acid and magnesium carbonate C 100 2.0 30
mixture increases.
is carried out at different
A I and II only D 200 2.0 25
conditions.
B I, II and III only
Which reaction is fastest? 26 The energy profile diagram
A for an uncatalysed reaction is
shown below.
20 Which of the following reactions
takes place in the Ostwald
process?
A N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
B 2SO2(g) + O2(g) B
2SO3(g)
C 2NH3(g) + O2(g)
2NO(g) + 3H2(g)
D 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)
4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)

The reaction was repeated using C 1.3 The Collision Theory
a catalyst.
What is the effect of the catalyst 30 Based on the collision theory,
on the heat of reaction (∆H) what are the effects of a rise
and activation energy (Ea) for ’06 in temperature on the reactant
the reaction? particles?
I The kinetic energy of the
∆H Ea D reactant particles increases.
A No change Decrease II The number of reactant
particles per unit volume
B Decrease No change increases.
C Decrease Decrease III The frequency of collisions
between reactant particles
D Increase Increase increases.
29 Three experiments are carried IV The activation energy of the
27 Carbon dioxide is produced out to study the rate of reactant particles increases.
when magnesium carbonate decomposition of hydrogen A I and II only
reacts with dilute hydrochloric peroxide by the catalyst, B I and III only
acid. manganese(IV) oxide. In all C II and IV only
these three experiments, the D III and IV only
MgCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → mass of the catalyst used is the
31 When zinc powder is added to
MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) same. The experimental results
dilute sulphuric acid, gas bubbles
1
are shown in the following ’11 are produced slowly. When a few
diagram.
Which of the following changes drops of copper(II) sulphate are
Solutions of hydrogen peroxide
will increase the initial rate of added to the reaction mixture,
used
carbon dioxide production? gas bubbles are produced
Solution P: 50 cm3 of 2.0 mol
A Heat the reaction mixture vigorously. Which statement best
dm–3 H2O2
B Increase the size of solid explains the effect of copper(II)
Solution Q: 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol
magnesium carbonate sulphate on the reaction?
dm–3 H2O2
C Increase the volume of A It lowers the activation energy.
Solution R: 100 cm3 of 3.0 mol
hydrochloric acid B It increases the collision
dm–3 H2O2
D Increase the pressure on the frequency between the
reaction mixture reacting particles.
C It increases the concentration
28 Calcium carbonate is added of sulphate ions and hence
to excess hydrochloric acid increases the rate of reaction.
at 30 °C. The experiment is D It causes the reacting
repeated at 40 °C. The volume particles to collide in the
of carbon dioxide released for correct orientation.
each experiment is measured at
32 The diagram below shows the
room temperature and pressure.
energy profile for the following
Which of the following graphs
reaction
represents the results of these
two experiments? X(g) + Y(g) → Z(g)
A
statements are correct?
I The curve X is obtained by
using solution R.
II The curve Y is obtained by
using solution P.
III The curve Z is obtained by
using solution Q.
B IV The curve Z is obtained by
using solution R.
A I and II only
B II and IV only
C I, II and III only The curves, P and Q, represent
D I, II and IV only two different paths for this

reaction. What conclusion A I and II only Why is iron used in this process?
can be drawn based on the B III and IV only A To increase the rate of
diagram? C I, II and III only reaction between nitrogen
A The reaction by path D II, III and IV only and hydrogen
P occurs at a higher B To absorb the smell of
temperature. 34 The reaction between Fe3+ and ammonia
B The reaction by path P SO32– is represented by the C To oxidise nitrogen to form
occurs at a higher rate than ’06 equation: ammonia
by path Q. D To increase the yield of
C The activation energy for ammonia
path P is (x + y) kJ. 2Fe3++ SO32–+ H2O → 2Fe2+ + H2SO4
D The activation energy for brown green
36 The rate of reaction between
path Q is (x – y) kJ.
1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric
It is found that the change of colour acid and 3 g of magnesium
33 Consider the reaction between from brown to green occurs at powder is higher than the rate
magnesium and dilute a higher rate when the reaction of reaction between 1 mol
hydrochloric acid. mixture is heated. This is due to the dm–3 ethanoic acid and 3 g of
I decrease in activation energy. magnesium powder.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → II increase in the frequency of What is the explanation for this
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) collisions between Fe3+ and observation?
SO32– ions. A Hydrochloric acid is more
Which of the following will III increase in the kinetic energy soluble in water than
1
increase the frequency of of Fe3+ and SO32– ions. ethanoic acid.

collisions between the reactants? IV increase in the frequency of B The kinetic energy of
I Increase the concentration of effective collisions. hydrochloric acid is higher
hydrochloric acid. A I and II only than ethanoic acid.
II Increase the temperature of B II and III only C Hydrochloric acid forms a
reaction. C I, III and IV only soluble salt whereas
III Use magnesium ribbon D II, III and IV only ethanoic acid forms an
instead of magnesium insoluble salt.
powder. 35 Iron is used in the Haber process D The concentration of H+ ions
IV Remove the hydrogen gas to manufacture ammonia from in hydrochloric acid is higher
produced. nitrogen and hydrogen. than ethanoic acid.
1 Diagram 1 shows two experiments to investigate one Experiment II
factor that affects the rate of reaction between zinc
’06 and dilute sulphuric acid.
Experiment I
Diagram 1
(a) What is the factor that affects the rate of reaction
in Experiments I and II? [1 mark]
(b) State two constant variables in both experiments.
[2 marks]
(c) The following equation represents the reaction
that occurs in both the experiments.

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

(i) Choose one of the products shown in recorded. The experiment is repeated using
the equation that is most suitably used to different acids as shown below. All experiments
measure the rate of reaction. [1 mark] are carried out at the same temperature.
(ii) Give one reason for your answer in (i).
[1 mark] Experiment Reactants Time taken (s)
(d) Graph 1 shows the results for both experiments. I 50 cm of 1.0 mol dm HCl
3 –3
t1
+
5.0 cm of magnesium
ribbon
II 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 t2
CH3COOH
+
5.0 cm of magnesium
ribbon
Graph 1 (i) Write the ionic equation for the reaction

between magnesium and an acid. [1 mark]
Based on Graph 1:
(ii) Which is shorter t1 or t2? Why? [3 marks]
(i) Which experiment has a higher rate of
reaction? [1 mark] (c) Three experiments are carried out to investigate the
(ii) How do you come to this conclusion? [1 mark] factors that affect the rate of the following reaction:
(iii) Explain what happens after time t. [1 mark] ’08
Mg + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2
1
(iv) Why are both curves at the same level after The conditions of this experiment are shown below.
time t? [1 mark]
(e) State the conclusion for the experiments. [1 mark] Temperature
Experiment Reactants
(°C)
(f) Another experiment was carried out using excess
zinc powder and dilute sulphuric acid with I Excess magnesium 35
different concentrations. powder
Sketch the curve of concentration of dilute +
sulphuric acid against the time taken to collect a 25 cm3 1.0 mol
fixed quantiy of the product. dm–3 HCl
II Excess magnesium 25
ribbon
+
25 cm3 0.5 mol
dm–3 HCl
III Excess magnesium 35
ribbon
+
25 cm3 1.0 mol
[2 marks]
dm–3 HCl
2 (a) Propane, C3H8, burns in excess oxygen to form
carbon dioxide and water as represented by the The results of this experiment are shown in
equation Diagram 2.
C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
At time t, the rate of reaction of propane is 0.20
mol s–1.
Calculate
(i) the rate of consumption (using up) of
oxygen, and
(ii) the rate of production of carbon dioxide at
time t. [2 marks]
(b) 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 of hydrochloric acid is
poured into a conical flask. A piece of 5.0 cm Diagram 2
magnesium ribbon is added to the acid. The time (i) Which curves (X, Y or Z) represent the results
taken to dissolve the magnesium completely is of Experiments I, II and III? [3 marks]

(ii) Give one reason why the final volume of (a) What is the average rate of reaction for Experiment
gas obtained in curve X is half the final II? [2 marks]
volume of gas in curve Z. [1 mark] (b) Use the collision theory to explain why the
time taken for Experiment II is shorter than for
3 Three experiments were carried out to investigate the
Experiment I. [3 marks]
factors influencing the rate of reaction.
Three pieces of 0.12 g of magnesium ribbon are (c) Explain why the time taken for Experiment III is
added separately to excess hydrochloric acid. longer than for Experiment II. [3 marks]
The time taken for all the magnesium to dissolve is (d) Suggest another method that can be used to
taken. Table 1 shows the results of the experiments. increase the rate of decomposition of hydrogen
in Experiment II. [1 mark]
Experiment I II III (e) Write a chemical equation for the catalytic
Reactants 0.12 g Mg 0.12 g Mg 0.12 g Mg decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. [1 mark]
+ excess + excess + excess (f) Experiments II and III were allowed to continue
HCl(aq) HCl(aq) HCl(aq) + until the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
CuSO4(aq) was completed. Sketch a graph of total volume
of gas against time for Experiments II and III on
Temperature 30 35 35
the same axes. [2 marks]
(oC)
5 Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with sodium thiosulphate
Time (s) 60 32 10
solution to produce sulphur. The presence of sulphur
Table 1 causes the solution to become cloudy.
1
Five experiments were carried out to study the rate

(a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction between
of reaction between dilute sulphuric acid and sodium
magnesium and hydrochloric acid. [1 mark]
thiosulphate solution. The reaction takes place in a
(b) Calculate the maximum volume of hydrogen gas conical flask placed over a white paper marked with
produced in Experiment I. [2 marks] a cross, ‘X’. The time taken for the cross to disappear
(c) Predict the maximum volume of hydrogen gas from view was recorded.
produced in Experiment III. Explain your answer. In each experiment, the volume and concentration of
[2 marks] sodium thiosulphate solution were kept constant. The
(d) Calculate the average rate of reaction in experimental results are shown in Table 3.
Experiment II. [1 mark] Concentration
(e) (i) Which experiment has the highest rate? Temperature Time taken
Experiment of acid
Justify your answer. (°C) (s)
(mol dm )–3
(ii) Sketch the graphs for the volume of

hydrogen gas against time for Experiments A 0.15 20 65
I, II and III on the same axes. [3 marks] B 0.10 30 45
[Relative atomic mass: Mg = 24; Molar gas volume, C 0.10 20 85
24 dm3 at r.t.p.]
D 0.05 30 55
4 Three experiments were carried out to study the effect E 0.05 20 105
of iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3, on the rate of decomposition
Table 3
of 0.5 mol dm–3 hydrogen peroxide. Table 2 shows
the mixtures of substances used and the time taken (a) The reaction between dilute sulphuric acid and
to collect 30 cm3 of the colourless gas given off in sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) produces sulphur,
each experiment. sodium sulphate, sulphur dioxide and water.
Complete the following equations:
Experiment Mixture of substances Time taken (i) Na2S2O3 + H2SO4 → ____ + ____ + ____
I 20.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 H2O2 A few (ii) S2O32– + 2H+ → ____ + ____ + ____
weeks [2 marks]
(b) (i) Which of the experiments shown above
II 20.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 H2O2 35 s should be chosen to compare the effect
+ 0.2 g of Fe2O3 of concentration of the acid on the rate of
III 20.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 H2O2 45 s reaction? [1 mark]
+ 25.0 cm3 of water + 0.2 g of (ii) Give one reason why you chose these
Fe2O3 experiments. [1 mark]
(iii) What conclusion can be made from the
Table 2 experiments in (i)? [1 mark]

(c) (i) Which of the experiments should be chosen (a) Table 5 shows the conditions used for carrying
to compare the effect of temperature on out Experiment 1. Complete Table 5 to predict
the rate of reaction? [1 mark] the conditions used for obtaining the results of
(ii) Give one reason for your choice. [1 mark] Experiments 2, 3 and 4. In each case, state the
(iii) What conclusion can be made from the constant variables and manipulated variables
experiments you have chosen in (i)? used and briefly explain your answer.
[1 mark]
(d) Explain your answer in (c)(iii) based on collision Experi Experi Experi Experi
theory. [2 marks] ment ment ment ment
1 2 3 4
6 Four experiments were carried out to investigate the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to form water Volume of
and oxygen gas. hydrogen peroxide 40 40 … …
(cm3)
MnO2 Volume of water
2H2O2(aq) ⎯⎯⎯→ 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 40 40 40 0
(cm3)
Temperature (°C) 30 30 32 30
The total volume of oxygen evolved at one-minute
Mass of MnO2 …
intervals were recorded in Table 4. 1.0 1.0 1.0
used (g)
Volume of oxygen gas released (cm3) Table 5 [5 marks]
Time
1
(min) Experiment Experiment Experiment Experiment (b) Copper(II) oxide is a less effective catalyst than
1 2 3 4 manganese(IV) oxide for the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide. If copper(II) oxide is used to
0 0 0 0 0
replace manganese(IV) oxide in Experiment 1,
1 18 0 25 34 what is the effect of this change on
(i) the volume of oxygen collected at 1.0 minute?
2 33 0 35 60 (ii) the volume of oxygen collected after the
3 36 0 37 69 reaction has completed?
Explain your answers. [2 marks]
4 37 0 38 75
(c) ‘A catalyst remains chemically unchanged at the
5 38 0 38 76 end of the reaction’.
6 38 0 38 76 (i) What is meant by chemically unchanged?
(ii) How would you prove that your answer in
Table 4 (i) is correct? [3 marks]
Essay Questions
1 (a) Two experiments are carried out to study the rate
of reaction between iron and dilute acids.
Experiment Reactants
I 1.12 g of iron and 50 cm3 of

2.0 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid
II 1.12 g of iron and 50 cm3 of

2.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid
The following graphs show the results of the

experiments.

Based on the graph: (c) Ethanedioic acid, H2C2O4, decolourises potassium
(i) Calculate the average rate of reaction for manganate(VII) slowly at room temperature. The
’07 Experiment I. [2 marks] reaction is catalysed by manganese(II) sulphate,
(ii) Explain the difference in the rate of reaction MnSO4. Describe how you would prove that the
between Experiment I and Experiment II sulphate ions, SO42–, do not act as a catalyst in
before 100 s. [6 marks] this reaction. [3 marks]
(b) Describe an experiment to show that lead(IV) 4 (a) Two experiments are carried out to study the rate
oxide is a more effective catalyst than copper(II) of reaction between zinc and two acids, R and T.
oxide for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. ’07 The data for the experiments are shown below.
Your answer should include a labelled diagram
on the apparatus set-up for the experiment. Experiment Reactants Observation Products
[12 marks]
I Excess zinc The Zinc
2 (a) Iron powder will dissolve in cold dilute hydrochloric and 25 cm3 temperature sulphate and
acid while coarse iron filings do not dissolve until of 1.0 mol of the hydrogen
the acid is heated. Explain these observations. dm–3 acid R reaction
[7 marks] mixture
(b) There is a high risk of explosions occurring in coal increases
mines. Explain why this is so. [6 marks] II Excess zinc The Zinc
(c) ‘Temperature is important in preserving food’. Give and 25 cm3 temperature chloride and
one example from your daily life to justify this of 1.0 mol of the hydrogen
statement. [4 marks] dm–3 acid T reaction
1
(d) When a drop of blood is added to hydrogen mixture

peroxide solution, a vigorous effervescence occurs. increases
Explain this observation. [3 marks]
(i) State the names of the acids used in
3 (a) (i) Define the term rate of reaction? experiments I and II. [2 marks]
[2 marks] (ii) Write the chemical equation for the reaction
(ii) At high temperatures and pressures, nitrogen that occurs in Experiment I. [2 marks]
reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia. (iii) Draw the energy profile diagram for the
reaction in Experiment II. On the energy
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
profile diagram, show the
Use the collosion theory to explain how • activation energy without catalyst, Ea,
high pressure increases the rate of reaction • activation energy with a catalyst, Ea’,
between nitrogen and hydrogen. [5 marks] • heat of reaction, ΔH.
(b) Describe an experiment to demonstrate the effect Explain the energy profile diagram.
of the concentration of sodium thiosulphate on [10 marks]
the rate of reaction between hydrochloric acid and (b) Explain the factors that affect the rate of reaction
sodium thiosulphate. Draw the apparatus used for in the following daily activities:
this experiment and state the hypothesis and (i) Combustion of charcoal
variables in this experiment. [10 marks] (ii) Cooking food in a pressure cooker [6 marks]
Experiments
1 Sodium thiosulphate solution reacts with dilute The experiment was repeated using sodium
sulphuric acid to produce a yellow precipitate thiosulphate solutions at 30 °C, 35 °C, 40 °C and
of sulphur. 50 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm–3 sodium 45 °C.
thiosulphate solution at 25 °C was measured into a Diagram 1 shows the stopwatch readings for each of
250 cm3 conical flask. The conical flask was placed the experiments.
on a white paper marked with the ‘X’ sign.
5 cm3 of 0.50 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid was added
to the sodium thiosulphate solution and the mixture
shaken. At the same time, the stopwatch was started.
The time was taken as soon as the ‘X’ sign was no
longer visible.

at 25 °C at 30 °C at 35 °C at 40 °C at 45 °C
Time, t1 ______ s Time, t2 ______ s Time, t3 ______ s Time, t4 ______ s Time, t5 ______ s

Diagram 1
(a) Record the readings of the stopwatch in the spaces provided in Diagram 1. [3 marks]
(b) State the variables in this experiment.
Manipulated variable:
Responding variable:
Constant variable: [3 marks]
1
(c) Construct a table containing the information on temperature, time and ————— for the experiments.
time [2 marks]
1
(d) (i) Draw a graph of temperature against ————— on a graph paper.
1
time [4 marks]
(ii) Based on the graph in (i), what conclusion can be drawn from this experiment? [3 marks]
(e) Predict the time taken for the ‘X’ sign to disappear if the experiment is repeated at 50 °C. [3 marks]
(f) State the hypothesis for this experiment. [3 marks]
(g) Based on your hypothesis, explain why meat and fish are always kept in refrigerators. [3 marks]
2 An experiment was carried out to investigate the rate of reaction between granulated zinc and dilute
hydrochloric acid. The results of the experiment are shown below.
’09
Time (s) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Burette reading
50.00 40.00 33.50 …… …… 21.50 20.00 17.50 17.50
(cm3)
Volume of gas
0.00 10.00 16.50 …… …… 28.50 30.00 32.50 32.50
evolved (cm3)

Diagram 2 shows the burette readings at 30 seconds and 40 seconds respectively.
29 25
TC 56
28 24
At 30 s At 40 s
Diagram 2
(a) Based on this experiment, what is meant by the rate of reaction? [3 marks]
(b) Based on Diagram 2, what are the volumes of gas evolved at 30 seconds and 40 seconds? [3 marks]
(c) State one conclusion, based on the experimental results. [3 marks]

CHAPTER FORM 5
2
Carbon Compounds

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Section A B C A B C A A C A B C
1
Number of questions 4 1 – – 1 2 1 1 – – 7 – — – – 4 – – 1 –
2
ONCEPT MAP
CARBON COMPOUNDS
Organic carbon compounds: Isomerism (same molecular

Produce CO2 and H2O on complete combustion formula, different structural formulae)
Hydrocarbons (elements C and H only) Natural rubber

Physical properties: Non-hydrocarbons (natural polymers)
Insoluble in water, low melting and boiling points, (Elements: C, H, O) • Coagulation
non-conductors of electricity • Vulcanisation
Alkanes Alkenes Alcohols Carboxylic acids

(saturated) hydrogenation (non-saturated) hydration Reactions: oxidation Reactions:
Reactions: Reactions: • Combustion • With metals/metal
• Combustion • Combustion dehydration • Oxidation carbonates/alkalis
• Substitution • Addition • Dehydration to form salts
• Polymerisation • Esterification • Esterification
esterification
Esters
Physical properties:
• Sweet fruity smell
• Insoluble in water
Fats and Oils

• Fats: saturated, higher melting point
• Oils: unsaturated, lower melting point
8 Almost all organic compounds contain the
2.1 Carbon Compounds elements carbon and hydrogen. Hence the
complete combustion of carbon compounds
1 Carbon compounds are compounds that produces carbon dioxide and water.
contain the element carbon.
2 Carbon compounds can be classified into two Carbon compounds
groups: inorganic compounds and organic
compounds.
3 Organic compounds are carbon compounds
in which carbon is bonded to other elements
Organic Inorganic
by covalent bonds. Examples of organic
compounds compounds
compounds are hydrocarbons, alcohols,
carboxylic acids and esters.
4 Most carbon compounds are derived from
living organisms. Nowadays many organic Example: Example:
compounds can be synthesised in laboratories. • Hydrocarbons • Hydrogen
5 Most inorganic compounds do not contain • Alcohols carbonates
carbon. Examples of inorganic compounds • Carboxylic acids • Carbonates
containing the element carbon are carbonates, • Esters • Carbides
hydrogen carbonates, oxides of carbon and • Carbohydrates • Oxides of carbon
cyanides. • Cyanides
2
6 Carbon atom (proton number 6) has the
electron arrangement: 2.4. Hence, each carbon
atom can form four covalent bonds in organic
compounds.
7 The covalent bonds in carbon compounds may Organic compounds are the largest group of chemicals
be we know today, numbering in thousands. All the food
and medicines we consume are organic compounds
(a) single bond,
as well as most of the synthetic products such as
(b) double bond or
clothing and household materials.
(c) triple bond.
To investigate the products formed by complete combustion

of organic compounds
Materials Ethanol and palm oil, limewater, Apparatus Filter funnel, test tubes, delivery tubes,
ice and water, anhydrous cobalt(II) spirit lamp, suction pump and beaker.
chloride paper.
Procedure 1 A filter funnel is connected to the suction pump

via test tubes A and B where test tube A is dipped
in ice water and test tube B contains limewater.
2 A spirit lamp filled with ethanol is lit and placed
under the filter funnel and the suction pump
turned on.
3 The changes in test tubes A and B are noted.
4 The liquid collected in test tube A is tested with
Activity 2.1
anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride paper.

5 Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using a spirit lamp with
Figure 2.1 Combustion of organic compounds palm oil.
341 Carbon Compounds

Results Conclusion
Test Observation Inference 1 The combustion of organic compounds such as
tube ethanol and palm oil produces water and carbon
dioxide.
A A colourless liquid The colourless 2 During the combustion of an organic compound,
is formed and it liquid formed in (a) the carbon combines with oxygen to form
changes anhydrous test tube A is water carbon dioxide,
cobalt(II) chloride (a) the hydrogen combines with oxygen to form
paper from blue to water.
pink
B Limewater turns Carbon dioxide gas
milky is produced
Hydrocarbons excess oxygen (complete combustion), carbon

dioxide and water are produced.
1 Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that 8 Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons will
contain the elements carbon and hydrogen produce water, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide
only. and carbon (as soot).
2 Hydrocarbons that have only single covalent
2
bonds between all the carbon atoms in the

molecule are called saturated hydrocarbons.
Example Propane
Hydrocarbon
H H H carbon-carbon
| | | single bond
H—C—C—C—H
| | | Saturated hydrocarbons Unsaturated
H H H have only single bonds hydrocarbons have double
between the carbon or triple bonds between
3 Hydrocarbons that have at least one carbon- atoms. the carbon atoms.
carbon double bond (C = C) or triple bond Examples: Ethane, propane Examples: Ethene, propene
(C ≡ C) in the molecule are called unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
Example Propene
1 SPM
’10/P1
H H H carbon-carbon
| | | double bond The complete combustion of 0.1 mol of a
H—C=C—C—H hydrocarbon Z in excess oxygen produces 0.3 mol
| of carbon dioxide and 0.4 mol of water. Determine
H the molecular formula of hydrocarbon Z.

4 The main sources of hydrocarbons are: Solution
(a) Petroleum (crude oil) Since 0.1 mol of Z produces 0.3 mol of carbon
(b) Natural gas dioxide and 0.4 mol of water, 1 mol of Z will
(c) Coal produce 3 mol of carbon dioxide and 4 mol of water.
5 Petroleum is a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons. C + O2 → CO2
6 Fractions of hydrocarbons are separated by The number of moles of carbon in 1 mol of Z
a process called fractional distillation. The = the number of moles of carbon dioxide = 3.
fractions are separated based on the difference 2H + —O1 → H2O
in boiling points. The fractions with lower 2 2
The number of moles of hydrogen in 1 mol of Z
boiling points will be distilled off earlier.
= 2 3 the number of moles of water = 2 3 4 = 8.
7 Hydrocarbons contain carbon and hydrogen
Hence the molecular formula of Z is C3H8.
only. Thus when hydrocarbons are burnt in
Carbon Compounds 342

7 Table 2.1 shows the prefixes used to indicate
2.1
the number of carbon atoms per molecule
1 Classify the following substances into organic of an organic compound, the names and
compounds and inorganic compounds. molecular formulae of the first ten alkanes.
Rubber, sugar, limestone, carbon dioxide, Table 2.1 Prefixes used to indicate the number
calcium carbonate, sand, sodium chloride, of carbon atoms, names and molecular
vinegar, polyvinylchloride, urea, ammonium formulae of alkanes
sulphate. Number of
Name of Molecular
2 (a) What is meant by hydrocarbon? carbon atoms Prefix
alkane formula
(b) State three sources of hydrocarbon. per molecule
3 State two main products that are formed when 1 Meth Methane CH4
rubber is burnt in excess air. Explain your answer. 2 Eth Ethane C2H6
3 Prop Propane C3H8
4 But Butane C4H10
2.2 Alkanes 5 Pent Pentane C5H12
1 Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with the 6 Hex Hexane C6H14
general formula Cn H2n+2, where n = 1, 2, 3… 7 Hept Heptane C7H16
2
2 Alkanes are called saturated hydrocarbons 8 Oct Octane C8H18
SPM because the molecules contain only single
’11/P1
covalent bonds between carbon atoms. 9 Non Nonane C9H20
3 The molecular formula is a chemical formula 10 Dec Decane C10H22
that shows the actual number of atoms of
each element present in one molecule of the 8 The structural formula of an organic compound
substance. is the chemical formula that shows the
4 The molecular formula of an alkane can be arrangement of atoms and covalent bonds
obtained by substituting n in the general between atoms in a molecule of the compound.
formula Cn H2n+2 with the number of carbon 9 Note that when writing the structural formula
atoms. of alkanes,
5 In the naming of alkanes according to the (a) each carbon atom should have four single
IUPAC system, all members of the alkane covalent bonds.
series have their names ending with -ane (b) each hydrogen atom should have one single
(IUPAC is the abbreviation for International covalent bond.
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). (c) the carbon atoms are connected by single
6 The first part (prefix) of the name of an bonds.
alkane depends on the number of carbon 10 The structural formulae of the first ten straight
atoms in the molecule. chain alkanes are shown as follows:
Table 2.2 The structural formulae of the first ten straight chain alkanes
H H H H H H
| | | | | |
H–C–H H–C – C–H H–C–C–C–H
| | | | | |
H H H H H H
methane (CH4) ethane (C2H6) propane (C3H8)
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
H–C–C–C–C–H H–C–C–C–C–C–H H–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
butane (C4H10) pentane (C5H12) hexane (C6H14)

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–H H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
heptane (C7H16) octane (C8H18)
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–H H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–H
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
nonane (C9H20) decane (C10H22)
Physical Properties of Alkanes

1 On going down the alkane series, the physical properties change gradually as shown in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Physical properties of alkanes
Name of Molecular Relative molecular Melting point Boiling point Physical Density
alkane formula mass (°C) (°C) state (g cm–3)
2
Methane CH4 16 –182 –162 Gas —

Ethane C2H6 30 –183 –89 Gas —
Propane C3H8 44 –188 –42 Gas —
Butane C4H10 58 –138 –0.5 Gas —
Pentane C5H12 72 –130 36 Liquid 0.626
Hexane C6H14 86 –95 69 Liquid 0.659
Heptane C7H16 100 –90 98 Liquid 0.684
Octane C8H18 114 –57 126 Liquid 0.703
Nonane C9H20 128 –54 151 Liquid 0.718
Decane C10H22 142 –30 174 Liquid 0.730
2 Melting and boiling points of alkanes

(a) Alkanes exist as simple covalent molecules.
Alkanes have low melting and boiling
points because of the weak van der Waals
forces between molecules. Little energy is
required to overcome the weak forces of
attraction.
(b) When the number of carbon atoms per
molecule of alkane increases, the relative
molecular mass increases and the melting
point and boiling point increase. This
is because the larger the molecular size,
the stronger the van der Waals forces of
attraction between the molecules.
3 The physical states of alkanes
The first four members are gases as
their boiling points are below room Figure 2.2 The boiling points of alkanes increase
temperature (25 °C). The alkanes from C5 with relative molecular mass

to C18 are liquids with the rest of the alkanes SPM CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
’05/P1
being solids. chloromethane
4 Densitites of alkanes
Alkanes are less dense than water. The density CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl
of alkanes increases gradually down the series dichloromethane
as the molecular mass increases. CH2Cl2 + Cl2 → CHCl3 + HCl
5 Solubility of alkanes trichloromethane
(a) All alkanes are insoluble in water. When
liquid alkane is shaken with water, two CHCl3 + Cl2 → CCl4 + HCl
separate layers of liquids are formed. tetrachloromethane
(b) Alkanes are soluble in organic solvents
such as propanone.
6 Electrical conductivity of alkanes
All alkanes do not conduct electricity because
they are covalent compounds, consisting of In the substitution reaction of CH4 with Cl2, the carbon
molecules. atom still has four covalent bonds, either bonded to H
atom or Cl atom.
Chemical Properties of Alkanes H Cl Cl

| Cl2 | Cl2 |
1 Reactivity of alkanes H — C — H ⎯→ H — C — H ⎯→ H — C — Cl
2
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons and are less | | |
reactive compared to unsaturated hydrocarbons. H H H
2 Combustion of alkanes CH3Cl CH2Cl2
(a) Alkanes undergo complete combustion 1 H substituted 2 H substituted
in the presence of excess air or oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide and water. Cl Cl
SPM For example Cl2 | Cl2 |
’05/P1,
’11/P2 CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O ⎯→ H — C — Cl ⎯→ Cl — C — Cl
methane | |
2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O Cl Cl
ethane CHCl3 CCl4
(b) The combustion of alkanes is highly 3 H substituted 4 H substituted
exothermic, that is, produces a lot of heat

energy. Hence alkanes are used as fuels.
(c) Incomplete combustion of alkanes will The Effects of Methane on Everyday Life
produce carbon (black smoke), carbon
monoxide and water. 1 Methane, commonly known as natural gas, is
(d) The larger the molecular size of the alkane used as a fuel.
molecule, 2 It is produced by the anaerobic decay of
(i) the smokier or sootier the flame, plants and organic matter by bacteria.
(ii) the more heat produced on complete Hence methane is found in landfills and peat
combustion. swamps.
3 Substitution reactions 3 Methane is a greenhouse gas. It can trap
SPM (a) When a mixture of alkane and chlorine radiation energy from the sun and also
’10/P1
is exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light, contribute to global warming.
substitution reaction occurs slowly and
a mixture of organic compounds and
hydrogen chloride is produced.
(b) In a substitution reaction, the hydrogen
atoms in an alkane are replaced gradually
by chlorine atoms. Methane is also known as marsh gas because it is
found in marshes and stagnant ponds. It can cause
For example The reaction between methane
fires in garbage landfills and peat swamps.
and chlorine

9 The names and molecular formulae of the first
2.2
nine members of the alkene series are shown
1 Name and give the molecular formula of an alkane in Table 2.4.
with
(a) three carbon atoms Table 2.4 The names and molecular formulae of the
(b) five carbon atoms first nine members of the alkene series
(c) six carbon atoms Number of
Name of Molecular
2 Petrol used in cars consists mainly of octane. carbon atoms Prefix
(a) Give the molecular formula of octane.
alkene formula
per molecule
(b) Write an equation for the complete combustion
of octane. 2 Eth Ethene C2H4
3 Ethane reacts with chlorine under certain conditions 3 Prop Propene C3H6
to form chloroethane.
(a) State the condition for reaction to take place. 4 But Butene C4H8
(b) Name the reaction that takes place.
(c) Write an equation for the reaction that occurs. 5 Pent Pentene C5H10
4 A saturated hydrocarbon X has a relative molecular 6 Hex Hexene C6H12
mass of 58. Identify X. [Relative atomic mass:
H, 1; C, 12] 7 Hept Heptene C7H14
8 Oct Octene C8H16
2
9 Non Nonene C9H18

2.3 Alkenes
10 Dec Decene C10H20
1 Alkenes are hydrocarbons with the general
formula CnH2n, where n = 2, 3, 4….
10 The structural formulae of the first nine
2 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons and
straight chain alkenes with one terminal
contain at least one double bond between
double bond (double bonds at the end of a
carbon atoms.
chain) are shown as follows:
3 The functional group in alkenes is the carbon-
carbon double bond (C=C).
H H
4 The molecular formula of an alkene can be
| |
obtained by substituting n in the general
H–C=C–H
formula CnH2n with the number of carbon
ethene
atoms.
5 In the naming of alkenes according to the H H H
IUPAC system, all members of the alkene | | |
series have their names ending with -ene. H–C–C=C–H
6 The first part (prefix) of the name of an alkene |
depends on the number of carbon atoms in H
the molecule. propene
7 The first member of the alkene series is ethene, H H H H
C2H4 because there must be a minimum of two | | | |
carbon atoms to form a carbon-carbon double H–C–C–C=C–H
bond (C=C). Hence methene does not exist. | |
8 Note that when writing the structural formula H H
of alkenes, butene
(a) there is a carbon-carbon double bond
H H H H H
(C=C) in the chain.
| | | | |
(b) each carbon atom forms four bonds (four
H–C–C–C–C=C–H
single bonds or one double bond + two
| | |
single bonds).
H H H
(c) each hydrogen atom should have one
pentene
single covalent bond.

2 Similarly, the carbon chain of an alkane drawn as a
H H H H H H straight chain is the same as that drawn in a bent
| | | | | | chain.
H–C–C–C–C–C=C–H
| | | | H H H H
H H H H | | | |
H— C — C — C — C — H is the same as
hexene
| | | |
H H H H
H H H H H H H H
| | | | | | | |
H–C–C–C–C–C–C=C–H H—C—H
H H
| | | | |
| |
H H H H H H—C—C—C—H
heptene | | |
H H H
H H H H H H H H
| | | | | | | |
H–C– C–C–C–C–C–C=C–H Physical Properties of Alkenes
| | | | | |
1 The physical properties of alkenes are the
2
H H H H H H
same as that of alkanes.
octene
Low melting and Insoluble in water
H H H H H H H H H boiling points due to but soluble in
| | | | | | | | | weak van der Waals organic solvents
forces between molecules such as propanone
H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C=C–H
| | | | | | |
H H H H H H H
Physical properties
nonene
of alkenes
H H H H H H H H H H
| | | | | | | | | | Do not conduct Less dense than
H–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C–C=C–H electricity because water hence will float
| | | | | | | | they consist of on the surface of
H H H H H H H H covalent molecules water
decene
2 The physical properties change gradually on
going down the alkene series as shown in
Table 2.5.
3 Similar to that of alkanes, the melting points
and boiling points of alkenes increase down
1 In the drawing of the structural formula of an alkene, the homologous series. When the number
the hydrogen atom bonded to the carbon atom can of carbon atoms per molecule increases, the
be written as (a) bonded to the side or (b) to the top molecular size increases. Thus the van der
or (c) bottom of the carbon atom. This is because Waals forces of attraction between molecules
the single covalent bond can be rotated freely. increases, increasing the amount of heat
H H H H needed to overcome the forces of attraction
| | | | during melting or boiling.
H — C = C — H or C = C or H — C = C — H 4 Similar to that of alkanes, the density of
| | | |
alkenes increases gradually down the series as
H H H H
the molecular mass increases.

Table 2.5 Physical properties of alkanes
Name of Molecular Relative Melting point Boiling point Physical state at Density
alkene formula molecular mass (°C) (°C) room temperature (g cm–3)
Ethene C2H4 28 –169 –104 Gas –
Propene C3H6 42 –185 –48 Gas –
Butene C4H8 56 –130 –6 Gas –
Pentene C5H10 70 –138 30 Liquid 0.64
Hexene C6H12 84 –140 64 Liquid 0.67
Heptene C7H14 98 –119 93 Liquid 0.70
Octene C8H16 112 –104 122 Liquid 0.72
Nonene C9H18 126 –94 146 Liquid 0.73
Decene C10H20 140 –66 171 Liquid 0.74
Chemical Properties of Alkenes (c) Alkenes undergo addition reactions. During

addition reactions, the carbon-carbon
1 Combustion of alkenes double bond breaks open to form two
2
SPM (a) Alkenes burns in excess air or oxygen to new single bonds. In this process, the
’07/P1
form carbon dioxide and water. Heat energy unsaturated hydrocarbon is converted to
is released during combustion. a saturated compound.
C2H4 + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 2H2O | | | |
2C3H6 + 9O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O —C=C—+X—Y→—C—C—
alkene | |
(b) The combustion of an alkene is more
(unsaturated) X Y
luminous and smokier than an alkane with
(saturated)
the same number of carbon atoms. This is
because the percentage by mass of carbon in one double bond two new single bonds

an alkene is higher than that of an alkane.
Example 3 The following are examples of addition
Percentage by mass of carbon in hexene reactions between alkenes and other elements/
(Mr of C6H12 = 84) compounds:
6 3 12 (a) Hydrogen (hydrogenation)
=— — ———— 3 100 = 85.7%
84 (b) Halogens (halogenation)
Percentage by mass of carbon in hexane (c) Water (hydration)
(Mr of C6H14 = 86) (d) Acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution
6 3 12 (e) Hydrogen halides
=— — ———— 3 100 = 83.7% 4 Hydrogenation
86
(c) Incomplete combustion of alkenes (a) Hydrogenation is the addition of a hydrogen
produces carbon (black smoke) and carbon molecule across a carbon-carbon double
monoxide. bond in the presence of nickel or platinum
2 Addition reactions of alkenes as a catalyst. An alkene is converted to an
(a) Addition reactions are reactions in alkane.
which an unsaturated organic compound For example
combines with another compound to SPM Ni or Pt
’07/P1 C3H6 + H2 ⎯⎯⎯→ C3H8
form a single new saturated compound. propene propane
(b) Alkenes contain a double bond between
carbon atoms (C = C bond) which is very (b) Hydrogenation is used to make margarine
reactive. Hence alkenes are more reactive (in solid form) from vegetable oils (in liquid
than alkanes. form).

5 Halogenation | |
SPM (a) The addition reactions between alkenes —C ⎯ C—
’10/P1,
’11/P2 and halogens (chlorine and bromine) are | |
called halogenation. OH OH
(b) Bromination is used as a chemical test to (c) In the formation of a diol, two hydroxyl
distinguish alkanes from alkenes. Alkenes (–OH) groups are added across the double
decolourise the brown colour of liquid bond in the alkene molecule.
bromine whereas alkanes do not decolourise For example:
the brown colour of liquid bromine.
C2H4 + H2O + [O] → C2H4(OH)2
For example: When ethene is passed into
ethene ethane-1, 2-diol
liquid bromine, the brown colour of
bromine is decolourised immediately and (d) Like liquid bromine, acidified potassium
a colourless organic liquid is formed. manganate(VII) solution is used to
distinguish between alkane and alkene
room
C2H4 + Br2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ C H Br2 compounds. An alkene decolourises the
temperature 2 4
ethene bromine 1,2-dibromoethane purple colour of acidified potassium
(saturated) manganate(VII) solution whereas an alkane
6 Hydration does not.
(a) Hydration occurs when a water molecule is 8 Polymerisation
added across the double bond between the Alkenes undergo polymerisation to form
atoms in the presence of phosphoric(V) polymers.
2
acid with H3PO4 as a catalyst at 300 °C. SPM (a) Ethene undergoes additional polymerisation
’07/P1,
SPM (b) An alkene is converted to an alcohol in ’06/P1 to form polyethene.
’07/P2
hydration. For example H H H H
H3PO4 | | | |
C2H4 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ C2H5OH polymerisation
300 °C, 60 atm nH — C = C — H ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ — C — C —
ethene ethanol ethene | |
7 Reaction with acidified potassium H H n
manganate(VII) solution polyethene
(a) When an alkene reacts with acidified (b) Propene undergoes polymerisation to
potassium manganate(VII) solution, the form polypropene.
purple colour of potassium manganate(VII) H H H H CH3
is decolourised immediately and an | | | | |
polymerisation
organic compound called diol is formed. nH — C = C — C — H ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ C — C
(b) A diol is a saturated alcohol with two | | |
hydroxyl (–OH) groups on adjacent carbon H H H n
atoms. propene polypropene
To compare the chemical properties of alkanes and alkenes

having the same number of carbon atoms SPM
’11/P2
Apparatus Procedure
Porcelain dish, wooden splint, dropper and Bunsen A Combustion of alkanes and alkenes in air
burner. EXUQLQJVSOLQW ILOWHUSDSHU
Materials SRUFHODLQ
GLVK
Hexane, hexene, liquid bromine and acidified
Activity 2.2
potassium manganate(VII) solution.
KH[DQH KH[DQH
RUKH[HQH RUKH[HQH
Figure 2.3 Combustion of alkane and alkene

7&

1 About 1 cm3 of hexane and hexene are placed 3 The mixture is shaken gently.
separately into two separate porcelain dishes. 4 The colour change that takes place in the test
2 The organic liquids are ignited with a burning tube is recorded.
splint. 5 Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using hexene.
3 A piece of filter paper is held above the
C
Reactions with acidified potassium
flames in each of the dishes to detect the
manganate(VII) solution
amount of soot formed.
1 A few drops of potassium manganate(VII)
4 The sootiness of the flame and the amount
solution are placed in a test tube, followed
of soot collected on the two pieces of filter
by about 1 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid.
papers are recorded.
2 About 2 cm3 of hexane is then added to the
B Reactions with bromine acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution.
1 About 1 cm3 of liquid bromine is placed in a 3 The mixture is shaken gently.
test tube. 4 The colour change that occurs in the test tube
2 About 2 cm3 of hexane is then added to the is recorded.
liquid bromine. 5 Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using hexene.
Results
Observations
Test
Hexane Hexene
2
Combustion Burns in air with a sooty flame Burns in air with a more sooty
yellow flame
Reaction with liquid bromine The brown colour of liquid The brown colour of liquid
bromine remains unchanged bromine is decolourised
Reaction with acidified potassium The purple colour of potassium The purple colour of potassium
manganate(VII) solution manganate(VII) solution remains manganate(VII) solution is
unchanged decolourised
Conclusion
The chemical properties of hexene are different from those of hexane:
(a) Both hexane and hexene undergo combustion but the flame of hexene is sootier than that of hexane.
(b) Hexene decolourises the brown colour of liquid bromine whereas hexane does not.
(c) Hexene decolourises the purple colour of acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution whereas hexane does
not.
Discussion
1 The combustion of hexene produces more soot than the combustion of hexane. This is because the percentage
by mass of carbon in hexene is higher than that of hexane.
2 Hexene undergoes addition reaction with bromine:
C6H12 + Br2 → C6H12Br2

(brown) 1, 2-dibromohexane
(colourless)
3 Hexene undergoes addition reaction with acidified potassium manganate(VII)
C6H12 + H2O + [O] → C6H12(OH)2
from KMnO4 hexane-1,2-diol

(purple) (colourless)

Br H Br
| | |
In the addition reaction of an alkene for example with C H — C — C — C — H
| | |
chlorine, the product formed has the two Cl atoms
H H H
bonded to the two C atoms adjacent to each other.
H H H
Products with two Cl atoms bonded to the same C | | |
atom or across another C atom are not formed. D H — C — C — C — Br
Example: Addition of chlorine to propene cannot form | | |
the following products: H H H
H H Cl H H H Solution
| | | | | | Propene undergoes addition reaction with Br2 at the
H—C—C—C—H and H—C—C—C—H carbon-carbon double bond, hence the product formed
| | | | | | has two Br atoms attached to two adjacent C atoms.
H H Cl Cl H Cl
Answer: B
1 Homologous Series
’05
1 A homologous series is a family of organic

The following is the equation that represents the
2
compounds with the same functional group
reaction between propene and bromine.
and with similar chemical properties.
Propene + Br2 → P 2 A functional group is an atom or a group of
atoms that determines the chemical properties
Which of the following is the structural formula of
of an organic compound.
P?
3 All members in the same homologous series
Br H H
have the same functional group and the same
| | |
chemical properties.
A H — C — C — C — H
4 All members in the same homologous series
| | |
(a) have the same general formula
Br H H
(b) can be prepared using similar methods
(c) show a gradual change in their physical
H H Br
properties
| | |
(d) have similar chemical properties
B H — C — C — C — H
(e) differ from each other by a –CH2 group
| | |
5 General formulae of some homologous series
H Br H
SPM
Table 2.6 General formulae of some homologous series ’07/P2
Homologous series General formula Functional group

Alkanes CnH2n+2 –
Alkenes CnH2n – C = C – (double bond)
Alcohols CnH2n+1OH – O – H (hydroxyl group)
Carboxylic acids CnH2n+1COOH O
i
– C – O – H (carboxyl group)
Esters CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1 O
i
– C – O – (carboxylate group)

CnH2n+2
alkane
– (CnH2n)n – Hydrogenation
H2/Ni, 180 °C CnH2nX2
polymer
Addition
polymerisation Addition of halogen, X2
CnH2n
alkene
Addition of hydrogen
halide, HX
CnH2n+1OH Addition of
Addition of water, CnH2n+1X
alcohol acidified KMnO4
H3PO4, 180 °C,
60 atm
CnH2n(OH)2
diol
2
2.3 4 Isomers have different physical properties

because they have different structural
1 (a) What is the general formula of alkene? formulae.
(b) Give the molecular formula of an alkene with 5 For methane, ethane and propane, there is
(i) three carbon atoms only one structure. Therefore methane, ethane
(ii) five carbon atoms and propane do not have isomers. All the
(iii) seven carbon atoms other alkanes, have isomers.
2 Propane and propene are both hydrocarbons. 6 There are two different ways of arranging the
(a) State two common physical properties between four carbon atoms and ten hydrogen atoms for
propane and propene. butane, C4H10. Thus butane has two isomers
(b) State one common chemical property between
as follows:
propane and propene.
3 Write chemical equations for the reactions between
(a) Straight chain
propene with
(a) chlorine
(all 4 C atoms form a straight chain)
(b) water H H H H
(c) hydrogen | | | |
(d) excess oxygen H—C—C—C—C—H
(e) acidified potassium manganate(VII) | | | |
H H H H
(b) Branched chain
SPM
(3 C atoms form a straight chain with
2.4 Isomerism ’10/P1,
’10/P2,
’11/P2 1 C atom forming a branch)
1 Isomers are compounds which have the H
same molecular formula but with different |
structural formulae. H—C—H
2 Isomerism is the existence of two or more H H
| |
compounds that have the same molecular
H—C—C—C—H
formula but with different structural formulae. | | |
3 Isomers will have the same chemical properties
H H H
when they have the same functional group.

7 There are three different ways of arranging the five carbon atoms and twelve hydrogen atoms in
pentane, C5H12. Thus C5H12 has three isomers.
(a) Straight chain (b) One branched chain (c) Two branched chains
(5 C atoms form a straight (4 C atoms form a straight (3 C atoms form a straight
chain) chain with 1 C atom chain with 2 C atoms
forming a branch) forming two branches)
H H H H H H H
| | | | | | |
H—C—C—C—C—C—H H—C—H H—C—H
| | | | | H H H H H
H H H H H | | | | |
H—C—C—C—C—H H—C—C—C—H
| | | | | |
H H H H H H
H—C—H
|
H
8 All the alkenes above propene have isomers. Butene, C4H8 has three isomers as follows:
2
(a) Straight chain with a (b) Straight chain with a double (c) Branched chain
double bond at the end of bond in the middle of the (3 C atoms form a straight
the chain chain chain with a double bond and
(4 C atoms form a straight (4 C atoms form a straight 1 C atom forming a branch)
chain with a double bond chain with a double bond H
at the first C atom) at the second C atom) |
H—C—H
H H H H H H H H H H
| | | | | | | | | |
H—C=C—C—C—H H—C—C=C—C—H H—C=C—C—H
| | | | |
H H H H H
9 Naming of branched isomers of alkanes according to the IUPAC system
Step 1
Find the longest continuous chain of carbon For example:

atoms in the molecule and name the longest
chain as the parent chain. H
|
H—C—H
H H H
| | |
H—C—C—C—C—H
| | | |
H H H H
The longest chain has four carbon atoms. The

name of the parent chain is butane.

Step 2
1 Name the branched chain attached to the Formula and name of alkyl groups
parent chain as alkyl group.
2 The alkyl groups are named according to the Number of carbon atoms Formula Name
number of carbon atoms present. 1 –CH3 Methyl
The alkyl group has the general formula CnH2n+1 2 –C2H5 Ethyl
where n = 1, 2, 3… 3 –C3H7 Propyl
H –CH3 (methyl group)

| is attached to the
H—C—H parent chain of four
H H H carbon atoms
| | |
H—C—C—C—C—H
| | | |
H H H H
Step 3
2
Identify the position of the alkyl group that is For example:

attached to the parent chain by number.
H
(a) This is done by numbering the carbon atom in |
the parent chain using the lowest number. H—C—H –CH3 (methyl group)
(b) Use hyphens to separate words from numbers H H H is attached to carbon
in the name, for example: 2 – methyl. | | | number 2

H — C1 — C2 — C3 — C4 — H
| | | |
H H H H
The name of the alkane is 2-methyl butane
carbon side chain is parent chain has

no. 2 –CH3 four carbon atoms
Step 4
1 If there are more than one similar branch, use For example: H
the following prefixes |
(a) di for two similar branched chains H—C—H
(b) tri for three similar branched chains H H H
(c) tetra for four similar branched chains | | |
2 Name the positions of carbon atoms in the H—C—C—C—C—H
| | |
parent chain containing the branches. For
H H H
example, the positions of two branches may
H—C—H
be 2, 2 or 2, 3. |
H
2,2–dimethyl butane
both –CH3 branches two –CH3 parent chain has

attached to carbon no. 2 branches four carbon atoms

Step 5
If there are more than one alkyl group, list the For example:
names of the alkyl groups in alphabetical order.
H H C2H5 CH3 H H
| | | | | |
H — C — C — C — C — C — C — H
| | | | | |
H H H H H H
3-ethyl,4-methylhexane
10 Naming of alkenes according to the IUPAC system SPM

’11/P1
Step 1 For example

H
1 Select the longest carbon chain with the |
double bond (C=C) as the parent alkene. H—C—H
2 Name the parent alkene according to the H H
number of carbon atoms. | |
2
H—C=C—C—H
|
longest chain with C=C
Hhas four carbon atoms
Step 2 H H H H
| | | |
1 Select the position of the double bond by H — C1 — C2 == C3 — C4 — H
double bond
choosing the smallest number for the carbon | | present
atom with the C=C bond. H H
2 Name the position of the double bond with a Correct name but-2-ene
number followed by a hyphen, for example:
2-ene. parents chain has 4 double bond at
carbon atoms carbon no. 2
Wrong name but-3-ene
3, the larger number is not used
Step 3 Example methyl group at carbon

H no. 2
Identify the alkyl group and its position in the |
parent chain as fixed in Step 2. H—C—H
H H H
| | |
H—C—C=C—C—H
| |
H H
2-methylbut-2-ene
–CH3 group at carbon no. 2 C=C at carbon no. 2

1 To choose the longest carbon chain as the parent chain, count the number of carbon atoms which could be in a
straight chain or a bent chain.
For example: –C–
| This is the longest
– C – chain with 6 C atoms
|
–C–C=C–C–C–
2 The alkyl group bonded by a single covalent bond to a carbon atom can rotate in a molecule. It may be drawn as
up or down or at the side in a 2-D structural formula.
For example: These two structures below are not isomers, they are the same compound.
H
|
H—C—H
H H H H H H
| | | | | |
H — C — C = C — C — H H—C—C=C—C—H
| | | |
H H H H
H—C—H
|
2
H
3 The following alkene does not exist because the central carbon atom has five covalent bonds.
C
|
C=C—C
|
C
4 The following alkene structures are the same, they are not isomers.
(a) C = C — C — C — C is the same as C — C — C — C = C
(b) C = C — C — C; C — C — C = C; C — C — C — C are the same isomer.
| | i
C C C
2.4
1 Give the IUPAC name of the following compounds: (c) H H H H
(a) H | | | |
| H ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C = C ⎯ C ⎯ H
H—C—H | | | |
H H H H H — C — H H — C — H H
| | | | |
H—C—C=C—C—H H H
| | 2 Draw and name all the isomers for C5H10.
H H
3 Ethane reacts with chlorine in the presence of sunlight
(b) H
to form a substituted product with the molecular
|
formula of C2H4Cl2. Draw and name all the possible
H H — C — H H H H
isomers of this product. Which of the isomer is also
| | | | |
formed when ethene reacts with chlorine in the
H ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ C = C ⎯ H
addition reaction?
| | |
H H H — C — H
|
H

2.5 Alcohols 7 All alcohols above ethanol have isomers. The
position of the hydroxyl (–OH) group and
1 Alcohols have the general formula CnH2n+1OH the alkyl group are shown by numbering the
where n = 1, 2, 3… The CnH2n+1– group carbon atoms from the end of the carbon
represents the alkyl group. chain which gives the smallest number to the
2 The functional group of alcohol is the –OH group.
hydroxyl (–OH) group. The hydroxyl (–OH) 8 Propanol, C3H7OH has two isomers:
group is joined to the carbon atom in the
alcohol molecule by a single covalent bond.
Structural formula IUPAC name
3 The molecular formula of an alcohol can
be obtained by substituting n in the general (a)
H H H parent chain has three
formula CnH2n+1OH with the number of | | | carbon atoms
carbon atoms. H–C–C–C–H

Correct name propan-1-ol
4 Based on the IUPAC system of naming | | |
straight chain alcohols, the letter e at the end O H H position of the –OH group
name of alkane is replaced by the suffix ol. For | is at the first carbon atom
example H
Wrong name propan-3-ol
CH4 (methane) → CH3OH (methanol) The –OH group is at
C2H6 (ethane) → C2H5OH (ethanol) the first carbon atom 3, the bigger number
is not used
2
Alkane (b) H H H The parent chain has
Alkane formula Alcohol Alcohol formula | | | three carbon atoms
(CnH2n+2) H–C–C–C–H
propan-2-ol
| | |
Methane CH4 Methanol CH3OH
H O H
position of the –OH group
Ethane C2H6 Ethanol C2H5OH | is at the second carbon atom
H
Propane C3H8 Propanol C3H7OH The –OH group is at the
second carbon atom
Butane C4H10 Butanol C4H9OH
9 Butanol, C4H9OH has four isomers as

5 Note that when writing the structural formula
follows:
of alcohols,
(a) each carbon atom should have four single Structural formula IUPAC name
covalent bonds.
(b) each hydrogen atom should have one (a)
single covalent bond. H H H H parent group has
four carbon atoms
(c) each oxygen atom has two single covalent | | | |
bonds. H–C–C–C–C—H
butan-1-ol
(d) the carbon atoms are connected by single | | | |
bonds. O H H H position of the –OH group
6 Methanol and ethanol has one structural | is at the first carbon atom
formula each. Hence they have no isomers. H

H H H (b)
⎮ ⎮ ⎮ H H H H parent group has
H — C — H H—C—C—H ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ four carbon atoms
⎮ ⎮ ⎮ H–C–C–C–C—H
⎮ ⎮ ⎮ ⎮ butan-2-ol
O O H
⎮ ⎮ H O H H
position of the –OH group
⎮
H H is at the second carbon
H atom
methanol ethanol

Structural formula IUPAC name Example H H H
| | |
(c) H—C—C—C—H
methyl group
| | |
at second O O O
H carbon atom
methyl group at
| | |
| second carbon atom
H H H
H—C—H
H H 2-methylpropan-1-ol three-OH groups
| | propan-1,2,3-triol
parent group position of the
H–C–C–C–H has three –OH group
| | | carbon atoms is at the first parent group has three-OH groups
O H H carbon atom three carbon atoms at 1st, 2nd and 3rd
| carbon atoms
H
Industrial Production of Alcohols
methyl group at
(d) second carbon atom 1 Ethanol (C2H5OH) can be produced industrially
H by two processes:
| 2-methylpropan-2-ol (a) The hydration of ethene
H — C — H (b) The fermentation of sugar or starch
H H parent group position of the 2 Hydration of ethene
| |
2
has three –OH group When a mixture of ethene and steam is passed
carbon atoms at second
H–C–C–C–H carbon atom over the catalyst, phosphoric(V) acid (H3PO4)
| | | at 300 °C and high pressure (65 atm), ethanol
H O H is produced.
|
3 Fermentation
H
When yeast is added to sugar or starch, ethanol
and carbon dioxide are produced. The enzyme
called zymase, breaks down the glucose
10 In the naming of an alcohol with more than one molecules to form ethanol and carbon dioxide.
–OH group: yeast
(a) di is used for two –OH groups
SPM
’06/P1
C6H12O6 ⎯⎯→ 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
glucose ethanol carbon
(b) tri is used for three –OH groups dioxide
To prepare ethanol in the laboratory by fermentation and

distillation
Apparatus 3 The yeast paste is added to the glucose solution

Conical flask, boiling tube, thermometer, fractionating and the mixture is stirred well.
column, wire gauze, retort stand, distillation flask, 4 The conical flask is closed with a rubber stopper
rubber stopper, delivery tube, tripod stand and fitted with a delivery tube. The other end of the
Bunsen burner. delivery tube is dipped in limewater.
5 The apparatus is left in a warm place (about 25
Materials – 35 °C) for about one week. The changes that
Glucose, yeast, distilled water and limewater. occur in the conical flask and the test tube are
recorded from time to time.
Procedure
6 After about one week, the products in the
Activity 2.3
1 About 20 g of glucose is dissolved in 200 cm3 of

conical flask are filtered. The filtrate obtained is
distilled water in a conical flask.
transferred into a distillation flask.
2 A little warm water (35 °C) is added to about 5 g
7 The filtrate is distilled in a flask fitted with a
of yeast in a small beaker. The mixture is stirred
fractionating column and Liebig condenser.
well to form a paste.

Figure 2.4 Fermentation process Figure 2.5 Fractional distillation
Result
1 During fermentation, ethanol and carbon dioxide are produced.
2 The carbon dioxide produced causes limewater to turn cloudy.
3 The concentration of ethanol produced in fermentation can be increased by fractional distillation.
Conclusion
Ethanol can be prepared in the laboratory by the fermentation of glucose or any other carbohydrates.
2
2 Ethanol is a volatile liquid because it has a
low boiling point at 78 °C.
Yeast is a living organism. Ethanol is actually a by-product 3 Ethanol is very soluble in water because of the
formed from the living process of yeast. The highest presence of the hydroxyl group.
concentration of ethanol prepared by fermentation is only (a) The hydrocarbon part of alcohol is insoluble
14%. This is because yeast is killed when the ethanol in water.
formed exceeds 14%. Hence higher concentration of (b) Hence alcohol with a large hydrocarbon
ethanol has to be obtained from fractional distillation. chain is insoluble in water.
(c) The solubility of alcohols in water decreases
as the molecular size increases.
Physical Properties of Ethanol and Other
4 Alcohols are neutral and have a pH of 7.
Alcohols 5 Alcohols are covalent compounds. They do not
1 Ethanol is a colourless liquid and has a conduct electricity.
characteristic odour.
To investigate the chemical properties of ethanol
Apparatus
Evaporating dish, wooden splint, test tube, boiling tube, delivery tube with stopper, glass wool, porcelain chips,
beaker, retort stand with clamp and test tube holder.
Materials
Ethanol, concentrated sulphuric acid, potassium dichromate(VI), blue litmus paper and liquid bromine.
Activity 2.4
(A) Combustion of ethanol in air

Procedure
1 About 2 cm3 of ethanol is poured into an evaporating dish.
2 The ethanol is ignited using a lighted wooden splint.
3 The flammability of ethanol and the sootiness of the flame are recorded.

Result 3 Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution is
an oxidising agent.
Nature of combustion Observation
(C) Dehydration of ethanol
Flammability Easily burned
Procedure
Colour of flame Blue 1 Some glass wool is placed in a boiling tube.
Sootiness of flame Non-sooty 2 About 2 cm3 of ethanol is poured into the boiling
tube to soak the glass wool.
Conclusion 3 Some porcelain chips are placed in the mid-
Ethanol burns readily in air. The combustion of ethanol section of the boiling tube.
produces a non-sooty, pale blue flame. The products 4 The boiling tube is closed with a rubber stopper
of combustion are carbon dioxide and water. fitted with a delivery tube. The other end of the
(B) Oxidisation of ethanol delivery tube is placed under an inverted test
tube filled with water in a beaker.
Procedure
5 The porcelain chips are heated strongly until red
1 About 1 cm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid and hot. The Bunsen burner flame is then shifted to the
5 cm3 of potassium dichromate(VI) solution are glass wool to vaporise the ethanol absorbed in it.
poured into a boiling tube. 6 The gas is collected in two test tubes. The gas
2 About 5 cm3 of ethanol is added to the acidified produced is collected by displacement of water
potassium dichromate(VI) solution. and tested with
3 A rubber stopper fitted with a delivery tube is (a) a few drops of bromine water and shaken
inserted into the boiling tube. The delivery tube
2
(b) a few drops of acidified potassium

is inserted into a test tube placed in a beaker manganate(VII) solution and shaken
half-filled with ice-cold water.
4 The mixture of ethanol and acidified potassium SPM
’05/P1
dichromate(VI) is heated gently. Any colour
change in the mixture is noted.
5 The distillate is collected in the test tube and is
tested with litmus paper.
Figure 2.7 Dehydration of ethanol
Figure 2.6 Oxidation of ethanol Result

Result Test on gas collected Observation
Compound Observation With bromine water Brown colour of
bromine is decolourised
Reactant The acidified potassium
mixture dichromate(VI) solution changes With acidified potassium Purple colour of
from orange to green manganate(VII) solution potassium manganate(VII)
is decolourised
A colourless liquid (a vinegary
Distillate smell) which changes blue litmus
paper to red Conclusion
1 When ethanol vapour is passed over heated
Conclusion porcelain chips (aluminium oxide), dehydration
occurs and ethene is produced.
1 When ethanol is boiled with acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) solution, it is oxidised to ethanoic 2 Ethene is confirmed to be present by the
acid. decolourisation of the brown colour of bromine
2 Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a vinegary water and the purple colour of acidified
smell and turns blue litmus paper red. potassium manganate(VII) solution.

Chemical Properties of Ethanol and (b) Dehydration is carried out by
Other Alcohols (i) passing alcohol vapour over heated
porcelain chips or
1 (a) Alcohol undergoes complete combustion (ii) refluxing alcohol with concentrated
SPM when it burns in excess air to produce carbon sulphuric acid (acts as a dehydrating
’08/P2
dioxide and water. agent).
For example (c) Methanol does not undergo dehydration
C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O since there is no alkene with one carbon
ethanol atom.
9
C3H7OH + — O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O
2
propanol
The alcometer (breath tester) used for testing the
(b) Combustion of alcohol such as ethanol breath of suspected drink-driver contains potassium
gives out a lot of heat energy. Hence dichromate(VI). The chemical will oxidise any ethanol
ethanol is a good fuel. present in the breath and produces an electric current.
(c) If the supply of oxygen is insufficient,
incomplete combustion of ethanol occurs.
Carbon monoxide gas, carbon (black soot) Uses of Alcohol in Everyday Life
and water are produced.
2
1 Alcohols as fuels
2 (a) Oxidation of alcohols produces the
When alcohol is burn in air, carbon dioxide
corresponding carboxylic acids.
and water are produced, and a large quantity
For example
of heat energy is released. Ethanol is a clean
K2Cr2O7/H2SO4 fuel because it does not release toxic gases in
CH3CH2OH + 2[O] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ combustion.
ethanol
2 Alcohols as solvents
from K2Cr2O7 CH3COOH + H2O
Alcohols are good solvents for organic
ethanoic acid
compounds such as shellac, varnishes, paints,
perfumes and dyes.
CH3CH2CH2OH + 2[O] ⎯→
3 Uses of alcohols in medicines
propanol
(a) Ethanol is used as a mild antiseptic for
CH3CH2COOH + H2O
skin infection and disinfection.
propanoic acid
(b) Propan-2-ol is used as rubbing alcohol to
(b) Oxidation is carried out by heating the reduce fever.
alcohols with oxidising agents such as 4 Uses of alcohols in cosmetics
acidified potassium manganate(VII) (a) Ethanol is used to make aftershave lotion
solution or acidified potassium and nail polish.
dichromate(VI) solution. (b) Propan-1,2,3-triol (common name is
(c) When oxidation reaction occurs: glycerol) is used in moisturiser.
(i) The colour of potassium dichromate(VI) (c) Alcohols are used as solvents for perfumes.
changes from orange to green. 5 Alcohols as a source of chemicals
(ii) The colour of potassium manganate(VII) (a) Ethanol is oxidised to make vinegar.
changes from purple to colourless (b) Methanol is used to make formalin and
(decolourisation). polymers.
3 (a) Dehydration of alcohols (except methanol) 6 The misuse and abuse of alcohols
produces the corresponding alkenes. (a) Ethanol is a component of alcoholic
For example drink. Excess drinking of alcohol increases
SPM C2H5OH ⎯→ C2H4 + H2O the risk of heart disease, kidney disease
’07/P2,
’06/P1 ethanol ethene and liver disease.
(b) Alcoholism is an addiction caused by
C3H7OH ⎯→ C3H6 + H2O excessive drinking of alcohol for a prolonged
propanol propene period of time.

(c) Driving after drinking too much alcohol Number
can cause road accidents. of carbon Alkane Carboxylic acid
atoms
2.5 1 Methane Methanoic acid
1 Compound X has a molecular formula of C4H8O. 2 Ethane Ethanoic acid
When compound X is refluxed with acidified 3 Propane Propanoic acid
potassium dichromate(VI), the mixture changes
colour from orange to green.
4 The name of the carboxylic acid will depend on
(a) Name the funtional group of compound X.
the number of carbon atoms in its molecule.
(b) What is the general formula of the homologous
series in which compound X is a member. The carbon atom of the functional group is
(c) Draw and name all the isomers of compound counted as part of the carbon chain.
X. 5 The molecular formula of a carboxylic acid can
(d) Write the chemical equation for the reaction be obtained by substituting n in the general
between compound X and acidified potassium formula CnH2n+1COOH with the number of
dichromate(VI). carbon atoms.
2 Identify the compounds P, Q, R, S and T from the 6 In the writing of the structural formula of a
reaction scheme given below: carboxylic acid,
(a) the –COOH group is always at the terminal
KMnO4/
carbon atom (at the end of the chain).
2
yeast
Compound H2SO4 Compound (b) the carboxyl group consists of a carbon
Glucose
P Q atom which forms a double bond with
oxygen, heat porcelain chips, heat oxygen atom and a single covalent bond
with the hydroxyl (–OH) group.
Compound R Compound O double bond

+ T i
compound S –C–O–H
3 State the type of reactions that occur and give the single bond
molecular formulae of compounds W, X, Y and Z
7 The molecular and structural formulae of the
in the following equations.
first four members of carboxylic acids are shown
concentrated H SO
(a) W ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
2 4
C3H6 + H2O in Table 2.7.
phosphoric acid Table 2.7 The names and formulae of the first four
(b) X + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ C3H7OH members of carboxylic acids
K Cr O /H SO Molecular
(c) C4H9OH + 2[O] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
2 2 7 2 4
Y + H2O Name Structural formula
formula
(d) Z + 6O2 ⎯→ 4CO2 + 5H2O
Methanoic HCOOH O
acid i
H — C — OH
2.6 Carboxylic Acids Ethanoic CH3COOH O

acid i
1 Carboxylic acids are organic acids that have CH3 — C — OH
the general formula CnH2n+1COOH, where n is
0, 1, 2, 3 …. Propanoic C2H5COOH O
2 The functional group of carboxylic acids is the acid i
carboxyl group, –COOH. CH3 — CH2 — C — OH
3 Based on the IUPAC system of naming, a Butanoic C3H7COOH O
carboxylic acid is named by replacing the acid i
final letter e in the name of the corresponding CH3 — CH2 — CH2 — C — OH
alkane with oic acid.

Preparation of Carboxylic Acid 2 Ethanoic acid has a vinegary smell.
3 Ethanoic acid is soluble in water.
1 Carboxylic acid is prepared in the laboratory by 4 On going down the homologous series of the
the oxidation of the corresponding alcohol. carboxylic acids,
Example (a) the solubility in water decreases,
oxidation (b) the boiling point increases.
Ethanol ⎯⎯⎯→ ethanoic acid
oxidation
Propanol ⎯⎯⎯→ propanoic acid Chemical Properties of Ethanoic Acid
oxidation
Butanol ⎯⎯⎯→ butanoic acid
1 Ethanoic acid is a weak acid because it
2 In the laboratory, ethanoic acid is prepared by undergoes partial ionisation in water. Only a
the oxidation of ethanol using an oxidising small percentage of the ethanoic acid molecules
agent such as ionise to form hydrogen ions, H+. Most of the
(a) acidified potassium dichromate(VI) or ethanoic acid remains as molecules.
(b) acidified potassium manganate(VII)
CH3COOH CH3COO– + H+
3 The method of heating a mixture of ethanol
and the oxidising agent in a flask fitted with 2 Aqueous ethanoic acid turns blue litmus paper
an upright Liebig condenser is known as red and is an electrolyte.
reflux. 3 Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form salts
4 Heating under reflux is used and water in neutralisation. The salts produced
2
(a) to prevent volatile substances (ethanol in the reaction are known as ethanoate. For
and ethanoic acid) from escaping into the example
atmosphere, CH3COOH + NaOH → CH3COONa + H2O
(b) to ensure that the reactants go to complete ethanoic acid sodium
reaction. ethanoate
5 In the oxidation of ethanol by acidified potassium
2CH3COOH + CuO → (CH3COO)2Cu + H2O
dichromate(VI),
ethanoic copper copper(II)
(a) the colour of potassium dichromate(VI) acid oxide ethanoate
solution changes from orange to green. (black) (blue)
(b) the ethanoic acid produced has a vinegary
smell. 4 Ethanoic acid reacts with metal carbonates
K2Cr2O7/H2SO4 SPM to form salts, carbon dioxide and water. For
CH3CH2OH + 2[O] ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ ’05/P1
example
CH3COOH + H2O 2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 ⎯→
2CH3COONa + CO2 + H2O
sodium ethanoate
2CH3COOH + CaCO3 ⎯→
(CH3COO)2Ca + CO2 + H2O
calcium ethanoate
5 Ethanoic acid reacts with reactive metals such

as magnesium and zinc to form salts and
hydrogen gas.
For example
Figure 2.8 Preparation of ethanoic acid by reflux 2CH3COOH + Mg ⎯→ (CH3COO)2Mg + H2
magnesium ethanoate
Physical Properties of Ethanoic Acid and 2CH3COOH + Zn ⎯→ (CH3COO)2Zn + H2

Other Carboxylic Acids zinc ethanoate
6 Ethanoic acid reacts with an alcohol to form
1 Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid at room ester and water.
temperature. Pure ethanoic acid is known as For example
glacial ethanoic acid because it freezes to Ethanoic acid + ethanol → ethyl ethanoate + water
form colourless crystals which look like ice. (ester)

To study the chemical properties of ethanoic acid
Apparatus Results
Test tubes, beakers, evaporating dish, delivery tube Test Observation
and wooden splints.
(a) Ethanoic acid + Effervescence occurs
sodium carbonate and sodium carbonate
Materials dissolves
Ethanoic acid, sodium hydroxide solution, sodium
carbonate, limewater, magnesium ribbon, glacial (b) Gas released + Gas produced turns
ethanoic acid and concentrated sulphuric acid. limewater limewater cloudy
Conclusion
(A) Reaction of ethanoic acid with a base
Ethanoic acid reacts with sodium carbonate, a metal
carbonate to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
Procedure
1 About 3 cm3 of dilute ethanoic acid is placed in a (C) Reaction between ethanoic acid and a metal
test tube. Procedure SPM
’11/P2
2 About 3 cm3 of sodium hydroxide is added to the
1 About 5 cm3 of ethanoic acid is placed in a test tube.
2
ethanoic acid and the mixture is shaken.

2 A piece of magnesium ribbon is added to the
3 The reaction mixture is poured into an evaporating
ethanoic acid.
dish and is heated until it becomes dry.
3 A lighted splint is placed near the mouth of the
4 The residue left in the evaporating dish is
test tube to test the gas liberated.
observed.
Results
Observation Test Observation
A white powder was left in the evaporating dish. (a) Ethanoic acid + Effervescence occurs and
magnesium the magnesium ribbon
Conclusion dissolves
Ethanoic acid reacts with a base, sodium hydroxide (b) Gas released + Gas burns with a ‘pop’
to produce a salt and water. lighted splint sound when the lighted
splint is placed at the
(B) Reactions between ethanoic acid and a metal mouth of the test tube
carbonate
Conclusion
Procedure Ethanoic acid reacts with magnesium, a metal to
1 About 5 cm3 of ethanoic acid is placed in a test form a salt and hydrogen gas.
tube. (D) Reactions between ethanoic acid and alcohol
2 A spatula of sodium carbonate is added to the
ethanoic acid. Procedure
3 The gas released is passed into limewater. 1 2 cm3 of glacial ethanoic acid is placed into a test
tube.
2 4 cm3 of pure ethanol is added to the ethanoic acid.
3 About 1 cm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid is
added slowly and carefully to the mixture using
Activity 2.5
a dropper.
4 The reaction mixture is shaken and heated slowly
for about 3 minutes.
Figure 2.9 Reaction with ethanoic acid and a 5 The content of the test tube is then poured into a
metal carbonate beaker half-filled with water.

Figure 2.10 Reaction of ethanoic acid and ethanol
Observation 2 An ester is an organic compound formed when a
carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol.
1 An oily product forms a layer on top of the
3 Esterification is the reaction between a carboxylic
water’s surface.
acid and an alcohol to produce ester and water.
2 The product is colourless and has a sweet fruity
4 Concentrated sulphuric acid acts as a catalyst
smell.
to speed up esterification.
Conclusion 5 When ethanoic acid is warmed with ethanol
1 Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol, an alcohol to in the presence of a few drops of concentrated
form an ester and water. sulphuric acid, esterification occurs. The ester
2
2 Ester has a sweet fruity smell and is insoluble in known as ethyl ethanoate and water are produced.
water. conc. H2SO4
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯→
Discussion CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
1 The sweet smelling oily product is an ester. ethyl ethanoate
Chemical properties of other carboxylic acids General

2RCOOH + CaCO3 →
1 All members of the carboxylic acids have (RCOO)2Ca + H2O + CO2
similar chemical properties because they have Example
the same functional group, –COOH. 2HCOOH + CaCO3 →
2 The general formula of a carboxylic acid can (HCOO)2Ca + H2O + CO2
also be written as RCOOH where R is H or an 2C2H5COOH + CaCO3 →
alkyl group. (C2H5COO)2Ca + H2O + CO2
3 All members of this carboxylic group will (d) react with alcohols to form esters and water.
(a) react with alkalis to form salts and water SPM General
General
’06/P1
RCOOH + R′OH → RCOOR′ + H2O
RCOOH + NaOH → RCOONa + H2O Example
Example HCOOH + C2H5OH →
HCOOH + NaOH → HCOONa + H2O HCOOC2H5 + H2O
C2H5COOH + NaOH → C2H5COOH + C2H5OH →
C2H5COONa + H2O C2H5COOC2H5 + H2O
(b) react with active metals to form salts and
hydrogen gas Uses of Carboxylic Acids in Daily Life
General
2RCOOH + Mg → (RCOO)2Mg + H2 Carboxylic acid Use
Example
2HCOOH + Mg → (HCOO)2Mg + H2 Methanoic acid To coagulate latex
2C2H5COOH + Mg →
(C2H5COO)2Mg + H2 Ethanoic acid To make vinegar
(c) react with metallic carbonates to form salts, Benzoic acid Used as a food preservative
carbon dioxide and water

Alkane cracking Alkene hydration Alcohol oxidation Carboxylic Acid
CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n+2OH CnH2n+1COOH
hydrogenation dehydration
combustion
combustion combustion esterification
Carbon dioxide and water Ester

RCOOR′
2.6 SPM 3 The functional group of esters is the carboxylate

’11/P1
group, –COO–.
1 Compound X with an empirical formula of CH2O 4 The name of an ester is derived from the alcohol
has a relative molecular mass of 60. and the carboxylic acid used to prepare it.
(a) Calculate the molecular formula of X and draw (a) The first part of the name of the ester is
its structural formula. taken from the alkyl group of the alcohol.
(b) Identify the functional group of X and give its Example
general formula.
2
(c) Write a balanced equation between X and Alcohol Alkyl group

calcium carbonate. Predict the observation that
will take place. Methanol Methyl
[Relative atomic mass: of H,1; C,12; O,16]
Ethanol Ethyl
2 (a) Give the name and molecular formula for a
carboxylic acid that has five carbon atoms. Propanol Propyl
(b) Give the molecular formula of the organic Butanol Butyl
compound formed when the carboxylic acid
named in (a) reacts with
(i) sodium hydroxide (b) The second part of the name comes from
(ii) magnesium metal the carboxylic acid. The ending –oic of
3 Compound P, with a molecular formula of C3H8O carboxylic acid is replaced by –oate.
is converted to compounds Q and R in the Example
following reaction scheme.
Step I: K2Cr2O7/H2SO4 Carboxylic acid Carboxylate group
P Q
Methanoic acid Methanoate
Step II
Ethanoic acid Ethanoate
R Propanoic acid Propanoate
(a) Identify compound Q and compound R.
(b) State the condition of reaction in Step II.
(c) In general, the names of esters are of
(c) Name the types of reactions that have occurred
the form ‘alkyl carboxylate’ where alkyl
in Steps I and II.
comes from the alcohol used to prepare
the ester.
Example
2.7 Esters
Alcohol Carboxylic acid Names of ester
1 The general formula for an ester is Methanol Methanoic acid Methyl methanoate
CnH2n+1COOCmH2m+1, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4…
and m = 1, 2, 3, 4…. Methanol Ethanoic acid Methyl ethanoate
2 The general formula for an ester can also be Ethanol Ethanoic acid Ethyl ethanoate
written as R–COO–R′ where R and R′ are alkyl
Ethanol Propanoic acid Ethyl propanoate
groups.

5 In the writing of the structural formula of an Hence, the name of the ester is ethyl
ester using the general formula R–COO–R′, propanoate.
the part R– CO comes from the carboxylic acid 7 The reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic
and the part of O– R′ comes from the alcohol. acid to produce an ester and water is known
6 Generally, O as esterification.
i General Alcohol + carboxylic acid →
R – C – OR′ ester + water
from carboxylic acid from alcohol
Example C2H5OH + CH3CH2COOH →
ethanol propanoic acid
Example O
i O
CH3CH2C O – CH2CH3 i
CH3CH2C O–CH2CH3 + H2O
from propanoic acid from ethanol ethyl propanoate
SPM
Steps in naming an ester ’07/P1,
’06/P1
Example: the alcohol part (bonded

Step 1
to –O) is –CH3, hence the
O prefix is methyl
Identify the alcohol part of the ester. i
2
The alcohol part is the alkyl part bonded to CH3 — CH2 — C — O — CH3
oxygen atom by single bond.
Step 2 O
i
Identify the carboxylic acid part of the ester. CH3 — CH2 — C — O — CH3
The acid part is the alkyl part bonded to the
carbon atom with a double bond with oxygen. the carboxylic part (with – C=O) has altogether
3 C atoms, hence it is from propanoic acid
Step 3
Combine the two parts to name the ester. Name of ester is methyl propanoate
The alcohol part is named first.
2 ’07
The molecular formula below represents an organic Solution this is the acid part as
compound. it is bonded to C=O
this is the alcohol
part as it is bonded
O O to O atom
i i
CH3 — C — O — CH2 — CH2 — CH3 CH3 — C — O — CH2 — CH2 — CH3

from ethanoic acid from propanol
What is the name of the compound? (ester is ethanoate) (prefix is propyl)
The name of the compound is propyl ethanoate.

Writing the structural formula of an ester SPM
’07/P1
To predict the formula of an ester prepared from Example

a named alcohol and a named carboxylic acid. Write the structural formula of the ester produced
from butanol and propanoic acid.
Step 1 General formula is
Write the general formula of ester in the form O

R – COO – R′ i
R – C – O – R′
Step 2 Alcohol is butanol, with four C atoms.

Hence R′ is –CH2CH2CH2CH3.
Write down the structural formula of the alcohol
O
part to replace –R′(R bonded to O by single i
bond) R – C – O – CH2CH2CH2CH3
2
Step 3 Carboxylic acid is propanoic acid, with three C

atoms. Hence RCO– is CH3CH2CO–.
Write down the structural formula of the acid
O
part to replace R– (R bonded to C=O) i
CH3CH2C–
Step 4 Structural formula of ester is:

O
Replace –OR′ with the alcohol part and the i
R–CO– with the carboxylic part in R – COO – R′ CH3 — CH2 — C — O — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH3
for the full structure of the ester.
3 ’07
Preparation of Ethyl Ethanoate
1 Small quantities of ethyl ethanoate can be
Write the chemical equation for the reaction between
prepared by heating a mixture of glacial
methanol and ethanoic acid.
ethanoic acid with pure ethanol in the
Solution presence of a small quantity of concentrated
Methanol, an alcohol reacts with ethanoic acid, a sulphuric acid in a boiling tube.
carboxylic acid to produce an ester and water. The 2 To prepare large quantity of esters, the alcohol
ester will be methyl ethanoate. and carboxylic acid need to be heated under
reflux.
CH3OH + CH3COOH → CH3COOCH3 + H2O 3 Heating under reflux is necessary as ethanol,
C2H5OH is very volatile. If the mixture is not
heated under reflux, the ethanol C2H5OH will
vaporise and escape into the atmosphere before
it can react with ethanoic acid, CH3COOH.

SPM
To prepare ethyl ethanoate ’04/P3
Apparatus
Round bottomed flask, Liebig condenser, oil bath,
porcelain chips
Materials
Pure ethanol, glacial ethanoic acid and concentrated
sulphuric acid
Procedure
1 About 30 cm3 of pure ethanol and 25 cm3 of
glacial ethanoic acid are placed in a round bottom
Figure 2.11 Preparation of ethyl ethanoate by reflux
flask. Small pieces of porcelain chips are added
to prevent bumping and to ensure smooth boiling. Observation
2 About 5 cm3 of concentrated sulphuric acid is A colourless liquid with a fragrant odour is obtained.
added to the reaction mixture. The mixture is
shaken gently to ensure complete mixing. Conclusion
3 The Liebig condenser is fitted vertically to the Ethyl ethanoate is produced when ethanoic acid and
2
round bottom flask. The mixture is boiled under ethanol are heated in the presence of concentrated
reflux for about 30 minutes. sulphuric acid as a catalyst.
4 After boiling, pure ethanol is obtained by
distillation. CH3COOH + C2H5OH → CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
Natural Sources of Esters 2.7

1 Most of the simple esters exist naturally 1 Name the following esters and identify the
in flowers and fruits. For example, pentyl alcohols and carboxylic acids required to prepare
ethanoate is found in bananas, octyl ethanoate these esters.
in lime and methyl butanoate in apples. (a) HCOOCH3
(b) CH3COOC3H7
2 These volatile esters are responsible for the
(c) C3H7COOCH3
fragrant smell of flowers and fruits.
3 Vegetable oils and animal fats are esters with 2 Name and draw the structural formulae of
the organic compounds produced from the
large molecules. For example, coconut oil and
reactions between the following pairs of organic
palm oil. compounds.
4 Waxes such as beeswax, wax found on leaves (a) Methanol + propanoic acid
and candle wax are solid esters. (b) Propan-1-ol + ethanoic acid
(c) Propan-1-ol + methanoic acid
Uses of Esters in Daily Life 3 Methanol reacts with butanoic acid under certain
conditions to produce an ester.
(a) Write a balanced equation for the reaction
To make perfumes, Used as solvents
that occurs.
cosmetics and artificial for many organic (b) State the conditions for the reaction that took
food flavourings compounds place.
(c) State two physical properties of the ester
produced.
Activity 2.6
Uses of esters
To make Esters in oils Used as

synthetic are used to medicine, for
polymers make soap example, aspirin

stearic acid is C17H35COOH or CH3(CH2)16COOH
2.8 Oils and Fats 2 A fatty acid with a carbon-carbon double bond is
SPM an unsaturated acid.
1 Oils and fats are naturally occurring esters ’08/P1
For example:
and are found in animals and plants. Oleic acid is C17H33COOH or
2 Fats (for example, butter) are found in animals. CH3(CH2)7CH = CH(CH2)7COOH
Oils are usually found in plants and fish.
3 Fats are solids at room temperature. In contrast
oils are liquids at room temperature. Hence The importance of oils and fats for body
fats have higher melting points than oils.
processes
4 When fats and oils are hydrolysed, glycerol
SPM and long chain carboxylic acids are formed.
’08/P1
Hydrolysis means the decomposition (breaking Sources of energy: Source of nutrients:
up) of a chemical substance by water. Fats are high energy Fats are required to
Ester + water → carboxylic acid + glycerol food, they provide enable the human
energy for our body to absorb
5 The carboxylic acids produced from fats are bodies. vitamins A, D, E
also known as fatty acids. Fatty acids usually and K
contain 16 or 18 carbon atoms per molecule.
6 Glycerol is an alcohol that contains three
hydroxyl (–OH) groups per molecule.
2
Importance of oils and

H H H
| | | fats in our bodies
H—C—C—C—H
| | |
OH OH OH Thermal insulation: Protection:
propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerol) The layer of fat The layer of fats
7 There are two types of carboxylic acids, namely, beneath the skin around the vital
saturated carboxylic acids and unsaturated regulates body organs acts as a
carboxylic acids. temperature protective cushion
(a) Saturated carboxylic acids do not contain
double bonds.
(b) Unsaturated carboxylic acids contain Conversion of Unsaturated Fats to
double bonds. Saturated Fats
8 Animal fats usually contain a high percentage
of saturated carboxylic acids whereas vegetable 1 Vegetable oils can be converted to saturated
oils and fish oil contain a high percentage of fats by hydrogenation.
unsaturated carboxylic acids upon hydrolysis. 2 Hydrogenation is the chemical process in
9 Saturated fats are fats that contain saturated which hydrogen is added to the double bond
carboxylic acids. Unsaturated fats are fats that between carbon atoms (C = C bond).
contain unsaturated carboxylic acids. 3 The hydrogenation process will change liquid
10 The presence of double bonds in unsaturated vegetable oils to solid fats.
fats causes them to have lower melting points 4 In the manufacture of margarine from
than saturated fats. Hence unsaturated fats vegetable oil, hydrogenation is carried out by
(commonly known as oils) exist as liquids at passing hydrogen gas into palm oil at 200 °C
room temperature. and 4 atmospheres in the presence of nickel
powder as catalyst.
Ni
Palm oil + hydrogen ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
200 °C, 4 atm
1 A fatty acid with the general formula of CnH2n+1COOH margarine (fat)
is a saturated acid.
For example: 5 The hardness of margarine formed depends
Palmitic acid is C15H31COOH or CH3(CH2)14COOH on the degree of hydrogenation. Partial
and hydrogenation will produce soft margarine.

Effects of Eating Food High in Fats on 2.8
Health
1 State one similarity and one difference between
1 Food high in fats is high in calories. Hence fats and oils
(a) in terms of their molecular structures.
high comsumption can lead to obesity.
(b) in terms of their physical properties.
2 Saturated fats contain a high percentage of
cholesterol. Excess intake of saturated fats 2 Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid whereas oleic
acid is an unsaturated fatty acid.
increase the risk of
(a) Explain what is meant by a saturated fatty
(a) hypertension (high blood pressure) acid and an unsaturated fatty acid.
(b) cardiovascular disease (heart disease) (b) Give a test to differentiate stearic acid from oleic
(c) stroke acid.
3 (a) Name the process in which palm oil is
Industrial Extraction of Palm Oil converted to margarine.
(b) State the conditions required for this conversion.
1 There are two types of oil extracted from fresh (c) State one difference in physical property between
oil palm fruits. palm oil and margarine.
(a) Palm oil from the flesh of the fruit
(b) Palm kernel oil from the kernel or seed
2 The flowchart shows the steps involved for the
extraction of palm oil in the palm oil mill. 2.9 Natural Rubber
2
Fruit branches are sterilised to
Sterilisation Natural Polymers
kill fungus and bacteria
1 Polymers can be classified into two broad

Fruits are separated from the categories: natural polymers and synthetic
Stripping
branches polymers.
2 Examples of naturally-occurring polymers are
Fruits are heated to break down
natural rubber, carbohydrates and proteins.
Digestion 3 The monomer of natural rubber is isoprene,
the oil-bearing cells
C5H8. Hence natural rubber is polyisoprene.
Natural rubber is produced by the addition
Pressing Oil is pressed out from fruits polymerisation of isoprene.
H CH3 H H
| | | | addition polymerisation
Mixture is filtered to separate the n(H — C = C — C = C — H) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
Purification
oil. Oil is then dried. isoprene (monomer)
H CH3 H H
| | | |
Advantage of palm oil as a vegetable oil — ( C ⎯ C = C ⎯ C— )n
| |
Rich in Vitamins Lower the LDL or bad H H
A and E cholesterol and raise the poly(isopropene) – natural rubber
HDL or good cholesterol in
the body 4 The monomers for carbohydrates such as
sugar, starch and cellulose is glucose.
When starch is heated with dilute acid, glucose is
Advantage of palm oil as produced. This reaction is called hydrolysis.
a vegetable oil
– (C6H10O5)n– + nH2O → nC6H12O6
Withstand heat and Highly competive in starch glucose
resistant to oxidation, price.
5 The monomers of proteins are amino acids.
hence suitable to be Cheaper than other
Amino acids are joined together by peptide
used for deep frying types of vegetable oils
linkages. Hence proteins are polypeptides.

Coagulation of Latex (a) the hydrogen ions from the acid neutralise
the negative charges on the membranes’
1 The milky fluid from tapped rubber trees is surfaces of the colloidal particles.
called latex. (b) When the neutral rubber particles collide,
2 The conversion of latex to the solid form is the membranes will break, releasing the
known as coagulation. rubber polymers to form lumps. Hence
3 Latex is a colloidal solution containing an the latex solidifies.
aqueous suspension of rubber particles. 8 The coagulation of latex can occur without the
addition of acid if the latex is exposed to air
4 Each rubber particle contains rubber polymers
for a few days. This is because
enclosed with a protein membrane with
(a) the bacteria present in the latex produces
negative charge.
organic acids.
5 The negative charge on the membrane’s surface (b) the hydrogen ions from the acids produced
repel colloidal particles from one another, neutralises the negative charges on the
preventing the rubber polymers from rubber particles.
combining together. Hence the latex remains 9 Coagulation of latex can be prevented by the
in liquid form. addition of aqueous ammonia because
6 Coagulation of rubber can be speeded up by (a) the hydroxide ions from aqueous ammonia
the addition of acids. neutralise the acids produced by bacteria.
7 The addition of a weak acid on latex causes (b) the negative charges at the membranes of
coagulation because rubber particles are maintained.
2
add a weak coagulation

acid of latex
• Latex is coagulated by adding a weak • The collisions between • The rubber polymers can
acid such as methanoic acid or ethanoic latex particles break coalesce (combine) and
acid. When an acid is added to latex, open the protein form lumps of rubber.
the hydrogen ions from the acid will membrane and releases This process of forming
neutralise the negative charges on the the rubber polymers. lumps of rubber is called
surfaces of the colloidal particles. coagulation of latex.
As a result, the particles become neutral • The lumps of rubber are
and can come closer and collide with white solids and are quite
one another. elastic.
Figure 2.12 The coagulation of latex
To investigate the coagulation of latex and methods to SPM

’08/P3
prevent coagulation
Apparatus Procedure
Beaker, glass rod and dropper 1 About 50 cm3 of latex are placed in three beakers
Activity 2.7
labelled A, B and C respectively.

Materials
2 Using a dropper, dilute ethanoic acid is added to
Fresh latex, dilute ethanoic acid, dilute aqueous the latex in beaker B. The mixture is stirred with
ammonia and blue litmus paper. a glass rod until the latex becomes acidic (blue
litmus paper turns red).

3 Aqueous ammonia is slowly added to beaker Chemicals added
C until the latex becomes alkaline (red litmus Beaker Observation
to latex
paper turns blue).
4 The three beakers are left overnight. The changes B Latex + acid Coagulation of latex
that occurred are recorded. occurs rapidly
C Latex + aqueous Latex does not
ammonia coagulate (no visible
changes)
Conclusion
1 Acids such as ethanoic acid speed up the
coagulation of latex.
Figure 2.13 To investigate the coagulation of latex 2 Alkalis such as aqueous ammonia slow down the
coagulation of latex.
Results 3 Coagulation of latex can occur by itself slowly.
Chemicals added
Beaker Observation
to latex
A Latex only Coagulation occurs
slowly
2
Properties of Natural Unvulcanised 6 Vulcanisation is the process of hardening
SPM
’10/P1 rubber by heating it with sulphur or sulphur
Rubber and Vulcanised Rubber
compounds.
1 Natural rubber has the following properties: 7 Vulcanisation of rubber is carried out by
(a) Quite elastic (a) heating natural rubber with sulphur at
(b) Water repellent about 140 °C, using zinc oxide as catalyst,
(c) Does not conduct electricity (b) immersing rubber in a solution of disulphur
2 Elasticity is the ability of an object to be dichloride (S2Cl2) in methylbenzene.
stretched and then returned to its original 8 In vulcanised rubber, the sulphur atoms form
shape when the stress is removed. cross-links between long chains of rubber
3 Natural rubber before treatment with sulphur polymers.
rubber polymer
is unvulcanised rubber. c c
4 Unvulcanised natural rubber has few practical s s sulphur
uses because s c s cross-links
(a) it is not elastic enough c s c TC 2/15
(b) it becomes soft and sticky when heated s
c c c
(c) it becomes brittle and crack easily when
oxidised by oxygen. Figure 2.15 Vulcanised rubber has sulphur cross-links
5 When unvulcanised rubber is stretched, the 9 Vulcanised rubber has many uses because
coiled rubber molecule is lengthened and of improved properties. Vulcanisation makes
straightened. the rubber more elastic, stronger and more
resistant to heat and oxidation.
Improved properties of
Explanation
vulcanised rubber
Stronger and harder The sulphur cross-links
prevent the polymer
polymer chain of rubber polymer chain of rubber chains from slipping
under ordinary conditions when straightened past one another when
stretched
Figure 2.14 Unvulcanised rubber is not very elastic

Improved properties of Improved properties of
Explanation Explanation
vulcanised rubber vulcanised rubber
More elastic The sulphur cross-links More resistant to Sulphur cross-links
pull the chains back to oxygen reduce the number of
their original arrangement double bonds in the
when released molecules of vulcanised
rubber
More resistant to heat The presence of sulphur
increases the melting
point of rubber
To produce vulcanised rubber and to compare the properties

of vulcanised rubber and unvulcanised natural rubber
(A) Preparation of natural rubber and vulcanised Materials

rubber
Vulcanised rubber and unvulcanised rubber.
Apparatus Procedure
Glass plate, beaker, a pair of tongs and razor blade. 1 A strip of vulcanised rubber is hung using a clip.
2
Materials 2 The original length of the vulcanised rubber strip

Disulphur dichloride in methylbenzene and rubber is measured.
latex. 3 A 20 g weight is hung on the strip of vulcanised
rubber.
Procedure 4 The increase in length of the vulcanised rubber strip
1 A small quantity of latex is poured on a glass plate. is measured.
2 A glass rod is used to level the latex to produce a 5 The weight is removed and the final length of the
flat, thin layer of latex about 1 mm thick. vulcanised rubber strip is measured again.
3 The glass plate is put aside for one day for the 6 Steps 1 to 5 are repeated using the unvulcanised
latex to coagulate. rubber strip of the same length to replace the
4 The rubber produced is cut into two strips of vulcanised rubber strip.
rubber of equal size using a razor blade.
5 One of the strips of rubber is dipped into a solution FOLS
of disulphur dichloride in methylbenzene for 2-3
UHWRUWVWDQG
minutes to produce a strip of vulcanised rubber. UXEEHUVWULS
6 The strip of vulcanised rubber is then removed
from the solution and dried with filter paper.
(B) To compare the elasticity of vulcanised rubber
UXOHU
and unvulcanised rubber WKUHDG
JZHLJKW
Apparatus
Clip, retort stand with clamp, metre rule and SPM
’06/P3
weight.
Figure 2.16 To compare the elasticity of rubber
Results
Final length after
Original length Stretched length Increase in length
Type of rubber weight is removed
(cm) with weight (cm) (cm)
Activity 2.8
(cm)
Unvulcanised
X X1 X1 – X = Y1 Y3
rubber
Vulcanised rubber X X2 X2 – X = Y2 Y4

Discussion
1 The increase in length of vulcanised rubber is taken off (that is Y4 < Y3). This shows that
(stretched length) is less than the increase in the vulcanised rubber is more elastic than
length of unvulcanised rubber (that is, Y2 < Y1). unvulcanised rubber.
This shows that vulcanised rubber is harder and
stronger than unvulcanised rubber. Conclusion
2 The vulcanised rubber has a higher ability to Vulcanised rubber is harder, stronger and more
return to its original length after the weight elastic than unvulcanised rubber.
Uses of Natural Rubber

1 Unvulcanised natural rubber has limited uses 2 Unvulcanised natural rubber is used for
as it is soft, has poor heat resistance and does making adhesive (glue) and as crepe rubber in
not wear well. It becomes soft and sticky when insulating blankets.
heated. It also becomes hard and brittle due 3 Vulcanised rubber has many uses in industries
to oxidation. and home.
Vehicle tyres Surgical gloves and Shoe soles

protective gloves
2
Shock absorbers Rubber hoses
Things
made from
Insulating layer for electric
vulcanised
cables and equipment
natural
rubber
Conveyor belts
Balloons Rubber mattresses Rubber bands
Research on Natural Rubber in Malaysia

1 In Malaysia, the research and development on 2 The scope of research and development activities
rubber is conducted by the include
(a) Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia (a) finding new uses of rubber and rubber
(RRIM) products
(b) Malaysian Rubber Producer Research (b) improving the quality of natural rubber
Association (MRPRA) (c) automating the tapping system so as to
(c) Rubber Board of Malaysia overcome labour shortage.

2.9 2.11 The Variety of Organic
1 Complete the following table. Materials in Nature
Natural polymer Monomer
Uses of Various Organic Materials in
Protein
Everyday Life
Isoprene
1 Organic compounds were originally extracted
Carbohydrate
from living things, products or remains of
Starch living things. The term organic actually means
‘derived from living organisms’. Living things
2 State the chemicals used in the following processes are made of complex organic compounds that
in rubber industries and their effects on the
have structural, chemical or genetic functions.
properties of rubber.
2 However since the nineteenth century, organic
(a) Coagulation
(b) Vulcanisation compounds have been synthesised in the
laboratory from inorganic materials. In 1828,
3 What causes latex to coagulate under natural
the German chemist Friedrich Wohler was able
conditions? Suggest a method to prevent this
phenomenon. to synthesise urea (an organic compound)
from ammonium cyanate (an inorganic
compound).
2
3 In present times, thousands of organic

2.10 Order in Homologous compounds are synthesised every year to
Series fulfill our needs in the modern society.
These synthetic organic compounds include
synthetic polymers, vitamins, medicines,
1 Organic compounds are grouped in families
cosmetics, pesticides, paints, varnishes,
called the homologous series to make the
glues, adhesives, synthetic fibers for clothing
study of organic chemistry more systematic
materials and others.
and orderly.
4 Organic synthesis is the preparation of
2 Alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, carboxylic acids and
specific and desired organic compounds from
esters are examples of homologous series.
readily available resources.
3 The chemical properties of members of a
5 Research and development towards natural
homologous series are the same as they have
organic compounds enable us to
the same functional group.
(a) simulate the structure of natural organic
4 The physical properties of members of a
compounds and make useful synthetic
homologous series show a regular pattern
organic compounds which are imitations
and change gradually as the number of
of natural compounds. Examples: Dyes,
carbon atoms increases.
food flavours, fragrances and medicines.
• Relative molecular (b) extract the active ingredients from
mass increases traditional medicines. Cheaper and more
Descending the • Melting point effective medicines without side effects
homologous increases can then be made commercially. Generic
series as the medicines are made to lower the cost of
• Boiling point medicines for consumers.
number of increases
carbon atoms (c) produce seeds of higher quality and more
• Volatility decreases resistant towards pests, so as to increase
increases
• Density increases the yield of food production.
• Solubility decreases (d) find new uses for agriculture products.
For example, oil palm waste is used to
5 The order in the physical properties of members produce biomass fuel and make composite
in a homologous series enables us to predict construction materials.
the properties of an unknown member in the 6 The economical development of our country
series. depends heavily on products of organic

compounds such as petroleum, palm oil and 8 In 2012, universities and research institutes in
natural rubber. collaboration with Agensi Innovasi Malaysia
7 Presently, research and development of natural have successfully developed products such as
resources in our country is encouraged to disease-resistant chilli, lumber from oil palm,
produce new and useful organic compounds. coconut body armour, biopesticide to control
New synthetic medicines are developed mosquito larvae and mosquito repellant gel.
to combat disease and new polymers are
synthesised to replace the use of metals and
even replace organs in our bodies.
1 Organic carbon compounds include hydrocarbons (b) Hydrolysis of ethene (phosphoric acid as a
such as alkanes and alkenes, alcohols, carboxylic catalyst)
acids, esters, fats and oils and natural rubber. 7 Chemical properties of carboxylic acids (general
2 Physical properties of alkanes and alkenes: formula: CnH2n+1COOH):
(a) Low melting and boiling points (a) Reacts with reactive metals to form salts and H2
2
(b) Insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents gas
(c) Non-conductors of electricity (b) Reacts with metal carbonates to form salts and
3 Chemical properties of alkanes (general formula: CO2 gas
CnH2n+2): (c) Reacts with alkalis to form salts and H2O
(a) Combustion in excess oxygen to form CO2 and (d) Esterification with alcohols to form esters and
H2O H2O
(b) Substitution reactions with halogen under 8 Physical properties of esters (general formula:
ultraviolet light RCOOR′):
4 Chemical properties of alkenes (general formula: (a) Have sweet/ fragrant/ fruity smells
CnH2n): (b) Insoluble in water
(a) Combustion in excess oxygen to form CO2 and 9 Fats and oils are esters.
H2O (a) Fats are solids (with lower melting points) and
(b) Addition reaction are saturated (without C = C bonds).
(i) with H2 (hydrogenation) to form alkanes (b) Oils are liquids (with higher melting points) and
(ii) with H2O (hydrolysis) to form alcohols are unsaturated (with C = C bonds).
(iii) with KMnO4 to form diols (c) Oils can be converted to margarine by
(iv) with Cl2 or Br2 to form dichloroalkanes or hydrogenation.
dibromoalkanes 10 Hydrolysis of fats (or oils) will produced fatty acids
(c) Polymerisation to form polymers (long chained carboxylic acids) and glycerol.
5 Chemical properties of alcohols (general formula: 11 Coagulation is the conversion of liquid latex to
CnH2n+1OH): rubber solid. It
(a) Combustion in excess oxygen to form CO2 and (a) can be speeded by the addition of acids.
H2O (b) can occur slowly when the bacteria present
(b) Oxidation by acidified KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7 to form produce acids.
carboxylic acids (c) can be prevented by the addition of aqueous
(c) Dehydration by heated porcelain to form ammonia.
alkenes 12 Vulcanisation of rubber is the conversion of natural
(d) Esterification with carboxylic acids (with conc. rubber to vulcanised rubber by forming sulphur
H2SO4 as a catalyst) to form esters cross-links between rubber polymers. Vulcanised
6 Preparation of ethanol, C2H5OH: rubber is stronger, harder, more elastic and more
(a) Fermentation of glucose by yeast resistant to heat and oxidation.

2
2.1 6 Which of the following produces 9 Propene can be transformed to

Carbon Compounds the most soot when burned in air? propane by the process of
1 Which of the following is an A Methane ’07 A hydration
organic compound? B Ethane B oxidation
A Calcium carbonate C Butane C dehydration
B Glucose D Hexane D hydrogenation
C Carbon monoxide
D Copper(II) oxide
10 A hydrocarbon compound is
burnt completely in air to form
’05 7.2 cm3 of carbon dioxide gas
2 Which of the following products
and 7.2 cm3 of water vapour.
are formed from the complete 2.3 Alkenes What is the molecular formula
combustion of all organic
of the hydrocarbon compound?
2
compounds? 7 Which of the following

[Given that 1 mol of gas
A Water and carbon dioxide substances can be used to
’04 differentiate propene from
occupies 24 dm3 at room
B Carbon dioxide and carbon
temperature]
monoxide propane?
A C2H6
C Water, carbon dioxide and A Limewater
B C3H6
nitrogen dioxide B Bromine water
C C3H8
D Carbon and water C Sodium hydroxide solution
D C6H6
D Potassium dichromate(VI)
solution
2.2 Alkanes 11 What is the product formed
8 Which of the following is when propene is shaken with
3 Which of the following is a the structural formula of an ’10 chlorine water?
saturated hydrocarbon? ’05 unsaturated hydrocarbon? A 1, 1- dichloropropane
’06 A Alkane B 2, 2 -dichloropropane
B Alkene H H H H C 1, 2- dichloropropane
C Alcohol | | | |
D 1, 3- dichloropropane
D Carboxylic acid A H — C—C=C—C—H
| |
H H 12 The diagram below shows
4 Which of the following substances the structural formula of a
can undergo substitution reaction H H H H ’11 compound.
’06 with chlorine in sunlight?
| | | |
B H — C—C=C—C—H H
A Ethane | | |
B Ethene H OH H—C—H
C Ethanol
H H H
D Ethanoic acid | | |
H O
| i H—C=C—C—C—H
C H — C—C—O—H | |
5 What are the products formed | H H
when ethane is burnt with H
’07 excess oxygen? What is the name of this
A Carbon and hydrogen H H H H compound?
B Carbon dioxide and water | | | | A Pentene
C Carbon monoxide and water D H — C—C—C—C—H B Methylbutene
D Carbon monoxide and | | | | C 2-methylbut-1-ene
hydrogen H H H H D 2-methylbut-2-ene

13 Polypropene is a polymer that A Pentane H
is formed from the combination B Methylbutane |
’07 of propene molecules. Which of C 2-methylbutane H—C—H
the following represents part of D 3-methylbutane H H
the structure of polypropene? | |
H—C—C=C—H
|
H H H H 16 Which of the following pairs of
| | | | H
compounds are isomers?
A — C — C — C — C — A Butane and butene What is the name of the
| | | | B Butane and 2-methylbutane compound formed when
H H H H C But-1-ene and compound X reacts with
2-methylpropene potassium permanganate?
H CH3 H CH3 A Butanol
| | | | D 2,2-dimethyl propane and
2-methylpropane B 2-methylpropanol
B — C — C — C — C —
| | | | C Butan-1,2-diol
H H H H D 2-methylpropan-1,2-diol
H CH3 H H 2.5 Alcohols 20 The diagram below shows

| | | | the structural formula of
C — C — C — C — C — 17 The diagram shows the set-up ’04 pent-1-ene.
| | | | of apparatus for the reaction of
H H H H H
H CH3 H H ’06 yeast with glucose solution.
| | | | |
2
H—C=C—C—C—C—H
CH3 H H H | | |
| | | |
H H H
D — C — C — C — C —
| | | | Which of the following are
H H H H the possible alcohols that
can produce pent-1-ene on
dehydration?
I Pentan-1-ol
2.4 Isomerism II Pentan-2-ol
III Pentan-3-ol
14 Which of the following is IV 2-methylbutan-1-ol
true of all the isomers of a What is the name of the reaction A I and II only
hydrocarbon? that has taken place in the conical B II and IV only
A They have the same structural flask after a few days? C I and IV only
formula. A Oxidation D I, II and III only
B They have the same functional B Hydration
group. C Hydrolysis 21 The diagram below shows the
C They have the same chemical D Fermentation set-up of the apparatus for a
properties. ’05 reaction.
D They produce the same
number of moles of carbon glass wool
18 The following chemical equation soaked with
dioxide and water on porcelain compound X
shows the conversion of ethanol ethanol
chips
complete combustion. ’04 to ethanoic acid.
C2H5OH + 2[O] →
15 The structural formula of a
CH3COOH + H2O heat heat
compound is given below.
’05 What is the name of the process
H
| shown by the above equation?
H—C—H A Dehydration
B Reduction water
H H H
| | | C Oxidation Which of the following is

H—C—C—C—C—H D Fermentation compound X?
| | | | A Ethane TC 2/18
H H H H B Ethene
Which of the following is the 19 The diagram shows the structural C Ethanoic acid
IUPAC name for the compound? formula of compound X. D Carbon dioxide

22 CH3 Which of the following is the
| Glucose
structural formula for compound
H3C – C – OH fermentation Z?
| O
H X i
Which of the following may oxidation
A C2H5 — C — O — CH3
be true of the compound
represented in the figure O
Y
above? i
A Decolourise the brown colour B CH3 — C — O — C3H7
Which of the following pairs of
of bromine water.
compounds may be compound
B Decolourise the purple colour O
X and compound Y?
of cold aqueous potassium i
permanganate. C C2H5 — C — O — C2H5
X Y
C Changes the orange colour
of potassium dichromate to A Ethanol Ethanoic acid O
green when heated. B Ethanol Ethene i
D Produces a sweet-smelling D C2H5 — C — O — C3H7
C Propanol Propanoic acid
liquid when heated with
ethanol and concentrated D Yeast Carbon dioxide
sulphuric acid.
29 Which of the following equations
2
2.7 Esters can produce a product with a

2.6 Carboxylic Acids ’06 sweet fruity scent?
26 Scented flowers contain naturally
I CH3COOH + NaOH →
23 Compound X has the following occurring esters. Which of the
’04 following is a property of an CH3COONa + H2O
properties:
ester? II CH3OH + C2H5COOH →
• Reacts with sodium carbonate C2H5COOCH3 + H2O
A Soluble in water
to produce a gas that turns III C2H5OH + 2[O] →
B Low boiling point
limewater milky.
C Higher density than water CH3COOH + H2O
• Reacts with ethanol to
D Change blue litmus to red IV C5H11OH + CH3COOH →
produce a sweet-smelling
compound. 27 The diagram below represents CH3COOC5H11 + H2O
the structural formula of a A I and III only
Which of the following B II and IV only
’04 carbon compound.
compounds may be compound C III and IV only
X? O D I, II and IV only
A Carbonic acid i
B Ethanoic acid CH3 — CH2 — C — O — CH2 — CH2 — CH2 — CH3
C Propanol
The compound is produced by
D Ethyl ethanoate
the reaction between 30 The diagram shows the

A ethanol and butanoic acid conversion of ethanol to
B butanol and ethanoic acid compound X and subsequently
24 A liquid produced effervescence
C butanol and propanoic acid to compound Y.
when reacted with zinc metal.
’05 Which of the following may be
D propanol and butanoic acid
the molecular formula of the 28 The diagram below shows the acidified KMnO4
liquid? process of producing compound C2H5OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ X
A HCOOH ’05 Z. CH3OH, concentrated
B HCOOCH3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Y
C3H6 H2SO4, reflux
C CH3OH
D CH3COONa + steam
Which of the following may be
Ethanol
+ Y X compound Y?
C2H5OH oxidation
25 The diagram shows the A Ethanoic acid
conversion of glucose to B Ethyl ethanoate
compound X and subsequently C Ethyl methanoate
Compound Z
to compound Y. D Methyl ethanoate

2.8 A I only C I, II and III only
Oils and Fats B III only D I, II, III and IV
31 Which of the following belong
to the homologous series of 34 The diagram shows the change in structure of natural rubber after process
esters? P.
I Palm oil
c c c c c c
II Margarine s s
process P s s
III Sodium butanoate c
c c c c c c c s c
IV Glycerol s
A I and II only c c c
c c c c
B I and III only
rubber X rubber Y
C III and IV only
D I, II and III only Which of the following statements is true about the change?
A Rubber X is more elastic than rubber Y.
32 Which of the following molecular B Rubber X is stronger than rubberTCY.2/19
formulae of fatty acids is formed C Rubber X is more resistant to heat than rubber Y.
from the hydrolysis of a non- D Rubber X is more easily oxidised than rubber Y.
saturated fat?
A C15H31COOH 35 A rubber tapper faces a problem of transporting latex to a glove-making
B C17H35COOH factory in liquid form. To solve the problem he has to add a substance
C C17H33COOH ’06 into the latex to prevent the coagulation of the latex.
D C23H47COOH Choose the correct substance and the explanation to solve the problem.
2
Substance Explanation
2.9 A Water To make the latex more dilute

Natural Rubber
B Ethanoic acid Contains H+ ions that neutralise the negative
33 Which of the following chemicals charge on the membrane of the rubber particle
can cause latex to coagulate? C Ammonia Contains OH– ions that neutralise the H+ ions
I Methanoic acid solution from the acids produced by bacteria
II Sulphuric acid
III Ethanoic acid D Sodium chloride As a preservative to maintain the original state of
IV Nitric acid solution the latex
1 Table 1 shows the names, molecular formulae, melting (b) Complete Table 1 by filling in the molecular
points and boiling points of a few straight chain formula of propane and the name of C4H10.
members of a homologous series. [2 marks]
(c) Draw the structural formula of the first member
Molecular Melting Boiling of this homologous series. [1 mark]
Name
formula point (°C) point (°C)
(d) Predict the physical states of
Ethane C2H6 –183 –89 (i) propane [1 mark]
(ii) pentane [1 mark]
Propane –188 –42
(e) Give the name and the molecular formula of the
C4H10 –138 –0.5 member of the same homologous series after
pentane. [2 marks]
Pentane C5H12 –130 36
(f) Write a balanced equation for the complete
Table 1 combustion of ethane. [1 mark]
(a) Give the name and the general formula of this

homologous series. [2 marks]

2 Propene is an important hydrocarbon in the petrochemical (b) State the function of concentrated sulphuric acid
industries. Diagram 1 shows the conversion of propene in this reaction. [1 mark]
into other organic compounds. (c) (i) Name the reaction for the preparation of
ethyl ethanoate. [1 mark]
Polypropene (ii) Write the chemical reaction for the reaction
process II in (i). [1 mark]
(d) The experiment is repeated by replacing ethanol
process process with methanol.
Propane Propene Propan-1-ol
I III (i) Name the ester formed. [1 mark]
process IV (ii) Draw the structural formula of the ester
formed. [1 mark]
Compound X (iii) State one physical property of the ester.
[1 mark]
Diagram 1
(e) The flowchart shows the conversion of ethene to
Based on Diagram 1, answer the following questions. ethanol and then to ethanoic acid.
(a) State the homologous series of propene.
[1 mark] process I process II Ethanoic
(b) Name process I. [1 mark]
Ethene Ethanol
acid
(c) Under certain conditions, propene reacts to form
polypropene. Write an equation for the formation Based on the flowchart, write the chemical
of polypropene in process II. [1 mark]
2
equation for
(d) (i) Explain briefly how process III is carried out (i) process I [1 mark]
in industries. [2 marks] (ii) process II [1 mark]
(ii) Draw the structural formula of propan-1-ol. (iii) State a suitable chemical that can be used
[1 mark] to carry out process II. [1 mark]
(e) Acidified potassium manganate(VII) is added to
propene in process IV. 4 Diagram 3 shows conversions I, II and III starting with
(i) Predict the observation that will take place. glucose.
[1 mark]
(ii) Write a balanced equation for the reaction I Liquid II Liquid
that has occurred. [1 mark] Glucose
yeast A reagent B
(f) Both propene and propane are combustible in
air. Compare and explain the difference in the III concentrated
quantity of soot produced by the two compounds H2SO4 asid
during combustion. [2 marks] Liquid C
3 Diagram 2 shows the set-up of apparatus for the
Diagram 3
preparation of ethyl ethanoate by heating ethanol
and ethanoic acid under reflux. (a) (i) Name conversion I. [1 mark]
(ii) Draw the structural formula of liquid A.
[1 mark]
water out
(b) Liquid B has a vinegary smell.
(i) Name the type of reaction that takes place
in conversion II. [1 mark]
(ii) Write a chemical equation for conversion II.
water in TC 2/20 [1 mark]
(c) Give one chemical test that can be used to
ethanol, ethanoic acid distinguish liquid B from liquid A. [2 marks]
and concentrated
sulphuric acid
(d) (i) Name the homologous series of which
xxxxxxxxxxxxxx liquid C is a member. [1 mark]
(ii) Name liquid C. [1 mark]
heat
(iii) State one use of liquid C. [1 mark]
Diagram 2 (e) Suggest another method to produce liquid A
(a) Why is ethanol and ethanoic acid heated under other than from glucose in conversion I.
reflux? [1 mark] [1 mark]

5 Diagram 4 shows the conversion of latex to compound (c) Name compound X. [1 mark]
X. (d) State two differences in physical properties
c c
between natural rubber and compound X.
s s
process I Natural process II s s
[2 marks]
c TC 2/21
Latex c s c
rubber s (e) How is process II carried out in the industry?
c c c [1 mark]
compound X (f) (i) Name a chemical that can be used to retain
latex in the liquid form. [1 mark]
Diagram 4
(ii) Explain the function of the chemical named
(a) Name process I and process II. [2 marks] in (i). [1 mark]
(b) Name a chemical that can be used to carry out (g) Give one use of compound X. [1 mark]
process I. [1 mark]
Essay Questions
1 (a) Draw the structural formulae of two isomers of 2 (a) Diagram 1 shows the formation of carboxylic acids
but-1-ene and give their IUPAC names. [4 marks] from alcohols.
(b) The information below is referring to carbon
compound X. Alcohols Carboxylic acids
2
Diagram 1
• Carbon 40.0%
• Hydrogen 6.7% Using suitable reagents and with the help of a
• Oxygen 53.3% labelled diagram, describe how you can prepare
• Relative molecular mass = 60 a named carboxylic acid in the laboratory.
• Relative atomic mass of H = 1, C = 12 Include the observation and a test to show that
and O = 16 the product formed is an acid. Write a chemical
equation for the reaction involved.
Based on the information of the carbon compound [10 marks]
X, (b) Many artificial flavours used in the food industry
(i) determine the molecular formula of X. are esters. Various types of esters can be formed
(ii) draw the structural formula of X. from the esterification between an alcohol and a
(iii) name the carbon compound X. carboxylic acid. Name one possible ester that can
(iv) write the general formula for its homologous be formed and describe how you can prepare
series. [8 marks] the named ester in the laboratory. Name the
(c) Margarine can be made from palm oil. Compare alcohol and carboxylic acid that is used and the
and contrast margarine and palm oil in terms of chemical equations involved.
their structures and physical properties. Briefly [10 marks]
describe how palm oil can be converted to
margarine. [8 marks]
Experiment
1 Your planning should include the following:
Hexane is a saturated hydrocarbon whereas hexene
(i) Statement of the problem
is an unsaturated hydrocarbon. Both are colourless
(ii) All the variables
liquids. However they undergo different reactions
(iii) Hypothesis
toward addition reaction.
(iv) List of materials and apparatus
You are required to plan an experiment to differentiate (v) Procedure
the two compounds. (vi) Tabulation of data [17 marks]

CHAPTER FORM 5
3
Oxidation and Reduction

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1
Number of questions 5 — – 1 – 4 – – 1 – 4 – – – – 3 1 – – –
6
ONCEPT MAP
Oxidising agent Reducing agent

A substance that accepts (gains) electrons and is itself A substance that donates (loses) electrons and is itself
reduced in the process oxidised in the process
Oxidation Reduction
• Gain of oxygen/increase in oxidation number • Loss of oxygen/decrease in oxidation number
• Loss of hydrogen/loss of electrons • Gain of hydrogen/gain of electrons
Rusting of iron
Fe → Fe2+ + 2e– → Fe2O3.xH2O
OXIDATION- Displacement of halogens from
Oxidation of Fe2+ ions: REDUCTION (REDOX) the halides
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e– REACTIONS e.g. Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2
Reduction of Fe3+ ions:
Fe3+ + e– → Fe2+
Combustion of metals Displacement of metals from their salts Heating metal oxides with
e.g. Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu carbon and hydrogen
Reactivity series of metals Electrochemical series Position of C and H in the reactivity

K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > series of metals
Sn > Pb > Cu > Ag > Au Sn > Pb > H > Cu > Ag K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > C > Zn > H
> Fe > Sn > Pb > Cu > Ag
Prevention of rusting Electrolytic cell • Extraction of iron

• Galvanising • Electrons flow from anode (+ve) to 2Fe2O3 + 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2
• Sacrificial metal cathode (–ve) in the external circuit • Extraction of tin
• Alloying SnO2 + C → Sn + CO2
Chemical cell
• Electrons flow from anode (–ve) to cathode (+ve) in the external circuit
3.1 Redox Reactions Oxidation in Terms of Loss of Hydrogen
1 Oxidation can also be defined as the loss of
Oxidation and Reduction Reactions SPM
’08/P1, hydrogen from a substance. If a substance
’09/P1
loses hydrogen during a reaction, it is said
1 Oxidation can be defined as
to be oxidised.
(a) acceptance (gain) of oxygen,
2 When hydrogen sulphide gas is mixed with
(b) donation (loss) of hydrogen,
chlorine gas at room temperature, a yellow
(c) loss of electrons and,
precipitate of sulphur is formed and hydrogen
(d) increase in the oxidation number of the
chloride gas is released.
element.
2 In contrast, reduction can be defined as H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s)
(a) loss of oxygen,
(b) gain of hydrogen,
(c) gain of electrons and, loss of hydrogen
(d) decrease in the oxidation number of the (oxidation)
element.
In this reaction, hydrogen sulphide loses
hydrogen and is oxidised to sulphur.
3 When ammonia gas is passed over hot
copper(II) oxide, the following reaction occurs.
3
A newly cut apple turns yellow on exposure to air. This
is due to the oxidation of apples by oxygen. The reaction 2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3Cu(s) + 3H2O(l)
is catalysed by the enzymes present in apples.

oxidation
Oxidation in Terms of Gain of Oxygen
Ammonia undergoes oxidation because it
1 Oxidation is a chemical reaction in which loses hydrogen. In other words, ammonia is
oxygen is added to a substance. If a substance oxidised to nitrogen.
(element or compound) gains oxygen during
a reaction, it is said to be oxidised.
2 When calcium burns in oxygen, the following
reaction occurs:
2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s) Reduction in Terms of Loss of Oxygen

addition of oxygen 1 A reduction reaction is the reverse process of
(oxidation) an oxidation reaction. Reduction is defined
(a) This process is known as oxidation. as the loss of oxygen from a substance. If a
(b) Calcium is oxidised to calcium oxide substance loses oxygen during a reaction, it
because it gains oxygen in this reaction. is said to be reduced.
3 Methane burns in air as represented by the 2 When a mixture of zinc powder and
equation: copper(II) oxide is heated, the following
oxidation reaction occurs.
loss of oxygen
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯→ CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
(reduction)
oxidation
In this reaction,
(a) the carbon atom in methane is oxidised Zn(s) + CuO(s) → ZnO(s) + Cu(s)
to carbon dioxide,
3 In this reaction, copper(II) oxide has lost its
(b) the hydrogen atoms in methane is oxidised
oxygen. It is said to be reduced to metallic
to water.
copper.
Therefore, combustion is an oxidation reaction.
385 Oxidation and Reduction

oxidation
Reduction in Terms of Gain of Hydrogen
1 Reduction can also be defined as the addition Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)
of hydrogen to a substance. If a substance
gains hydrogen during a reaction, it is said
to be reduced. reduction
2 When a mixture of hydrogen and chlorine 4 In this reaction, magnesium has gained oxygen
is exposed to sunlight, a vigorous reaction and is oxidised. In contrast, water has lost its
occurs and white fumes of hydrogen chloride oxygen and is reduced.
are produced.
addition of hydrogen
(reduction)
Respiration is a redox process. When respiration occurs,

the food is oxidised and oxygen molecules accept
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) electrons and are reduced to water. Photosynthesis is
also a redox reaction.
3 In this reaction, chlorine has gained
hydrogen. This means that chlorine has 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) → C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
been reduced. sugar
3
Electrons are removed from water molecules and are

used to reduce carbon dioxide to sugar.
SPM
Oxidising and Reducing Agents ’08/P1,
’09/P1
1 An oxidising agent is a substance that brings

about (causes) oxidation in another substance.
In bringing about oxidation, the oxidising
agent is itself reduced.
2 A reducing agent is a substance that brings
about reduction in another substance and is
itself oxidised.
Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) 3 The following are examples of oxidising and
Antoine Lavoisier is known as the Father of Modern reducing agents.
Chemistry. He was the first chemist who explained the
oxidation and reduction reactions that occur during Oxidising agents Reducing agents
combustion.
• Chlorine and • Metals such as
bromine sodium, magnesium,
• Acidified potassium zinc and aluminium
Redox Reactions manganate(VII) • Sulphur dioxide gas
• Acidified potassium and hydrogen
1 Oxidation and reduction always take place
dichromate(VI) sulphide gas
together. A redox reaction is defined as a reaction
• Concentrated nitric • Sodium sulphite and
in which both oxidation and reduction take place
acid sodium thiosulphate
simultaneously.
2 In a redox reaction, when one substance in
a reaction is oxidised, the other substance is
reduced. 4 In a redox reaction involving A and B: if A
3 When steam is passed over heated magnesium, is an oxidising agent, then B is the reducing
magnesium oxide and hydrogen are produced. agent and vice versa.
Oxidation and Reduction 386

Reaction Oxidising agent Reducing agent
The reaction between copper(II) oxide and carbon: Copper(II) oxide Carbon
• Copper(II) oxide • Carbon reduces
oxidised
(gain oxygen) oxidises carbon to copper(II) oxide to
carbon dioxide. copper.
• It is reduced to copper. • It is oxidised to carbon
2CuO(s) + C(s) → 2Cu(s) + CO2(g) dioxide.

reduced
(loss of oxygen)
The reaction between chlorine and hydrogen sulphide: Chlorine Hydrogen sulphide
oxidised • Chlorine oxidises • Hydrogen sulphide
(loss of hydrogen) hydrogen sulphide to reduces chlorine to
sulphur. hydrogen chloride.
• It is reduced to • It is oxidised to
Cl2(g) + H2S(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s) hydrogen chloride. sulphur.

3
reduced
(gain hydrogen)
1
The equation for the reaction between iron(III)
In many cases, oxidation or reduction reactions are
oxide and carbon monoxide is shown below. accompanied by colour changes.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g) Br2(brown) → Br–(colourless) … reduction
MnO4–(purple) → Mn2+ (colourless) … reduction
Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in this Cr2O72–(orange) → Cr3+ (green) … reduction
reaction. Fe2+ (green) → Fe3+ (brown/yellow) … oxidation
2I– (colourless) → I2(brown) … oxidation
Solution
Fe2O3 is an oxidising agent because it oxidises
CO to CO2 and is itself reduced to Fe.
oxidation
Methylhydrazine, CH3NHNH2 is a powerful reducing
agent.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
4CH3NHNH2 + 5N2O4 → 4CO2 + 9N2 + 12H2O

reduction It is used as rocket fuel for the Apollo 11 project which
landed the first man on the moon on 21 July 1969.
CO is a reducing agent because it reduces The compound is toxic and carcinogenic (cancer causing).
Fe2O3 to Fe and is itself oxidised to CO2. It is also found in trace amounts in raw common
mushrooms.

3.1
To identify oxidation and reduction processes in the reaction between metal oxides and
carbon
In the reaction between metal oxide and carbon, Powdered carbon, powdered copper(II) oxide, iron(III)
which reagent undergoes oxidation and which oxide and lead(II) oxide.
reagent undergoes reduction?
Hypothesis
(a) Carbon undergoes oxidation to form carbon
dioxide gas.
(b) Copper(II) oxide, iron(III) oxide and lead(II)
oxide undergo reduction to form copper, iron and
lead respectively. Figure 3.1 Heating copper(II) oxide with carbon
Procedure
Variables
1 A spatula of copper(II) oxide is placed in a crucible.
(a) Manipulated variable : Type of metal oxide
2 Another spatula of powdered carbon is added to
3
(b) Responding variable : Reaction products

the copper(II) oxide.
(c) Constant variables : Carbon and the
3 The two substances are mixed thoroughly and the
conditions of reaction
mixture is then heated strongly.
4 The observations are recorded in the table given
Apparatus below.
Crucible, clay-pipe triangle, tripod stand, spatula and 5 Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using iron(III) oxide and
Bunsen burner. lead(II) oxide in place of copper(II) oxide.
Results
Colour of metal oxide
Metal oxide Observation
before heating
(a) Copper(II) oxide Black Brown spots (copper) are formed in the black mixture.
(b) Iron(III) oxide Brown Grey solid (iron) is formed.
(c) Lead(II) oxide Yellow Greyish-black solid (lead) is formed.
Discussion
In all the reactions above, metal oxides have lost oxygen to form the metals.
This shows that carbon has reduced metal oxides to the corresponding metals.
Conclusion
Carbon undergoes oxidation and the metal oxides undergo reduction. The hypothesis is accepted.
The chemical equations for the redox reactions are
(a) 2CuO(s) + C(s) → 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
Experiment 3.1
(b) 2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

(c) 2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)

Oxidation Number SPM Table 3.1 Oxidation numbers of elements in the free
’08/P1
state
he oxidation number of an element is an
T Element Formula Oxidation number
arbitrary charge assigned to the element according
to a set of rules. Oxidation number is also known Hydrogen H2 0
as the oxidation state. Oxygen O2 0
Chlorine Cl2 0
Oxidation numbers of elements in ionic
compounds Sulphur S 0
Iron Fe 0
1 An ionic compound can contain monatomic
ions (for example, Na+ and Cl– ions) or Copper Cu 0
polyatomic ions (for example, NH4+ or
SO42– ions). 2 For monatomic ions, the oxidation number
2 For a monatomic ion in an ionic compound, equals to the charge on the ion (Table 3.2).
the oxidation number is the charge on the ion.
Table 3.2 Oxidation numbers of monatomic ions
Magnesium oxide, MgO is an ionic compound.
In magnesium oxide, magnesium exists as Simple ion Formula of ion Oxidation number
magnesium ions, Mg2+ and oxygen exists as
Hydrogen ion H+ +1
oxide ions, O2–. Thus, magnesium is said
3
to have the oxidation number of +2 and Sodium ion Na+ +1
oxygen has the oxidation number of –2.
Magnesium ion Mg 2+
+2
Aluminium ion Al3+ +3
Oxidation numbers of elements in covalent Chloride ion Cl– –1
compounds
Oxide ion O2– –2
Carbon dioxide, CO2 is a covalent compound. Nitride ion N3– –3

However, when determining the oxidation
numbers of carbon and oxygen, you will have 3 The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms
to consider that this molecule exists as ions. present in the formula of a compound is zero.
• Each oxygen atom is considered as an oxide The compound can be an ionic compound or
ion (O2–) and carries a charge of –2. So two a covalent compound. For example,
oxide ions carry a total charge of –4. (a) in calcium carbonate, CaCO3
• As a result, each carbon ion carries a charge of
+4 so that CO2 exists as a neutral molecule. CaCO3
CO2 (+2) + (+4) + 3(–2) = 0

(+4) + 2  (–2) = 0 (b) in aluminium nitrate, Al(NO3)3
Therefore, the oxidation number of carbon is Al(NO3)3
+4 and the oxidation number of oxygen is –2.
(+3) + 3(+5) + 9(–2) = 0
4 For a polyatomic ion (that is, an ion that
Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers contains a few atoms), the sum of the
oxidation numbers of all the atoms equals the
To work out the oxidation number, the following charge on the ion. For example,
rules must be applied. (a) in a sulphate ion, SO42–
1 An atom or a molecule of an element in the
SO42– sum of the oxidation
SPM free state (that is, not combined with other
’06/P1 numbers is the same as the
’07/P1 elements) has an oxidation number of zero
(+6) + 4(–2) = –2 charge on the polyatomic ion
(Table 3.1).

(b) in an ammonium ion, NH4+ 8 The oxidation number of hydrogen in all its
compounds is +1 except in metal hydrides.
NH4+ sum of the oxidation A metal hydride is a compound consisting
numbers is the same as the of hydrogen and a metal only. The oxidation
(–3) + 4(+1) = +1 charge on the polyatomic ion number of hydrogen in metal hydrides is –1.
(a) Non-metallic hydride
(c) in a nitrate ion, NO3–
HCl H2S
NO3– sum of the oxidation
numbers is the same as the
(+1) (–1) 2(+1) (–2)
(+5) + 3(–2) = –1 charge on the polyatomic ion
(b) Metal hydrides
(d) in a dichromate(VI) ion, Cr2O72–
NaH CaH2 AlH3
Cr2O72– sum of the oxidation numbers

is the same as the charge on
(+1) (–1) (+2) 2(–1) (+3) 3(–1)
2(+6) + 7(–2) = –2 the polyatomic ion
9 The oxidation number of oxygen in all its

compounds is –2 except in fluorine compounds
5 In a given compound, the more electro-
(see point 6) and in peroxides. The oxidation
negative atom is given a negative oxidation
number of oxygen in peroxides is –1.
number and the less electronegative (or more
(a) Oxides
3
electropositive) atom has a positive oxidation

number. H2O BaO
I, Br, Cl, N, O, F 2(+1) (–2) (+2) (–2)

(b) Peroxides
electronegativity increases
6 The oxidation number of fluorine remains H2O2 BaO2

unchanged in all its compounds and is
always –1. This is because fluorine is the most
2(+1) 2(–1) (+2) 2(–1)
electronegative element. 10 Metals usually have positive oxidation numbers.
For example, the oxidation number of a Group
F2O BrF3 Na3AlF6 1 element in a compound is always +1. The
oxidation number of a Group 2 element in a
2(–1) (+2) (+3) 3(–1) 3(+1) (+3) 6(–1) compound is always +2.
11 Some metals show different oxidation numbers
Notice that in their compounds. For example, manganese
(a) the oxidation number of oxygen in F2O is shows oxidation numbers of +2, +4, +6 and
+2 and not –2 +7 (Table 3.3).
(b) the oxidation number of bromine in BrF3
is +3 and not –1. Table 3.3 Oxidation numbers of manganese
7 Chlorine, bromine and iodine usually have
the oxidation number of –1 except when Compound MnSO4 MnO2 K2MnO4 KMnO4
combined with a more electronegative element.
For example, Oxidation
number of +2 +4 +6 +7
HClO Cl2O manganese

(+1) (+1) (–2) 2(+1) (–2) 12 Non-metals usually have negative oxidation
numbers. However, chlorine, bromine, iodine
KI KIO3 and nitrogen can have positive or negative
oxidation number (Table 3.4) depending on
(+1) (–1) (+1) (+5) 3(–2) the elements which combine with them.

Table 3.4 Oxidation numbers of chlorine and nitrogen
Chlorine compound HCl HClO HClO2 ClO2 HClO3 HClO4
Oxidation number of chlorine –1 +1 +3 +4 +5 +7
Nitrogen compound NH3 N2O NO NO2– NO2 NO3–

Oxidation number of nitrogen –3 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
Calculating the Oxidation Numbers of Elements in Compounds and Ions
2 4
What is the oxidation number of manganese in the What is the oxidation number of sulphur in the
compound, KMnO4? thiosulphate ion, S2O32–?
Solution Solution
Let the oxidation number of manganese = x Let the oxidation number of sulphur = x
Oxidation number of K = +1 Oxidation number of O = –2
Oxidation number of O = –2 S2O32–
KMnO4
3
2(x) 3(–2)
+1 x 4(–2) Sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in the
Sum of the oxidation numbers of all the elements in polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the ion.
the neutral compound, KMnO4, is zero. 2x + 3(–2) = –2
(+1) + x + 4(–2) = 0 x = +2
x = +7 The oxidation number of sulphur in S2O32– ion is +2.
The oxidation number of manganese in KMnO4 is +7.
3 1,1,1-trichloroethane (C2H3Cl3) is used as a solvent for

Calculate the oxidation number of nitrogen in nitric halogens. The oxidation numbers of carbon, hydrogen
and chlorine are shown below.
acid, HNO3.
C2H3Cl3
Solution
Let the oxidation number of nitrogen = x 2(0) + 3(+1) + 3(–1) = 0
Oxidation number of H = +1
Oxidation number of O = –2 The oxidation number of an element in the free state
HNO3 is always zero. However, in some cases (for example,
carbon in the C2H3Cl3), the oxidation number of the
element in the compound can also be zero.
+1 x 3(–2)
Sum of the oxidation numbers of all the elements in
the compound is zero. IUPAC Nomenclature of Inorganic Compounds
(+1) + x + 3(–2) = 0
x = +5 1 The IUPAC system is used to name inorganic
The oxidation number of nitrogen in HNO3 is +5. compounds in order to avoid confusion that
may arise due to elements having different
oxidation numbers.
2 For example, there are two oxides of copper:
copper(I) oxide, Cu2O, and copper(II) oxide,
The oxidation number of nitrogen in HNO3 is +5 and CuO. Copper(I) oxide is a brown powder
not 5. The oxidation number of the element must be whereas copper(II) oxide is a black powder. The
accompanied by a positive or negative sign on the left
Roman numerical figures (I) and (II) refer to the
of the number.
oxidation numbers of copper in the compound.

Oxidation Number and IUPAC Formula Oxidation
Nomenclature of number of Name of compound
compound metal
1 (a) For an ionic compound or a covalent
compound that contains a metal with more Mg(NO3)2 +2 Magnesium nitrate
than one oxidation number, the Roman (NOT magnesium(II)
numerical figure is stated in brackets nitrate)
after the name of the metal to show the AlCl3 +3 Aluminium chloride
oxidation number of the metal. (NOT aluminium(III)
(b) For example, tin forms two types of chlorides, chloride)
SnCl2 (ionic) and SnCl4 (covalent). SnCl2
is called tin(II) chloride and SnCl4 is called 5 For a negative ion that contains a metal with
tin(IV) chloride. more than one oxidation state, the Roman
(c) Similarly, lead(II) oxide refers to the number is stated in brackets after the name of
compound with the formula PbO whereas the metal, and the name of the metal ends with
lead(IV) oxide refers to the compound -ate. For example,
PbO2. (a) manganate(VII) refers to the negative ion
2 Table 3.5 shows the formulae and the IUPAC containing the manganese metal with
names of some compounds containing metals. oxidation number +7, that is, MnO4–.
Table 3.5 Naming inorganic compounds (b) chromate(VI) refers to the negative ion
3
containing metals containing chromium metal with oxidation

Formula Oxidation number +6, that is, CrO42–.
of number of IUPAC name (c) dichromate(VI) refers to the negative ion
compound metal containing two chromium atoms with
oxidation number +6, that is, Cr2O72–.
FeCl2 +2 Iron(II) chloride
(d) hexacyanoferrate(III) refers to the negative
FeCl3 +3 Iron(III) chloride ion containing six cyano (CN–) groups and
CuCl +1 Copper(I) chloride iron metal with oxidation number +3, that
is, [Fe(CN)6]3–.
CuSO4 +2 Copper(II) sulphate Table 3.7 shows the names of some compounds
Mn(NO3)2 +2 Manganese(II) nitrate containing metals in negative ions.
MnO2 +4 Manganese(IV) oxide Table 3.7 Name of compounds containing metals in
negative ions
3 The metallic elements in Groups 1, 2 and 3 of Formula Oxidation
the Periodic Table always have the oxidation of number of metal IUPAC name
numbers +1, +2 and +3 respectively. According to compound in negative ion
the IUPAC nomenclature, the Roman numerical
figure is not used in naming a compound if the Potassium
K2MnO4 +6
metal shows only one oxidation state in its manganate(VI)
compounds. Potassium
4 Table 3.6 shows some examples of naming KMnO4 +7
manganate(VII)
compounds containing elements of Groups 1,
2 and 3. Potassium
K2CrO4 +6
Table 3.6 Naming inorganic compounds containing chromate(VI)
elements of Groups 1, 2 and 3
Potassium
Formula Oxidation K2Cr2O7 +6
dichromate(VI)
of number of Name of compound
compound metal Potassium
K4Fe(CN)6 +2
hexacyanoferrate(II)
K2SO4 +1 Potassium sulphate
(NOT potassium(I) Potassium
K3Fe(CN)6 +3
sulphate) hexacyanoferrate(III)

Notice that in K4Fe(CN)6, the negative ion is non-metal that shows more than one oxidation
[Fe(CN)6]4– while in K3Fe(CN)6, the negative number in its oxoanion, the Roman number
ion is [Fe(CN)6]3–. stated in brackets refers to the oxidation number
6 Oxoanions are anions (negative ions) that of the non-metal.
consist of an oxygen atom and another non- 7 Table 3.8 shows the common names and the
metallic atom. Examples of oxoanions are IUPAC names for some compounds containing
nitrate ion, NO3– and sulphate ion, SO42–. For a oxoanions.
Table 3.8 Common names and IUPAC names for some compounds
Molecular formula of Common name of
Oxidation number IUPAC name
compound compound
Na2SO3 +4 (for S) Sodium sulphate(IV) Sodium sulphite
Na2SO4 +6 (for S) Sodium sulphate(VI) Sodium sulphate
NaNO2 +3 (for N) Sodium nitrate(III) Sodium nitrite
NaNO3 +5 (for N) Sodium nitrate(V) Sodium nitrate
NaClO +1 (for Cl) Sodium chlorate(I) Sodium hypochlorite
NaClO3 +5 (for Cl) Sodium chlorate(V) Sodium chlorate
HNO2 +3 (for N) Nitric(III) acid Nitrous acid
3
HNO3 +5 (for N) Nitric(V) acid Nitric acid
H2SO4 +6 (for S) Sulphuric(VI) acid Sulphuric acid
1 (a) the changes in oxidation numbers or

’06 (b) the transfer of electrons; that is, acceptance
(gain) or donation (loss) of electrons.
What is the oxidation number for oxygen in the
3 Using oxidation numbers to identify redox
thiosulphate ion, S2O32–?
reactions
A –2 B –3 C +2 D +3
(a) Oxidation is a process in which the oxidation
Solution number of the element is increased.
The oxidation number for oxygen in a polyatomic (b) Reduction is a process in which the oxidation
ion, such as NO3–, S2O32– or Cr2O72– is always –2. number of the element is decreased.
Answer A 4 The following equation shows the reaction
between iron and chlorine.
Comment
The oxidation number of oxygen in covalent (oxidation number increases)
compounds, such as CO2 or SO3 is also –2. oxidation
0 0 +3 –1
Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3
Changes in Oxidation Numbers
reduction
1 Most redox reactions occur without involving (oxidation number decreases)
hydrogen or oxygen. For example, the reaction
between chlorine and iron(II) chloride is a In this redox reaction,
redox reaction: (a) the iron metal is oxidised to iron(III)
chloride because its oxidation number
2FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) → 2FeCl3(aq) increases from 0 to +3.
2 For reactions that do not involve hydrogen or (b) chlorine (Cl2) is reduced to chloride
oxygen, an oxidation or reduction reaction is ion (Cl–) because its oxidation number
discussed in terms of decreases from 0 to –1.

(c) chlorine acts as the oxidising agent because
it oxidises iron and is itself reduced.
(d) iron acts as the reducing agent because it Sulphur dioxide usually acts as a reducing agent. However,
reduces chlorine and is itself oxidised. in the following reactions, sulphur dioxide acts as an
5 When chlorine gas is passed into potassium oxidising agent because hydrogen sulphide and carbon
bromide solution, the following reaction occurs: are stronger reducing agents than sulphur dioxide.
(oxidation number increases) (a) oxidation number of S increases

oxidation (oxidation)

–2 0
0 –1 –1 0 SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) ⎯⎯⎯→ 2H2O(l) + 3S(s)
Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq) +4 0

oxidation number of S decreases

reduction
(reduction)
(oxidation number decreases)
(b) oxidation

0 +4
The oxidation number of potassium in the above SO2(g) + C(s) ⎯⎯⎯→ CO2(g) + S(s)
+4 0
reaction does not change because potassium does not
take part in the reaction.
3
reduction
In this reaction, 7 A reaction is not a redox reaction if the substances

(a) bromide ion (Br–) is oxidised to bromine involved in the reaction do not undergo any
because the oxidation number of bromine changes in oxidation numbers. For example,
increases from –1 to 0.
(b) chlorine (Cl2) is reduced to chloride ion +1 –2 +1 +1 +6 –2 +1 +6 –2 +1 –2
(Cl–) because the oxidation number of
chlorine decreases from 0 to –1. 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
(c) chlorine acts as an oxidising agent and The reaction between sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
potassium bromide acts as a reducing agent. and sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is a neutralisation
6 Ammonia reacts with copper(II) oxide as reaction and not a redox reaction. As a result,
represented by the equation: the oxidation numbers of all the elements
(oxidation number increases) (sodium, oxygen, hydrogen and sulphur) are
oxidation the same before and after the reaction.

–3 +2 0 0
2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3H2O(l) + 3Cu(s)
Oxidation and reduction always take place together. A
redox reaction must have

reduction • a substance that undergoes oxidation and acts as
(oxidation number decreases) the reducing agent, and
• another substance that undergoes reduction and
In this reaction, acts as the oxidising agent.
(a) ammonia is oxidised to nitrogen because
the oxidation number of nitrogen increases
from –3 to 0. Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of
(b) copper(II) oxide is reduced to copper Electron Transfer
because the oxidation number of copper
decreases from +2 to 0. 1 In terms of electron transfer,
(c) copper(II) oxide acts as an oxidising agent (a) oxidation is defined as the loss of electrons
and ammonia acts as a reducing agent. SPM from a substance. If a substance loses
’05/P1
(d) the oxidation numbers of hydrogen and electrons during a reaction, it has been
oxygen remain unchanged. oxidised.

(b) reduction is defined as the gain of 5
electrons by a substance. If a substance
gains electrons, it has been reduced. Write the half-equation for the reduction of acidified
2 During a redox reaction, transfer of electrons manganate(VII) ion (MnO4–) to manganese(II) ion
occurs between the reactants. (Mn2+) in the presence of acid.
Solution
Step 1: Write the reactants and products involved in
An oil rig is used for getting oil and gas out of the ground the reaction.
in the petroleum industry. Use ‘OIL RIG’ to help you MnO4– + H+ → Mn2+ + H2O
remember oxidation and reduction in terms of electron
transfer. Step 2: Balance the number of atoms on both sides
OIL : OXIDATION IS LOSS OF ELECTRONS of the equation:
RIG : REDUCTION IS GAIN OF ELECTRONS MnO4– + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O
Step 3: Balance the number of charges on both
3 The reactant that loses electrons undergoes sides of the equation:
oxidation and acts as a reducing agent.
For example, MnO4– + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O

Na(s) ⎯⎯⎯→ Na+(aq) + e– … (1) total charge total charge
oxidation
= (–1) + (+8) = +7 = +2
In this reaction,
3
(a) sodium atoms undergo oxidation by losing to balance the charges,
electrons to form sodium ions (Na+). add 5e– to the left of
(b) sodium acts as the reducing agent. the equation
4 A substance that accepts electrons undergoes
reduction and acts as an oxidising agent. MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e– →
For example, Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Cl2(g) + 2e– ⎯⎯⎯→ 2Cl–(aq) … (2)
reduction
6 (a) Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid as
In this reaction,
represented by the equation
(a) each chlorine molecule (Cl2) accepts two
electrons to form two chloride ions (Cl–). Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(b) chlorine acts as the oxidising agent and is
itself reduced. The ionic equation for the reaction is
5 Balancing half-equations for oxidation and
SPM reduction
oxidation
’06/P1 (loss of electrons)
Equations (1) and (2) as shown above are
known as half-equations. Half-equations must
be balanced in terms of Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
(a) the number of atoms, and
(b) the number of charges.
reduction
(gain of electrons)
(b) The transfer of electrons can be represented
by the following half-equations:
Photographic films are coated with silver bromide, Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– ... oxidation
AgBr. When the film is exposed to light, the following
redox reaction occurs: reducing agent
2Ag+ + 2Br– → 2Ag + Br2 2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g) ... reduction
The amount of silver produced depends on how much oxidising agent
light gets through the camera lens. In this reaction, (c) In the reaction between hydrochloric acid
silver ions are reduced to silver by the gain of electrons
and zinc, zinc is oxidised to zinc chloride
and bromide ions are oxidised to bromine by the loss
whereas hydrochloric acid is reduced to
of electrons.
hydrogen.

(d) Hydrochloric acid acts as an oxidising 9 Combustion of metals in chlorine
agent by accepting electrons and is itself Figure 3.3 shows the combustion of copper in
reduced. Conversely, zinc acts as the reducing chlorine. When the hot copper foil is placed
agent by donating electrons and is itself in a gas jar of chlorine, a vigorous reaction
oxidised. occurs and a green precipitate of copper(II)
7 In terms of transfer of electrons, oxidising chloride, CuCl2 is formed.
agents are electron acceptors while reducing
agents are electron donors.
8 If a coil of copper is placed in a solution of
silver nitrate, the copper slowly dissolves and
the solution turns blue. At the same time, the
copper coil becomes coated with a layer of
silver metal (Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.3 Combustion of copper in chlorine
(a) In the reaction between copper and

chlorine to form copper(II) chloride, a
transfer of electron occurs between copper
3
metal and chlorine gas.

oxidation
(loss of electrons)
Figure 3.2 Oxidation of copper
(a) The overall equation for the reaction is Cu(s) + Cl2(g) → CuCl2(s)
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) →
Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s) reduction
(gain of electrons)
The reaction can be represented by the (b) The transfer of electrons can be represented
ionic equation: by the half-equations as shown below:
oxidation Cu(s) → Cu2+(s) + 2e– … oxidation
(loss of electrons)
Cl2(g) + 2e– → 2Cl– (s) ... reduction
(c) In the reaction between copper and
Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) chlorine, the copper atom (Cu)
(i) loses electrons

(ii) undergoes oxidation
reduction
(gain of electrons) (iii) is oxidised to copper(II) ion, Cu2+
(iv) acts as a reducing agent
(b) In this reaction, each silver ion (Ag+) accepts (d) Conversely, the chlorine molecule (Cl2)
one electron to form a silver atom (Ag). (i) gains electrons
Ag+(aq) + e– → Ag(s) ... reduction (ii) undergoes reduction
An oxidising agent is an electron acceptor. (iii) is reduced to chloride ions, Cl–
Hence, silver ion acts as an oxidising (iv) acts as an oxidising agent
agent in this reaction. 10 Combustion of metals in oxygen
(c) Conversely, each copper atom donates two When metals burn in oxygen,
electrons and are converted to copper(II) (a) the metals undergo oxidation by losing
ion (Cu2+) in the aqueous solution. electrons to form metal ions,
(b) the oxygen undergoes reduction by gaining
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e– ....oxidation electrons to form oxide ions (O2–).
Reducing agents are electron donors. Hence, The combustion of lead in oxygen is studied
copper acts as a reducing agent. in Activity 3.1.

To investigate the combustion of metals in oxygen and
chlorine
Apparatus Gas jar, tongs, combustion spoon, gas 2 The magnesium ribbon is held with a pair of
jar and Bunsen burner. tongs and lit in the Bunsen burner.
3 It is quickly placed into a gas jar filled with oxygen.
Materials Magnesium ribbon, sodium and 4 Any changes that occur are recorded.
chlorine.
(B) Reaction of sodium with chlorine
Procedure
Figure 3.5 The combustion of sodium in chlorine
Figure 3.4 The combustion of magnesium in oxygen 1 A small piece of sodium metal is placed in a
combustion spoon and heated.
3
(A) Combustion of magnesium in oxygen 2 When the sodium metal starts to burn, it is quickly
1 A piece of 5 cm magnesium ribbon is cleaned placed in a gas jar filled with chlorine gas.
with sandpaper. 3 Any changes that occur are recorded.
Observation
Combustion of magnesium in oxygen • The magnesium ribbon burns with a bright white flame.
• White fumes are produced.
• A white powder is formed.
Reaction of sodium with chlorine • The sodium metal burns with a yellow flame.
• White fumes are produced.
• A white powder is formed.
Discussion 5 In this reaction,

• magnesium acts as the reducing agent because
(A) Combustion of magnesium in oxygen
it reduces oxygen to oxide ion.
1 The combustion of magnesium in oxygen produces
• oxygen acts as the oxidising agent because it
magnesium oxide (white powder).
oxidises magnesium to magnesium ion.
2 Magnesium is oxidised by losing electrons to
form magnesium ions, Mg2+.
(B) Combustion of sodium in chlorine
Half-equation: Mg(s) → Mg2+(s) + 2e–
1 The combustion of sodium in chlorine produces
3 Oxygen is reduced by gaining electrons to form
sodium chloride (white powder).
oxide ion, O2–.
2 Sodium is oxidised by losing electrons to form
Half-equation: O2(g) + 4e– → 2O2–(s)
sodium ions, Na+.
4 The overall equation for the reaction is
oxidation Half-equation: Na(s) → Na+(s) + e–
(loss of electrons)
Activity 3.1
3 Chlorine is reduced by gaining electrons to form

chloride ion, Cl–.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Half-equation: Cl2(g) + 2e– → 2Cl–(s)
reduction
(gain of electrons)

4 The overall equation for the reaction is Conclusion
oxidation
(loss of electrons) 1 In the combustion of magnesium in oxygen,

(a) magnesium undergoes oxidation to form
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s) Mg2+ ions,
(b) oxygen undergoes reduction to form O2–
reduction ions.
(gain of electrons) 2 In the combustion of sodium in chlorine,
5 In this reaction, • sodium act as reducing agent by losing
• sodium acts as the reducing agent because it electrons,
reduces chlorine to chlorine ion. • chlorine act as oxidising agent by gaining
• chlorine acts as the oxidising agent because it electrons.
oxidises sodium to sodium ion.
Conversion of Fe2+ Ions to Fe3+ Ions SPM

’08/P2,
and Vice Versa ’09/P1
There are some chemicals such as hydrogen peroxide

(H2O2) and nitric(III) acid (nitrous acid, HNO2) which 1 Iron metal (Fe) exhibits two oxidation states,
can act as an oxidising agent or a reducing agent +2 and +3.
depending on the conditions of the reaction. For example, 2 Fe2+ ions can be converted to Fe3+ ions. Similarly,
in reaction (1), hydrogen peroxide acts as an oxidising Fe3+ ions can be converted to Fe2+ ions.
3
agent, but in reaction (2), it acts as a reducing agent.

H2O2 + 2I– + 2H+ → I2 + 2H2O … (1) Oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+
oxidising reducing 1 Iron(II) ion, Fe2+, can be converted to iron(III)

agent agent ions, Fe3+, by oxidation reaction.
oxidation (loss of electrons)
5H2O2 + 2MnO4– + 6H+ → 2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5O2 … (2)

reducing oxidising Fe2+(aq) → Fe3+(aq) + e–
agent agent
2 Potassium manganate(VII) is an oxidising
agent that can oxidise Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions.
3 (a) When acidified potassium manganate(VII)
solution is added to a solution of iron(II)
salt, decolourisation occurs. MnO4– ions are
reduced to Mn2+ ions while Fe2+ ions (pale
green) are oxidised to Fe3+ ions (brown).
oxidation
(loss of electrons)
MnO (aq) + 8H (aq) + 5Fe (aq) → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) + 5Fe3+(aq)
4
– + 2+
green brown
reduction
(gain of electrons)
A catalytic converter
Catalytic converters are fitted to the exhaust pipes of

cars to reduce air pollution. In the catalytic converter, Dilute sulphuric acid is always used to acidify KMnO4
the following redox reactions take place to convert solution.
poisonous gases (NO, CO and petrol vapour) to non-
poisonous gases. For example,
(b) The half-equations for the reactions are:
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) → N2(g) + 2CO2(g)
oxidising reducing Fe2+(aq) → Fe3+(aq) + e–
agent agent (oxidation – loss of electrons)

MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e– → reduction (gain electron)
Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(reduction – gain of electrons) SO32– + H2O + 2Fe3+ → 2Fe2+ + H2SO4

brown green
4 The formation of Fe3+ ions can be confirmed
by using sodium hydroxide solution. When oxidation (lose electron)
sodium hydroxide solution is added to the
reaction product, a brown precipitate of Sodium sulphite acts as the reducing
iron(III) hydroxide, Fe(OH)3, insoluble in agent and reduces iron(III) ions to iron(II)
excess NaOH(aq) is obtained. ions and is itself oxidised to sulphate ions
(SO42–).
Fe3+(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s) + 3Na+(aq) (b) The half-equations for the reaction are:
5 Other oxidising agents that can be used to Fe3+(aq) + e– → Fe2+(aq)
oxidise Fe2+ to Fe3+ are as follows. (reduction – gain of electrons)
(a) Chlorine gas or chlorine water
SO32–(aq) + H2O(l) →
Cl2(aq) + 2Fe (aq) → 2Fe (aq) + 2Cl (aq)
2+ 3+ –
SO42–(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e–
(oxidation – loss of electrons)
(b) Liquid bromine
3 The formation of Fe2+ ions can be confirmed
Br2(l) + 2Fe2+(aq) → 2Fe3+(aq) + 2Br–(aq) by using sodium hydroxide solution. When
3
(c) Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) sodium hydroxide solution is added to the
solution (acidified with dilute sulphuric reaction product, a dirty green precipitate
acid) of iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH)2, insoluble in
excess NaOH(aq), is obtained.
Cr2O72–(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6Fe2+(aq) →
Fe2+(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) →
6Fe3+(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
Fe(OH)2(s) + 2Na+(aq)
(d) Concentrated nitric acid
4 Other reducing agents that can be used to reduce
HNO3(aq) + 3Fe (aq) + 3H (aq) →
2+ + Fe3+ ions to Fe2+ ions include the following.
3Fe3+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + NO(g) (a) Metals more reactive (electropositive)
than iron. For example, zinc.
(e) Acidified hydrogen peroxide
Zn(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) → 2Fe2+(aq) + Zn2+(aq)
H2O2(aq) + 2H (aq) + 2Fe (aq) →
+ 2+
2Fe3+(aq) + 2H2O(l) (b) Sulphur dioxide

SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 2Fe3+(aq) →
Reduction of Fe to Fe
3+ 2+
2Fe2+(aq) + 2H+(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
1 Iron(III) ions, Fe3+, can be converted to iron(II) (c) Potassium iodide

ions, Fe2+, by reduction. 2KI(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) →
reduction (gain electron) 2Fe2+(aq) + 2K+(aq) + I2(s)

(d) Hydrogen sulphide
Fe3+(aq) + e– → Fe2+(aq) H2S(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) →
2 (a) When sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) solution 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H+(aq) + S(s)
is added to iron(III) chloride, and the (e) Tin(II) chloride solution
mixture is acidified with dilute sulphuric
acid, the colour of the solution changes Sn2+(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) →
from brown to light green. 2Fe2+(aq) + Sn4+(aq)

To study the oxidation of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions and the SPM
’09/P2
reduction of Fe3+ ions to Fe2+ ions
Apparatus Test tubes and droppers. 4 Sodium hydroxide solution is then added to the
reaction mixture slowly until in excess.
Materials FeSO4, KMnO4, FeCl3, Na2SO3, dilute 5 The observations are recorded in the table
H2SO4 and dilute NaOH solution. below.
Procedure
(A) Conversion of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions (B) Conversion of Fe3+ ions to Fe2+ ions
1 About 2 cm3 of iron(II) sulphate solution is poured 1 About 2 cm3 of iron(III) chloride solution is added
into a test tube. to a test tube.
2 About 2 cm3 of potassium manganate(VII) solution 2 Sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) solution is added to
is poured into another test tube, followed by about iron(III) chloride solution, followed by dilute
2 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid. sulphuric acid. The mixture is shaken gently.
3 Using a dropper, about 2 cm3 of the acidified 3 Sodium hydroxide solution is then added slowly
potassium manganate(VII) solution is added slowly to the reaction mixture until in excess.
to the iron(II) sulphate solution. The mixture is 4 The observations are recorded in the table
shaken gently. below.
Observations
3
Solution Test Observation

FeSO4(aq) (a) Fe2+ ion + acidified KMnO4 • The light green iron(II) sulphate solution changes to
yellow.
• The purple colour of acidified KMnO4 solution turns
colourless (decolourised).
(b) Add excess NaOH(aq) to (a) • A brown precipitate, insoluble in excess NaOH(aq) is
formed.
FeCl3(aq) (c) Fe3+ ion + Na2SO3(aq) • The colour of the solution changes from yellow to light
green.
(d) Add excess NaOH(aq) to (c) • A dirty green precipitate, insoluble in excess NaOH(aq)
is obtained.
Conclusion
1 Fe2+ ions are oxidised to Fe3+ ions by the acidified KMnO4 solution.
2 Fe3+ ions are reduced to Fe2+ ions by the sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) solution.
Displacement of Metals from Their Salt 3 Electropositive metals are strong reducing
Solutions agents. In contrast, the metallic ions of
electropositive metals are weak oxidising
1 The arrangement of metals according to their agents. Figure 3.6 shows that in the
SPM tendency to lose electrons to form positive electrochemical series,
’04/P1
’07/P1 ions is called the electrochemical series. (a) the strength of a metal as a reducing agent
2 The higher the position of the metal in the increases on going up the electrochemical
electrochemical series, series,
Activity 3.2
(a) the more electropositive the metal, (b) the strength of the metallic ion as an
(b) the more readily the metal donates electrons oxidising agent increases on going down
to form positive ions, the series.
(c) the more easily the metal will undergo
oxidation.

• Tendency of a metal • Tendency of an ion
to ionise (by donating to accept electrons
electrons) increases. increases.
• Strength of a metal • Strength of an ion as

as a reducing agent an oxidising agent
increases. increases.
Figure 3.6 Electrochemical series
4 Consider the formation of sodium ions (Na+) position in the electrochemical series) will
from sodium metal (Na). displace a less electropositive metal (lower
Na metal has a strong tendency position in the electrochemical series) from the
to lose an electron to form sodium ion salt solutions of the less electropositive metal.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 6 Transfer of electrons occurs during displacement
Na(s) → Na+(aq) + e–
←⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ reactions.
Na ion has a weak tendency
+
(a) The more electropositive metal donates
to accept an electron to form Na metal electrons and acts as a reducing agent.
(a) Sodium metal is placed at a high position The metal undergoes oxidation and is
in the electrochemical series. oxidised to its metal ions.
3
(b) This means that sodium metal donates (b) The metal ion (from the less electropositive
electrons very easily. As a result, sodium metal) in aqueous solution acts as an
is a strong reducing agent. oxidising agent. The metal ions undergo
(c) Conversely, sodium ions (Na+) have a reduction and is reduced to its metal.
weak tendency to accept electrons. Since
oxidising agents are electron acceptors,
sodium ions are weak oxidising agents.
5 A displacement reaction is a reaction in which
one element (metal or non-metal) displaces A more electropositive metal is also a more reactive
metal. We can therefore state that a more reactive metal
another element (metal or non-metal) from its
will displace a less reactive metal from the solution of its
salt solution. In the displacement reactions of
salts.
metals, the more electropositive metal (higher
3.2
To study the redox reaction in terms of displacement reaction of a metal from its salt
solution
Problem statement
How does redox reaction occur in a displacement reaction in which a metal is displaced from its salt
solution?
Hypothesis
(a) The metal that acts as a reducing agent will form metal ion.
(b) The metal ion that acts as an oxidising agent will be precipitated as metal.
Experiment 3.2
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : A pair of metals and salt solutions
(b) Responding variable : Precipitation of metal and colour changes in the solutions
(c) Constant variables : Volumes and concentrations of solutions containing the metal ions
Apparatus
Beakers

Materials Procedure
Copper(II) sulphate solution and silver nitrate 1 A strip of zinc plate and a strip of copper plate
solution, zinc plate and copper plate. are cleaned with sandpaper.
2 The zinc plate is then immersed in copper(II)
sulphate solution (beaker P) and the copper plate
is immersed in silver nitrate solution (beaker Q).
3 The mixture is left aside for half an hour.
4 The changes that take place on the zinc plate,
the copper plate, and in the copper(II) sulphate
Figure 3.7 The displacement of a solution and the silver nitrate solution are
metal from its salt solution recorded.
Observation
Reactants Observation Explanation
(a) Zinc plate • A section of the zinc plate dissolves. • Zinc displaces copper metal (brown
in copper(II) • Brown precipitate is deposited on the precipitate) from copper(II) sulphate
sulphate solution zinc plate. solution.
• The blue solution fades until it • Copper metal is deposited on the zinc
becomes colourless. plate.
3
• The blue colour fades as the

concentration of Cu2+ ions decreases.
(b) Copper plate • The copper plate dissolves. • Copper displaces silver metal (greyish-
in silver nitrate • A greyish-black precipitate is black) from the silver nitrate solution.
solution deposited on the copper plate. • Silver metal is precipitated on the
• The colourless solution turns blue. copper plate.
• The colourless solution turns blue
because of the formation of Cu2+ ions.
Conclusion
During the displacement reaction, the more electropositive metal will act as a reducing agent.
It reduces the metal ion (oxidising agent) which is less electropositive to form metal. The hypothesis is accepted.
Displacement of Copper by Zinc from SPM The reaction can be represented by the
’08/P2
Copper(II) Sulphate Solution following half-equations:
(a) Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
1 The following equation shows the reaction (oxidation – loss of electrons)
between copper(II) sulphate solution and zinc. Zinc acts as a reducing agent (electron donor)
(b) Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s) (reduction – gain of electrons)
Copper ion acts as an oxidising agent (electron
Zinc is more electropositive than copper. acceptor)
It displaces copper from its salt (that is, 3 When copper(II) ion is displaced, the
copper(II) sulphate). concentration of Cu2+ ions in the solution
2 A displacement reaction is a redox reaction. decreases. This causes the blue colour to fade.
oxidation (loss of electrons)
Displacement of Silver by Copper from Silver

Nitrate Solution
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ⎯⎯→ ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

1 The displacement reaction between copper and
reduction (gain of electrons) silver nitrate solution is shown as follows.

oxidation (loss of electrons) (a) Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
(oxidation – loss of electrons)
Copper acts as a reducing agent (electron
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s) donor).
(b) Ag+(aq) + e– → Ag(s)

reduction (gain of electrons) (reduction – gain of electrons)
Silver ion acts as an oxidising agent (electron
Copper is more electropositive than silver. acceptor).
It displaces silver from its salt (that is, silver 3 When copper dissolves in silver nitrate solution,
nitrate). the formation of copper(II) ion causes the
2 The reaction can be represented by the solution to turn blue. The intensity of blue
following half-equations: colour increases as more copper is dissolved.
2 ’07
An experiment is carried out to determine the positions of the metals, Q, X, Y, Z in the electrochemical series.
The results of the experiment on displacement reactions are shown in the table below.
Solution
AgNO3 Pb(NO3)2 FeSO4 MgSO4
3
Metal
Q No change No change No change
X Silver is displaced No change No change
Y Silver is displaced Lead is displaced Iron is displaced
Z Silver is displaced Lead is displaced No change
What is the correct position of the metals, in ascending Q is the least reactive. It has no reactions with Pb2+,
order, of the tendency of the metals to be oxidised? Fe2+ and Mg2+.
A Q, X, Y, Z C X, Y, Z, Q Y is the most reactive. It can displace three metals
B Q, X, Z, Y D Y, Z, X, Q from their solutions.
Comments Z is more reactive than X. It can displace two metals
The most reactive metal is the strongest reducing from their salt solutions.
agent, that is, it has the highest tendency to form Answer B
metal ions by losing electrons, that is to be oxidised.
Displacement of Halogens from Halide halogen will displace a less reactive halogen
Solutions from the solution of its halide ions.
3 Hence, chlorine displaces bromine from an
1 In general, the stronger the oxidising strength aqueous solution of bromide ions. It also
SPM of the halogen, the weaker the reducing displaces iodine from an aqueous solution of
’04/P1
’05/P1 strength of the corresponding halide ion is.
iodide ions. Similarly, bromine displaces iodine
Thus, chlorine is a stronger oxidising agent from an aqueous solution of iodide ions.
than iodine, but the iodide ion is a stronger
reducing agent than the chloride ion. Figure 3.8 Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
shows the trend in the reactivity and oxidising Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
strength of the halogens and the reducing Br2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KBr(aq) + I2(aq)
strength of the halide ions.
2 The reactivity of the halogens can be used to 4 Conversely, bromine cannot displace chlorine
predict whether the displacement reactions of from an aqueous solution of chloride ions and
halogens can occur or not. A more reactive iodine cannot displace bromine or chlorine

from an aqueous solution of bromide ions or 1,1,1-trichloroethane. The colours of halogens
chloride ions respectively. in 1,1,1-trichloroethane are shown in Table 3.10.
Table 3.10 The colours of halogens in 1,1,1-
Br2(aq) + KCl(aq) → No reaction trichloroethane
I2(aq) + KCl(aq) → No reaction
Halogen Colour
I2(aq) + KBr(aq) → No reaction
Chlorine Colourless
5 The colours of halogens in water are shown in Bromine Brown
Table 3.9.
Iodine Purple
Table 3.9 The colour of halogens in water
Concentrated Dilute aqueous
Halogen
aqueous solution solution
Chlorine Greenish-yellow Colourless The structural formula of 1,1,1-trichloroethane is:
Bromine Brown Yellow H Cl
Iodine Brown Yellow ⎮ ⎮
⎯ C ⎯ C ⎯ Cl
H
⎮ ⎮
6 Halogens can be identified by adding 1,1,1- H Cl
3
trichloroethane (CH3CCl3) to its aqueous

It is very volatile and is used as a solvent in paper correction
solution. Water and 1,1,1-trichloroethane are
fluid. It is produced as one of the organic products when
immiscible and two layers are formed. The
ethane reacts in chlorine in the presence of sunlight.
upper layer is water and the lower layer is
A The tendency of electrons

being removed from
A Reactivity of halide ions to form
halogens increases halogens increases
A Oxidising strength of A The strength of halide
halogens increases ion as a reducing
agent increases
Figure 3.8
3.3
To study the displacement reactions between halogens and halide ions

Problem statement
How do redox reactions occur in displacement reactions between halogens and aqueous solutions of halide
ions?
Hypothesis
A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive halogen from an aqueous solution of its halide ions.
Variables
Experiment 3.3
(a) Manipulated variable : A pair of halogens and their halide ions

(b) Responding variable : Changes in colour in 1,1,1-trichloroethane, CH3CCl3
(c) Constant variable : Volume of reaction mixture
Apparatus
Test tubes

Materials 2 2 cm3 of chlorine water is added to the potassium
1,1,1-trichloroethane, potassium bromide, KBr(aq), bromide solution. The mixture is shaken gently.
potassium chloride, KCl(aq), potassium iodide, KI(aq), 3 2 cm3 of 1,1,1-trichloroethane (CH3CCl3) is then
chlorine water, liquid bromine and iodine solution. added to the mixture obtained in step 2. The
mixture is then shaken vigorously.
4 The test tube is allowed to stand for a few minutes
and the colour of the 1,1,1-trichloroethane layer
is recorded.
5 Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using the following
mixtures.
(a) Chlorine water and potassium iodide, KI
solution
(b) Liquid bromine and potassium chloride, KCl
solution
Figure 3.9 Displacement of bromine from
potassium bromide solution (c) Liquid bromine and potassium iodide solution
(d) Iodine solution and potassium bromide
Procedure solution
1 A test tube is filled with 2 cm3 of potassium (e) Iodine solution and potassium chloride
bromide, KBr solution. solution
Observation
3
Colour of CH3CCl3 Halogen in CH3CCl3 Has displacement
Mixture
layer layer reaction occurred?
Cl2(aq) + KBr(aq) Brown Bromine Yes
Cl2(aq) + KI(aq) Purple Iodine Yes
Br2(l) + KCl(aq) Brown ψ Bromine No
Br2(l) + KI(aq) Purple Iodine Yes
I2(aq) + KBr(aq) Purple *Iodine No
I2(aq) + KCl(aq) Purple *Iodine No
ψ The bromine present in the CH3CCl3 layer is due to the bromine added.
*The iodine present in the CH3CCl3 layer is due to the iodine added.
Discussion oxidation
1 When chlorine water is added to potassium
bromide solution, the colour of the solution Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(l)
changes from colourless to brown because
chlorine displaces bromine from an aqueous reduction
solution of bromide ions.
4 The half-equations for the reactions are as
Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(l) follows:
(a) 2Br–(aq) → Br2(l) + 2e–
2 If 1,1,1-trichloroethane is added to the reaction
mixture and shaken, two liquid layers are formed. (oxidation – loss of electrons)
The lower organic layer (1,1,1-trichloroethane) (b) Cl2 (aq) + 2e– → 2Cl–(aq)
has a brown colour and shows the presence of
(reduction – gain of electrons)
bromine. This means that the bromide ions have
been oxidised to bromine. Chlorine accepts electrons and acts as an
3 Displacement reactions can also be considered oxidising agent. Bromide ion (Br–) loses
in terms of oxidation and reduction. Chlorine electrons and acts as a reducing agent.
oxidises bromide ion (Br–) to bromine and 5 Other displacement reactions that occur in this
chlorine is itself reduced to chloride ion (Cl–). experiment are

oxidation (b) I2(aq) + KBr(aq) → No reaction
I2(aq) + KCl(aq) → No reaction
Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq) This is because iodine is less reactive than
bromine and chlorine.
reduction Conclusion
oxidation 1 Chlorine displaces bromine from potassium
bromide solution and iodine from potassium
iodide solution. Bromine displaces iodine from
Br2(l) + 2KI(aq) → 2KBr(aq) + I2(aq) iodide solution but does not displace chlorine
from chloride solution. Iodine does not displace
chlorine from chloride solution or bromine from
reduction
bromide solution.
6 The following displacement reactions do not occur. 2 The experimental results prove that a more
(a) Br2(l) + KCl(aq) → No reaction reactive halogen can displace a less reactive
This is because bromine is less reactive than halogen from its halide solution. The hypothesis
chlorine. is accepted.
Redox Reactions by the Transfer of

3
Electrons at a Distance
In Figure 3.9 (Experiment 3.3), the aqueous layer
contains KCl but the organic layer (CH3CCl3) does not 1 If a solution containing an oxidising agent is
contain KCl. This is because KCl is an ionic compound SPM separated from a solution containing a reducing
’06/P2,
which is soluble in water but not in organic solvent. ’11/P2 agent by an electrolyte, the redox reaction can
still occur by transfer of electrons at a distance.

The apparatus set-up is shown in Figure 3.10.
3 ’04
Which of the following equations represent redox

reactions?
I Cu(s) + Cl2(g) → CuCl2(s)
II Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
III Cu(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) →
CuCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
IV Cu(NO3)2(aq) + K2CO3(aq) →
CuCO3(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
A I and II only
B III and IV only
C I, II, III only Figure 3.10 The apparatus set-up in which the
D I, II, III and IV transfer of electrons occurs at a distance
Comments 2 In Figure 3.10, the electrons are transferred
Combustion of metals in chlorine or oxygen are by the connecting wire in the external circuit,
redox reactions (I is correct). from a reducing agent to an oxidising agent.
Displacement reactions are redox reactions (II is 3 The electrode placed in a solution containing a
correct). reducing agent acts as the negative terminal.
Neutralisation reactions are not redox reactions (III The reducing agent undergoes oxidation with
is incorrect). the loss of electrons.
Double decomposition reactions are not redox 4 The electrons produced will flow through the
reactions (IV is incorrect). connecting wire to the electrode placed in a
Answer A solution of oxidising agent. This electrode
acts as the positive terminal.

5 Sulphuric acid acts as the salt bridge. The 2 The deflection of the galvanometer needle
functions of a salt bridge are shows that electrons flow in the external
(a) to separate the oxidising agent from the circuit from the carbon electrode immersed
reducing agent, in the potassium iodide solution (negative
(b) to complete the electric circuit so that ions electrode) to the carbon electrode immersed
can move through it. in the acidified potassium manganate(VII)
6 Besides dilute sulphuric acid, the following solution (positive electrode).
strong electrolytes can also be used as salt 3 Changes at the negative electrode
bridges: (a) The colourless layer of potassium iodide
(a) Sodium or potassium chloride solution solution slowly changes to yellow.
(b) Sodium or potassium nitrate solution (b) The oxidation reaction occurs at the
negative electrode.
2I–(aq) → I2(aq) + 2e–
Redox reactions can occur under two conditions as (c) The electrons released during oxidation
shown below. then flow through the connecting wire
(external circuit) to the positive electrode
Conditions Experiment
and are accepted by the MnO4– ions.
Hence, MnO4– ion acts as the oxidising
(a) When the oxidising Mixing the oxidising and
agent and the reducing agents in a
agent.
3
reducing agent are test tube. 4 Changes at the positive electrode
in contact. (a) The purple layer of potassium man
ganate(VII) slowly becomes colourless
(decolourises).
(b) When the oxidising Transfer of electrons at
(b) The reduction reaction occurs at the
agent and the a distance in a redox
positive electrode.
reducing agent are cell.
not in contact. MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e– →
Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(c) Overall reaction
Reaction between Potassium Iodide and The ionic equation for the redox reaction
Acidified Potassium Manganate(VII) by Transfer is shown below.
of Electrons at a Distance oxidation

1 Figure 3.11 shows the apparatus set-up using
2MnO4– + 10I– + 16H+ → 2Mn2+ + 5I2 + 8H2O
acidified potassium manganate(VII) as an
oxidising agent and potassium iodide as a
reducing agent. reduction
reducing
agent
oxidising agent
Figure 3.11 Apparatus set-up consisting of KI and KMnO4

To study the redox reactions by the transfer of electrons at a
distance
Apparatus U-tube, dropper, carbon electrodes, A few drops of starch solution are added to the
galvanometer, retort stand with clamp potassium iodide solution.
and connecting wire with crocodile 9 Steps 1 to 6 are again repeated using chlorine
clips. and potassium bromide solution.
Materials Liquid bromine, potassium Results
dichromate(VI) solution, chlorine, 1 Reaction of iron(II) sulphate solution with liquid
iron(II) sulphate solution, potassium bromine
iodide solution, potassium bromide
solution, sulphuric acid, sodium Experiment Observation
hydroxide solution and starch
solution. (a) Colour change in The colour of the
iron(II) sulphate solution changes from
Procedure solution light green to yellow.
1 The U-tube is half-filled with dilute sulphuric acid.
2 Using a dropper, iron(II) sulphate solution is added (b) Colour change in The colour of solution
to the left arm of the U-tube until a 2 cm high liquid bromine changes from brown
layer is formed on top of the dilute sulphuric acid. to colourless.
3
3 Using the same method, liquid bromine is added (c) Reaction with A brown precipitate
to the right arm of the U-tube. sodium hydroxide insoluble in excess
4 Two carbon electrodes are then immersed into solution NaOH(aq) is
the upper layer of the U-tube. The electrodes are produced.
connected to the galvanometer by electric wire
(Figure 3.12).
2 Reaction of potassium iodide solution with
acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution
(a) Colour change in Colour changes
potassium iodide from colourless to
solution brown
(b) Colour change Colour changes
reducing agent oxidising agent in potassium from orange to
dichromate(VI) solution green
Figure 3.12 Oxidation of iron(II) sulphate by liquid
bromine (c) Reaction with starch Blue-black colour
5 The direction of the deflection of the solution is produced.
galvanometer needle is observed to determine
the direction of the flow of electrons. 3 Reaction of potassium bromide solution with
6 The apparatus is left aside for a few minutes and chlorine
the changes that occur at the carbon electrodes
are recorded. Experiment Observation
7 Using a clean dropper, a small quantity of the
iron(II) sulphate solution is removed and placed (a) Colour change in Colour changes from
in a test tube. Sodium hydroxide solution is then potassium bromide colourless to brown
Activity 3.3
added to the iron(II) sulphate solution. solution

8 Steps 1 to 6 are repeated using acidified potassium (b) Colour change in Colour changes from
dichromate(VI) solution and potassium iodide chlorine greenish-yellow to
solution. A small quantity of the potassium iodide colourless
solution is removed and placed in a test tube.

Conclusion oxidation
(a) Bromine oxidises iron(II) sulphate The oxidation number of
–1 0 iodine increases from –1
(b) Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) oxidises to 0. Iodide ion (I–) is a
potassium iodide 2I–(aq) → I2(aq) + 2e– reducing agent.
(c) Chlorine oxidises potassium bromide by transfer colourless brown
of electrons at a distance (b) At the positive terminal/pole/electrode
Discussion (i) Reduction of dichromate(VI) ions to
1 Reaction of iron(II) sulphate solution and chromium(III) ions occurs.
bromine reduction
(a) At the negative terminal/pole/electrode
(i) Oxidation of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions occurs
and electrons are released. +6 +3
Cr2O72–(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e– → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
Oxidation number of orange green
+2 +3 iron increases from
Fe → Fe + e 2+ 3+ – +2 to +3. Fe2+ ion is a (ii) The oxidation number of chromium
reducing agent.
green brown decreases from +6 to +3.
(ii) The carbon electrode dipped in iron(II)
sulphate solution is negatively-charged Cr2O72–(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6I–(aq) →
3
because electrons released during the 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) + 3I2(aq)
reaction gather at the electrode.
(iii) The electrons flow through the electric
3 Reaction of potassium bromide solution and
wire (external circuit) to the positive
chlorine
terminal and are accepted by the
bromine molecules.
At the negative electrode, bromide ions (Br–)
(iv) The colour of the solution changes from
donate electrons and are themselves oxidised
pale green to yellow or brown when Fe2+
to liquid bromine (Br2). The oxidation
ions are oxidised to Fe3+ ions.
number of bromine increases from –1 to 0.
(b) At the positive terminal/pole/electrode
(i) Reduction of bromine molecules to bromide oxidation
ions occurs. Electrons are accepted by the
bromine molecules. –1 0
2Br–(aq) → Br2(l) + 2e–
The oxidation number of colourless brown
0 –1 bromine decreases from
0 to –1. Bromine is an
Br2(aq) + 2e– → 2Br–(aq) oxidising agent. (b) At the positive terminal/pole/electrode
brown colourless At the positive electrode, chlorine molecules,
Cl2(aq) accept electrons and are themselves
(ii) The colour of the solution changes reduced to chloride ions, Cl–(aq).
from brown to colourless when bromine
molecules are reduced to bromide ions. Cl2(g) + 2e– → 2Cl–(aq)
(c) Overall reaction greenish-yellow colourless
The ionic equation for the reaction between
bromine and iron(II) sulphate is
The overall reaction can be represented by
the following ionic equation:
Br2(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq) → 2Fe3+(aq) + 2Br–(aq)
oxidation
2 Reaction of potassium iodide and acidified

potassium dichromate(VI)
Cl2(aq) + 2Br–(aq) → 2Cl–(aq) + Br2(l)
Oxidation of iodide ions (I–) to iodine
occurs. reduction

Oxidation reaction Reduction reaction
• Addition of oxygen • Removal of oxygen
• Removal of hydrogen • Addition of hydrogen
• Increase in oxidation number • Decrease in oxidation number
• Loss of electrons • Gain of electrons
occur simultaneously
Redox reactions Redox cell
(a) Combustion of metals in oxygen or chlorine (transfer of electrons at a distance)
(b) Heating of metallic oxide with carbon • The electrode immersed in a reducing agent is the
(c) Changes of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions and Fe3+ ions negative electrode
to Fe2+ ions • The electrode immersed in an oxidising agent is
(d) Displacement (i) of metal from its salt, the positive electrode
(ii) halogen from its halide solution • Electrons flow from negative electrode to positive
(e) Transfer of electrons at a distance electrode
3
Oxidising agent Reducing agent Rules for determining oxidation numbers

• Brings about oxidation • Brings about reduction • The oxidation number of an uncombined
in another substance in another substance element is zero.
• It is an electron • It is an electron donor • The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the
acceptor • Examples: FeSO4, KBr, atoms in a polyatomic ion is the charge on the
• Examples: Cl2, Br2, KI, C, CO, H2, metals ion.
KMnO4, K2Cr2O7 • The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the
atoms in a compound is zero.
4 ’03
Which of the following reagents can be used to reduces Fe3+ to Fe2+ by displacement reaction. (I is
convert Fe3+ ions in solution to Fe2+ ions? correct)
I Magnesium powder
II Potassium iodide solution reduction
III Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) solution
IV Acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution 0 +3 +2 +2
A I and II only Mg(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) → 2Fe2+(aq) + Mg2+(aq)
B II and III only
C I, II and III only oxidation
D I, II, III and IV
Potassium iodide is a reducing agent. (II is correct)
Comments
The conversion of Fe3+ ions to Fe2+ ions is a reduction reduction
reaction.
Hence, reducing agents are required for the conversion.
+3 +2
Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) is not a reducing
2KI(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) → 2Fe2+(aq) + I2(s) + 2K+(aq)
agent. (III is incorrect)
Acidified potassium manganate(VII) is an oxidising
agent. (IV is incorrect) oxidation
Mg is a more electropositive metal than iron. It Answer A

3.1
1 Consider the following reactions and state whether (b) Explain your answer in terms of (i) transfer of
the chemicals underlined have been oxidised or electrons, (ii) change in oxidation number.
reduced? 6 Zinc reacts with iron(III) chloride as represented by
(a) 2Fe + 3Cl2 → 2FeCl3 the following ionic equation
(b) Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu
(c) PbO + CO → Pb + CO2 Zn(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) → 2Fe2+(aq) + Zn2+(aq)
(d) 4NH 3 + 5O2 → 4NO + 6H2O
2 Calcium reacts with chlorine to form calcium
(a) Describe what you would see when zinc powder
chloride.
is added to iron(III) chloride solution.
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) → CaCl2(s) (b) Write the half-equations for the chemical changes
that take place.
(a) Identify the element that has been (i) oxidised
(c) Is zinc being oxidised or reduced?
and (ii) reduced.
Explain your answer in terms of transfer of
(b) Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in this
electrons.
reaction.
7 (a) Identify the redox reactions from the equations
3 (a) State the oxidation numbers of the underlined
given below.
elements in each of the following compounds:
(i) Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2
(i) CaCrO4
(ii) 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
(ii) HNO2
(iii) 2NaCl + Pb(NO3)2 → PbCl2 + 2NaNO3
(iii) NaClO3
3
(iv) Mg(OH)2 + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + 2H2O
(iv) Cr2(SO4)3
(v) 2FeCl3 + SnCl2 → 2FeCl2 + SnCl4
(v) FeCl3.6H2O
(b) Write the half-equations for these redox
(vi) K2MnO4
reactions.
(b) Give the oxidation numbers of the underlined
(c) Identify the oxidising agents and reducing agents
elements in the following ions:
in the following reactions. Explain your answer in
(i) SO42– (iii) ClO –
terms of oxidation number.
(ii) CuCl43– (iv) NO3–
(i) SnCl2 + 2FeCl3 → 2FeCl2 + SnCl4
4 (a) Write the molecular formulae of the following (ii) Zn + Pb(NO3)2 → Zn(NO3)2 + Pb
compounds. (iii) Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2
(i) Copper(I) sulphate (iv) 2KI + H2O2 + H2SO4 → I2 + K2SO4 + 2H2O
(ii) Manganese(II) chloride
8 The figure shows an experiment on the transfer of
(iii) Nickel(II) sulphate
electrons at a distance.
(b) Write the names of the compounds with the ’06
following molecular formulae:
(i) CrCl3
(ii) CoO
(iii) Fe2(SO4)3
(c) The formulae of two compounds are shown
below.
’06
Fe2O3 and Al2O3
(i) State the oxidation numbers for iron and

aluminium in the compounds above.
(ii) Name both the compounds using IUPAC (a) Name the oxidising agent and reducing agent in
nomenclature system. the experiment.
(iii) Explain the difference between the names (b) Write the half-equations for the reactions that
of the two compounds. occur at the negative and positive terminals.
5 The chemical equation for the combustion of (c) Based on your answer in (b), describe the
magnesium in air is oxidation and reduction processes in terms of
electron transfer at the negative and positive
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) terminals.
(d) State the changes that occur at the negative and
(a) Is magnesium oxidised or reduced? positive terminals after 10 minutes.

3.2 Rusting as a Redox
Reaction The golden mask of King
Tutankhamun was buried in his
Conditions for the Rusting of Iron tomb for more than 3000 years. It
is still uncorroded. This is because
1 Rusting is a redox reaction between iron, gold is an unreactive metal and
oxygen and water to form a brown substance never corrodes.
called rust. Rust is hydrated iron(III) oxide,
Fe2O3.xH2O. The composition of water in rust
2 Most metals corrode readily in air. When
is not constant.
corrosion occurs, the metal surface loses its
luster (shine) and becomes dull. This is because
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2xH2O(l) → 2Fe2O3.xH2O(s) metals react slowly with oxygen in the air to
from metal oxides on the metal surfaces.
2 Two conditions required for rusting are 3 Metals that are more electropositive (reactive)
(a) the presence of air (oxygen) and will corrode more readily.
(b) the presence of water. K
tendency for corrosion decreases

electropositivity of metal decreases
Na
Ca very easy to
Corrosion of Metals Mg corrode
Al
3
Zn
1 The corrosion of metals is a redox reaction Fe
in which a metal is oxidised spontaneously at Sn
Pb
room temperature with the release of electrons Cu
to form the metal ions. Hg
very difficult
Ag
to corrode
Au
M(s) → Mn+(aq) + ne–
reactivity series
metal metal ion
4 The higher the position of the metal in the
Thus, metal M is said to have corroded and reactivity series, the easier it is for the metal to
the process is known as corrosion of metal. donate its electrons and be corroded.
Group 1 metals in the Periodic Table (for Aluminium corrodes rapidly in air to form a
example, sodium and potassium) are very thin layer of aluminium oxide on its surface.
reactive and must be kept in paraffin oil to This oxide layer is hard, impermeable (does
protect them from oxidation by air and water. not allow liquid or gas to pass through)
When sodium or potassium is exposed to the and difficult to crack. Thus, the thin layer
atmosphere, the metals corrode rapidly. of aluminium oxide protects the aluminium
below it from further corrosion.
Corrosion of metals and

positions of metals in the
reactivity series
Less reactive metals such as chromium, zinc Unreactive metals (such as gold and
and nickel also form hard metal oxides platinum) do not corrode because they are
that are impermeable to water and air and resistant to oxidation.
resistant to cracks. These metal oxide layers
can prevent and hence protect the metals
from further corrosion.

5 The layer of aluminium oxide can be made (b) The side of the drop of water
thicker by electrolysis. This process is called This is the area in the metal surface where
anodising. In industry, anodising is used to it is rich in oxygen. This area will act as
protect aluminium from rusting. Anodising is the positive terminal (cathode).
an electrolytic process using aluminium as the 3 The following stages are involved during the
anode (positive electrode). During electrolysis rusting of iron.
(anodising), a layer of aluminium oxide is
deposited on the surface of aluminium. (a) In the centre of the water droplet (anode)
Iron rusts via the oxidation process to form
iron(II) ions.
Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e– … oxidation
• Window and door frames made from anodised
aluminium do not require painting because the
The electrons flow to the edge of the water
aluminium oxide layer prevents them from attack by droplet through the iron surface.
air and water.
• Iron is less reactive than aluminium and window
frames made from iron must be painted frequently.
This is because the hydrated iron(III) oxide (rust)
formed during corrosion is permeable to air and
(b) At the edge of water droplet (cathode)
water, and can crack easily. Thus, rusting will continue Oxygen accepts electrons from the oxidation
below the rusted surface, until all the metal is ‘eaten of iron and is reduced to hydroxide ions.
3
up’ by rust. O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– → 4OH–(aq)
… reduction
Rusting in Terms of Oxidation and
Reduction
1 Rusting of iron is an electrochemical process (c) Formation of Fe(OH)2
SPM that occurs spontaneously. When iron is in The Fe2+ and OH– ions in the water droplet
’05/P1
’06/P1 contact with water, a simple chemical cell combine to form iron(II) hydroxide.
’07/P2
is formed. Figure 3.13 shows the reactions Fe2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s)
involved in the formation of rust.
(d) Formation of rust

The iron(II) hydroxide produced is oxidised
by oxygen to form iron(III) hydroxide, which
then decomposes to hydrated iron(III) oxide.

oxidation
4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 4Fe(OH)3
decomposition
Fe(OH)3 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Fe2O3.xH2O
rust
Figure 3.13 Rusting of iron 4 (a) The equations for the redox reactions are
shown below.
2 Consider a drop of water on the metal (iron)
surface. Anode : 2Fe(s) → 2Fe2+(aq) + 4e– … oxidation
(a) The centre of a drop of water Cathode : O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– → 4OH–(aq)
This is the area in the metal surface where … reduction
there is a lack of oxygen. This area will 2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 2Fe(OH)2(s)
act as the negative terminal (anode).

(b) The overall equation for the rusting of iron Prevention of Rusting of Iron
is
1 The rusting of iron can be prevented if iron
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2xH2O(l) → 2Fe2O3.xH2O(s) is in contact with a more electropositive metal.
Conversely, the rate of rusting of iron is
5 The rate of rusting of iron is increased if a increased if the iron is in contact with a less
strong electrolyte (such as salt and acid) is electropositive metal.
present. Thus, the rusting of iron occurs more
rapidly in areas near the sea or in industrial Iron does not corrode if it is Iron corrodes rapidly
areas. This is because sea air contains salts such in contact with Zn, Al or Mg if it is in contact with
as sodium chloride and magnesium chloride. (Refer to Experiment 3.4) Sn, Pb or Cu
In the industrial area, the air is polluted by
acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and
K Na Mg Al Zn Fe Sn Pb Cu
nitrogen dioxide. These substances increase the
electrical conductivity of water, thus, making
water a better electrolyte. Electropositivity decreases
6 The rate of rusting is also increased if iron is in
contact with a metal less electropositive than
iron. For example, if iron is in contact with 2 When two metals are in contact, the greater the
copper (a metal less electropositive than iron), difference in electropositivity between these
the rate of rusting is increased. This process is two metals, the faster the more electropositive
3
known as electrochemical corrosion. metal will rust. For example, a piece of iron
7 Besides the corrosion of iron and steel, corrosion joined to copper will corrode more rapidly
of other metals can also occur. The main causes than a piece of iron joined to tin.
of corrosion of metals are attack by chemicals, 3 Experiment 3.4 shows the experimental set-up
such as acids, damp air or electrochemical for the study of the effect of other metals on
corrosion. the rate of rusting of iron.
3.4
To investigate the effect of other metals with different electropositivity on the SPM
’04/P2
rusting of iron
Problem statement (a) Manipulated variable : Different metals used to
wrap around iron nails
What is the effect of other metals with different
(b) Responding variable : Colour change in the
electropositivity on the rusting of iron?
gelatin solution
Hypothesis (c) Constant variable : Iron nails
(a) A metal more electropositive than iron will Apparatus Test tubes
protect iron from rusting.
(b) A metal less electropositive than iron will Materials Iron nails, magnesium, zinc, tin
increase the rate of rusting. and copper foils, gelatin, potassium
Variables hexacyanoferrate(III), phenolphthalein
indicator and sandpaper.
Procedure
1 Five pieces of iron nails are cleaned using sandpaper.
Experiment 3.4
2 The first clean iron nail is placed in test tube A.

3 Strips of magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), tin (Sn)
and copper (Cu) foils are cleaned with sandpaper.
4 Each iron nail is wrapped with a different metal
foil and placed in test tubes B, C, D and E
Figure 3.14 Effect of contact with other
metals on the rusting of iron respectively.

5 A solution of gelatin in hot water is prepared. A few drops of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution,
K3Fe(CN)6 and phenolphthalein indicator are added to the hot gelatin solution.
6 The mixture is stirred and then poured into each of the test tubes (Figure 3.14).
7 The test tubes are set aside for three days and then examined. The observations are recorded in the table
below.
Results
Test tube
A B C D E
Observation
Metal Fe only Fe + Mg Fe + Zn Fe + Sn Fe + Cu
Intensity of blue colour Low None None High High
Intensity of pink colour None High High Low Low
Gas bubbles None Plenty Plenty Few Few
Discussion (c) At the anode: Magnesium foil and zinc foil

The oxidation of magnesium to Mg2+ ions
1 (a) Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) is used to
and the oxidation of zinc to Zn2+ ions occur.
3
detect the Fe2+ ions. Potassium hexacyano-
Electrons are released.
ferrate(III) produces a dark blue colour in the
presence of Fe2+ ions. oxidation
(b) Phenolphthalein is used to detect the OH– Mg(s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Mg2+(aq) + 2e–
ions. Phenolphthalein produces a pink colour oxidation
in the presence of OH– ions. Zn(s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
(c) The bubbles of gas produced are hydrogen Thus, magnesium and zinc are corroded instead
gas. of iron. The electrons released then flow to the
2 Reactions in test tube A (Fe only) iron nail and prevent it from forming Fe2+ ions,
(a) Test tube A is used as a control to study the that is, prevent the rusting of iron.
effect of other metals on the rusting of iron. (d) At the cathode: Iron nails
(b) In the presence of water and oxygen, rusting Water molecules dissociate to form hydrogen
of iron occurs to produce iron(II) ions (Fe2+) ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH–).
and hydroxide ions (OH–).
H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH–(aq)
oxidation
Fe(s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Fe2+(aq) + 2e– Hydrogen ions accept electrons and are
reduced to hydrogen gas.
reduction
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 4OH–(aq)
reduction
2H+(aq) + 2e– ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ H2(g)
(c) Fe ions react with potassium hexacyano
2+
ferrate(III) to produce a deep blue precipitate. (e) When hydrogen ions are discharged to form
(d) Phenolphthalein does not produce a pink hydrogen gas, the concentration of hydroxide
colour because the OH– ions produced react ions in water increases. Consequently, the
with Fe2+ ions to form Fe(OH)2. area around the iron nail becomes alkaline
3 Reactions in test tubes B (Fe + Mg) and C and causes the colour of phenolphthalein to
(Fe + Zn) change from colourless to pink.
(a) Deep blue colour does not appear in test 4 Reactions in test tubes D (Fe + Sn) and E
tubes B and C. This implies that Fe2+ ions are (Fe + Cu)
not produced, that is, the iron does not rust. (a) Deep blue colour appears. This implies that
(b) Magnesium and zinc are more electropositive Fe2+ ions are produced, that is, rusting of iron
than iron. Thus, magnesium and zinc act as nails has occurred. The high intensity of the
the negative terminal (electrode) and iron blue colour shows that the rusting of iron nail
acts as the positive terminal (electrode). is speeded up.

(b) Iron is more electropositive than tin and Consequently, tin foil and copper foil do not
copper. Hence, iron has a greater tendency corrode.
to lose electrons and acts as the negative (e) When hydrogen ions are discharged, the
terminal (anode). Tin and copper, on the other concentration of hydroxide ions (OH–) in
hand, act as the positive terminal (cathode). water increases. However, most of the OH–
(c) At the anode: Iron nail ions produced will combine with Fe2+ ions to
Oxidation of iron to Fe2+ ions occurs and form rust. Consequently, the area around tin
electrons are released. foil or copper foil is slightly alkaline and a
oxidation slight pink colour is observed.
Fe(s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Fe2+(aq) + 2e–
(d) At the cathode: Tin foil or copper foil Conclusion
Electrons released by the iron nail will flow
1 The rusting of iron can be prevented if iron is in
to the tin or copper foil which acts as the
contact with more electropositive metals such as
positive terminal. Hydrogen ions from water
magnesium or zinc.
will then accept these electrons and are
2 The rusting of iron is speeded up if iron is in
themselves reduced to hydrogen gas.
contact with less electropositive metals such as
reduction
2H+(aq) + 2e– ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ H2(g) tin or copper. The hypothesis is accepted.
(ii) Another reason is that tin plating

3
makes the articles shiny and more

Zinc is not used to coat food cans although zinc can attractive in appearance.
prevent the rusting of iron. This is because zinc is a (iii) However, there is one disadvantage
poisonous substance. Zinc is more reactive than tin in tin plating because tin is less
and is susceptible to attack by acids such as fruit juices. electropositive than iron. If the tin
Food cans are usually electroplated with tin because coating is broken, the iron beneath it
tin is non-poisonous. Furthermore, tin is resistant to will rust even more rapidly because
oxidation by oxygen and water. Tin can prevent iron iron is more electropositive than tin.
from rusting as long as the tin surface is not cracked. (b) Plating iron with chromium
(i) Chromium is a metal that is resistant
Methods Used for the Prevention of Rusting SPM
’11/P1
to rusting. When chromium is exposed
to water and air, an impermeable, non-
1 Using a protective layer brittle oxide layer is formed.
(a) Rusting of iron and steel can be prevented (ii) The oxide layer acts as a protective
by keeping them away from air (oxygen) layer to prevent iron beneath it from
and water. coming into contact with water and
(b) A layer of paint, oil, grease or plastic coating air in the atmosphere.
protects the iron surface from coming into (iii) Car bumpers, bicycle handles and
contact with air and water. Without the pipes are chromium-plated to prevent
presence of both air and water, rusting of corrosion.
iron cannot occur. 3 Using more electropositive (reactive) metals
(c) Oil and grease are usually used for movable SPM (a) Galvanising is the coating of iron or steel
’10/P1
machine parts. Plastics are usually used with zinc for protection from corrosion.
for household articles such as flower pot Galvanising is carried out by dipping the
stands, coat hangers and so on. Paints are iron object into molten zinc or by electro
used for bigger objects such as car bodies, plating. Zinc-coated iron is known as
fences, gates and bridges. galvanised iron.
2 Using less electropositive metals (i) Even if the layer of zinc is scratched
(a) Plating iron with tin or broken, the iron beneath it does not
(i) Tin is a not an electropositive metal rust. This is because zinc is more electro
and is resistant to oxidation by water positive than iron and will corrode first.
and air. Hence, iron plated with tin is
used in making food cans. Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– ... oxidation

(ii) This method of rust prevention is called Magnesium is more electropositive than
cathodic protection. The metal zinc iron and will be corroded in preference
is known as sacrificial metal because to iron.
zinc is sacrificed in the protection of
iron from rusting.
(iii) Galvanised iron are used for making
zinc roof and gutter.
(b) Rusting in ships is prevented by fixing bars
of zinc to the part of the ship submerged
in water (Figure 3.15). Zinc is oxidised
(corroded) in preference to iron.
Figure 3.16 Using the sacrificial metal
(magnesium blocks) to
protect the underground pipes
4 Using alloys
(a) The best known rust-resistant alloy of iron
is stainless steel. Stainless steel contains
10–20% nickel and 10–25% chromium.
When exposed to the air, a hard layer of
chromium(III) oxide is formed on the
3
Figure 3.15 Using a sacrificial metal, zinc, to prevent
the rusting of ships surface of iron and prevents the iron from
rusting.
(c) Rusting in underground iron pipes is (b) Stainless steel is used to make surgical
prevented by having blocks of magnesium instruments and kitchen wares such as
attached to the iron pipes (Figure 3.16). knives, forks and spoons.
Corrosion of metals and rusting of iron

Conditions for rusting of iron
• Corrosion of metals is a redox reaction in which a metal is oxidised
• Presence of air (oxygen)
spontaneously by losing electrons to form metal ions.
• Presence of water
• When iron corrodes, the process is called rusting.
Explaining the rusting of iron Methods for rust prevention

• Corrosion of metals and rusting of iron are redox • Using a protective layer such as
reactions. paint, oil, grease, or plastic covering
• At the anode (negative electrode), iron is corroded. • Coating/plating iron with tin
• Coating/plating iron with chromium
Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e– … oxidation • Using sacrificial metals
• At the cathode (positive electrode), OH– ions are • Using alloys
produced.
O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH– … reduction
• Fe2+ combines with OH– to form Fe(OH)2.
• Fe(OH)2 is oxidised to Fe2O3.xH2O (rust).

4 Oxygen used for burning the metals is supplied
3.2
by heating potassium manganate(VII), potassium
1 State the (a) physical changes, (b) chemical nitrate or a mixture of potassium chlorate(V)
changes that occur when iron corrodes. and manganese(IV) oxide (catalyst).
2 (a) Write the chemical equation for the rusting of (a) 2KMnO4(s) ⎯⎯→ K2MnO4(s) + MnO2(s)
heat
iron. Assume the formula of rust as Fe2O3.H2O. + O2(g)
(b) Explain why a layer of grease applied to an (b) 2KNO3(s) ⎯⎯→ 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
iron object will prevent iron from rusting. heat
MnO2
3 (a) What is meant by galvanised iron? (c) 2KClO (s) ⎯⎯→ 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
3
(b) Explain why galvanised iron does not rust heat
even though its surface is scratched.
4 Figure 3.17 shows the arrangement of apparatus Reactivity Series of Metals
to study the effect of magnesium on the corrosion
of zinc. 1 The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged
according to their chemical reactivity with
oxygen.
2 Metals high in the reactivity series are very
reactive. These metals react vigorously with
oxygen. Potassium is the most reactive of these
metals. It is placed at the top of the series.
Figure 3.17 3 Metals that are less reactive are placed at the
3
(a) Write the half-equations for the reactions that lower part of the series. These metals react slowly
occur at (i) the zinc rod, (ii) the magnesium foil. with oxygen. Gold is the most unreactive of these
(b) Explain the effect of magnesium on the corrosion metals. It is placed at the bottom of the series.
of zinc. 4 Figure 3.18 shows the reactivity series of metals
that do not include hydrogen and carbon.
3.3 The Reactivity Series

of Metals and Its
Applications
Reactivity of Metals with Oxygen
1 Most metals form metal oxides when heated
SPM or burnt in air. For example,

’05/P2
/SA
oxidation
Figure 3.18 The reactivity series of metals

0 0 +1 –2
The reactivity series of metals that includes
4Na(s) + O2(g) ⎯⎯⎯→ 2Na2O(s) hydrogen and carbon is shown in Figure 3.24.
reducing oxidising 5 The position of a metal in the reactivity series
agent agent
reduction SPM can also be determined by the reaction between
’05/P1
the metal and the oxide of another metal
2 Different metals have different reactivity with (Figure 3.19).
oxygen. Reactive metals have strong affinity
for oxygen. Hence, reactive metals will burn
rapidly and vigorously in oxygen. Conversely,
less reactive metals will react slowly with oxygen.
3 The reactivity of metals with oxygen can be
compared by observing the flame or the glow
produced when a metal is heated in oxygen.
The more reactive the metal is with oxygen, the Figure 3.19 Heating a mixture of a metal and the
more brightly and rapidly the metal burns. oxide of another metal

6 If metal X is more reactive than metal Y with 8 Magnesium is more reactive than copper.
oxygen, metal X will displace metal Y from its Thus, magnesium can displace copper from
oxide when a mixture of powdered X and the copper(II) oxide. Conversely, copper is less
oxide of metal Y is heated, that is, reactive than magnesium. Thus, copper cannot
displace magnesium from magnesium oxide.
more reactive less reactive
9 The displacement reaction can be considered in
→

→
terms of oxidation and reduction. For example,
X + oxide of Y ⎯⎯→ oxide of X + Y
oxidation
7 For example, when a mixture of copper(II)
oxide and magnesium is heated, the following
reaction occurs because magnesium is more Zn(s) + PbO(s) ⎯⎯→ ZnO(s) + Pb(s)
heat
reactive than copper.
reduction
more reactive less reactive
10 In the reaction between zinc and lead(II) oxide,
→
Mg(s) + CuO(s) ⎯⎯→ MgO(s) + Cu(s) zinc acts as a reducing agent and reduces lead(II)
heat oxide to lead. Conversely, lead(II) oxide acts as an
Conversely, when a mixture of magnesium oxide oxidising agent and oxidises zinc to zinc oxide.
and copper is heated, reaction does not occur 11 The reactivity series can be used to predict
because copper is less reactive than magnesium. the reaction between a metal and the oxide
of another metal. A more reactive metal will
3
MgO(s) + Cu(s) → No reaction displace a less reactive metal from its oxide.
6
When a mixture of the oxide of a metal P and the Test 2
powdered metal Q is heated, there is a glow in the Metal R has no reaction with the oxide of P. Thus, R is
mixture. When the experiment is repeated by using less reactive than P.
metal R as a substitute for metal Q, no change occur. Conclusion
From these observations, arrange the reactivity of The reactivity of P, Q and R in ascending order is
P, Q and R in ascending order.
Solution R<P<Q
Test 1 reactivity increases
The mixture glows because of the reaction between
Q and oxide of P. Thus, metal Q is more reactive
than metal P.
3.5
To deduce the reactivity series of metals

Problem statement (c) Constant variables : The amount of metal and
potassium manganate(VII)
How is the reactivity series of metals deduced from
used
the reactions of metals with oxygen?
Hypothesis
Experiment 3.5
The more reactive a metal, the more brightly and

more rapidly the metal will burn in oxygen.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Type of metal
(b) Responding variable : The intensity of the flame Figure 3.20 The combustion of a metal in oxygen

Apparatus Combustion tube, retort stand with 2 A spatula of zinc powder is placed on a sheet
clamp, spatula and Bunsen burner. of asbestos paper and put inside the combustion
tube. The combustion tube is then clamped to a
Materials Potassium manganate(VII), powdered retort stand.
zinc, iron, lead, copper, magnesium, 3 The zinc powder is heated strongly (Figure 3.20).
glass wool and asbestos paper. 4 When the zinc powder has become very hot,
potassium manganate(VII) is heated strongly to
Procedure produce oxygen gas. The intensity of the flame
1 Two spatulas of potassium manganate(VII) or glow is recorded in the following table.
crystals are placed in a combustion tube. A 5 When the reaction has been completed, the
small quantity of glass wool is then placed combustion tube is set aside to cool and the
inside the combustion tube to prevent potassium contents of the combustion tube taken out.
manganate(VII) from spilling over. (Caution! If 6 Steps 1 to 5 are repeated using (a) iron powder,
potassium manganate(VII) is mixed with metal (b) lead powder, (c) copper powder and (d)
powder, an explosion may occur during heating). magnesium powder.
Results
Observation
Metal Intensity of flame/glow
Colour of hot oxide Colour of cold oxide
Zinc • Burns rapidly Yellow White
3
• Bright glow
Iron • Burns less rapidly Reddish-brown Reddish-brown
• The glow is less bright than the
burning of zinc
Lead • Burns slowly Brown Yellow
• Faint glow
Copper • Faint glow Black Black
Magnesium • Burns very rapidly White White
• Very bright white flame produced
Conclusion (B) Colour of metal oxide

Metals burn in oxygen to form metal oxides. The
Based on the results obtained in this experiment, the
chemical equations for the burning of these five
reactivity of the five metals with oxygen is as follows:
metals in oxygen are shown below:
(Very Mg > Zn > Fe > Pb > Cu (Very
reactive) Reactivity decreases unreactive) 1 Burning of magnesium
The hypothesis is accepted. 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Magnesium oxide is white in colour.
Discussion 2 Burning of zinc
(A) The intensity of flame/glow or the vigour of 2Zn(s) + O2(g) → 2ZnO(s)
reaction Zinc oxide is yellow when hot and white when cold.
1 Magnesium burns very rapidly in oxygen and 3 Burning of iron
produces a very bright white flame. This shows 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s)
that magnesium is very reactive. In contrast, copper Iron(III) oxide is reddish-brown.
only glows weakly when it reacts with oxygen. 4 Burning of lead
This shows that copper is very unreactive. 2Pb(s) + O2 → 2PbO(s)
2 Comparing zinc with iron and lead, zinc burns Lead(II) oxide is brown when hot and yellow
rapidly and produces a bright glow. This shows that when cold.
zinc is more reactive, compared with iron and lead. 5 Burning of copper
3 Iron burns less rapidly and lead burns slowly. 2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)
Thus, iron is more reactive than lead. Copper(II) oxide is black.

The Position of Carbon in the Reactivity agent and the oxide of metal X is reduced to
Series of Metals metal X.
reduction
Heating Carbon with Metal Oxides
Carbon + oxide of metal X ⎯⎯→ metal X
reducing +
1 The position of carbon in the reactivity series
agent carbon dioxide
can be determined by heating carbon with
metal oxides.
2 When a mixture of carbon and the oxide of oxidation
metal X is heated strongly, a reaction will 3 Conversely, if carbon does not remove oxygen
occur if carbon is more reactive than the metal from a metal oxide, this means that carbon is
X. In this reaction, carbon acts as the reducing less reactive than the metal in the oxide.
3.6
To determine the position of carbon in the reactivity series of metals

Problem statement Variables
How is the position of carbon in the reactivity series (a) Manipulated variable : Type of metal oxide
of metals determined? (b) Responding variable : Intensity of flame
3
Hypothesis (c) Constant variable : Carbon powder
(a) A reaction will occur if carbon is more reactive
than the metal.
(b) A reaction will not occur if carbon is less reactive
than the metal.
(c) Carbon is placed between aluminium and zinc in
the reactivity series of metals.
Apparatus
Spatula, asbestos paper, wire gauze, tripod stand and
Bunsen burner.
Figure 3.21 The reaction between carbon and
Materials the metal oxide
Powdered carbon, powdered zinc oxide, copper(II)
oxide and aluminium oxide.
Procedure zinc oxide and carbon is heated strongly for a
few seconds (Figure 3.21).
1 Two spatulas of carbon powder are placed on a 4 After this, the Bunsen flame is removed and the
piece of asbestos paper. mixture examined to determine whether it will
2 One spatula of zinc oxide is added to the carbon continue to glow.
powder. The zinc oxide and carbon powder are 5 Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using a mixture of carbon
mixed uniformly. and
3 The asbestos paper with its contents is placed on (a) copper(II) oxide, (b) aluminium oxide.
a wire gauze over a tripod stand. The mixture of
Results
Mixture Observation Reactivity of carbon
Experiment 3.6
(a) C + ZnO • The reaction mixture glows brightly. Carbon is more reactive than zinc.
• A grey solid is formed.
(b) C + CuO • The reaction mixture burns with a bright flame. Carbon is more reactive than copper.
• A brown solid is obtained.
(c) C + Al2O3 • No visible change Carbon is less reactive than aluminium.

Discussion 2 Carbon does not react with aluminium oxide.
Thus, carbon is less reactive than aluminium.
1 Carbon has reduced zinc oxide and copper(II)
oxide to their respective metals. C(s) + Al2O3(s) ⎯⎯→ No reaction
Δ
C(s) + 2ZnO(s) ⎯⎯→ 2Zn(s) + CO2(g)
Δ Conclusion
white grey
The position of carbon is between aluminium and
C(s) + 2CuO(s) ⎯⎯→ 2Cu(s) + CO2(g) zinc. Thus, the position of carbon in the reactivity
Δ series is
black brown
K > Ca > Mg > Al > C > Zn > Cu > Hg > Ag > Au
(Note: the symbol ‘Δ’ denotes heating.)
Reactivity decreases
This means that carbon is more reactive than
copper and zinc. The hypothesis is accepted.
Heating Carbon Dioxide with Metals 4 When a piece of burning magnesium ribbon
is put into carbon dioxide in a gas jar, the
1 The ability of a metal to remove oxygen from magnesium will continue to burn for a short
carbon dioxide can be used to determine the time. Black specks of carbon can be seen on
position of carbon in the reactivity series. the sides of gas jar and magnesium burns to
2 Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and form a white powder (magnesium oxide).
3
aluminium are more reactive than carbon. These

metals will therefore react with carbon dioxide 2Mg(s) + CO2(g) → 2MgO(s) + C(s)
and remove oxygen from carbon dioxide.
5 This reaction shows that magnesium
Metal + carbon dioxide → metal oxide + carbon (a) is more reactive than carbon with oxygen,
(b) acts as the reducing agent,
3 Figure 3.22 shows the arrangement of apparatus (c) reduces carbon dioxide to carbon,
used to investigate the reaction between (d) is itself oxidised to magnesium oxide.
magnesium and carbon dioxide. oxidation

2Mg(s) + CO2(g) → 2MgO(s) + C(s)
reducing
agent
reduction
6 The higher the element is in the reactivity
series, the stronger it acts as a reducing agent
in the redox reaction.
7 Conversely, if a metal does not remove oxygen
Figure 3.22 The burning of magnesium in from carbon dioxide, it implies that the metal
carbon dioxide gas is less reactive than carbon.
5 ’05
When powdered metal X is heated with the black A metal Y can displace metal X from its salt solution.
oxide of metal Y, B metal X can react with magnesium oxide when
• a glow is seen, heated.
• the residue produced is yellow when it is hot and C the oxide of metal X can react with iron powder
white when it is cold. when heated.
Based on the above observations, it can be deduced D the oxide of metal Y can react with carbon powder
that when heated.

Comments cannot react with heated magnesium oxide. Iron is
The residue is zinc oxide, which is yellow when hot less reactive than zinc. It cannot react with oxide of
and white when cold. zinc when heated.
Metal Y is less reactive than metal X. It cannot displace The oxide of metal Y is copper(II) oxide (black).
X from its salt solution. Carbon can reduce copper(II) oxide to copper.
Metal X (zinc) is less reactive than magnesium. It Answer D
The Position of Hydrogen in the spread throughout the metal oxide and the
Reactivity Series of Metals metal is produced.
4 If hydrogen gas does not remove oxygen from
1 The position of hydrogen in the reactivity series the metal oxide, hydrogen is less reactive with
SPM can be determined by passing dry hydrogen gas oxygen than the metal.
’05/P1
over hot metal oxides. 5 Hydrogen used for reducing metal oxides to
2 If hydrogen is more reactive than metal X, metals can be produced from the reaction
hydrogen will reduce the oxide of metal X to between dilute sulphuric acid or dilute
metal X. hydrochloric acid and zinc.
reduction
Hydrogen + oxide of metal X → water + metal X
3
reducing Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
agent

oxidation
6 Hydrogen gas is dried by passing it through a
3 If the reaction between hydrogen gas and drying agent such as concentrated sulphuric
a metal oxide occurs, a flame or a glow will acid or anhydrous calcium chloride.
3.7
To determine the position of hydrogen in the reactivity series of metals

Problem statement Safety precautions
How is the position of hydrogen in the reactivity A mixture of hydrogen and air will explode when
series of metals determined? ignited. The following steps must be taken before the
hydrogen is ignited.
Hypothesis
1 Make sure that all the stoppers are fitted tightly
Hydrogen is placed between zinc and iron in the so that there is no leakage.
reactivity series of metals. 2 Make sure that hydrogen gas flows through the
Variables apparatus continuously.
3 Make sure that all the air in the apparatus is removed
(a) Manipulated variable : Different types of metal
before igniting hydrogen at the small hole in the
oxides
combustion tube. This can be carried out as follows:
(b) Responding variable : Intensity of flame
(a) A sample of gas is collected from the small
(c) Constant variable : Hydrogen gas
hole in the combustion tube.
Apparatus (b) The gas is then tested with a lighted wooden
Experiment 3.7
A combustion tube with a small hole, round- splint.

bottomed flask, U-tube, delivery tube, retort stand If a ‘pop’ sound is heard, the test is repeated until
with a clamp and Bunsen burner. no ‘pop’ sound is heard on ignition of the gas.
4 The combustion tube must be tilted downwards
Materials to prevent the flow of water formed back to the
Zinc, dilute sulphuric acid, copper(II) oxide, lead(II) hot part of the tube, thus causing the combustion
oxide, iron(III) oxide and zinc oxide. tube to crack.

Procedure round- bottomed flask. It is dried by passing
through anhydrous calcium chloride in a U-tube.
3 The dry hydrogen gas is passed through the
combustion tube to displace all the air in the
apparatus.
4 When all the air in the combustion tube has been
removed, the hydrogen gas coming out from the
small hole of the test tube is ignited.
5 Copper(II) oxide is heated strongly while
hydrogen gas is passed over it until the reaction
Figure 3.23 Reaction between hydrogen and metal is complete, that is, until no further changes in
oxides colour is observed.
6 Hydrogen gas is allowed to continue to flow
1 A small quantity of copper(II) oxide is put on through, in order to cool the apparatus and to
an asbestos paper which is then placed in a prevent air from entering the combustion tube.
combustion tube with a small hole at one end of 7 Steps 1 to 6 are repeated using
the tube. (a) lead(II) oxide,
2 The hydrogen gas is produced by the reaction (b) iron(III) oxide,
between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid in a (c) zinc oxide.
Results
3
Mixture Observation Reactivity of hydrogen
(a) H2 + CuO A bright flame is produced. Hydrogen is more reactive than copper.
The black powder changes to brown.
(b) H2 + PbO A bright flame is produced. Hydrogen is more reactive than lead.
The yellow powder changes to grey.
(c) H2 + Fe2O3 A bright glow spreads over iron(III) oxide. Hydrogen is more reactive than iron.
The brown powder changes to grey.
(d) H2 + ZnO No glow is observed. Hydrogen is less reactive than zinc.

The white powder becomes yellow when
heated and white when cold.
Discussion 2 Hydrogen does not react with zinc oxide. Hence,

hydrogen is less reactive than zinc.
1 Hydrogen has reduced copper(II) oxide, lead(II)
oxide and iron(III) oxide to their respective ZnO(s) + H2(g) ⎯⎯→ No reaction
metals and is itself oxidised to water. yellow
when hot
CuO(s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(l)
black brown
Conclusion
PbO(s) + H2(g) → Pb(s) + H2O(l)
Hydrogen is placed above iron but below zinc in the
yellow grey
reactivity series of metals. That is,
Fe2O3(s) + 3H2(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3H2O(l) Zn > H > Fe > Pb > Cu
brown grey
Reactivity decreases
This means that hydrogen is more reactive than
copper, lead and iron. The hypothesis is accepted.

Positions of Carbon and Hydrogen in the Reactivity Series
1 The reactivity series that includes both carbon and hydrogen is shown in Figure 3.24.
SPM
’07/P1
Figure 3.24 The reactivity series that includes both carbon and hydrogen
2 Table 3.11 summarises the reactions between
3
(a) metal oxides and carbon,
(b) metal oxides and hydrogen.
Table 3.11 Reduction of metal oxides with carbon and hydrogen
Metal oxide Reaction with carbon Reaction with hydrogen
Potassium oxide (K2O)
Sodium oxide (Na2O)
Calcium oxide (CaO) No reaction No reaction
Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Zinc oxide, ZnO 2ZnO + C → 2Zn + CO2 No reaction
Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) 2Fe2O3 + 3C → 4Fe + 3CO2 Fe2O3 + 3H2 → 2Fe + 3H2O
Tin(IV) oxide (SnO2) SnO2 + C → Sn + CO2 SnO2 + 2H2 → Sn + 2H2O
Lead(II) oxide (PbO) 2PbO + C → 2Pb + CO2 PbO + H2 → Pb + H2O
Copper(II) oxide (CuO) 2CuO + C → 2Cu + CO2 CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
Silver(I) oxide (Ag2O) 2Ag2O + C → 4Ag + CO2 Ag2O + H2 → 2Ag + H2O
1 The position of a metal in the reactivity series can In general, the electrochemical series is the same as
be used to predict the ability of a metal to react the reactivity series. However, the position of hydrogen
with water. in these two series are different. In the electrochemical
2 Metals that are more reactive than hydrogen series, hydrogen is placed between lead and copper.
will reduce water to hydrogen. The higher the In the reactivity series, the position of hydrogen is
position of the metal in the reactivity series, the between zinc and iron.
faster and more vigorous the metal will react with
water. Conversely, metals that are less reactive
than hydrogen do not react with water.
Extraction of Metals from Their Ores
3 Hence, potassium and sodium react vigorously
with cold water and magnesium reacts with steam 1 Most metals in metal ores exist in the forms
but not cold water. Lead and copper do not react
of oxides, carbonates and sulphides in the
with water.
Earth’s crust.

2 The extraction of metals involves the reduction
of metal ores to metals.
3 Two main methods are used to extract metals • Modern blast furnaces are very tall (50 – 70 m high).
from their ores. They are made of steel and lined with fireproof bricks.
(a) Electrolysis of metal compounds in the • Coke is a form of carbon made by heating coal in
molten state. the absence of air. The process is called destructive
(b) Reduction of metal oxides by carbon. distillation.
4 The important factor for determining the most
suitable method in the extraction of metals 1 The important iron ores are haematite and
is the position of the metal in the reactivity magnetite. Haematite contains iron(III) oxide,
series. Fe2O3 whereas magnetite contains triiron
5 For metals lower than carbon in the reactivity tetroxide, Fe3O4.
series of metals, the method used is the 2 The extraction of iron from haematite or
reduction of metal oxides by carbon. magnetite is carried out in the blast furnace
6 For metals higher than carbon in the reactivity (Figure 3.25) by reduction using carbon.
series, the extraction of metals must be carried
out by the electrolysis of molten metal
compounds.
7 Table 3.12 shows the methods used to extract
some metals.
3
Table 3.12 Methods of metal extraction according to

the position of the metal in the reactivity
series
Metal Method of extraction
Potassium, K Electrolysis of metal chlorides
Sodium, Na in the molten state
Calcium, Ca
Magnesium, Mg
Aluminium, Al Electrolysis of Al2O3 in the
molten state
Zinc, Zn Heating metal oxides with
Iron, Fe carbon
Tin, Sn Figure 3.25 The blast furnace
Lead, Pb
(a) Raw materials required
Copper, Cu Heating metal sulphides in air
A mixture of iron are, coke (carbon) and
Mercury, Hg
limestone (calcium carbonate) is put in
Silver, Ag Exist as free elements in a blast furnace. Hot air is blown into the
Gold, Au Earth’s crust furnace from the bottom.
(b) Production of carbon dioxide
In the lower section of the blast furnace,
Extraction of Iron from Its Ore
the oxygen in hot air reacts with coke to
form carbon dioxide.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
At high temperatures, limestone decomposes

into quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO) and
carbon dioxide.

Molten iron flowing out from the blast furnace

(c) Production of carbon monoxide Waste gases
In the upper section of the blast furnace,
carbon dioxide reacts with coke to produce Slag
• Limestone
carbon monoxide.
• Iron ore Blast furnace
• Coke
C(s) + CO2(g) → 2CO(g) Molten iron
Hot air
(d) Reduction of iron ore to iron
• In the upper section of the blast furnace, (b) The iron produced in this process is not
where the temperature is about 400 – pure iron and contains about 5% carbon.
800 °C, the iron ore is reduced by carbon The iron is called cast iron.
monoxide to iron.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)

• Cast iron is hard and brittle. Cast iron is used for making
haematite
the base of Bunsen burner, lamp posts or pipes.
Fe3O4(s) + 4CO(g) → 3Fe(l) + 4CO2(g) • Cast iron is usually converted into other more useful
magnetite forms such as steel in an oxygen furnace.
Thermite Process
3
• In the lower section of the blast furnace,
the iron ore is reduced by coke (carbon)
to iron. 1 The thermite process is a displacement reaction
between aluminium and iron(III) oxide to
produce iron.
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO(g)
2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(l)
Fe3O4(s) + 2C(s) → 3Fe(l) + 2CO2(g)
Thus, the thermite process can be used for the
small-scale extraction of iron.
• In these reactions, carbon and carbon
2 The thermite process can be carried out in the
monoxide act as the reducing agents.
school laboratory by using the apparatus as
• The molten iron produced flows to
shown in Figure 3.26. Magnesium acts as the
the bottom of the blast furnace and is
fuse to ignite the mixture for this experiment.
collected. The molten iron is poured
into moulds and set aside to solidify.
3 Removal of impurities
(a) In the blast furnace, calcium oxide is produced
from the decomposition of limestone. It
then reacts with silica (sand) to form slag
(calcium silicate).
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(s) Figure 3.26 Thermite process

3 When the mixture of magnesium powder and
(b) Molten slag floats on top of iron. The slag barium peroxide (BaO2) burns, a large amount
and iron are separated through a tap at of heat is produced to initiate the thermite
the bottom of the furnace. process to produce molten iron.
(c) In this reaction, calcium oxide acts as a 4 We can also consider the thermite process as a
basic oxide, whereas silica acts as an acidic redox reaction:
oxide. oxidation
(d) The slag produced during the extraction of
iron is used mainly for road surfacing. 2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(l)
4 (a) The extraction of iron can be summarised
in the flowchart as follows. reduction

5 The thermite process is highly exothermic, (c) The carbon monoxide produced can also
that is, it gives out a lot of heat during the reduce tin(IV) oxide to tin.
reaction. It is used for welding steel objects,
for example, railway lines. SnO2(s) + 2CO(g) → Sn(l) + 2CO2(g)
(d) The molten tin is then tapped off and

poured into a mould and solidified into
ingots.
Coke is a form of carbon. It is the solid substance left
5 The extraction of tin can be summarised in
after destructive distillation of coal. The term ‘destructive
distillation’ means heating a substance in the absence
the flowchart below.
of air. Coke contains more than 80% of carbon. Coke tin ore
is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals
and as a non-smoky fuel.
water + oil
Extraction of Tin from Its Ore soil sand

froth floatation
1 The most important tin ore is cassiterite.
Cassiterite contains tin(IV) oxide, SnO2 and
unwanted materials such as sand, soil, oil, concentrated tin ore
sulphur and carbon.
3
2 The two main steps involved in the extraction

of tin are
carbon
(a) concentration process,
(b) reduction process. roasting
3 Concentration process
(a) At the first stage of tin extraction, the tin sulphur
ore is concentrated by froth floatation carbon
method. In this process, the tin ore is dioxide
furnace
crushed to a fine powder and mixed with
+
water and special oils (known as frothing
coke carbon
agents) in a large tank.
(b) The mixture is agitated by blowing air to monoxide
form a froth. The unwanted materials sink tin ingots
to the bottom of the tank.
(c) The froth contains particles of concentrated The Use of Carbon as the Main Reducing Agent
tin ore and floats to the top of the tank
in Metal Extraction
where it is removed. The concentrated tin
ore is then dried and roasted to remove
The main reasons for using carbon as the main
impurities such as carbon, sulphur and
reducing agent in metal extraction are:
special oils.
1 Chemical reason
4 Reduction process
Carbon is more reactive than zinc, iron, tin
(a) The concentrated tin ore is mixed with
and lead. Therefore, carbon can easily reduce
coke (a form of carbon). The mixture is
the oxides of these metals.
heated to a high temperature (about 1360
2 Economic reason
°C) in a furnace.
Carbon is cheap and can be obtained easily.
(b) During heating, tin(IV) oxide is reduced
Reduction of metal ores using coke (carbon) is
by carbon to molten tin and carbon is
cheaper than using electricity for the electrolysis
oxidised to carbon dioxide and carbon
of molten ores.
monoxide.
3 Environmental reason
SnO2(s) + C(s) → Sn(l) + CO2(g) The carbon dioxide gas produced during metal
extraction is non-poisonous and does not
SnO2(s) + 2C(s) → Sn(l) + 2CO(g)
pollute the atmosphere.

Reactions of metals with oxygen
The more rapidly the metal burns in oxygen and the brighter the
flame produced, the more reactive the metal is with oxygen.
is used to build up reactivity series of metals
Position of carbon in the The reactivity series of metals Position of hydrogen in the
reactivity series The reactivity series of metals is reactivity series
• Carbon will reduce the oxide a series of metals arranged in • The position of hydrogen can
of metal X if carbon is more the order of how vigorously the be determined by passing the
reactive than X. metals react with oxygen. hydrogen gas over hot metal
• The position of carbon is oxides.
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Al > C >
between aluminium and zinc. • The position of hydrogen is
Zn > H > Fe > Sn > Pb > Cu
between zinc and iron.
reactivity decreases →
uses of reactivity series in the extraction of metals
3
Extraction of iron Extraction of tin
• Raw materials: Iron ore (haematite or magnetite), • Raw materials: Tin ore (cassiterite) and coke.
limestone and air. • The froth floatation method is used to produce
• Iron is produced by the reduction of iron ore by concentrated tin ore.
coke (carbon) or carbon monoxide: • Tin is produced by the reduction of cassiterite by
coke or carbon monoxide:
Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO(g)
SnO2(s) + C(s) → Sn(l) + CO2(g)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
SnO2(s) + 2CO(g) → Sn(l) + 2CO2(g)
• Limestone is used to form slag.
CaO(s) + SiO2 → CaSiO3(s)
3.3
1 The table below shows the experimental results when (a) Based on the experimental results, arrange the
a mixture of a metal and the oxide of another metal metals P, Q, R and T in descending order of the
is heated strongly. reactivity of the metals with oxygen.
(b) Predict whether metal Q will react with the oxide
Mixture Observation of metal P. Explain your answer.
Metal P and oxide of The mixture glows 2 The oxide of metal X can be reduced by carbon but
metal Q not hydrogen.
(a) Identify the metal X.
Metal Q and oxide of The mixture glows
(b) (i) Write the equation for the reaction between
metal R
the oxide of metal X and aluminium powder.
Metal Q and oxide of The mixture does (ii) Identify the oxidising and reducing agents
metal T not glow in this reaction.
3 State four different methods that can be used to
Metal P and oxide of The mixture does not obtain lead from lead(II) oxide. Write the equations
metal T glow for all the reactions that take place.

(a) the external circuit,
3.4 Redox Reactions in (b) the reactions occurring in the electrolyte,
Electrolytic Cell and and
Chemical Cell (c) the reactions at the electrodes.
3 When electrolysis occurs, electrical energy is
1 In Chapter 6 of Form 4, you have already converted into chemical energy. The electrical
studied the concepts of electrolytic cell and energy is used to decompose the electrolyte in
chemical cells. the electrolytic cell.
2 Chemical cells are also known as voltaic 4 Inert electrodes such as carbon or platinum are
cells. usually used as electrodes in electrolytic cells.
3 The reactions that occur in electrolytic cells and However, in some electrolytic cells, one of the
chemical cells are redox reactions involving electrodes is an inert electrode and the other
the transfer of electrons. electrode is a metal electrode. There are also
4 Whether it is an electrolytic cell or a chemical electrolytic cells in which both the electrodes
cell, oxidation occurs at the anode, and reduction are of the same metal.
occurs at the cathode.
SPM
Chemical Cells ’04/P1, ’05/P1
’05/P2, ’07/P1
Differences between an Electrolytic Cell
and a Chemical Cell 1 The chemical cell is set up by dipping two
different metals in an electrolyte. The metals
3
Electrolytic Cells act as the electrodes in the chemical cell.

2 Figure 3.28 shows the apparatus in a chemical
1 The basic structure of an electrolytic cell is as cell, using zinc and copper electrodes and
follows: dilute sulphuric acid as the electrolyte.
(a) A battery to supply electrical energy, 3 The basic structure of a chemical cell is as
(b) An electrolyte to supply free (mobile) follows:
ions for conducting electric current, (a) A connecting wire for electrons to flow
(c) Two electrodes for the transfer of electrons through in the external circuit,
to occur. Electrons are transferred from the (b) An electrolyte for electric current to flow
anions (negative ions) to the anode and from through,
the cathode to the cations (positive ions). (c) Two electrodes for the transfer of electrons
2 Figure 3.27 shows the apparatus set-up in from a reducing agent to an oxidising agent.
an electrolytic cell. The electrolysis process 4 In a chemical cell, chemical energy is converted
involves three main aspects, that is, into electrical energy.
External circuit
During electrolysis, electrons flow from the anode (positive terminal) to the cathode (negative terminal)
Anode (positive terminal) Cathode (negative terminal)
During electrolysis, During electrolysis,

• anions (negative ions) move towards the • cations (positive ions) move towards the
anode cathode
• anions release electrons at the anode • cations accept electrons from the
• oxidation occurs at the anode cathode
• reduction occurs at the cathode
Electrolyte
During electrolysis
• cations move towards the cathode
• anions move towards the anode
• the flow of ions to the electrodes constitute the flow of electric current in the electrolyte
Figure 3.27 The movement of ions and electrons during electrolysis

External circuit
Electric current is produced because electrons flow from the more electropositive
electrode (negative terminal) to the less electropositive electrode (positive terminal).
Anode (negative terminal) Cathode (positive terminal)
• Zinc dissolves to form zinc • H+ ions accept electrons from

ions with the release of zinc to form hydrogen gas.
electrons.
2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g)
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
• Effervescence occurs around
• The electrons flow through the the copper electrode.
external circuit to the copper • Reduction occurs at the
electrode. cathode.
• Oxidation occurs at the
anode.
Electrolyte
• The concentration of Zn ions increases, while the concentration of H+ ions decreases.

2+
• The overall reaction that occurs in the chemical cell is
• Zinc acts as the reducing agent and hydrogen ions act as the oxidising agent.
3
Figure 3.28 A simple chemical cell
Redox Reactions in Electrolytic Cells SPM 2 The redox reactions that occur at the electrodes
’09/P1
1 Ionic compounds, in the molten state, or
Table 3.13 Electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide
dissolved in water, are electrolytes.
2 During electrolysis, oxidation occurs at the At the cathode At the anode
anode and reduction occurs at the cathode. (a) Pb ions gain
2+
(a) Br ions lose
–
(a) At the anode: An– → A + ne– … oxidation electrons to form electrons to form
(b) At the cathode: Bn+ + ne– → B ... reduction lead metal. bromine molecules.
3 In an electrolytic cell, electrons flow from
the anode (positive electrode) to the cathode Pb2+(l) + 2e– → Pb(l) 2Br–(l) → Br2(l) + 2e–
(negative electrode) through the connecting (b) This is a reduction (b) This is an oxidation
wire (Figure 3.29). process. The process. The
oxidation number of oxidation number of
lead decreases from bromine increases
+2 to 0. from –1 to 0.
Overall reaction
The overall reaction is the breakdown of lead(II)
bromide to give lead and bromine:
PbBr2(l) → Pb(l) + Br2(l)
Figure 3.29 Electrolytic cell

Electrolysis of Copper(II) Sulphate Solution
Electrolysis of Molten Lead(II) Bromide SPM
’09/P1
using Inert Electrodes
1 When molten lead(II) bromide is electrolysed, 1 Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution can
the cations (lead(II) ions, Pb2+) are attracted be carried out using the apparatus as shown in
to the cathode and the anions (bromide ions, Figure 3.30. Platinum (Pt) electrodes are used
Br–) are attracted to the anode. as inert electrodes in this experiment.

SPM Electrolysis of Copper(II) Sulphate Solution
’10/P1
using Copper Electrodes
1 If the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution

is carried out using reactive electrodes such as
copper electrodes, a different reaction occurs
at the anode, that is, both the OH– ions and
the SO42– ions are not discharged. Instead, the
copper anode dissolves (corrodes) to form
copper(II) ions.
Figure 3.30 Electrolysis of CuSO4 using inert electrodes
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
2 An aqueous solution of copper(II) sulphate
contains four types of ions. 2 At the copper anode, three possible reactions
that can occur are:
From CuSO4 : Cu2+(aq) and SO42–(aq) (a) SO42– ions are discharged
From H2O : H+(aq) and OH–(aq) (b) OH– ions are discharged by donating
(c) Copper metal is oxidised electrons
3 The cations, Cu2+ and H+ ions are attracted to to Cu2+ ions
the cathode and the anions, SO42– and OH– 3 Because copper is a reactive electrode,
ions, are attracted to the anode. the reaction that can occur most easily
3
4 Table 3.14 shows the redox reactions that is the conversion of copper to Cu2+ ions.
occur at the electrodes. Consequently, SO42– ions and OH– ions
Table 3.14 Redox reactions at platinum electrodes remain in the solution and are not discharged.
during the electrolysis of CuSO4(aq) Instead, the copper anode dissolves to form
Cu2+(aq) ions and the electrode becomes
At the cathode At the anode thinner.
(negative electrode) (positive electrode)
(a) Copper is below (a) OH– ion is below Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
hydrogen in the SO42– ion in the
electrochemical electrochemical 4 The redox reactions that occur at the electrodes
series. Hence, Cu2+ series. Hence, OH– during the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate
ions are preferentially ions are preferentially using copper electrodes are shown in Table 3.15.
discharged at the discharged at the
Table 3.15 Redox reactions at copper electrodes
cathode. anode. during electrolysis of CuSO4(aq)
reduction oxidation At the cathode At the anode
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– ⎯⎯⎯→ 4OH–(aq) ⎯⎯⎯→
Cu(s) O2(g) + 2H2O + 4e– Cu (aq) + 2e → Cu(s)
2+ –
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
… reduction … oxidation
(b) At the cathode, Cu2+ (b) At the anode, OH–
ions are reduced to ions are oxidised to Overall reaction
copper metal. oxygen gas. • The overall reaction is the transfer of copper from
(c) H+ ions remain in the (c) SO42– ions remain in the anode to the cathode.
solution. the solution. • The concentration of copper(II) sulphate does not
Overall reaction change and the blue colour of the electrolyte does
Copper metal is deposited at the cathode, oxygen not fade.
gas is given off at the anode and the solution
becomes more and more acidic.
Electrolysis of Concentrated Sodium Chloride
reduction
Solution
electrolysis
2CuSO4 + 2H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2Cu + O2 + 2H2SO4 1 Figure 3.31 shows the apparatus set-up for the
electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride
oxidation
solution.

A simple way to remember redox reactions at the
electrodes is to remember ‘RED CAT’.
REDuction occurs at CAThode
Conversely, oxidation occurs at the anode.
Electrolysis of Dilute Sodium Chloride Solution
1 A dilute sodium chloride solution contains:

Figure 3.31 Electrolysis of concentrated sodium (a) Na+(aq) and Cl–(aq) from NaCl(aq)
chloride solution
(b) H+(aq) and OH–(aq) from H2O(l)
2 An aqueous solution of sodium chloride 2 Table 3.17 shows the redox reactions that
contains four types of ions: occur and the products obtained at the carbon
(a) From NaCl: Na+(aq) and Cl–(aq) electrodes.
(b) From H2O: H+(aq) and OH–(aq) Table 3.17 Redox reactions during electrolysis of
3 Na+ ions and H+ ions are attracted to the dilute sodium chloride solution
cathode. Cl– ions and OH– ions are attracted
At the cathode At the anode
to the anode.
(Na+ and H+ ions are (Cl– and OH– ions are
3
4 Table 3.16 shows the redox reactions that occur
present) present)
at the anode and cathode when concentrated
sodium chloride solution is electrolysed using H+ ions gain electrons OH– ions donate electrons
inert electrodes. from the cathode to form to the anode to form
hydrogen gas. oxygen gas and water.
Table 3.16 Redox reactions during electrolysis of
concentrated sodium chloride solution 2H+(g) + 2e– → H2(g) 4OH–(aq) →
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e–
At the cathode (negative At the anode (positive
electrode), H+ and electrode), Cl– and
Na+ ions are present OH– ions are present Overall reaction
(a) Hydrogen ions (H )+
(a) Chloride ions (Cl )
–
oxidation
are preferentially are preferentially
discharged at the discharged at the
electrolysis
cathode. anode. 2H2O(l) ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2H2(g) + O2(g)
2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g) 2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e– reduction

(b) At the cathode, H+ (b) At the anode, Cl– • Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution
ions are reduced to ions are oxidised to produces two volumes of hydrogen at the cathode
hydrogen gas. chlorine gas. and one volume of oxygen at the anode.
(c) Na+ ions remain in (c) OH– ions remain in • Since water is being removed (by decomposition
the solution. the solution. to form H2 and O2), the concentration of sodium
chloride increases gradually.
Overall reaction
oxidation
electrolysis
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) ⎯⎯⎯⎯→
2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g) Electrolysis of
reduction • molten NaCl produces Na(l) and Cl2(g)
• dilute NaCl produces H2(g) and O2(g)
Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride • moderately concentrated NaCl produces H2(g) at
solution produces one volume of hydrogen at the the cathode, a mixture of O2(g) and Cl2(g) at the
cathode, one volume of chlorine at the anode and anode
sodium hydroxide solution. • concentrated NaCl produces H2(g) and Cl2(g).

Redox Reactions in Chemical Cells 5 At the negative electrode (zinc plate)
(a) Zinc is more electropositive than copper.
1 In chemical cells, the electric current is produced Hence, zinc has a greater tendency to donate
from chemical reactions that occur in the cell. its electrons compared to copper and is
Examples of chemical cells are: oxidised to zinc ions.
(a) Daniell cell Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– … oxidation
(b) Dry cell/alkaline cell
(b) At the negative electrode, oxidation occurs
(c) Lead-acid accumulator and the zinc metal acts as the reducing
2 In chemical cells, oxidation occurs at the negative agent.
terminal (anode) while reduction occurs at 6 At the positive electrode (copper plate)
the positive terminal (cathode). (a) At the positive electrode, Cu2+ ions gain
electrons from zinc and is reduced to
Daniell Cell copper metal.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s) … reduction
1 The Daniell cell is made up of a zinc plate
dipped into zinc sulphate solution and a (b) At the positive electrode, reduction occurs
copper plate dipped into copper(II) sulphate and Cu2+ ions act as the oxidising agent.
solution (Figure 3.32). 7 Overall reaction
(a) The overall reaction that occurs in the
Daniell cell is a redox reaction.
3
oxidised
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
reduced
(b) The redox reactions that occur in the
Figure 3.32 Daniell cell
Daniell cell and many other chemical cells
are displacement reactions. A metal higher
2 The function of the porous pot is to up in the electrochemical series displaces
SPM (a) separate the zinc sulphate solution from another metal lower in the electrochemical
’11/P1
the copper(II) sulphate solution so that series from an aqueous solution of its salt.
the solutions do not mix. (c) When the Daniell cell is in use,
(b) complete the electric circuit by allowing (i) the concentration of Zn2+ ions in the
the ions to pass through it. solution increases.
3 The Daniell cell can also be set up by using a (ii) the blue colour of copper(II) sulphate
salt bridge to replace the porous pot as shown solution fades gradually as more copper
is deposited and the concentration of
in Figure 3.33.
Cu2+ decreases.
(iii) the mass of zinc electrode decreases
gradually.
(iv) the mass of copper electrode increases
gradually.
8 Cell symbols
(a) The cell symbols are used to represent
the chemical cells. For example, the cell
symbol for Daniell cell is
Figure 3.33 Daniell cell Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq) // Cu2+(aq)/ Cu(s)
4 Zinc is more electropositive than copper (b) According to the IUPAC rules, the negative
and is placed higher than copper in the electrode is written on the left of the cell
electrochemical series. Hence, zinc plate acts symbol and the positive electrode is written
as the negative electrode and copper plate acts on the right. The symbol ‘//’ represents the
as the positive electrode. porous pot or the salt bridge.

anode cathode 9 Voltage of Daniell cell
(negative electrode) (positive electrode) (a) If the concentrations of both ZnSO4 and
CuSO4 solutions are 1.0 mol dm–3, the
maximum voltage of the Daniell cell is
Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq) // Cu2+(aq)/ Cu(s) 1.10 V.
(b) The voltage of the cell will decrease with
time when the cell is being used because

the concentration of Cu2+ ions decreases.
electrolyte at anode electrolyte at cathode

salt bridge (or porous pot)
To study the reactions that occur in the Daniell cell
Apparatus 2 The electrodes are then washed with distilled

Beaker, porous pot, sandpaper, voltmeter, connecting water, dried and weighed.
wires with crocodile clips and electronic balance. 3 A beaker is filled with 1.0 mol dm–3 copper(II)
sulphate solution.
Materials 4 A porous pot is filled with 1.0 mol dm–3 zinc
1.0 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate solution, 1.0 mol dm–3 sulphate solution.
3
zinc sulphate solution, zinc plate and copper plate. 5 The zinc plate is dipped into the solution of zinc
sulphate while the copper plate is dipped into the
Procedure
solution of copper(II) sulphate.
6 The zinc and copper electrodes are then connected
to the voltmeter as shown in Figure 3.34.
7 The Daniell cell is allowed to operate for 30
minutes.
8 After 30 minutes, the zinc and copper electrodes
are removed from the electrolytes.
9 The electrodes are rinsed with distilled water,
Figure 3.34 The Daniell cell dried and weighed again.
1 A piece of zinc plate and a piece of copper plate 10 The changes that occur in the electrodes, the
are cleaned using sandpaper. electrolytes and the voltmeter are recorded.
Results
1 The blue colour of copper(II) sulphate fades gradually until it becomes colourless.
2 The zinc plate becomes thinner and the copper plate becomes thicker.
3 The voltmeter needle is deflected. The deflection of the voltmeter needle shows that electrons flow from the
zinc electrode to the copper electrode.
4 The changes in mass of the zinc and copper electrodes are shown below.
Mass of electrode Mass of electrode

Electrode Inference
before experiment (g) after experiment (g)
Zinc plate 20.50 18.29 • The mass of zinc plate
decreases.
• Oxidation occurs at the
anode.
Activity 3.4
Copper plate 25.74 27.89 • The mass of copper plate

increases.
• Reduction occurs at the
cathode.

Discussion 3 The overall reactions is
1 Zinc metal is more electropositive than copper Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
metal. Hence, zinc metal has a greater tendency … redox reaction
to give up electrons to form zinc ions.
4 In this reaction, Cu2+ ions act as the oxidising
Zn(s) → Zn (aq) + 2e … oxidation
2+ – agent and zinc acts as the reducing agent.
2 The electrons released are accepted by copper(II) Conclusion

ions to form copper metal. 1 Oxidation occurs at the anode (zinc plate).
2 Reduction occurs at the cathode (copper plate).
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s) … reduction 3 The reaction that occurs in the Daniell cell is a
redox reaction.
Different types of chemical cells

1 There are two main classes of chemical cells:
Primary cells and secondary cells.
2 Primary cells are not rechargeable. Examples of primary
cells are dry cell, alkaline cell and mercury cell.
3
3 Secondary cells are rechargeable. Examples of

secondary cells are lead-acid accumulator and
nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd battery).
Dry Cell Figure 3.35 The structure of a dry cell
1 A dry cell is made up of a zinc container as 2 When the dry cell is used to generate electrical
the anode (negative terminal) and a carbon energy, oxidation occurs at the negative
rod as the cathode (positive terminal). The terminal (zinc container) and reduction occurs
electrolyte in the dry cell is a paste consisting at the positive terminal (carbon rod).
of ammonium chloride, zinc chloride and a 3 The reactions at the electrodes are shown
little water (Figure 3.35). below.
Reactions at anode (negative terminal) Reactions at cathode (positive terminal)
• Zinc is oxidised to Zn2+. • NH4+ is reduced to NH3 and H2.

oxidation reduction

0 +2 +1 0
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– 2NH4+(aq) + 2e– → 2NH3(g) + H2(g)
• Electrons flow from the zinc container to the • The H2 gas produced is removed by the reaction
carbon rod. with MnO2.
2MnO2 + H2 → Mn2O3 + H2O
Summary
• The overall reaction is a redox reaction.
Zn + 2NH4+ + 2MnO2 → Zn2+ + 2NH3 + Mn2O3 + H2O
• Oxidising agent: Ammonium ion, NH4+
Reducing agent: Zinc

Alkaline Cell
1 Figure 3.36 shows the structure of an alkaline

cell. An alkaline cell is also known as an alkaline
battery.
Negative terminal: Zinc container
Positive terminal: Manganese(IV) oxide powder
Electrolyte: Lithium hydroxide (LiOH) or
potassium hydroxide (KOH)
2 The reactions at the electrodes during discharge
are shown below. Figure 3.36 The structure of an alkaline cell
Reactions at anode (negative terminal) Reactions at cathode (positive terminal)

• Zinc is oxidised to Zn .2+
• MnO2 is reduced to manganese(III) oxide, Mn2O3.
oxidation reduction

0 +2 +4 +3
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– 2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e– → Mn2O3(s) + 2OH–(aq)
• Electrons flow from the zinc container to MnO2.
3
Summary
• The overall reaction is a redox reaction. • Oxidising agent: Manganese(IV) oxide, MnO2
Zn + 2MnO2 + H2O → Zn2+ + Mn2O3 + 2OH–
Mercury Cell
1 Figure 3.37 shows the structure of mercury cell.

Positive terminal: Mercury(II) oxide, HgO
Negative terminal: Zinc metal
Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide
2 The reactions at the anode and cathode of Figure 3.37 The structure of mercury cell
mercury cell are summarised below.
Lead-acid Accumulator SPM
’07/P1
Reactions at anode Reactions at cathode
(negative terminal) (positive terminal) 1 A lead-acid accumulator is often known as a car
battery. The accumulator is a battery (chemical
• Zinc is oxidised to • HgO is reduced to cell) that can be recharged by passing a current
Zn2+. mercury. through it from an external direct current
Zn(s) + 2OH–(aq) → HgO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e– (d.c.) supply.
Zn(OH)2(aq) + 2e– → Hg(l) + 2OH–(aq) 2 Figure 3.38 shows the structure of a lead-acid
accumulator.
• Electrons flow from
the zinc electrode to
HgO.
Summary
• The overall reaction is a redox reaction.
Zn(s) + HgO(s) + H2O(l) → Zn(OH)2(s) + Hg(l)
• Oxidising agent: Mercury(II) oxide
Figure 3.38 The structure of a lead-acid accumulator

Positive terminal: Lead plate coated with PbO2 3 Table 3.18 shows the reactions at the electrodes
Negative terminal: Lead plate during discharge, that is, when the battery
Electrolyte: Sulphuric acid supplies electricity.
Table 3.18 Redox reactions that occur during discharge in lead-acid accumulator
At the anode (negative terminal) At the cathode (positive terminal)
(a) Lead is oxidised to lead(II) ions with the (a) Lead(IV) oxide is reduced to Pb2+ ions by
release of electrons. accepting electrons.
oxidation reduction

0 +2
+4 +2
Pb(s) → Pb (aq) + 2e
2+ –
PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2e– → Pb2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
(b) The electrons given out at the cathode flow (b) A white solid is produced when Pb2+ ions
through the external circuit to the positive react with SO42– ions in sulphuric acid to form
terminal. lead(II) sulphate.
(c) A white precipitate is produced when Pb2+ ions
react with SO42– ions in the sulphuric acid to Pb2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → PbSO4(s)
form lead(II) sulphate. (c) The white solid, lead(II) sulphate, then deposits
Pb2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → PbSO4(s) on the surface of the positive electrode to form
3
a white coating.
(d) The negative electrode becomes white because
(d) The overall reaction at the positive electrode
white solid lead(II) sulphate is deposited on its
during discharge is
surface.
(e) The overall reaction at the negative electrode PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2e– → Pb2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
during discharge is Pb2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → PbSO4(s)
Pb(s) → Pb2+(aq) + 2e– PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42–(aq) + 2e– →
brown PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Pb2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → PbSO4(s)
white
Pb(s) + SO42–(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2e–
grey white
Summary
• The overall cell reaction is a redox reaction.
Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO42–(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
2H2SO4(aq)
• Oxidising agent: Lead(IV) oxide, PbO2
Reducing agent: Lead
• During discharge, sulphuric acid is used up.
4 Recharging of lead acid accumulator (a) At the negative terminal

When the battery is fully charged, the Lead(II) sulphate is reduced to lead.
concentration of sulphuric acid is 4.1 mol dm–3
and the density is 1.3 g cm–3. When the density PbSO4(s) + 2e– → Pb(s) + SO42–(aq) ... reduction
white grey
of sulphuric acid drops from 1.3 to 1.1 g cm–3,
the accumulator must be recharged. (b) At the positive terminal
5 When an accumulator is recharged, the direct Lead(II) sulphate is oxidised to lead(IV)
current is passed through it, in the direction oxide.
which is opposite to the discharge.
6 The reactions that occur when the accumulator PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) → PbO2(s) + 4H+ + SO42–(aq)
is recharged are as follows. white brown + 2e– ...oxidation

(c) The overall reaction during recharging is
2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
recharging

Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO42–(aq)
2H2SO4(aq)
Figure 3.39 Electrolysis of molten sodium
chloride
6 ’05
3 In the electrolytic cell, the electrode connected
A chemical cell is shown below. to the positive terminal of a chemical cell is
called the anode. Conversely, the electrode
connected to the negative terminal of the
chemical cell is called the cathode.
4 (a) For both the chemical and electrolytic
cells,
(i) oxidation occurs at the anode,
(ii) reduction occurs at the cathode.
(b) In the electrolytic cell, the anions from
3
Which of the following occur in the chemical cell? the electrolyte donate the electrons and is
I The iron rod becomes thinner. oxidised at the anode.
II The copper rod becomes thicker. (c) In the electrochemical cell, the more
III The intensity of the blue colour in beaker 1 electropositive metal is oxidised at the
decreases. anode and donate the electrons to the
IV The concentration of iron(II) ions (Fe2+) in cathode.
beaker 2 decreases. (d) Table 3.19 compares the chemical cell and
A I and III only C I, II and III only the electrolytic cell in terms of oxidation
B II and IV only D I, II, III and IV and reduction.
Comments Table 3.19 Comparison between chemical cell and

At the iron rod: electrolytic cell in terms of redox reactions
Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e– Electrolytic cell

Chemical cell (for (for example, electrolysis
Therefore, the iron rod becomes thinner and the
example, Daniell cell) of molten sodium
concentration of Fe2+ in FeSO4 solution increases.
chloride)
At the copper rod:
At the anode: oxidation At the anode: oxidation
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)
occurs occurs
Therefore, the copper rod becomes thicker and
the intensity of blue colour decreases as the Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– 2Cl–(l) → Cl2(g) + 2e–
concentration of Cu2+ decreases.
Answer C At the cathode: reduction At the cathode: reduction
occurs occurs
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s) Na+(l) + e– → Na(s)

Compare and Contrast Electrolytic Cells and
Chemical Cells in Terms of Redox Reactions
5 However, electrodes in chemical and electrolytic
1 Redox reactions occur in both the chemical cells have different signs (positive or negative)
and electrolytic cells. as shown in Table 3.20. For example, the
2 Figure 3.39 shows the arrangement of apparatus anode in a chemical cell is the negative electrode
for the electrolysis of sodium chloride in molten whereas the anode in an electrolytic cell is a
condition. positive electrode.

Table 3.20 Positive and negative terminals for 6 For both chemical and electrolytic cells, anions
chemical and electrolytic cells move to the anode while cations move to the
Chemical cell Electrolytic cell cathode. Figure 3.40 shows the movement of
ions in a chemical cell. Cations (Zn2+ and Cu2+)
Anode: negative terminal Anode: positive terminal
move to the cathode and the anions (SO42–)
In the chemical cell, In the electrolytic cell,
move to the anode.
electrons are released at the electrons flow out from
anode. Thus, the anode is the anode to the battery.
the negative terminal. Thus, the anode is the
positive terminal.
Cathode: positive terminal Cathode: negative terminal
In the chemical cell, In the electrolytic cell,
electrons are removed from electrons flow from the
the cathode by positive ions battery and enter the
present in the electrolyte. cathode. Hence, the cathode
Hence, the cathode is the is the negative terminal.
Figure 3.40 The movement of cations and anions
positive terminal.
in a chemical cell.
7 ’07
3
A chemical cell is shown below. B The electrolyte is hydrochloric acid.

C The positive terminal is lead plate.
D The cell is non-rechargeable.
Comments
The electrolyte is sulphuric acid. The positive terminal
(cathode) is the plate coated with PbO2. At the anode,
reduction occurs:
Which of the following is true about the chemical cell? PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e– → Pb2+ + 2H2O
A At the positive terminal, lead(IV) oxide is reduced to Answer A
Pb2+ ions.
3.4
1 Explain the redox reactions at the anode and cathode (b)
What is the energy conversion in this
when electric current is passed into the following experiment?
solutions. 3 Nickel-cadmium cell (Ni-Cd battery) is a rechargeable
(a) Concentrated potassium iodide solution with battery. It consists of
carbon electrodes. Anode(–): Cadmium
(b) Copper(II) sulphate solution with copper electrodes. Cathode (+): Nickel(IV) oxide
2 The following figure shows the arrangement of Electrolyte: Potassium hydroxide
apparatus for the electrolysis of iron(II) sulphate. The overall equation for the reaction that occurs
when Ni-Cd battery is supplying current is
Cd + NiO2 + 2H2O → Cd(OH)2 + Ni(OH)2
(a) Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in this

reaction.
(b) Write the half-equation for the reaction that
occurs at (i) the anode, (ii) the cathode.
(a) Describe (i) the oxidation and reduction processes,
(c) State the direction of flow of electrons in the
(ii) the transfer of electrons that occur at the
external circuit.
carbon electrodes.

Comparison between electrolytic cell and chemical cell
Electrolytic cell Chemical cell

• Cathode (–) • Anode (+) • Cathode (+) • Anode (–)
– Reduction occurs – Oxidation occurs – Reduction occurs – Oxidation occurs
– Cations accept electrons – Anions release electrons – Accepts electrons – Releases electrons
from the cathode at the anode
Redox reactions in electrolytic and chemical cells
Electrolysis of Negative terminal Positive terminal (reduction)

Chemical cell
concentrated NaCl(aq) (oxidation)
• Anode: Carbon • Daniell cell Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)
Cathode: Carbon
• At the anode: • Dry cell Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– 2NH4+(aq) + 2e– → 2NH3(g) + H2(g)
3
Oxidation occurs 2MnO2(s) + H2(g) → Mn2O3(s) + H2O(l)
2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e–
• At the cathode: • Lead-acid Pb(s) → Pb (aq) + 2e
2+ –
PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2e– →
Reduction occurs accumulator Pb2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → Pb2+ + 2H2O(l)
2H++ 2e– → H2 PbSO4(s) Pb2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → PbSO4(s)
oxidation
3.5 Appreciating the Ability

of the Elements to 0 +2
Change their Oxidation Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)
+3 0
Numbers
reduction
Various Applications of the Changes of
Oxidation Numbers in Substances 4 In the corrosion of iron, the following changes
in oxidation numbers occur.
1 Groups 1 and 2 elements in the Periodic Table oxidation
have fixed oxidation numbers of +1 and +2
respectively. However, most elements (metals 0 +3
and non-metals) have variable oxidation 4Fe + 3O2 + 2xH2O → 2Fe2O3.xH2O
numbers. 0 –2
2 The changes in the oxidation number of a
substance can be applied in the following reduction
processes: 5 The following chemical changes occur when
(a) Extracting metal from its ore zinc is used in the prevention of rusting.
(b) Corrosion of metal
(c) Preventing corrosion of metal Zn → Zn2+ + e– ... (1)
(d) Generation of electricity by cells O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH– ... (2)
(e) Recycling of metals
3 In the extraction of iron from its ores, the The oxidation number of zinc changes from 0
changes in the oxidation numbers of both iron to +2 while the oxidation number of oxygen
and carbon are shown as follows. changes from 0 to –2.

6 When a Daniell cell is used to generate electricity, Methods for Rust Prevention
the overall cell reaction is
Table 3.21 shows a summary of the common
methods used for the prevention of metal corrosion,
Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu especially the rusting of iron.
Table 3.21 Methods for rust prevention
The oxidation number of zinc changes from 0 Method Objects

to +2 while the oxidation number of copper 1 Paint Big objects like motor
changes from +2 to 0. vehicles, ships and
steel bridges
The Occurrence of Various Ores in Our Country
2 Oil and grease Tools and machine
parts
1 Gold
Gold mines are found in Pahang (Lipis, Raub, 3 Phosphoric acid The bottom (chassis)
Jerantut), Terengganu (Mandi), Sabah (Merungin (H3PO4) of cars
and Paginatan) and Sarawak (Bau, Serian and
4 Galvanising (zinc- Buckets, ‘zinc’ roof
Lund).
plating)
2 Iron, bauxite (Al2O3) and ilmenite (FeTiO3)
Iron mines are found in Johor (Kota Tinggi), 5 Tin-plating Food cans
3
Kedah (Semeling), Pahang and Perak. Bauxite

6 Chrome-plating Taps, bicycle handle
is aluminium ore and is found in Johor (Teluk
bars, car bumpers
Ramunia). Ilmenite is a titanium ore and is
found in Terengganu and Pulau Pinang. 7 Block of magnesium Underground pipes,
3 Tin or zinc (sacrificial ships
Tin ores are found in Perak (Lembah Kinta) metals)
and Selangor (Lembah Langat).
8 Stainless steel Cutlery, surgical
4 Coal
instruments
Coal mines are found in Sarawak (in the areas
of Kapit, Lucky Selantek and Sri Aman).
5 Kaolin and barite (barytes)
Kaolin is a type of clay used for making Chemical Cell as a Source of Electrical
ceramics. Kaolin is found in Johor (Mersing) Energy
and Perak (Bidor-Tapah). Barite (BaSO4) is the
chief ore of barium. It is found in Kelantan 1 Chemical cells are alternative sources of
(Gua Musang) and Terengganu. renewable energy. Chemical cells are also known
as batteries. Nowadays, there are many types
of chemical cells. Examples are: zinc-carbon
The Contribution of the Metal Extraction battery, mercury battery, alkaline battery, lithium
Industry in Enhancing the National battery, nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) battery, lead-
Economy acid accumulator, fuel cell and photo/solar
battery.
1 The metal extraction industry provides job 2 A fuel cell is a device in which the fuel is
opportunities and lowers the unemployment oxidised in a chemical cell so as to produce
rate. The export revenue from tin and other electricity directly. In the hydrogen-oxygen fuel
metals enhances the national economy. cell, chemical energy from the redox reaction
2 Our country exports tin ingots to countries between hydrogen and oxygen to form water
like Japan, America and Britain. This will earn is used to generate electric current.
foreign exchange which can be used for Fuel cells are used widely in spacecraft. The
national development. water produced can be used for drinking. Fuel
3 The metal extraction industry produces metals cells are also used to power electric cars. Fuel
as raw materials for many other industries, such cells differ from the usual chemical (voltaic)
as the motor and construction industries. cells in two ways:

(a) The fuel and oxygen are fed into the cell strikes the cell, the electrons flow from the
continuously, donor to the acceptor crystal. Solar cells have
(b) The electrodes are made from inert material been used for years to power spaceships.
such as platinum that does not react during 4 Research is still being carried out on chemical
the process. cells to develop their potential as an alternative
3 Solar cells (also known as photovoltaic cells) energy source, which is now produced chiefly
convert sunlight directly into electricity. Solar cells by the burning of fossil fuels.
are made from extremely pure silicon crystals. 5 One of the industries that is actively engaged
One type of crystal has about 1 ppm (parts per in developing a light, powerful, efficient and
million) of arsenic added to it. This crystal is long-lasting battery is the automobile industry.
called the donor crystal. Another crystal is made In the near future, electric cars that use battery
by adding about 1 ppm of boron. This crystal is to power, instead of using petrol as the fuel
called the acceptor crystal. The two crystals are will be on the road. If that happens, air pollution
connected by an external circuit. When sunlight would be greatly reduced.
3
1 Oxidation is 11 A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive
• gain of oxygen, or metal from its oxide. For example, if P has a
• loss of hydrogen, or reaction with the oxide of Q, P is more reactive than
• loss of electrons or Q.
• increase in the oxidation number of the element.
P + oxide of Q → Q + oxide of P
2 Reduction is
• loss of oxygen, or 12 The reactivity series that includes both carbon and
• gain of hydrogen, or hydrogen is
• gain of electrons or K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, C, Zn, H, Fe, Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag
• decrease in the oxidation number of the element.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ reactivity decreases ⎯⎯⎯⎯→
3 An oxidising agent is a substance that causes
oxidation in another substance. 13 Reactive metals such as K, Na, Ca, Mg and Al are
4 A reducing agent is a substance that causes extracted from their ores by electrolysis.
reduction in another substance. 14 Metals such as Zn, Fe, Sn and Pb are extracted from
5 Oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously their ores by heating the metal oxides with carbon.
in a redox reaction. 15 The reactions that occur in electrolytic cells or
6 A displacement reaction is a redox reaction. chemical cells (voltaic cells) are redox reactions
A more electropositive metal will displace a less involving the transfer of electrons.
electropositive metal from its salt solution. 16 In an electrolytic cell:
7 In a redox reaction, electrons are transferred from • At the anode (positive electrode), oxidation occurs
the reducing agent to the oxidising agent. and anions are discharged by losing electrons to
8 Rusting is a redox reaction. For iron to rust, oxygen form molecules.
(air) and water must be present. • At the cathode (negative electrode), reduction
9 During rusting, iron reacts with oxygen and water to occurs and cations are discharged by gaining
form a brown substance, called rust (Fe2O3. xH2O). electrons to form metal or hydrogen gas.
17 In a chemical cell:
4Fe + 3O2 + 2xH2O → 2Fe2O3.xH2O
• The more electropositive metal is the negative
10 Rusting can be prevented by electrode and the less electronegative metal is the
• a protective layer (oil, grease or plastic layer), positive electrode.
• coating/plating iron with tin/chromium • Oxidation occurs at the anode (negative electrode).
• using sacrificial metals • Reduction occurs at the cathode (positive
• using alloys electrode).

3
3.1 5 The following equation shows What would be observed if

Redox Reactions the reaction between metal X iodine solution is used instead
1 Which of the following ’11 and the salt solution of metal Y. of chlorine water?
substances are correctly X(s) + Y(NO3)2(aq) → A Bromide ion is oxidised to
’09 matched with their roles as
X(NO3)2(aq) + Y(s) bromine.
oxidising or reducing agent? B Iodine is reduced to iodide ion.
Which metals could be X and Y? C No change is observed.
Oxidising Reducing X Y D A brown solution is formed.
agent agent
A Copper Tin
A Sulphur dioxide Chlorine B Copper Iron set-up of apparatus to investigate
B Chlorine Sulphur dioxide the transfer of electrons at a
C Iron Tin
C Potassium Bromine distance.
D Iron Zinc
3
manganate(VII)
D Potassium Potassium 6 Which of the following cannot
bromide manganate(VII) occur during reduction?
’09 A Loss of oxygen
2 The manufacture of nitric acid B Gain of hydrogen

in the Ostwald process involves C Donation of electrons
’08 the following steps. D Decrease in oxidation number
NH3 → NO → NO2 → HNO3 7 Consider the following reaction:
Which of the following shows the 2I–(aq) + 2Fe3+(aq) →
’03
correct sequence of changes in 2Fe2+(aq) + I2(aq)
the oxidation number of nitrogen? Which of the following is true Which of the following
A +3 → +2 → +4 → +3 about the ionic equation? statements about this experiment
B +3 → +2 → +4 → +5 A Fe3+ is oxidised. is correct?
C –3 → +2 → +4 → +3 B Fe3+ is a reducing agent. A The oxidation number of
D –3 → +2 → +4 → +5 C I– is an oxidising agent. manganese decreases from
D I– donates electrons to Fe3+. +5 to +2.
3 Which of the following organic B The iodide ions act as a
8 In which of the following
compounds is reduced in the reducing agent.
reactions is copper oxidised?
following reactions? ’04 A The reaction of copper(II) C The electrons are transferred
A CH3CH2OH → CH3COOH from electrode X to electrode
oxide with magnesium.
B CH3CH2OH → C2H4 + H2O B The reaction of copper with Y through dilute sulphuric acid.
C CH3CHO → CH3CH2OH silver nitrate solution. D At electrode Y, H+ ions from
D CH3CHO → CH3COOH C Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphuric acid are reduced to
sulphate solution using hydrogen gas.
4 Which of the underlined carbon electrodes.
substances in the following D Chemical cell with copper 11 The following reaction occurs
equations acts as the oxidising and magnesium foils in when hydrogen peroxide is
agent? dilute sulphuric acid. added to an aqueous solution
A Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2 of iron(II) salt.
9 The following equation
B H2S + Br2 → S + 2HBr represents the reaction between H2O2(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H+(aq) →
C MgBr2 + Na2CO3 → ’05 chlorine and potassium iodide: 2Fe3+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
MgCO3 + 2NaBr Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) → Which of the following
D Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq) statements are true?

I The solution becomes IV Chlorine is oxidised. A magnesium
colourless. A I and II only B iron
II Hydrogen peroxide molecule B II and III only C lead
accepts electrons. C III and IV only D copper
III H+ ion acts as the oxidising D I, II and III only
19 Which of the following does not
agent.
15 FeSO4 solution can be prepared prevent the corrosion of iron?
IV Iron(II) salt is oxidised.
from Fe2(SO4)3 solution by A Coating iron with grease
A I and III only
I adding zinc powder B Coating iron with zinc
B II and IV only
II adding potassium C Fixing a copper bar to iron
manganate(VII) solution D Fixing an aluminium bar to iron
III passing chlorine gas
20 Consider the experiments shown
12 The electronic configuration of IV passing sulphur dioxide gas
in the diagram below.
four elements are shown below. A I and III only
Q: 2.8.2 Y: 2.8.7 B II and IV only
X: 2.8.6 Z: 2.8.8 C I and IV only
Which of these elements will act
as a reducing agent?
A Element Q C Element Y 3.2
B Element X D Element Z Rusting as a Redox
Reaction
13 When an aqueous solution of
compound X is added to acidified 16 The diagram below shows the
3
potassium dichromate(VI) rusting of iron.
’06
solution, the solution changes
from orange to green. What Which beaker contains the most
could be compound X? rust?
I Sulphur dioxide A Beaker I C Beaker III
II Sodium sulphite B Beaker II D Beaker IV
III Chlorine 21 The diagram shows the set-up
IV Iron(III) chloride of apparatus to study the rusting
A I and II only of iron.
B II and IV only
Which of the following equations
C III and IV only
occurs at the cathode?
A Fe2+ + 2e– → Fe
14 The diagram below shows the B Fe → Fe2+ + 2e–
arrangement of the C 4OH– → O2 + 2H2O + 4e–
apparatus to study the redox D O2 + 2H2O + 4e– → 4OH–
reaction between chlorine and
17 Which of the following statements
iron(II) sulphate solution.
about the rusting of iron are true?
I Rusting requires both oxygen
and water.
II Rusting is accelerated by The observations are recorded
the presence of magnesium below.
chloride.
III An iron atom releases two Test tube Colour of solution
electrons to form an iron(II) 1 No change
ion.
IV The chemical formula of rust 2 Turns pale blue
Which of the following 3 Turns dark blue
is Fe3O4. xH2O.
statements are true regarding the
A I and III only
experiment shown above? Based on the observation, the
B II and IV only
I Electrons flow from X to Y reactivity of the metal increases
through the external circuit. in the order:
D I, II, III and IV
II Electrode X is the positive A P < Q < R
electrode. 18 A metal X is placed in zinc B R < Q < P
III The green colour of FeSO4 is sulphate solution and a reaction C Q < P < R
changed to brownish-yellow. occurs. The metal X is D Q < R < P

22 When metal X is twisted around A SnO2 + C → Sn + CO2 30 Which of the following
an iron nail, the iron nail rusts B SnO2 + 2C → Sn + 2CO reactions occurs at the
rapidly. However, if metal Y is C SnO2 + 2CO → Sn + 2CO2 cathode and anode when
twisted around the iron nail, the D SnO2 + CaO → CaSnO3 concentrated copper(ll) chloride
iron nail does not rust. These is electrolysed using carbon
observations show that electrodes?
extraction of iron in a blast furnace.
I metal X is more reactive than
metal Y. ’06 Cathode Anode
II metal X is more reactive than A H ions
+
Cl ions
–
iron. reduced to oxidised to

III metal Y is more reactive than hydrogen chlorine
iron.
B Cl– ions Cu2+ ions
IV metal Y can protect metal X
reduced to oxidised to
from corrosion.
chlorine copper
A I and II only
B III and IV only C Cu2+ ions OH– ions
C I, II and III only reduced to oxidised to
D II, III and IV only copper oxygen
What is substance X?
A Coke D Cu2+ ions Cl– ions
23 An iron nail, with a piece of zinc B Platinum reduced to oxidised to
foil wrapped around it, is placed C Aluminium copper chlorine
in a beaker of water. D Vanadium(V) oxide
3
Which of the following ionic

equations represent the reactions 28 Which of the following reactions 31 The diagram shows the set-up
that occur after a few days? occur in the blast furnace for the of apparatus for an experiment
’06 to study the electrolysis of
I Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– extraction of iron from its ore?
II Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e– I Coke (carbon) reduces iron copper(II) sulphate solution.
III 2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g) ore to iron.
IV Fe2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → II Iron ore acts as an oxidising
Fe(OH)2(s) agent.
A I and III only III Carbon dioxide is reduced by
B II and IV only coke to carbon monoxide.
C I, II and III only IV Limestone (calcium carbonate)
D II, III and IV only acts as a reducing agent.
A I and III only
B II and IV only
3.3 Reactivity Series of Metals C I, II and III only
and Its Applications The intensity of the blue colour
D I, II, III and IV
of copper(II) sulphate solution
24 What is the position of carbon in decreases as electrolysis proceeds.
the reactivity series of metals? Which of the following statements
’07 A Between zinc and iron 3.4 Redox Reactions in best explains the observation?
B Between aluminium and zinc Electrolytic Cell and A Cu2+ ion is oxidised to form
C Between magnesium and Chemical Cell copper metal at the cathode.
aluminium B Cu2+ ion is reduced to form
29 What are the reactions that occur at
D Between iron and lead copper metal at the cathode.
the anode and the cathode during
the electrolysis of an aqueous C OH– ion is oxidised to form
25 The following pairs of oxygen gas at the anode.
solution of sodium sulphate?
substances are heated strongly. D OH– ion is reduced to form
Which pair will produce a glow? Cathode Anode oxygen gas at the anode.
A Aluminium oxide and iron
B Iron(III) oxide and lead A Oxidation Reduction 32 The diagram below shows a
C Lead(II) oxide and copper B H2 gas is O2 gas is simple chemical cell.
D Zinc oxide and aluminium produced produced
C OH– ions H+ ions are
26 Which of the following reactions are reduced oxidised
does not occur during the
extraction of tin from tin ore D SO42– ions are Na+ ions are
which contains tin(IV) oxide? oxidised reduced

Which of the following undergoes 36 When a dry cell supplies electric 39 The structure of a lead-acid
oxidation when the cell is current, battery is described below.
supplying electricity? A zinc container is oxidised.
Cell terminal P: Lead plate
A Zinc plate B the carbon rod acts as the
Cell terminal Q:
B Copper plate anode.
Lead plate coated with lead(IV)
C Copper(II) ions C the ammonium ion acts as
oxide.
D Hydrogen ions the reducing agent.
Electrolyte: Solution X
D ammonium ion is reduced to
33 Which of the following statements
nitrogen. Which of the following are true
is true?
about lead-acid battery?
A In chemical cells, anodes are
37 The electroplating of an iron I Cell terminal P is the positive
positively-charged.
spoon with copper is carried out terminal.
B In chemical cells, electrical
using the apparatus shown in the II Lead is oxidised to Pb2+ ions
energy is converted to
diagram below. at cell terminal P.
chemical energy.
III PbO2 is reduced to Pb2+ ions
C In electrolytic cells, anodes
at cell terminal Q.
are negatively-charged.
IV Solution X is dilute
D In electrolytic cells, electrons
hydrochloric acid.
move from the anode to the
A I and II only
cathode through the external
B II and III only
circuit.
C III and IV only
34 A piece of tin and a piece of D I, II and III only
3
copper are used as electrodes in
a chemical cell as shown in the Which of the following redox
diagram below. reactions occurs at the cathode 40 The diagram below shows a
during electrolysis? magnesium-silver cell.
A Cu → Cu2+ + 2e– ’11
… oxidation
B Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu V
… reduction
C Fe → Fe2+ + 2e– Mg plate Ag plate
… oxidation
Which of the following statements is D 4OH– →2H2O + O2 + 4e–
true about this experiment? … oxidation
A The size of the tin plate
becomes smaller. 38 The apparatus set-up for a MgSO4(aq) AgNO3(aq)
B Bubbles of gas are formed simple cell is shown below.
around the tin plate.
C Electrons flow from the Which of the statements about
copper plate to the tin plate. this voltaic cell is true?
D The copper plate is covered I Magnesium dissolves to form
with a thin layer of a reddish- magnesium ions.
brown substance. II Magnesium acts as the
35 In a dry cell, reducing agent.
A zinc ions are reduced to zinc III The concentration of silver
metal. What could be metals P and Q? nitrate decreases.
B carbon rod acts as the IV The ions in the solution flow
Metal P Metal Q
negative terminal. through the porous pot.
C manganese(III) oxide is oxidis A Copper Lead A I and III only
ed to manganese(IV) oxide Lead Copper B II and IV only
B
D ammonium chloride is C I, II and III only
C Iron Tin
reduced to hydrogen and D I, II, III and IV
ammonia. D Aluminium Tin

1 Excess iron powder is added to an aqueous solution 3 (a) Diagram 2 shows an experiment for investigating
containing magnesium chloride and copper(ll) nitrate. the positions of metal X, metal Y and hydrogen
The mixture is shaken and filtered. in the reactivity series.
(a) Write the ionic equation for the reaction that
occurs. [1 mark]
(b) Explain your answer in (a). [2 marks]
(c) (i) Identify the substance in the residue after

filtration. [1 mark]
(ii) Describe what you see in this experiment.
[2 marks] Diagram 2
(d) Identify (i) the oxidising agent, (ii) the reducing The experimental results are shown in the following
agent in this reaction. [2 marks] table.
(e) Explain your answer in (d). [2 marks]
Observation
Metal
2 (a) The following reaction occurs when ammonia is oxide During heating After heating
passed over heated oxide of copper.
’08 Oxide of Glows brightly The colour of the oxide
2NH3(g) + 3CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3H2O(l) + 3Cu(s) metal X changes from brown to grey
3
(i) State the changes in oxidation number of Oxide of Does not glow The oxide is yellow when hot
copper in this reaction. [1 mark] metal Y and white when cold
(ii) Is ammonia oxidised or reduced in this
reaction? Explain your answer. [1 mark] (i) With the help of a diagram, explain how dry
hydrogen is prepared in the laboratory.
(b) Diagram 1 shows the set-up of apparatus to [3 marks]
investigate electron transfer through a solution. (ii) Explain one safety precaution that must be
taken in this experiment. [1 mark]
(iii) Predict the melting point and the boiling
point of liquid Z produced. [1 mark]
(iv) Suggest the identity of the oxide of X.
[1 mark]
(v) Suggest the identity of the oxide of Y.
[1 mark]
(vi) Arrange X, Y and hydrogen in order of the
reactivity series. [1 mark]
(vii) Explain your answer in (vi). [2 marks]
(b) Diagram 3 shows the arrangement of apparatus in
an experiment for investigating the redox reactions
of three elements: magnesium, zinc and carbon.
Diagram 1
(i) What is meant by oxidising agent. [1 mark]
(ii) Name the oxidising agent and the substance
that is reduced in the experiment.
[2 marks]
(iii) Which is the positive electrode, X or Y ?
[1 mark]
(iv) Write the half-equations that take place at Diagram 3
the negative electrode. [1 mark]
(v) Name one substance that can be used to (i) What is the function of potassium
replace dilute sulphuric acid. [1 mark]
manganate(VII) in this experiment?
[1 mark]
(c) State the changes that can be observed at (ii) Record the experimental results expected to
electrodes X and Y after 5 minutes. [2 marks] be obtained in the following table.

6 The apparatus set-up of two cells, P and Q, are shown
Observation
in diagram 4.
Element Nature of flame/ Nature of residue
glow (if any)
Magnesium
Zinc
Carbon
[3 marks]
(iii) Describe the steps to be taken so that the
redox reactions can occur. [2 marks]
4 (a) State two conditions for the rusting of iron.

[1 mark]
’07
(b) Based on your answer in (a), draw a labelled
diagram to show what happens when iron rusts.
Your diagram should also include the ionisation
of iron and the flow of electrons. [3 marks]
3
(c) Describe the reactions that take place at the edge
of a water droplet. [3 marks]
Diagram 4
5 When metal X is added to iron(III) chloride solution, (a) (i) Name the types of reactions that occur in
a redox reaction occurs and a green solution is cells P and Q. [1 mark]
’09 formed. (ii) What is the difference between cell P and
cell Q in terms of energy change? [1 mark]
(a) Which metal given in the list below is most likely
to be metal X? Answer the following questions by referring to cell P.
Explain your answer. (b) Write the half-equations for the reaction at (i) the
anode, (ii) the cathode. [2 marks]
(c) (i) Write the chemical equation for the overall
copper, lead, magnesium, potassium reaction. [1 mark]
(ii) Explain the above reaction in terms of
oxidation and reduction. [2 marks]
[3 marks] Answer the following questions by referring to cell Q.
(b) (i) What is the change in oxidation number for
(d) State the observations that occurred at (i) the
both the reactants? [2 marks]
copper plate, (ii) the zinc plate.
(ii) Write the half-equations involved in the (e) (i) Write the ionic equation for the overall
redox reaction. [2 marks] reaction. [1 mark]
(c) Explain the role that iron(III) chloride plays in this (ii) Explain the above reaction in terms of
reaction? [2 marks] oxidation and reduction. [2 marks]
Essay Questions
1 (a) Describe an industrial method for the extraction of iron from its ore. [6 marks]
(b) In terms of electron arrangement, explain why metals (such as sodium, magnesium and aluminium)
act as reducing agents and non-metals (such as oxygen and chlorine) act as oxidising agents. [10 marks]
(c) Explain why galvanising can prevent iron from rusting. [4 marks]
2 (a) Magnesium is more reactive than copper. Design two experiments to prove this statement. [10 marks]
(b) Some substances act as an oxidising agent in one reaction but a reducing agent in another reaction.
Using iron(II) sulphate as an example, describe how you would prove this statement. [10 marks]

Experiments
1 (a) Table 1 shows the set-up of apparatus and the result of the experiment to study the reaction of
copper(II) oxide with carbon.
Table 1
Set-up of apparatus Observation on the mixture
Bright glow
What inference can you make based on the above observation. [3 marks]
(b) The experiment is repeated using magnesium oxide, lead(II) oxide and sodium oxide mixed with
carbon. The results of the experiment are shown in Table 2.
Table 2
3
Mixture of metal oxide with Observation on the

carbon mixture
Magnesium oxide + carbon No change
Lead(II) oxide + carbon Faint glow
Sodium oxide + carbon No change
(i) State one hypothesis for the experiment. [3 marks]

(ii) Based on Tables 1 and 2, construct a table to classify the metals into two groups. [2 marks]
(c) Diagram 1 shows the set-up of apparatus to determine the reactivity of metals with oxygen.
Diagram 1
(i) What is the purpose of heating potassium manganate(VII)? [1 mark]
(ii) The experiment is carried out using powders of copper, iron, lead and magnesium.
The results of the experiments are shown in Table 3.

Table 3
Set-up of apparatus Observation of the metal Set-up of apparatus Observation of the metal
Faint glow
Look at the flame or glow in each of the experiments. Then complete Table 3 by stating the
observations of the reaction of metals with oxygen. [3 marks]
3
(d) State one hypothesis for the experiment. [3 marks]
(e) Based on the observations in Table 3, arrange the metals, copper, iron, lead and magnesium in
descending order of reactivity with oxygen.
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
Reactivity of metal with oxygen decreases [3 marks]
(f) Complete Table 4 by stating the action to be taken for each variable.
Table 4
Variables Action to be taken

(i) Manipulated variable (i) How to manipulate the variable
(ii) Responding variable (ii) What to observe in the responding variable
(iii) Constant variable (iii) How to maintain the constant variable
[3 marks]
2 Steel but not iron is used to build bridges. This is because iron rusts easily when exposed to air and water
but steel is more resistant to rusting.
You are asked to plan an experiment to show that steel is more difficult to rust than iron.
Your experiment should include the following aspects:
(a) Statement of the problem
(b) Statement of the hypothesis
(d) Lists of materials and apparatus

CHAPTER FORM 5
4
Thermochemistry

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Number of questions 3 1 – – – 2 1 – – – 3 – – 1 – 4 – – – –
ONCEPT MAP
Energy level diagram Calculations

Example: Exothermic reaction (a) Number of moles of reactants
N2 + 3H2 2NH3; ∆H = –92 kJ or products = x
THERMOCHEMISTRY (b) Heat released or absorbed
LULYN` • The branch of chemistry that (m 3 c 3 θ )
studies the changes in heat = –––––––––– kJ = y kJ
5/ 1000
energy in chemical reactions
(c) From (a) and (b),
¬/$¶ R1 y
5/ heat of reaction = – — kJ mol–1
x
Heat of precipitation Heat of displacement

Example: Heat of precipitation of silver chloride Example: Heat of displacement of copper by zinc
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s); ∆H = –63 kJ mol–1 Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq); ∆H = –210 kJ mol–1
Heat of neutralisation Heat of combustion

Example: Heat of neutralisation of hydrochloric acid Example: Heat of combustion of ethanol
with sodium hydroxide C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l);
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l); ∆H = –1371 kJ mol–1
∆H = –57 kJ mol–1
Choice of suitable fuels

Heat of neutralisation of a strong Heat of neutralisation of a strong Important factors:
acid with a strong base is always acid with a weak base • High fuel value (kJ/g)
–57 kJ mol–1 because strong (or a weak acid with a strong base) • Burns easily
acids and strong bases dissociate is always less than –57 kJ mol–1 • Do not produce air pollutants
completely. because weak acids and bases • Cheap
absorb heat energy on dissociation. • Can be obtained easily
4.1 Energy Changes in Exothermic Reactions SPM
’09/P1,
’11/P1
Chemical Reactions 1 Exothermic reactions are reactions that release
heat energy to the surroundings.
1 Energy exists in various forms. In chemistry, 2 Figure 4.1 shows a simple experiment for
the important forms of energy are measuring the temperature change when
(a) heat energy, anhydrous copper(II) sulphate solid is dissolved
(b) light energy, in water.
(c) chemical energy,
(d) electrical energy,
(e) kinetic energy.
2 According to the law of conservation of
energy, energy cannot be created or destroyed.
However, energy can be converted from one
form to another as shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Examples of conversion of energy
Energy change Example
Figure 4.1 An exothermic reaction
(a) Electrical energy Electrolysis
→ chemical 3 In this reaction, heat energy is released to the
4
energy surroundings (Figure 4.2).
(b) Chemical energy Chemical cells (batteries)

→ electrical
energy
The term ‘surroundings’ means the water in
(c) Light energy → • Photosynthesis which the chemical is dissolved, the container in
chemical energy • Photochemical reactions which the chemical reaction occurs, the air and the
thermometer.
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
or action of sunlight on
photochromic glass SPM
’07/P1
3 Chemical energy is the energy stored in all

chemical substances. CuSO4
4 During a chemical reaction, the chemical energy +
stored in the reactants are converted mainly H2O
into heat energy and other forms of energy
Figure 4.2 Heat energy is released
(such as light energy).
to the surroundings in an
5 Thermochemistry is the branch of chemistry exothermic reaction
that studies the changes in heat energy in
chemical reactions. 4 When an exothermic reaction occurs,
6 Chemical reactions can be divided into two (a) heat is released and is transferred from
classes based on the energy changes that occur the reactants to the surroundings,
during the reaction. (b) the reaction mixture and the container
(a) Exothermic reactions become hot,
(b) Endothermic reactions (c) the temperatures of the reaction mixture
and the container rise,
(d) the chemical energy is converted into heat
energy.
Heat energy can be transferred from the reactants 5 Figure 4.3 shows the changes in temperature
or the products to the surroundings and vice versa.
when an exothermic reaction occurs. Initially,
However, the total energy remains unchanged at the
the temperature of the reaction mixture rises
end of the reaction.
until the highest temperature is reached. When
453 Thermochemistry
the reaction is completed, the temperature of (a) Combustion of fuels
the reaction mixture falls until it reaches room
temperature. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
(b) Oxidation of food in the respiration

process
C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)

glucose
(c) Rusting of iron
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2xH2O(l) → 2Fe2O3.xH2O

rust
Figure 4.3 Variation of temperature with time for
an exothermic reaction (d) Dissolving soluble bases (metal oxides)
in water
6 Examples of exothermic reactions involving
physical changes CaO(s) + H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq)
(a) Condensation process (gas to liquid)
H2O(g) → H2O(l) (e) Neutralisation reactions between acids
4
steam water
and bases
HCl(g) → HCl(l) HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Condensation process (gas to solid)
(f) Reaction between acids and metals or
CO2(g) → CO2(s)
metal carbonates
dry ice
I2(g) → I2(s) Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq)+ H2(g)
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
(b) Freezing (solidification) process (liquid 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
to solid)
(g) Displacement reaction of a metal from its
H2O(l) → H2O(s) salt solution by a more reactive metal
water ice
Fe(l) → Fe(s) Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(c) Dissolving alkalis and acids (especially (h) Haber process for the manufacture of
concentrated acids) in water. ammonia
NaOH(s) + water → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq) N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

sodium hydroxide
(i) Contact process for the production of
H2SO4(l) + water → 2H+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
sulphur trioxide
sulphuric acid
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)
(d) Dissolving anhydrous salts, such as
anhydrous copper(II) sulphate (CuSO4)
and anhydrous sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) Endothermic Reactions SPM
’09/P1
in water.
1 Endothermic reactions are reactions that absorb
CuSO4(s) + water → Cu2+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
heat energy from the surroundings.
Na2CO3(s) + water → 2Na+(aq) + CO32–(aq)
2 Figure 4.4 shows a simple experiment to measure
7 Examples of exothermic reactions involving the temperature change when copper(II) sulphate
chemical changes crystals are dissolved in water.
Thermochemistry 454
6 Examples of endothermic reactions involving
physical changes
(a) Dissolving ammonium salts such as
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), ammonium
nitrate (NH4NO3) and ammonium sulphate,
(NH4)2SO4 in water.
NH4Cl(s) + water → NH4+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
NH4NO3(s) + water → NH4+(aq) + NO3–(aq)
Figure 4.4 An endothermic reaction (NH4)2SO4(s) + water → 2NH4+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
3 In this reaction, heat energy is absorbed from (b) Dissolving crystalline salts such
the surroundings and is transferred from water as hydrated copper(II) sulphate
to the copper(II) sulphate crystals (Figure 4.5). (CuSO4.5H2O), hydrated magnesium
sulphate (MgSO4.7H2O) and hydrated
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O).
CuSO4.5H2O + water →
Cu2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) + 5H2O(l)
Na2CO3.10H2O + water →
2Na+(aq) + CO32–(aq) + 10H2O(l)
4
Figure 4.5 Heat energy is absorbed (c) Melting process (solid to liquid)
from the surroundings in
H2O(s) → H2O(l)
endothermic reactions
ice water
4 When an endothermic reaction occurs, Sn(s) → Sn(l)
(a) heat energy is absorbed and is transferred
(d) Evaporation and boiling processes (liquid
to the reactants,
to gas)
(b) the reaction mixture and the container
becomes cold, H2O(l) → H2O(g)
(c) the temperatures of the reaction mixture water water vapour
and the container fall, H2O(l) → H2O(g)
(d) the heat energy is converted into chemical water steam
energy.
7 Examples of endothermic reactions involving
5 Figure 4.6 shows the variation of temperature
chemical changes
with time when an endothermic reaction
(a) The reaction between acids and sodium
occurs. Initially, the temperature of the reaction
or potassium hydrogen carbonate.
mixture falls until it reaches the minimum
temperature. When the reaction is completed, HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(s) →
the temperature of the reaction mixture rises NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
until it reaches room temperature.
(b) Thermal decomposition of metal
carbonates, metal nitrates and ammonium
chloride.
ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
2Mg(NO3)2(s) →
2MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g)
(c) Photosynthesis
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) → C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
Figure 4.6 Variation of temperature with time for
an endothermic reaction
glucose
455 Thermochemistry
When an endothermic reaction occurs, the heat energy The reaction between an acid and sodium carbonate
is absorbed from the surroundings and converted into (Na2CO3) is an exothermic reaction, but the reaction
the chemical energy of the reactants. The loss of heat between an acid and sodium hydrogen carbonate
energy from the surroundings causes the temperature (NaHCO3) is an endothermic reaction.
of the solution to fall.
To study exothermic and endothermic reactions
Materials Plastic cup, thermometer and spatula. (b) Dissolving ammonium chloride solid in water
Apparatus Sodium hydroxide solid, ammonium Initial Lowest

chloride solid, 1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric Reaction temperature temperature
acid, 1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide (°C) (°C)
solution and 2 mol dm–3 sodium NH4Cl(s) + water 28 24
hydrogen carbonate solution.
Procedure Discussion
4
1 When sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water,

the temperature of water rises. This means that
heat energy is given off to water.
2 When ammonium chloride is dissolved in water,
the temperature of water falls. This means that
heat energy is absorbed from water.
Figure 4.7 To investigate Conclusion

exothermic and
endothermic reactions 1 Dissolving sodium hydroxide solid in water is an
exothermic process.
(A) Dissolution of sodium hydroxide and ammonium 2 Dissolving ammonium chloride solid in water is
chloride in water an endothermic reaction.
1 Using a measuring cylinder, 50 cm3 of water is
measured out and poured into a plastic cup. (B) The reactions between hydrochloric acid and
2 A thermometer is placed in the water as shown in (a) sodium hydroxide, (b) sodium hydrogen
Figure 4.7 and the temperature of water is measured. carbonate
3 A spatula of sodium hydroxide solid is added to 1 Using a measuring cylinder, 40.0 cm3 of 1.0
the water in the plastic cup. mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is measured out and
4 The water is slowly stirred with the thermometer poured into a plastic cup.
to dissolve the sodium hydroxide. The highest 2 A thermometer is placed in the hydrochloric acid
temperature obtained is recorded. and the temperature is recorded.
5 Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using ammonium chloride 3 Using another measuring cylinder, 30.0 cm3
solid instead of sodium hydroxide solid. The lowest of 1.0 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution is
temperature obtained is recorded. measured out and poured into the hydrochloric
acid.
Results
4 The reaction mixture is stirred slowly with
(a) Dissolving sodium hydroxide solid in water the thermometer and the highest temperature
Activity 4.1
Initial Highest achieved is recorded.

Reaction temperature temperature 5 Steps 1 to 4 are repeated using 50.0 cm3 of 1.0
(°C) (°C) mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid and 25.0 cm3 of 2.0
mol dm–3 sodium hydrogen carbonate solution.
NaOH(s) + water 28 36 The lowest temperature obtained is recorded.
Thermochemistry 456
Results Discussion
(a) Reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium 1 When sodium hydroxide solution is added to
hydroxide solution hydrochloric acid, the temperature of the solution
rises. This means that heat energy is released to
Initial Highest the solution.
Reaction temperature temperature 2 When sodium hydrogen carbonate solution is
(°C) (°C) added to hydrochloric acid, the temperature of
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) 30 35 the solution falls. This means that heat energy is
absorbed from the solution.
(b) Reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium Conclusion
hydrogen carbonate
1 The reaction between hydrochloric acid and
Initial Highest sodium hydroxide solution is an exothermic
Reaction temperature temperature reaction.
(°C) (°C) 2 The reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydrogen carbonate solution is an endothermic
HCl(aq) + NaHCO3(aq) 30 27
reaction.
7 For the general reaction,
4
A+B→C+D
• Heat is the transfer of energy caused by the Heat of reaction (ΔH)
temperature difference between the reacting particles = Total energy content of the products (H1)
and the surroundings. – total energy content of the reactants (H2)
• Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic = (HC + HD) – (HA + HB)
energy of all the particles involved in the reaction.
That is,
The unit of temperature is kelvin (K).
• Heat will always flow from the region of high
ΔH = Hproducts –Hreactants
temperature to the region of low temperature. 8 (a) For an exothermic reaction, the value of
ΔH is negative. That is,
Energy Level Diagram SPM 1

’08/P1 H2(g) + — O2(g) → H2O(l); ΔH = –286 kJ mol–1
2
1 Energy is defined as the ability to do work.
The unit of energy is joule (symbol J). (b) This equation shows that when 1.0 mol
of water is produced from hydrogen and
1 kJ (kilojoule) = 1000 J oxygen, 286 kJ of heat energy are released.
(c) When 2.0 mol of hydrogen react with 1.0
2 All substances contain energy. But different mol of oxygen to form 2.0 mol of water,
substances have different energy content. (2  286 kJ) or 572 kJ of heat are released.
3 The absolute energy content of a substance is That is,
given the symbol H (the unit of H is kJ or J). 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l); ΔH = –572 kJ
4 The absolute energy content of a given substance
cannot be determined but the changes in energy 9 (a) In endothermic reactions, the values of
content that occur when the reactants are ΔH are positive. For example,
converted to the products can be determined
and is given the symbol, ∆H. 1 1
— N (g) + — O2(g) → NO(g); ΔH = +90 kJ mol–1
5 When substances react to produce new substances, 2 2 2
changes in energy content occur. This causes heat
(b) The equation shows that when 1.0 mol
to be released or absorbed during the reaction.
1
6 The changes in the energy content in a of nitrogen oxide is produced from —
2
chemical reaction that produces 1 mol of a 1
mol of nitrogen and — mol of oxygen,
product, ∆H, is called the heat of that chemical 2
reaction. The unit for ∆H is kJ mol–1. 90 kJ of heat are absorbed.
457 Thermochemistry
(c) When 1.0 mol of nitrogen reacts with 1.0
mol of oxygen to form 2.0 mol of nitrogen
oxide, 180 kJ of heat are absorbed. That is,
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g); ΔH = +180 kJ
10 The changes in the energy content of

exothermic and endothermic reactions can be Figure 4.9 Energy level diagram for the reaction
represented by energy level diagrams. between magnesium and oxygen
11 The energy level diagram is the diagram that
shows the total energy content of the reactants 4 In the reaction between magnesium and oxygen,
compared to the total energy content of the the total energy content of magnesium oxide is
products. less than the total energy content of magnesium
and oxygen. The excess energy is released as heat.
The Energy Level Diagrams for Exothermic Thus, the reaction is an exothermic reaction.
Reactions
1
1 Figure 4.8 shows the energy level diagram
When 1.0 mol of zinc powder reacts with 2.0 mol
for an exothermic reaction. The difference
of hydrochloric acid, 120 kJ of heat are released.
between the total energy content of the
4
Sketch the energy level diagram to represent this

reactants (H1) and the total energy content of
reaction.
the products (H2) gives the heat evolved (ΔH)
during a reaction, that is, ΔH = H2 – H1. Solution
2 For an exothermic reaction, the total energy
SPM content of the products is lower than the total
’10/P1
energy content of the reactants. Hence, the ΔH
value of an exothermic reaction is negative.
The Energy Level Diagrams for Endothermic SPM

’09/P1
Reactions
Figure 4.8 The energy level diagram for an
exothermic reaction 1 Figure 4.10 shows the energy level diagram for
an endothermic reaction.
ΔH = Hproducts – Hreactants
= negative (if Hproducts < H reactants)
3 When magnesium reacts with oxygen, heat
energy is released.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s); ΔH = –1204 kJ
The energy level diagram for this exothermic Figure 4.10 The energy level diagram for an
reaction is shown in Figure 4.9. endothermic reaction
Thermochemistry 458
2 For an endothermic reaction, the total energy Which of the following are true of this reaction?
content of the products is higher than the total I The reaction is exothermic.
energy content of the reactants. This means II The activation energy is x kJ.
that the value of ΔH for an endothermic III The heat of reaction is y kJ.
reaction is positive. IV The value of y increases in the presence of a
catalyst.
ΔH = Hproducts – Hreactants
A I and II only
= positive (if Hproducts > H reactants) B II and III only
C I and IV only
D I, II and IV only
2
Comments
State (a) two facts that are given, and (b) two facts The energy content of the products is lower than
that are not given by the energy level diagram in that of the reactants. The reaction is exothermic.
Figure 4.11. (I is correct)
The activation energy is x kJ (II is correct). So the
value of x decreases in the presence of a catalyst.
But indirectly, the value of y also decreases.
(IV is incorrect)
The heat of reaction (ΔH) is –(y – x) kJ, the
negative sign before (y – x) indicates an exothermic
4
Figure 4.11
reaction. (III is incorrect)
Solution Answer A
(a) The energy level diagram in Figure 4.11 shows
that
(i) the total energy content of the reactants is Relationship between Energy Change and
higher than the total energy content of the
the Formation and Breaking of Bonds
products. This implies that the reaction is
exothermic, with negative ΔH value. 1 The energy change in a reaction is caused by
(ii) when 1.0 mol of nitrogen reacts with 3.0 (a) the formation of chemical bonds and
mol of hydrogen to form 2.0 mol of (b) the breaking of chemical bonds.
ammonia, 92 kJ of heat energy are released. 2 When a reaction occurs, energy is absorbed to
break the bonds that exist between atoms in
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g); ΔH = –92 kJ the molecules of the reactants. Heat energy is
then released when new bonds are formed to
(b) The energy level diagram in Figure 4.11 does produce the products. This means that
not give information concerning (a) the breaking of chemical bonds is an
(i) the rate of reaction, endothermic process, and
(ii) the conditions such as temperature, pressure (b) the formation of chemical bonds is an
or the catalyst required to carry out the reaction. exothermic process.
3 Bond energies
(a) Table 4.2 shows the bond energies for
1 ’05
some chemical bonds.
Table 4.2 Bond energy
The energy profile of a reaction is shown below.
Bond energy
Covalent bond
SPM
’05/P1
(kJ mol–1)
C–C 346
C=C 612
H–H 436
N≡N 946
Cl – Cl 242
459 Thermochemistry
(b) The bond energy is the energy required ΔH1 (bond breaking) = +678 kJ
to break one mole of covalent bonds. The ΔH2 (bond forming) = –862 kJ
same amount of heat energy is released ΔH (heat of reaction) = (+678) + (–862)
when 1.0 mol of the same covalent bonds = –184 kJ
is formed.
(c) The energy level diagram for the reaction
(c) Table 4.2 shows that the bond energy of
between hydrogen and chlorine to form
chlorine is +242 kJ mol–1. This implies
hydrogen chloride is shown in Figure
that 242 kJ of heat energy are required to
4.13.
break the covalent bonds in one mole of
chlorine molecules.
Cl2(g) → 2Cl(g); ΔH = +242 kJ mol–1
Conversely, 242 kJ of heat energy are

released when 1.0 mol of chlorine gas is
formed from chlorine atoms.
2Cl(g) → Cl2(g); ΔH = –242 kJ mol–1

Figure 4.13
4 The heat of reaction is the sum of the energy 6 (a) If the energy absorbed to break the
absorbed in breaking the bonds and the energy
4
bonds is more than the energy released

released in forming the bonds. to form new bonds, then the reaction is
endothermic. That is,
ΔH (reaction) = ΔH1 (bond breaking) +
ΔH2 (bond forming) ΔH (reaction) is positive if
ΔH1 (bond breaking) > ΔH2 (bond forming)
5 (a) If the energy absorbed to break the covalent
bonds is less than the energy released to
form the new covalent bonds, the reaction For example, the reaction between carbon
is exothermic. That is, and steam to form carbon monoxide and
hydrogen is an endothermic reaction.
ΔH (reaction) is negative if
ΔH1 (bond breaking) < ΔH2 (bond forming) C(s) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + H2(g);
ΔH = positive
For example, the reaction between hydrogen
and chlorine to form hydrogen chloride is (b) Figure 4.14 shows the breaking and the
an exothermic reaction. formation of bonds when carbon reacts
with steam.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g); ΔH = negative ΔH1 (bond breaking) = +1645 kJ
ΔH2 (bond forming) = –1513 kJ
(b) Figure 4.12 shows the breaking and ΔH (reaction) = ΔH1 + ΔH2
formation of bonds when hydrogen reacts = (+1645) + (–1513)
with chlorine. = +132 kJ
Figure 4.12 The breaking and formation of bonds in the Figure 4.14 The breaking and formation of bonds in
reaction between hydrogen and chlorine the reaction between carbon and steam
Thermochemistry 460
2 (b) The reaction is very endothermic and
’07 the water temperature can drop as much
as 18 oC, depending on the amount of
The equation for the reaction between hydrogen
ammonium nitrate used.
and iodine is shown below.
NH4NO3(s) + water → NH4NO3(aq);
H2(g) + I2(s) → 2HI(g); ΔH = +11.3 kJ
ΔH = +26 kJ mol–1
Which of the following shows that the reaction is
endothermic? 4 (a) There are several varieties of hot packs.
A The reaction releases 11.3 kJ of heat energy One variety of hot pack contains a small
when 2 mol of hydrogen iodide are formed. bag of water and a dry chemical such as
B The total heat absorbed to break the bonds is anhydrous calcium chloride or anhydrous
more than the total energy released during the magnesium sulphate. When the pack is
formation of hydrogen iodide. squeezed, the small bag breaks and the
C The energy contained in hydrogen and iodine anhydrous salt dissolves in water. The
is higher than the energy contained in hydrogen dissolving process is very exothermic.
iodide. CaCl2(s) + water → Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq);
D The reaction is a slow reaction. ΔH = –81 kJ mol–1
Comments
This is an endothermic reaction. The reaction absorbs MgSO4(s) + water → Mg2+(aq) + SO42–(aq);
ΔH = –91 kJ mol–1
4
heat energy. In an endothermic reaction, the heat
content of the products is higher than the heat
content of the reactants. (b) Another variety of hot pack uses the
oxidation of iron to produce heat. The
Answer B hot pack contains wet iron powder and
sodium chloride put in a perforated bag.
When the perforated bag is taken out
Applications of Exothermic and and exposed to the air, a very exothermic
Endothermic Reactions in Everyday Life reaction occurs as iron reacts with oxygen.
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s); ΔH = –1648 kJ
1 Ice packs and hot packs are used to reduce
swelling and pain due to muscle or joint The presence of water on the iron surface
sprain. In the hospitals, cold packs are put on and sodium chloride increases the rate of
the foreheads of patients to reduce fever. reaction.
2 In actual fact, an ice pack does not contain
SPM ice but contains chemicals that can react
3
’11/P1
endothermally with water. Thus, ice packs are ’06
often called cold packs.
3 (a) Cold packs contain ammonium nitrate The following chemical equation shows the redox
in a strong bag and water in a thin inner reaction between zinc and copper(II) oxide:
bag. When the cold pack is squeezed, the Zn(s) + CuO(s) → ZnO(s) + Cu(s);
inner bag containing water will break. The ΔH = –193 kJ mol–1
water then reacts with ammonium nitrate
(Figure 4.15). Which of the following is true about this reaction?
Type of reaction Heat change
A Endothermic Heat is released
B Endothermic Heat is absorbed
C Exothermic Heat is absorbed
D Exothermic Heat is released
Comments
ΔH has a negative value. So the reaction is exothermic.
Answer D
Figure 4.15 The structure of a cold pack
461 Thermochemistry
Exothermic reactions
• Exothermic reactions are reactions that release heat energy to the surroundings.
• Energy level diagram •
Energy profile diagram
• ΔH is negative because ΔH absorbed for bond breaking < ΔH released for bond forming.
• Hot packs contain chemicals that react with water to give out heat.
Energy changes in Application

4
chemical reactions • Cold pack and hot pack
Endothermic reactions
• Endothermic reactions are reactions that absorb heat energy from the surroundings.
• Energy level diagram • Energy profile diagram
• ΔH is positive because ΔH for bond breaking > ΔH released for bond forming.
• Hot packs contain chemicals that react with water to absorb heat.
4.1
1 Classify the following as exothermic or endothermic water
Na2CO3(s) ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Na2CO3(aq);
reactions:
(a) Dissolving ammonium sulphate solid in water
(b) Dissolving sodium hydroxide in water (a) Describe the changes in temperature of the
(c) Adding sodium hydrogen carbonate to dilute solution.
hydrochloric acid (b) Construct an energy level diagram for the reaction.
(d) Adding sodium hydroxide solution to dilute 3 When a hot pack is squeezed, a chemical reaction
hydrochloric acid occurs.
2 When sodium carbonate solid dissolves in water, the (a) Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?
following reaction occurs: (b) Complete the table shown below describing the
characteristic of this reaction.
Thermochemistry 462
(a) Identify the step in the reaction that is
Characteristic Reaction in the hot pack
exothermic.
(i) Temperature change (b) Identify the step in the reaction that is
(ii) Energy content endothermic.
of reactants and (c) State two facts that are given in the above energy
products level diagram.
(iii) Energy involved in 5 (a) Using the following data, calculate the mass of
bond breaking and anhydrous copper(II) sulphate needed to dissolve
bond forming in water so that 16.5 kJ of heat are released.
CuSO4(s) + water → CuSO4(aq);

4 The energy changes for the reaction between nitrogen
and oxygen are represented in the energy level
diagram as shown below. [Relative atomic mass: Cu, 64; S, 32; O, 16]
(b) The following equation shows the reaction between
nitrogen and oxygen.
N2(g) + 2O2(g) → 2NO2(g); ΔH = +66 kJ mol–1
Calculate the energy change when 12.0 dm3 of

nitrogen reacts with 24.0 dm3 of oxygen.
4
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g);
4.2 Heat of Precipitation
ΔH = –92 kJ …(2)
The Concept of Heat of Reaction
Equation (1) shows that 46 kJ of heat
1 (a) The heat of reaction is the heat energy energy are released when 1.0 mol of
SPM absorbed or released when the number of 1
’06/P1 ammonia is formed from — mol of nitrogen
moles of reactants, as shown in the chemical 2
3
equation, react to form the products. For and — mol of hydrogen.
2
example,
Hence, the heat of reaction for the
formation of ammonia is –46 kJ mol–1.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g); (b) Equation (2) shows that when 2.0 mol of
ΔH = –27 kJ ammonia are produced from 1.0 mol of
nitrogen and 3.0 mol of hydrogen, 92 kJ
of heat energy are released.
Hence, the heat of reaction (ΔH) is –27 kJ. 3 (a) The heat of reaction also depends on the
(b) The chemical equation that contains the
direction of the reaction. For example,
value of ΔH on the right of the equation
is called the thermochemical equation. 1 3
(c) The thermochemical equation in (a) shows — N2(g) + — H2(g) NH3(g);
2 2
that 27 kJ of heat are released, when 1.0 ΔH = –46 kJ mol–1 … (3)
mol of iron(III) oxide reacts with 3.0 mol
of carbon monoxide to form 2.0 mol of 1 3
iron and 3.0 mol of carbon dioxide. NH (g) — N2(g) + — H2(g);
3 2 2
2 (a) The heat of reaction depends on the number ΔH = +46 kJ … (4)
of moles of reactants that are involved as
shown by the equation. For example, (b) If the formation of 1.0 mol of ammonia
from nitrogen and hydrogen (equation
1 3
— N2(g) + — H2(g) NH3(g); (3)) releases 46 kJ of heat energy, then the
2 2
decomposition of 1.0 mol of ammonia
ΔH = –46 kJ mol–1…(1) into nitrogen and hydrogen (equation
But, (4)) will absorb 46 kJ of heat energy.
463 Thermochemistry
4 For an exothermic reaction,
’06 θ = rise in temperature
θ = T2 – T1
What is meant by heat of reaction?
A The energy needed to start a reaction. For an endothermic reaction,
B The energy released on forming chemical bonds. θ = fall in temperature
C The change in the energy contained in the θ = T1 – T2
reactants and in the products. (T1 = initial temperature of solution, T2 = final
D The energy absorbed or released when matter temperature of solution)
changes its physical state. 4 In calculating heat of reaction, 1 cm3 of any
Solution aqueous solution is assumed to have a density
Heat of reaction (ΔH) = Hproducts – Hreactants of 1.0 g cm–3. That is, 1 cm3 of any aqueous
where H is total heat content. solution has a mass of 1.0 g.
5 The other assumptions for calculating heat of
Answer C reaction are as follows:
(a) There is no loss of heat energy to the
surroundings or gain of heat energy from
4 The heat of reaction can be further classified
the surroundings.
as shown below, depending on the type of
(b) The container, the thermometer and all
reaction that occurs.
other apparatus used in the experiment
absorb a negligible amount of heat.
4
Heat of reaction Type of reaction

(a) Heat of Precipitation of an ionic
precipitation compound 3
(b) Heat of Displacement of a metal When a spatula of ammonium chloride is dissolved
displacement from its salt solution by in 300 cm3 of water at an initial temperature of
another metal 28 °C, the minimum temperature obtained is 23 °C.
(c) Heat of Neutralisation reaction Calculate the heat change for the reaction.
neutralisation between an acid and a base (The specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1).
(d) Heat of The reaction between an Solution
combustion element or a compound with Fall in temperature = 28 – 23 = 5 °C
oxygen on burning Heat energy absorbed = mcθ = 300  4.2  5
SPM = 6300 J = 6.3 kJ
’04/P1
Calculations Involving Heat Changes ’05/P1 Heat change = +6.3 kJ
’06/P1
1 The unit for measuring heat energy is joule (J).

2 The specific heat capacity of a solution is the 5 ’06
heat energy required to raise the temperature
of 1.0 g of the solution by 1.0 °C. When 25.0 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid is poured
into 25.0 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution,
The specific heat capacity of water is
4200 J of heat are released.
4.18 J g–1 °C–1.
What is the temperature change of the reaction
This means that 4.18 J of heat energy are mixture?
required to raise the temperature of 1.0 g of [Specific heat capacity of the solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1;
water by 1.0 °C. assume that the density of the solution = 1 g cm–3]
3 The amount of heat (in J) released or absorbed A 2 °C B 5 °C C 10 °C D 20 °C
in a reaction can be determined by using the Solution
following formula: ΔH = mcθ
ΔH = mcθ 4200 = (25 + 25) 3 4.2 3 θ
where m = mass of solution, θ = 20 °C
c = specific heat capacity of solution, Answer D
θ = change in temperature.
Thermochemistry 464
Solution
Step 1: Calculate the heat energy released in the
When 10 g of ammonium chloride is dissolved in 250 reaction
cm3 of distilled water, the temperature of the solution (a) The average temperature of the solution
falls by 3 °C. before reaction
Heat change = 250  4.2  3 J
The heat absorbed on dissolving ammonium chloride 30.5 + 29.5
=————— ————
lowers the temperature of water. The mass of ammonium 2
chloride used is not included in the calculation.
= 30.0 °C
SPM Temperature change
The Concept of Heat of Precipitation ’04/P1
’06/P1
’07/P1 = 35.6 – 30.0
1 The heat of precipitation is the heat change = 5.6 °C
when 1.0 mol of a precipitate is formed from
its ions. (b) Volume of reaction mixture
2 The heat of precipitation of lead(II) sulphate = 25 + 25
is –51 kJ mol–1. Based on this information, we
can write the thermochemical equation for the = 50 cm3
reaction as follows. Assuming that the density of solution
= 1.0 g cm–3
4
Pb2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → PbSO4(s);
ΔH = –51 kJ mol–1 Heat energy released = mcθ
= 50  4.2  5.6
3 The energy level diagram for the precipitation = 1176 J
reaction is shown in Figure 4.16. = 1.176 kJ
Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of AgCl
produced
0.023 mol of Ag+ ions react with 0.023 mol
of Cl– ions to produce 0.023 mol of AgCl.
Step 3: Calculate the heat of precipitation of AgCl
The precipitation of 0.023 mol of AgCl

releases 1.176 kJ of heat energy.
Figure 4.16 The energy level diagram for the Therefore, the precipitation of 1.0 mol of
precipitation of lead(II) sulphate
AgCl releases
1
1.176  — — —— 0.023 mol → 1.176 kJ
0.023 1.0 mol → ? kJ
4 = 51.1 kJ of heat energy.
25 cm of silver nitrate solution is added to 25 cm
3 3
Hence, heat of precipitation = –51.1 kJ mol–1
of potassium chloride solution. The results of the
experiment are shown below.
SPM
Initial temperature of potassium chloride solution Determining the Heat of Precipitation ’04/P2
= 30.5 °C ’07/P1
Initial temperature of silver nitrate solution = 29.5 °C 1 The heat of precipitation for the ionic solid
Highest temperature of reaction mixture = 35.6 °C Mn+Xn– is determined by measuring the
Calculate the heat of precipitation of silver chloride. temperature change during precipitation when
(Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1; a given volume of a solution of Mn+ ions is
the solutions contain 0.023 mol of Ag+ ions and added to a given volume of a solution of Xn–
0.023 mol of Cl– ions respectively) ions. The concentrations of both the solutions
are known.
465 Thermochemistry
2 The following steps are involved when calculating the heat of precipitation.
Calculate the number of Calculate the heat energy Heat of precipitation

moles of solid precipitated released –y
=—— kJ mol–1
(x mol) mcθ x
ΔH = — — —
— = y kJ
1000
3 Activity 4.2 shows the experimental procedure for measuring the heat of precipitation of
silver chloride.
Precipitation, like crystallisation, is the reverse of dissolving. Crystallisation and precipitation are exothermic reactions.
If a solid comes out of a solution slowly, crystals are In one type of hot pack, the crystallisation of sodium
formed and the process is called crystallisation. But if ethanoate is used to produce heat.
the solid is formed very quickly, many tiny particles are
CH3COONa + 3H2O → CH3COONa.3H2O;
produced in the liquid. This process is called precipitation.
ΔH = –37.9 kJ mol–1
4
To determine the heat of precipitation of silver chloride
Apparatus Measuring cylinders, thermometer and 5 The mixture is stirred with a thermometer
plastic cup. throughout the experiment and the highest
temperature obtained is recorded.
Materials 0.5 mol dm–3 silver nitrate solution and
0.5 mol dm–3 sodium chloride solution.
Temperature NaCl(aq)
Procedure Highest temperature obtained (°C) 32.0
Initial temperature of sodium 29.0
chloride solution (°C)
Initial temperature of silver nitrate 28.0
solution (°C)
Assumptions used for calculations

Figure 4.17 To determine the heat of precipitation The specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1
of silver chloride Density of solution = 1.0 g cm–3
1 25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 sodium chloride solution
is measured and poured into a clean and dry Calculations
plastic cup using a measuring cylinder. Step 1: Calculate the heat energy released in the
2 The initial temperature of sodium chloride experiment:
solution is measured and recorded. (a) The average initial temperature of the
3 Using another measuring cylinder, 25 cm3 of 0.5 solutions before mixing
mol dm–3 silver nitrate solution is measured. The 29 + 28
Activity 4.2
=— — ——— —— = 28.5 °C
initial temperature of the silver nitrate solution is 2
measured and recorded. The highest temperature of the reaction
4 The silver nitrate solution is poured quickly mixture = 32.0 °C
and carefully into the sodium chloride solution Rise in temperature = (32.0 – 28.5) °C
(Figure 4.17). = 3.5 °C
Thermochemistry 466
(b) Heat energy released
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s); ΔH = –58.8 kJ mol–1
= mass of solution  specific heat
capacity  rise in temperature
4 In actual fact, the theoretical heat of precipitation
= (25 + 25)  4.2  3.5
of silver chloride is –66 kJ mol–1.
= 735 J = 0.735 kJ
Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of AgCl Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s); ΔH = –66 kJ mol–1
formed
(a) Number of moles of Ag+ ions used 5 The heat of precipitation obtained experimentally
25 is usually less than the theoretical value. This is
= 0.5  — ——— = 0.0125
1000 because the calculation of the theoretical value is
(b) Number of moles of Cl– ions used based on two assumptions, namely,
25 • there is no loss of heat to the surroundings,
= 0.5  — ——— = 0.0125
1000 • the plastic cup and the thermometer used in the
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s) experiment do not absorb heat.
From the equation, 1.0 mol of Ag+ ions 6 In order to prevent the loss of heat to the surroundings,
react with 1.0 mol of Cl– ions to form the following precautionary steps must be taken
1.0 mol of AgCl. when carrying out the experiment.
Therefore, 0.0125 mol of Ag+ ions react (a) Plastic cups (for example, polystyrene or
with 0.0125 mol of Cl– ions to form polythene cup) are used because plastics are
0.0125 mol of AgCl. poor conductors of heat.
4
Step 3: Calculate the heat of precipitation of silver (b) The thermometer must be placed in the
chloride solution for a few minutes before taking the
From steps 1 and 2: reading. This is to ensure that the solution
Precipitation of 0.0125 mol of AgCl has reached a uniform temperature.
releases 0.735 kJ of heat energy. (c) The solutions containing the reactants are
Precipitation of 1.0 mol of AgCl will release mixed quickly, so that the reaction can be
1 completed within a short time.
0.735  — —— —— = 58.8 kJ of heat energy
0.0125 (d) The reaction mixture in the plastic cup must
be stirred slowly and continuously so that the
Discussion
temperature of the solution is uniform.
1 The reaction between silver nitrate and sodium (e) The thermometer should not be taken out of
chloride solutions produces a white precipitate of the reaction mixture when taking the reading.
silver chloride. (f) The thermometer reading should be observed
2 The reaction between silver nitrate and sodium throughout the reaction so that the highest
chloride can be represented by a chemical temperature of the reaction mixture can be
equation or an ionic equation. recorded accurately.
(a) Chemical equation: 7 The energy level diagram for the precipitation of
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq) silver chloride is shown in Figure 4.18.
(b) Ionic equation:
The ionic equation does not contain nitrate ions
(NO3–) and sodium ions (Na+). This is because
NO3– and Na+ ions are spectator ions and do not
participate in the precipitation reaction.
3 From the experimental results, the heat of precipitation
of AgCl is –58.8 kJ mol–1. The thermochemical Figure 4.18 Energy level diagram for the
equation for the precipitation of silver chloride is precipitation of silver chloride
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq); Conclusion
ΔH = –58.8 kJ mol–1
The heat of precipitation of silver chloride is
or –58.8 kJ mol–1.
467 Thermochemistry
If potassium chloride solution is used to replace the sodium chloride in Activity 4.2, the heat of precipitation of silver
chloride will still be the same.
AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq); ΔH = –58.8 kJ mol–1
This is because K+ ions, like Na+ ions, do not take part in the reaction.
Calculations Involving the Heat of Precipitation
5
Consider the following equation: Step 2: Calculate the heat energy released when
0.06 mol of PbSO4 is precipitated
Pb2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → PbSO4(s);
ΔH = –50 kJ mol–1 The thermochemical equation shows that the
heat of precipitation of PbSO4 is –50 kJ mol–1.
Calculate the highest temperature reached when
This means that the precipitation of 1.0
60 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 lead(II) nitrate solution
mol of PbSO4 releases 50 kJ of heat
4
reacts with 60 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 sodium sulphate

energy. Therefore, heat energy released
solution. The initial temperatures of both the
by the formation of 0.06 mol of PbSO4
solutions are 29 °C.
= 0.06  50 = 3.0 kJ
[Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1;
density of solution = 1 g cm–3]
Step 3: Calculate the rise in temperature
Solution
Let the rise in temperature = θ
Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of lead(II) Heat energy released (in J)
sulphate precipitated in this experiment = mcθ
Number of moles of Pb2+ ions used = (60 + 60)  4.2  θ
1.0  60 = 504  θ
=—————— — = 0.06
1000 From step 2, heat energy released
Number of moles of SO42– ions used = 3.0 kJ = 3  1000 J
2.0  60 3  1000 = 504  θ
=— — —
— —
——
1000
= 0.12 3  1000
θ= — ————
——
504
Pb2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → PbSO4(s) = 6 °C
From the equation, 1.0 mol of Pb2+ ions θ = final temperature – initial temperature
reacts with 1.0 mol of SO42– ions to form
1.0 mol of PbSO4. 6 = final temperature – 29
0.06 mol of Pb2+ ions react with 0.06 mol of Final temperature = 29 + 6 = 35 °C
SO42– ions to form 0.06 mol of PbSO4. Highest temperature reached is 35 °C.
Thermochemistry 468
Determining the heat of precipitation
• Mix a known volume of solution of M n+ with a known volume of
solution of X n–. The concentrations of the two solutions are known.
The meaning of heat of
• Measure the highest temperature reached.
precipitation
• Heat of precipitation is the
Constructing the energy level diagram
heat change when 1.0 mol
of the precipitate is formed
from its ions.
Example:
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s);

Calculations involving heat of precipitation
That is, heat of precipitation (a) Calculate the number of moles of salt precipitated = x mol
of silver chloride is –66 kJ mcθ
mol–1. (b) Calculate the heat energy released (ΔH) = — ———
——
——
—— kJ = y kJ
—
1000
(c) From (a) and (b):
Precipitation of x mole of salt releases y kJ of heat energy.
y
4
(d) From (c): Heat of precipitation = – — —
— kJ mol–1
x
4.2
1 The heat of precipitation of silver chloride is –66 kJ mol–1. (c) Calculate the heat of precipitation of the metal
In an experiment, 200 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 AgNO3(aq) carbonate.
is added to 100 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 CaCl2(aq). (d) Sketch the energy level diagram for the
(a) Write (i) the chemical equation, (ii) the ionic reaction.
equation, for the reaction between silver nitrate 3 When 100 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 metal nitrate solution,
and calcium chloride. M(NO3)2, reacts with 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3
(b) Calculate the heat change in the experiment. potassium chloride solution, the temperature of the
2 When 100 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 of a nitrate salt, reaction mixture increases by 10 °C.
M(NO3)2 at 29.5 °C is added to 100 cm3 of 1.0 M(NO3)2(aq) + 2KCl(aq) → MCl2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
mol dm–3 sodium carbonate solution, the maximum
temperature reached is 30.5 °C. [Specific heat What is the effect (if any) on the temperature change
capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1; density of if the experiment is repeated using
solution = 1.0 g cm–3] (a) 200 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 M(NO3)2 solution and
(a) Write the ionic equation for the reaction. 200 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 KCl solution?
(b) Calculate the heat energy released in the (b) 100 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 M(NO3)2 solution and
experiment. 100 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 KCl solution?
4.3 Heat of Displacement SPM

’08/P1,
SPM
’11/P1
Mg(s) + FeCl2(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + Fe(s);
’10/P1 ΔH = –202 kJ mol–1
1 The heat of displacement is the heat released (b) When excess magnesium powder is added
when 1.0 mol of a metal is displaced from its to iron(II) chloride solution, 202 kJ of
salt solution by a more electropositive metal. heat are released when 1.0 mol of iron is
2 (a) The following thermochemical equation displaced from iron(II) chloride solution.
shows that the heat of displacement of (c) In this reaction, the colour of the solution
iron by magnesium is –202 kJ mol–1. turns from green to colourless and iron
powder (grey in colour) is produced.
469 Thermochemistry
3 Figure 4.19 shows the energy level diagram for Determining the Heat of Displacement
the displacement reaction between magnesium
and iron(II) chloride. 1 The heat of displacement is determined by
adding excess metal powder to a given volume
of the salt of another metal and measuring
the highest temperature reached. The metal
chosen must be more electropositive than the
metal to be displaced and the concentration
of the salt solution is known.
2 Activity 4.3 shows the method used to
determine the heat of displacement of copper
by zinc and iron from copper(II) sulphate
Figure 4.19 The energy level diagram for the solution.
displacement reaction of iron by
magnesium
To determine the heat of displacement of copper by SPM

’05/P2
(a) zinc, (b) iron /SA
Thermometer, plastic cup, measuring

4
Apparatus Results
cylinder, weighing bottle and electronic
balance. Type of metal Zinc powder Iron powder
Highest temperature
Materials 0.2 mol dm–3 copper(II) sulphate 41 37.5
obtained (°C)
solution, zinc powder and iron
powder. Initial temperature of
copper(II) sulphate 31 30.5
Procedure
solution (°C)
Increase in
10 7.0
temperature (°C)
Calculations
Assumptions
Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 oC–1
Density of solution = 1.0 g cm–3
(A) Heat of displacement of copper by zinc
Figure 4.20 To determine the heat of
Step 1: To determine the heat energy released in
displacement this experiment
Heat energy released
1 Using a measuring cylinder, 25.0 cm3 of 0.2 mol = mass of solution  specific heat capacity
dm–3 copper(II) sulphate solution is measured of solution  increase in temperature
into a plastic cup. The temperature of the solution = 25  4.2  10 J
is measured with a thermometer. = 1050 J
2 About 0.5 g of zinc powder (in excess) is = 1.05 kJ
weighed out. Step 2: To calculate the number of moles of copper
3 The zinc powder is poured into copper(II) displaced by zinc
sulphate solution in the plastic cup. The Number of moles of Cu2+ ions used
Activity 4.3
contents of the plastic cup is then stirred with 0.2  25

=— ————— —
a thermometer (Figure 4.20) and the highest 1000
temperature reached is recorded. = 0.005
4 Steps 1 to 3 are repeated using iron powder to
replace zinc powder. Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Thermochemistry 470
From the equation, 1.0 mol of Cu2+ ions 2 The copper metal displaced from the salt will be
produces 1.0 mol of copper metal. precipitated as a brown solid.
Therefore, 0.005 mol of Cu2+ ions produce Chemical equation:
0.005 mol of copper metal.
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Step 3: To determine the heat energy released when
1 mol of copper is displaced Ionic equation:
From steps 1 and 2:
Displacement of 0.005 mol of copper metal Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
releases 1.05 kJ of heat.
Therefore, heat energy released when 1.0 3 Chemical equation for the displacement of
mol of copper is displaced copper by iron:
1
= 1.05  — ———— Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
0.005
= 210 kJ
Ionic equation:
(B) Heat of displacement of copper by iron
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Step 1: To determine the heat energy released in
this experiment 4 Excess zinc and iron are used to make sure that all
Heat energy released the copper from the copper(II) salt are displaced.
= mass of solution  specific heat capacity 5 When calculating the heat of displacement of
4
of solution  increase in temperature copper, the heat absorbed by the solids (copper
= 25  4.2  7 J produced, excess zinc and iron remaining in the
= 735 J = 0.735 kJ solution) is very small and can be ignored.
Step 2: To calculate the number of moles of copper 6 The following precautionary steps must be taken
displaced by iron when carrying out the experiment:
Number of moles of Cu2+ ions used (a) The initial temperature of copper(II) sulphate
0.2  25 solution is taken only after the thermometer
=— — ————— has been placed in the solution for a few
1000
= 0.005 minutes. This is to make sure that the solution
has reached a uniform temperature.
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s) (b) The reactants must be mixed quickly so that
the reaction can be completed in the shortest
From the equation, 1.0 mol of Cu2+ ions time. In this way, the loss of heat energy to
produces 1.0 mol of copper metal. the surroundings can be minimised.
Therefore, 0.005 mol of Cu2+ ions produce (c) The reaction mixture in the plastic cup must
0.005 mol of copper metal. be stirred slowly and continuously so that the
Step 3: To determine the heat energy released when temperature of the solution is uniform.
1 mol of copper is displaced (d) The thermometer reading must be observed
From steps 1 and 2: continuously so that the highest temperature
Displacement of 0.005 mol of copper metal reached can be recorded. This is to ensure
releases 0.735 kJ of heat. that the reaction has completed and the heat
Therefore, heat energy released when 1.0 of reaction has all been released.
mol of copper is displaced (e) The zinc and iron metals used are in
1 powdered form to ensure that the reaction
= 0.735  — ———— proceeds rapidly and completely. In this way,
0.005
= 147 kJ the loss of heat to the surroundings can be
reduced. Metal powder has a larger surface
Discussion area compared with pieces of metals with the
1 Zinc and iron are more electropositive than copper. same mass.
This means that zinc and iron will displace copper 7 Figure 4.21 shows the energy level diagram
from an aqueous solution of copper salt. The for the displacement reaction between zinc and
displacement reaction is an exothermic reaction. copper(II) ions.
471 Thermochemistry
8 Figure 4.22 shows the energy level diagram for
the displacement of copper by iron.
Figure 4.21
Figure 4.22
Conclusion
(a) The heat of displacement of copper by zinc from aqueous solution of Cu2+ ions is –210 kJ mol–1.
(b) The heat of displacement of copper by iron from aqueous solution of Cu2+ ions is –147 kJ mol–1.
Calculations Involving Heat of Displacement
Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s) … (1) 6 SPM

’07/P1
Zn(s) + Fe2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Fe(s) … (2)

4
When excess aluminium powder is added to 100

In reaction 1, 1 mol of iron is displaced by 1 mol of cm3 of iron(II) sulphate solution, 0.48 g of iron
magnesium, but in reaction 2, 1 mol of iron is displaced
is produced and the temperature of the solution
by 1 mol of zinc. Because different reactants are used,
changes from 28 °C to 33.5 °C. Calculate the heat
the heat of displacement will not be the same for
these two reactions. of displacement of iron by aluminium.
3Fe2+(aq) + 2Al(s) → 3Fe(s) + 2Al3+(aq)

6 ’05
[Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1;
The following equations show the values of heat of density of solution = 1.0 g cm–3; relative atomic mass
displacement of copper by zinc, iron and metal M. of iron = 56].
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s); Solution
∆H = –210 kJ mol–1 Step 1: Calculate the heat energy released in this
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s); experiment
∆H = –150 kJ mol–1 (a) Rise in temperature = 33.5 – 28
= 5.5 °C
M(s) + CuSO4(aq) → MSO4(aq) + Cu(s); (b) Heat energy released
∆H = –100 kJ mol–1
= mass of solution  specific heat
Predict metal M by choosing from the list: capacity  rise in temperature
aluminium, magnesium and tin. = 100  4.2  5.5 J
Comments = 2310 J
Iron is less electropositive than zinc. The heat of = 2.31 kJ
displacement of copper by iron is less than the Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of iron
heat of displacement of copper by zinc. The heat displaced
of displacement of copper by metal M is less than Relative atomic mass of iron = 56
the heat of displacement of copper by iron. Hence,
metal M is less electropositive than iron. Number of moles of Fe produced
mass
Solution =— — —— ——— —————— —
———
relative atomic mass
Both Al and Mg are more electropositive than iron.
0.48
Hence, metal M is tin, which is less electropositive =— — ——
56
than iron.
= 0.00857
Thermochemistry 472
Step 3: Calculate the heat of displacement of iron III The heat change if 2.56 g of copper metal is
by aluminium displaced is +8.4 kJ.
Displacement of 0.00857 mol of Fe releases IV The temperature of the reaction mixture
2.31 kJ of heat energy increases during the reaction.
Heat released from the displacement of 1.0 A I and III only C I, II and IV only
mol of Fe B II and IV only D I, III and IV only
1
= 2.31  — ————— — = 269.5 kJ Comments
0.00857
Zn is oxidised. Oxidation number of zinc increases
Heat of displacement of iron by aluminium is
from 0 in Zn to +2 in ZnSO4.
–269.5 kJ mol–1.
The negative value of ΔH shows that the reaction
is exothermic. This means that the temperature
increases during the reaction.
7 ’03
The thermochemical equation shows that 210 kJ of
heat are released when 1 mol (64 g) of copper is
The equation below shows the displacement reaction displaced.
of copper metal and its heat of reaction. 2.56
Number of moles of Cu displaced = —— —
64
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu; ΔH = –210 kJ mol–1 = 0.04
[Relative atomic mass of copper is 64] Heat released = 210  0.04
4
= 8.4 kJ
Which of the following statements are true about That is, heat change (ΔH) is –8.4 kJ (not + 8.4 kJ).
the reaction represented by the above equation?
Answer C
I Zinc is oxidised.
II The reaction is exothermic.
Heat of displacement
• Heat of displacement is the heat released when 1.0 mol of a metal is displaced from its salt solution by
another more electropositive metal. For example,
Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq) → Fe(s) + Mg2+(aq); ∆H = –202 kJ mol–1
ΔH is the heat of displacement of iron by magnesium.
Method for finding heat of Calculations

displacement Energy level diagram (a) Calculate the number of moles of
• Add excess of a more electro metal displaced
positive metal (in powdered = x mol
form) to a known volume of a (b) Calculate the heat energy evolved
salt solution of another metal of
mcθ
known concentration. ΔH = ———— = y kJ
• Measure the highest tempe 1000
rature reached. (c) From (a) and (b):
Displacement of x mol of metal
produces y kJ of heat.
(d) Heat of displacement

y
= – —— kJ mol–1
x
473 Thermochemistry
4.3
1 You are asked to carry out an experiment to determine If the initial temperature of the solution is 30 °C,
the heat of displacement of lead by magnesium. what is the maximum temperature reached in this
(a) (i) Name the chemicals needed for the
experiment?
experiment. [Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1;
(ii) Which of the chemicals must be used in relative atomic mass of Fe = 56]
excess? Why? 4 Five experiments were carried out to determine the
(b) (i) Draw a labelled diagram to show the heat of displacement of iron by magnesium. In each
apparatus set-up for the experiment. experiment, an increasing amount of magnesium
(ii) What other apparatus are needed besides was added to 50 cm3 of 0.25 mol dm–3 iron(II)
the ones shown in your diagram? chloride. The maximum increase in temperature of
(c) Based on your answer in (b), select the data that the solution were recorded.
is (i) required, (ii) not required for calculating
the heat of displacement. Mass of Maximum increase in
Experiment
2 The equation below shows a displacement reaction magnesium (g) temperature (°C)
and its heat of reaction.
’08 A 0.10 4
Zn + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu; B 0.15 6
ΔH = –210 kJ mol–1
C 0.2 8
What is the change in heat energy if 2.56 g of copper D 0.3 12
4
is displaced?
[Relative atomic mass of copper: 64] E 0.35 12
3 An experiment is carried out by adding 0.7 g of iron
powder to 50 cm3 of 0.50 mol dm–3 copper(II) chloride [Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g –1 °C–1;
’03 solution. The energy level diagram for the reaction density of solution = 1.0 g cm–3]
between iron and copper(II) chloride solution is (a) Why was the rise in temperature increasing in
shown in Figure 4.23. the first four experiments?
(b) Why was the rise in temperature for experiments
D and E constant?
(c) Calculate the heat of displacement of iron by
magnesium.
(d) Another experiment is carried out by adding
magnesium powder to a solution of iron(II)
chloride in excess. What is the mass of magnesium
required to release 252 kJ of heat?
Figure 4.23 [Relative atomic mass of magnesium = 24.3]
4.4 Heat of Neutralisation SPM

’05/P1, HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l);
’10/P1
ΔH = –57.3 kJ mol–1
The Meaning of Heat of Neutralisation
4 Figure 4.24 shows the energy level diagram for
SPM the neutralisation reaction between nitric acid
1 All neutralisation reactions are exothermic ’06/P1
reactions, that is, ΔHneut has a negative value. and sodium hydroxide solution.
2 The heat of neutralisation is the heat released
when 1.0 mol of H+ ions react with 1.0 mol of
OH– ions to produce 1.0 mol of water molecules.
H+(aq) + OH—(aq) → H2O(l);
ΔH = negative value
3 For example, the heat of neutralisation of
nitric acid with sodium hydroxide solution is Figure 4.24 Energy level diagram for the reaction
–57.3 kJ mol–1. between HNO3(aq) and NaOH(aq)
Thermochemistry 474
5 For the neutralisation reaction between 8
ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide solution, ’07 ’08
the heat of neutralisation is –55.2 kJ mol–1

2.4 g of magnesium is added to 100 cm3 of 2.0
(Figure 4.25).
mol dm–3 copper(II) chloride solution at 30 °C.
The heat of reaction is –4.20 kJ mol–1. What is the
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → highest temperature for this experiment? [Specific
CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l); heat capacity of solution = 4.21 g–1 °C–1; relative
ΔH = –55.2 kJ mol–1 atomic mass of magnesium = 24].
Solution
Number of moles of Mg
2.4
=— —
24
= 0.1
Number of moles of Cu2+
MV
=————
1000
2.0 3 100
=—
—— ———
— ——
Figure 4.25 Energy level diagram for the reaction 1000
4
between CH3COOH(aq) and
NaOH(aq) = 0.2
Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)
6 Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid and ethanoic acid
Number of moles of Cu displaced = 0.1
are monobasic acids and sulphuric acid is a
dibasic acid. The heat of neutralisation between Heat of reaction = –4.2 kJ mol–1
sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide solution 0.1
ΔH for the reaction = —— — 3 4.2 kJ
is –57.3 kJ mol–1 and the thermochemical 1.0
equation can be written as follows: = 0.42 kJ
= 420 J
1 1 Let temperature rise = θ °C

— H SO (aq) + NaOH(aq) → — Na2SO4(aq) ΔH = mcθ
2 2 4 2
+ H2O(l); 420 = 100 3 4.2 3 θ
ΔΔH = –57.3 kJ mol–1 θ = 1 °C
Highest temperature = (30 + 1) °C
= 31 °C
(ΔH represents the heat released on the
formation of 1 mol of water).
Determination of the Heat of

Neutralisation
The reaction between hydrogen chloride gas and
sodium hydroxide solution is a neutralisation reaction. 1 The heat of neutralisation can be determined
However, the heat energy released when 1 mol of by adding a known volume of acid (with a
HCl(g) reacts with 1 mol of NaOH(aq) is not –57.3 known concentration) to a known volume of
kJ mol–1. This is because the solubility of hydrogen an alkali (with a known concentration) and
chloride in water to form hydrochloric acid releases measuring the highest temperature obtained.
heat energy. 2 Experiment 4.1 shows the method used to
HCl(g) + water → HCl(aq); ΔH = negative … (1) determine the heat of neutralisation between
sodium hydroxide with (a) hydrochloric acid
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l);
(strong acid) and (b) ethanoic acid (weak
ΔH = –57.3 kJ mol–1 … (2)
acid).
475 Thermochemistry
4.1
To determine the heat of neutralisation between an acid and an alkali

How are heats of neutralisation determined and (A) Reaction between hydrochloric acid and
compared? sodium hydroxide solution
Hypothesis Initial temperature of sodium hydroxide 30 °C
The heat of neutralisation between hydro chloric solution
acid and sodium hydroxide is higher than the heat
Initial temperature of hydrochloric acid 31 °C
of neutralisation between ethanoic acid and sodium
hydroxide. Highest temperature obtained 43.5 °C
Variables Average initial temperature of solutions before
Manipulated variable : Different types of acids neutralisation
Responding variable : Heat of neutralisation 30 + 31
=— —— —— — = 30.5 °C
Constant variable : Concentra tions and volumes 2
of acid and alkali used Rise in temperature during neutralisation
Apparatus = 43.5 – 30.5 = 13 °C
4
Thermometer, plastic cup and measuring cylinder. (B) Reaction between ethanoic acid and sodium
Materials hydroxide solution
2.0 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid, 2.0 mol dm–3 Initial temperature of sodium hydroxide 30 °C
ethanoic acid and 2.0 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution
solution.
Initial temperature of ethanoic acid 30 °C
Procedure
Highest temperature reached 42 °C
Average initial temperature of solutions before
neutralisation = 30 °C
Rise in temperature = 42 – 30 = 12 °C
Assumptions
Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1
Density of solution = 1.0 g cm–3
Calculations
Section (A)
Figure 4.26 To determine the heat of (a) Heat energy released (mcθ)
neutralisation
= mass of solution  specific heat capacity 
1 100 cm3 of 2 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution rise in temperature
is poured into a plastic cup by using a measuring = (100 + 100)  4.2  13
cylinder. The initial temperature of the alkali is = 10 920 J = 10.92 kJ
recorded (Figure 4.26). (b) Number of moles of HCl used
2 Using another measuring cylinder, 100 cm3 of 2  100
=—————— — = 0.2
2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is measured. The 1000
Experiment 4.1
initial temperature of the acid is recorded.

Number of moles of NaOH used
3 The hydrochloric acid is then poured quickly and
2  100
carefully into the sodium hydroxide solution. =—————— — = 0.2
1000
The mixture is stirred with a thermometer and
the highest temperature obtained is recorded. H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
4 Steps 1 to 3 are repeated using 100 cm3 of 2 mol Number of moles of water molecules produced
dm–3 ethanoic acid instead of hydrochloric acid. = 0.2
Thermochemistry 476
(c) From (a) and (b) acid (–54.6 kJ mol–1) is higher than the heat of
Formation of 0.2 mol of H2O molecules releases neutralisation between sodium hydroxide and
10.92 kJ of heat energy. ethanoic acid (–50.4 kJ mol–1).
(d) Amount of heat energy released when 1 mol of 2 The theoretical value for the heat of neutralisation
water is formed of a strong acid and a strong alkali is –57.3 kJ
1 mol–1 and the theoretical value for the heat of
= 10.92  — —
— = 54.6 kJ
0.2 neutralisation of a weak acid (CH3COOH) and a
strong alkali is –55.2 kJ mol–1.
Heat of neutralisation for strong acids and strong
alkalis is –54.6 kJ mol–1.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l); HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l);
ΔH = –54.6 kJ mol–1 ΔH = –57.3 kJ mol–1
Section (B)
(a) Heat energy released (mcθ) CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) →
= (100 + 100)  4.2  12 CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l); ΔH = –55.2 kJ mol–1
= 10 080 J = 10.08 kJ
(b) Number of moles of CH3COOH used 3 The heats of neutralisation determined by
2  100 experiments are usually less than the theoretical
=—————— — = 0.2
1000 values because some of the heat released are lost
to the surroundings or absorbed by the apparatus
4
Number of moles of NaOH used (thermometer and plastic cup). Both these losses
2  100 of heat are ignored in the calculation.
=—————— — = 0.2
1000 4 The following precautionary steps must be taken
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l) when carrying out the experiment.
(a) The initial temperatures of the solutions
Number of moles of water molecules produced of sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid
= 0.2 and ethanoic acid are only taken after the
(c) From (a) and (b): thermometer is left in the solution for a few
Formation of 0.2 mol of H2O molecules releases minutes. This is to ensure that the solutions
10.08 kJ of heat energy. have reached a constant temperature.
(d) Amount of heat energy released when 1 mol of (b) The reactants (hydrochloric acid and ethanoic
water is formed acid) must be added quickly and stirred so
1 that the reaction can be completed in a very
= 10.08  — —— = 50.4 kJ short time.
0.2
(c) The thermometer reading must be observed
Heat of neutralisation for weak acids and strong throughout the experiment so that the highest
alkalis is –50.4 kJ mol–1. temperature reached can be recorded.
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) →
Conclusion
CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l); ΔH = –50.4 kJ mol–1
The heat of neutralisation for strong acids and strong
Discussion alkalis is higher than the heat of neutralisation for
1 The experiment shows that the heat of neutralisation weak acids and strong alkalis. The hypothesis is
between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric accepted.
The heat of neutralisation is NOT the heat released when 1.0 mol of an acid neutralises 1.0 mol of an alkali.
The reaction between 1.0 mol of an acid with 1.0 mol of a base can produce 2.0 mol of water. For example,
H2SO4 + Mg(OH)2 → MgSO4 + 2H2O; ΔH = 2  heat of neutralisation
In actual fact, the heat of neutralisation is defined as the heat evolved when 1.0 mol of H+ ions react with 1.0 mol of
OH– ions to form 1.0 mol of water.
477 Thermochemistry
Comparing the Heats of Neutralisation of a SPM
’04/P1,
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO–(aq) + H+(aq)
Reaction Involving a Strong Acid and Strong ’05/P1,
’10/P2
100 mol 4 mol
Alkali with a reaction involving a weak acid
and a weak alkali This means that an aqueous solution of ethanoic
acid contains mainly CH3COOH molecules and
1 The energy level diagram for the heat of very few H+ ions.
neutralisation of a strong acid (HNO3) with a 7 (a) When neutralisation occurs, some of the
strong alkali (NaOH) is shown in Figure 4.24 heat released are absorbed by ethanoic acid
and the heat of neutralisation of a weak acid molecules to break the O–H bonds in the
(CH3COOH) with a strong alkali (NaOH) is molecules so that the acid will eventually
shown in Figure 4.25. dissociate completely.
2 For the neutralisation reaction between a
strong acid and a strong alkali, the heat of O
neutralisation is –57.3 kJ mol–1. For example, i
CH3 – C – O – H + Na+ + OH– →
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l);
ΔH = –57.3 kJ mol–1 breaking O – H bond in CH3COOH
molecule absorbs heat energy
HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l);
ΔH = –57.3 kJ mol–1
O
4
i
3 This is because strong acids and strong alkalis
CH3 – C – O–Na+ + H – O – H
dissociate completely in aqueous solutions
to form hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions forming O – H bond in H2O
respectively. molecule releases heat energy
(b) As a result, the heat of neutralisation of a

HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
weak acid with a strong alkali is less that
1 mol 1 mol
–57.3 kJ mol–1.
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq) 8 (a) Ammonia solution is a weak alkali. This is
1 mol 1 mol because ammonia dissociates only partially
in aqueous solution.
4 When a strong acid is neutralised by a strong
alkali, the reaction that occurs is the bonding NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
of H+ ions with OH– ions to form water
molecules. Hence, the heat of neutralisation
This means that an aqueous solution of
of strong acids and strong alkalis have the
ammonia contains mainly ammonia
same value, that is, –57.3 kJ mol–1.
molecules and very few OH– ions. We can
represent the reaction between aqueous
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l); ΔH = –57.3 kJ mol–1
strong strong
ammonia and hydrochloric acid by the
acid alkali chemical equation
5 The heat of neutralisation of a weak acid with NH4 +(aq) + OH–(aq) + HCl(aq) →
a strong alkali is less than –57 kJ mol–1. For (ammonia solution)
example, NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → (b) The heat of neutralisation of hydrochloric

CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l); acid and ammonia solution is –51.5 kJ
ΔH = –55.2 kJ mol–1 mol–1. The energy level diagram for the
heat of neutralisation of a strong acid
6 Weak acids dissociate only partially in water (hydrochloric acid) with a weak alkali
to produce very few hydrogen ions in aqueous (ammonia solution) is shown in Figure
solutions. 4.27.
Thermochemistry 478
9 ’05
The energy level diagram of a reaction is shown

below.
Figure 4.27 The energy level diagram for the heat

of neutralisation of hydrochloric acid
and ammonia solution
(c) The heat of neutralisation for a strong

acid with a weak alkali is less than
–57.3 kJ mol–1. This is because the weak
alkali does not dissociate completely in
aqueous solution. Therefore, when the Which of the following pairs of acid and alkali can
neutralisation reaction occurs, some of be used to replace hydrochloric acid and sodium
the heat energy released is absorbed in hydroxide to obtain the same ΔH value?
the dissociation of the weak alkali. A Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) and NaOH
4
9 (a) The heat of neutralisation for ethanoic acid B Nitric acid (HNO3) and KOH
and ammonia solution is –50.4 kJ mol–1. C Carbonic acid (H2CO3) and NaOH
The energy level diagram for the heat of D Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and ammonia solution
neutralisation of a weak acid (ethanoic Comments
acid) with a weak alkali (ammonia solution) Sulphuric acid is a strong acid and sodium hydroxide
is shown in Figure 4.28. is a strong alkali. The heat of neutralisation of a
strong acid and a strong alkali is –57 kJ mol–1.
Ethanoic acid and carbonic acid are weak acids and
ammonia solution is a weak alkali.
Answer B
Calculations Involving the Heat of

Neutralisation
Figure 4.28 The energy level diagram for the
heat of neutralisation of ethanoic
acid and ammonia solution 7
When 100 cm3 of 1.2 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid is
(b) The heat of neutralisation (ΔHneut) of
added to 100 cm3 of 1.2 mol dm–3 ammonia solution,
a strong/weak acid with a strong/weak
the temperature of the solution changes from 30 °C
alkali decreases in the order:
to 37.5 °C. Calculate the heat of neutralisation of
ΔHneut strong acid/strong alkali > ΔHneut hydrochloric acid with ammonia.
strong acid/weak alkali or ΔHneut weak [Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1;
acid/strong alkali > ΔHneut weak acid/weak density of solution = 1.0 g cm–3]
alkali Solution
(c) This is because when neutralisation between (a) Calculate the heat energy released in this
a weak acid and a weak alkali occurs, experiment
some of heat energy released is absorbed Heat energy released (mcθ)
not only in the dissociation of the weak = (100 + 100)  4.2  (37.5 – 30)
acid but also in the dissociation of the = 6300 J
weak alkali. = 6.30 kJ
479 Thermochemistry
(b) Calculate the number of moles of water Experiment 2
molecules produced Since the same heat energy is released in
Number of moles of HCl used Experiments 1 and 2, the number of moles of water
1.2  100 molecules produced are the same. That is, 0.2 mol
=— — ——————
1000 of water molecules are produced in Experiment 2.
= 0.12
Number of moles of NH3 used 2HCl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
1.2  100
=— — ——————
1000 The equation shows that 2 mol of HCl reacts with
= 0.12 1 mol of Ca(OH)2 to form 2 mol of H2O.
Therefore, 0.2 mol of HCl will react with 0.1 mol
HCl(aq) + NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq) → of Ca(OH)2 to form 0.2 mol of H2O.
NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l) That is, number of moles of Ca(OH)2 used = 0.1 … (1)
Let concentration of calcium hydroxide,
0.12 mol of H+ ions react with 0.12 mol of OH– Ca(OH)2 = M mol dm–3
ions to produce 0.12 mol of water molecules. Number of moles of Ca(OH)2 used
(c) From (a) and (b)
Formation of 0.12 mol of water molecules M  100
=— — ———
———
release 6.30 kJ of heat. 1000
(d) Heat released when 1.0 mol of water molecules = 0.1 M … (2)
4
are formed
From (1) and (2), we have,
1 0.1  M = 0.1
= 6.30  ——
——
0.12 M = 1.0 mol dm–3
= 52.5 kJ
That is, heat of neutralisation of hydrochloric
acid with ammonia is –52.5 kJ mol–1.
10 ’04
8 Which of the following neutralisation reactions

releases the least heat?
When 200 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 NaOH is added to
A 1 mol of nitric acid and 1 mol of potassium
100 cm3 of hydrochloric acid (in excess), x kJ of
hydroxide
heat energy is released.
B 1 mol of ethanoic acid and 1 mol of potassium
The experiment is repeated using 100 cm3 of
hydroxide
Ca(OH)2 solution and 100 cm3 of hydrochloric acid
1
(in excess). The heat energy released is also x kJ. C — mol of sulphuric acid and 1 mol of sodium
2
What is the concentration of calcium hydroxide?
hydroxide
Solution D 1 mol of hydrochloric acid and 1 mol of
Experiment 1 sodium hydroxide
Number of moles of NaOH used
Comments
1.0  200
=— —— ————
— In each reaction, 1 mol of H2O is formed. Ethanoic
1000 acid is a weak acid, which dissociates partially in
= 0.2 aqueous solution. Part of the heat of neutralisation
released is used to dissociate ethanoic acid. Hence,
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l) the heat of neutralisation for the reaction between
a weak acid and a strong alkali is less than that
HCl (in excess) reacts with 0.2 mol NaOH to between a strong acid and a strong alkali.
produce 0.2 mol of water molecules and x kJ of Answer B
heat energy is released.
Thermochemistry 480
• Heat of neutralisation is the Method for determining heat of
heat energy released when 1.0 neutralisation
Heat of
mol of H+ ions react with 1.0 • Add a known volume of an acid (of
neutralisation
mol of OH– ions to form 1.0 known concentration) to a known volume
mol of water molecules. of an alkali (of known concentration)
and measure the maximum temperature
reached.
Energy level diagram

Method of calculation
(a) Number of moles of H2O produced
= x mol
(b) Heat energy released
mcθ
= ————
1000
= y kJ
(c) From (a) and (b):
4
Formation of x mol of H2O releases y kJ of heat
(a) Strong acid/strong alkali neutralisation: (d) From (c),
ΔH = –57.3 kJ mol–1 –y
Heat of neutralisation = —— kJ mol–1
(b) Strong acid/weak alkali, weak acid/strong alkali x
and weak acid/weak alkali neutralisation:
ΔH less than –57.3 kJ mol–1
(c) This is because weak acids/weak alkalis undergo
partial dissociation in water. Part of the heat
released during neutralisation is absorbed for
the dissociation of the weak acid/weak alkali
molecule.
4.4
Use the following data for all the calculations. Specific (a) What is meant by ΔH = –114 kJ?
heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1; density of (b) What is the heat of neutralisation between
solution = 1.0 g cm–3 sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide solution?
1 Figure 4.29 shows the energy level diagram for (c) When 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 nitric acid is
the reaction between sulphuric acid and sodium added to 50 cm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution,
hydroxide solution. the temperature rise is 6.5 °C. What is the
concentration of sodium hydroxide solution?
2 Consider five neutralisation reactions.
I 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 HNO3 + 25 cm3 of 1.0
mol dm–3 NaOH
II 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 HCl + 50 cm3 of 1.0
mol dm–3 NaOH
III 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 CH3COOH + 25 cm3 of
1.0 mol dm–3 NH3
IV 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 CH3COOH + 25 cm3 of
2.0 mol dm–3 NaOH
Figure 4.29 Energy level diagram for the reaction V 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 H2SO4 + 25 cm3 of 1.0
between H2SO4 and NaOH mol dm–3 KOH
481 Thermochemistry
(a) Which two reactions will release the same if 100 cm3 of 0.8 mol dm–3 ethanoic acid is mixed
amount of heat? with 100 cm3 of 0.8 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide
(b) Which reaction will release the highest amount solution.
of heat? 4 When 50.0 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide
(c) Which reaction will release the lowest amount of solution is added to an excess of acid, HA, 2.65 kJ
heat? of heat is released.
Briefly explain your answers. (a) Calculate the heat of neutralisation.
3 When 100 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 ethanoic acid is mixed (b) Is the acid, HA, a strong acid or a weak acid?
with 100 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide (c) State the assumptions that you made in answer
solution, the temperature of the reaction mixture (b).
increases by 5.5 °C. Calculate the rise in temperature
4.5 Heat of Combustion
The Meaning of Heat of Combustion SPM 6 The heat of combustion of the compounds,
’04/P1
methanol and methane, are –715 kJ mol–1 and
1 Combustion is a redox reaction in which a –890 kJ mol–1 respectively.
substance reacts rapidly with oxygen with the
production of heat energy. Combustion is
3
4
always accompanied by a flame and light. CH3OH(l) + — O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l);

2 During combustion, the elements are converted 2
ΔH = –715 kJ mol–1
to their oxides. For example, carbon (C) burns
to form carbon dioxide gas (CO2) while CH4 (g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l);
hydrogen burns to form water (H2O). ΔH = –890 kJ mol–1
3 All combustion reactions are exothermic
reactions.
4 The heat of combustion is the heat released Determining the Heat of Combustion
when 1 mol of a substance is burnt completely
in excess oxygen. 1 The heat of combustion can be determined
5 (a) The heat of combustion of the elements, SPM by burning a known mass of a fuel (such as
’11/P1
carbon and hydrogen, are –392 kJ mol–1 ethanol) and the heat evolved is used to heat
and –286 kJ mol–1 respectively. water. From the increase in the temperature
of water, the heat of combustion of the fuel
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g); can be determined.
ΔH = –392 kJ mol–1 2 The following relationship is used for
calculation:
1
H2(g) + — O2(g) → H2O(l);
2 Heat evolved during Heat absorbed
ΔH = –286 kJ mol–1 =
combustion of fuel by water
(b) Figure 4.30 shows the energy level diagram
3 Experiment 4.2 shows the simple apparatus
for the combustion of the element
used for determining the heat of combustion
carbon.
of alcohol. The copper container is called the
SPM calorimeter. Other metal calorimeters can also
’07/P1
be used in the experiment. The calorimeter
is made from substances that are good
conductors of heat to minimise the loss of
heat. Thus, the rise in temperature during
combustion can be determined accurately.
Figure 4.30 Energy level diagram for the

combustion of carbon
Thermochemistry 482
4.2
To determine the heat of combustion of various alcohols

Problem statement How does the number of carbon atoms per molecule of an alcohol affect the heat of
combustion?
Hypothesis As the number of carbon atoms per molecule in an alcohol increases, so does the heat of
combustion.
Variables
(a) Manipulated variable : Type of alcohol
(b) Responding variable : Heat of combustion
(c) Constant variable : Volumes of water and alcohol, metal container (calorimeter) and spirit lamp
Apparatus Copper container, spirit lamp, measuring cylinder, thermometer, electronic balance, tripod
stand, asbestos screen, wooden block and Bunsen burner.
Materials Methanol, ethanol, propan-1-ol and butan-1-ol.
Procedure
4
Figure 4.31 Determining the heat of combustion of ethanol
1 Using a measuring cylinder, 250 cm3 of water is measured into a copper container.
2 The copper calorimeter is placed on the tripod stand. The initial temperature of water is measured and recorded.
3 The spirit lamp is half-filled with ethanol. The spirit lamp and ethanol are weighed and the mass is recorded.
4 The spirit lamp is placed below the copper calorimeter and the wick is lighted (Figure 4.31). The flame of
the spirit lamp is shielded from the draught (blow of wind) by using an asbestos screen.
5 The water in the calorimeter is stirred throughout the experiment.
6 When the temperature of water increases by about 30 °C, the spirit lamp is extinguished.
7 The spirit lamp and ethanol are weighed again and the mass is recorded.
8 The experiment is repeated using other alcohols as shown below to replace ethanol:
(a) Methanol (b) Propan-1-ol (c) Butan-1-ol
Results
Volume Initial Highest Rise in Initial mass Final mass
Alcohol of water temperature temperature temperature of lamp + of lamp +
(cm3) of water (°C) of water (°C) of water (°C) alcohol (g) alcohol (g)
Ethanol 250 30.5 (t1) 59.5(t2) t2 – t1 218 (m1) 216.6 (m2)
Methanol 250 t3 t4 t4 – t3 m3 m4
Experiment 4.2
Propan-1-ol 250 t5 t6 t6 – t5 m5 m6
Butan-1-ol 250 t7 t8 t8 – t7 m7 m8
Manipulated Constant Responding variable

variable variable
483 Thermochemistry
Calculations (a) of the loss of heat to the surroundings,
(b) the combustion of ethanol is incomplete,
Assumption
(c) some of the ethanol escapes due to
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1
evaporation.
Density of water = 1.0 g cm–3
3 (a) When ethanol burns, some of the heat released
(a) Calculate the heat energy released during the
is absorbed by the copper calorimeter and
combustion of ethanol in the experiment
some is lost to the surroundings.
Rise in the temperature of water
(b) In complete combustion, all carbon atoms in
= t2 – t1 = 59.5 – 30.5 = 29 °C
ethanol are converted into carbon dioxide.
Heat energy evolved
= mass of water in the copper container  specific C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l);
heat capacity  rise in temperature ΔH = –1371 kJ mol–1
= 250  4.2  29 = 30 450 J = 30.45 kJ
(b) Calculate the number of moles of ethanol burnt In partial combustion, carbon atoms in
in the experiment ethanol are converted to carbon dioxide,
Mass of ethanol burnt carbon monoxide and also soot. As a result
= (m1 – m2) = 218 – 216.6 = 1.4 g of incomplete combustion, less heat energy is
Relative molecular mass of ethanol (C2H5OH) released.
= (2  12) + (1  6) + 16 = 46 (c) Ethanol is a volatile liquid. When combustion
Therefore, the number of moles of ethanol burnt occurs, the temperature around the spirit
lamp becomes higher. As a result, ethanol
4
mass of ethanol burnt 1.4

=— —— — —— ———— —— ———— ———— ———— —
———= — —— tends to evaporate off. Hence, the spirit lamp
relative molecular mass of ethanol 46
= 0.03 and the remaining alcohol after combustion
must be weighed as soon as possible.
(c) Calculate the heat energy released when 1 mol of
ethanol is burnt Precautionary steps
From (a) and (b), combustion of 0.03 mol of
1 The following actions must be taken to avoid
ethanol produces 30.45 kJ of heat energy.
loss of heat to the surroundings.
Therefore, heat evolved when 1 mol of ethanol
(a) An asbestos screen is placed around the
burns
copper calorimeter and the tripod stand. The
1
= 30.45  — ——— = 1015 kJ asbestos screen protects the flame of the spirit
0.03 lamp from the disturbance of air currents.
That is, heat of combustion of ethanol = –1015 kJ (b) The spirit lamp is placed on a wooden block
mol–1. so that the spirit lamp is at a minimum
(d) The energy level diagram for the combustion of distance from the copper calorimeter. In this
ethanol is shown in Figure 4.32. way, a bigger area of the flame can be in
contact with the calorimeter.
2 The copper calorimeter and the water in it are
heated directly by spirit lamp. A wire gauze is
not used because it is a good conductor of heat
and will absorb heat energy given off by the fuel.
3 The water in the copper calorimeter must always
Figure 4.32 be stirred so that its temperature is uniform.
(e) Heat of combustion of the other alcohols can 4 Precautionary steps must also be taken when
be obtained by the same method used for carrying out the experiment because the liquid
determining the heat of combustion of ethanol. fuel (ethanol) is very volatile and catches fire easily.
Sources of error Conclusion

1 In fact, the actual value of the heat of combustion 1 The heat of combustion of ethanol = –1371 kJ
of ethanol is –1371 kJ mol–1. mol–1
2 The heat of combustion of ethanol obtained in this 2 The heat of combustion increases as the number
experiment is very much lower than the actual of carbon atoms per molecule in the alcohol
value (–1371 kJ mol–1) because increases.
Thermochemistry 484
Heats of Combustion of Various Alcohols 3 The heat of combustion of ethanol is higher
than the heat of combustion of methanol.
1 The heat of combustion of methanol, ethanol, This is because one molecule of ethanol
propan-1-ol and butan-1-ol are shown in Table contains one carbon atom and two hydrogen
4.3. When the relative molecular mass of the atoms more than one molecule of methanol.
alcohol increases, the heat of combustion also When carbon and hydrogen burns, heat energy
increases. is released. Hence, the greater the number
of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms per
Table 4.3 Heat of combustion of some alcohols
molecule, the higher the heat of combustion
SPM
’04/P1 Heat of of the alcohol.
’05/P2
/SA Alcohol Equation for reaction combustion
’07/P1
(kJ mol–1) The Fuel Values of Various Fuels
Methanol 3 –715 1 Fuels are substances that can burn easily in air
CH3OH(l) + — O2(g) →
2 to produce heat energy.
CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2 Fuels can be classified into three groups
depending on their physical states.
Ethanol C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → –1371 (a) Solid fuels: coal, charcoal, coke and peat.
2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) (b) Liquid fuels: petrol, diesel and kerosene.
(c) Gaseous fuel: hydrogen, natural gas and
4
coal gas.
Propanol 9 –2010
C3H7OH(l) + — O2(g) → 3 Different fuels have different fuel values. Fuel
2
value is the heat energy released when 1.0 g
3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
of fuel is burnt in excess oxygen. Fuel value is
also known as heat value. The units for fuel
Butanol C4H9OH(l) + 6O2(g) → –2673 value is kJ g–1.
4CO2(g) + 5H2O(l) 4 Table 4.4 shows the fuel values of some fuels.
For example, 1.0 g of hydrogen releases 143
kJ of heat energy and 1.0 g of coal releases
2 If the heat of combustion of alcohols are plotted only 34 kJ of heat energy.
against the number of carbon atoms in the
alcohol molecules, a straight line is obtained Table 4.4 Fuel values
(Figure 4.33). Fuel Fuel value (kJ g–1)
Hydrogen 143
Natural gas (methane) 52
Propane 51
Butane 50
Petrol 42
Coal 34
Wood 21
5 In terms of heat energy released per g of fuel,

hydrogen is the best fuel and other fuels such
as natural gas and petrol are better fuels than
Figure 4.33 The heat of combustion of alcohols coal.
against the number of carbon atoms 6 The fuel values are used in industry to compare
per molecule the energy cost of various fuels.
485 Thermochemistry
9 They are good fuels because they do not
produce soot or poisonous gases that
The table below shows the fuel value (in kJ g–1) and pollute the air. Liquid fuels and gaseous
the cost (in ringgit per kg) for two fuels, fuel X and fuels do not leave ashes after combustion.
fuel Y. They are therefore better fuels than solid
fuels.
Fuel Fuel value (kJ g–1) Cost of fuel
(c) Cost per gram of fuel
X 52 RM 0.35 per kg Coal is a cheap fuel and fuels such as
Y 42 RM 1.00 per kg butane and petrol are quite expensive.
2 In terms of the economy and environment,
good fuels have the following characteristics:
Which is the more expensive fuel, fuel X or fuel Y,
(a) Produce a large amount of heat energy
in terms of (a) fuel cost and (b) energy cost?
when burnt
Solution (b) Do not cause pollution
(a) Fuel cost (c) Can be obtained cheaply
Fuel Y is more expensive than fuel X in terms of (d) Can be obtained easily
cost per gram of fuel. (e) Can be burnt easily
(b) Energy cost of fuel X (f) Can be kept and transported easily and
1 kg of fuel X costs RM 0.35. safely
1 kg of fuel X produces 52  1000 J of heat 3 We use a particular fuel for a specific purpose.
4
energy. From fuel value For example, charcoal is used to roast meat,
Therefore, 52  1000 J heat energy costs coal is used to generate electricity in power
RM 0.35. stations and petrol is for car engines.
0.35 4 Besides traditional fuels such as coal and
That is, 1000 J of heat energy costs RM — — — petrol, scientists continue to look for new fuels
52
= RM 0.0067 … (1) for various purposes. For example, hydrazine
(N2H4) is produced by scientists as fuel for
Energy cost of fuel Y rockets.
1.0 kg of fuel Y costs RM1.00.
1.0 kg of fuel Y produces 42  1000 J of heat N2H4(l) + O2(g) → N2(g) + 2H2O(g);
energy. From fuel value ΔH = –622 kJ mol–1
Therefore, 42  1000 J of heat energy costs
RM1.00. The combustion of acetylene in air is highly
1.00 exothermic and gives a very hot flame. The
That is, 1000 J of heat energy costs RM — — — oxyacetylene flame is used to weld and cut
42
= RM 0.024 … (2) metals. Ethyne (C2H2) is commonly known as
Based on answers (1) and (2), fuel Y is more acetylene.
expensive than fuel X in terms of energy cost.
The Selection of Suitable Fuels for Specific

Purposes
1 When selecting a suitable fuel for a specific

purpose, three main factors must be
considered.
(a) Fuel value
The higher the fuel value, the more energy
is released per gram of the fuel.
(b) Effect on the surroundings
Most fuels produce a lot of soot when
burnt and this causes air pollution. Fuels
such as hydrogen are known as clean fuels.
Thermochemistry 486
Calculations Involving Heat of Combustion Solution
(a)
Calculate the heat energy released in this
10 experiment
Heat energy released (mcθ)
When 2.7 g of glucose (C6H12O6) is burnt completely = 250  4.2  10 J
in excess oxygen, the heat released increases the = 10 500 J
temperature of 600 g of water by 12.5 °C. Calculate = 10.5 kJ
the heat of combustion of glucose.
[Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1; (b) Calculate the heat released by the combustion
density of water = 1.0 g cm–3; relative atomic mass: of 1.0 mol of methane
H, 1; C, 12; O, 16] 0.0125 mol of methane gives off 10.5 kJ of heat
energy. Heat energy given off by 1.0 mol of
Solution methane
(a) Calculate heat energy released in this experiment 1
= 10.5  — —— —
—
Heat energy released 0.0125
= mass of water (m)  specific heat capacity (c) = 840 kJ
 rise in temperature (θ)
= 600  4.2  12.5 J (c) Calculate the heat released by the combustion
= 31 500 J of 1.0 g of methane
= 31.5 kJ Relative molecular mass of methane (CH4)
(b) Calculate the number of moles of glucose burnt = 12 + (4  1)
4
in this experiment = 16
Relative molecular mass of glucose (C6H12O6) 840
Fuel value = ————
= (12  6) + 12 + (6  16) 16
= 180 = 52.5 kJ g–1
Number of moles of glucose burnt
2.7
=— — —
180
= 0.015
(c) Calculate the heat energy released when 1 mol
of glucose is burnt
11 ’07
From (a) and (b), 0.015 mol of glucose produces
31.5 kJ of heat energy.
Therefore, heat energy released by 1 mol of In which of the following is the heats of combustion
glucose for methanol, ethanol and propanol correctly
1 matched?
= 31.5  — — ——
0.015
Methanol Ethanol Propanol
= 2100 kJ
(kJ mol–1) (kJ mol–1) (kJ mol–1)
That is, heat of combustion of glucose is
–2100 kJ mol–1. A –715 –2010 –1321
B –715 –1321 –2010
C –2010 –1321 –715

11
D –2673 –2010 –715
When 0.0125 mol of methane (CH4) is completely
burnt, the heat energy released raises the temperature
of 250 cm3 of water by 10 °C. What is the fuel Comments
value of methane? The heat of combustion increases (more exothermic)
[Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1; from methanol to propanol.
density of water = 1.0 g cm–3; relative atomic mass: Answer B
H, 1; C, 12]
487 Thermochemistry
Heat of combustion
• Heat of combustion is the heat
released when 1.0 mol of the
substance is burnt completely in
excess oxygen.
Method of determining heat Calculation Energy level diagram

of combustion (a) Calculate number of moles
• Find the mass of the fuel of fuel used (x mol)
used. (b) Calculate heat evolved
• Find the volume of water to mcθ
be heated. ΔH = ———————— = y kJ
1000
• Find the initial and final
(c) Heat of combustion
temperatures of the water.
–y
= —— kJ mol–1
x
4
Differences in heats of
combustion Selection of suitable fuel Differences in fuel values
For various alcohols • For specific purposes (kJ g–1)
• CH3OH; ΔH = –715 kJ mol–1 • Examples: • Coal: 34 kJ g–1
• C2H5OH; ΔH = –1371 kJ mol–1 Coal, natural gas, petrol, • Petrol : 42 kJ g–1
• Caused by an additional –CH2 hydrogen • Natural gas: 52 kJ g–1
group
Factors to consider
Does it burn easily? Is it easy to store? Does it produce Can it be Is it cheap or

soot or leave obtained easily? expensive?
residue after
combustion?
Problems of safety Problems of

pollution
Advantages Disadvantages/limitations
Type of fuel recommended

for the specific purpose
Thermochemistry 488
12 ’04
(b) If 1.14 g of propan-2-ol is used for complete
combustion, what is the rise in temperature of
500 cm3 water?
The heat of combustion of three alcohols are shown
below. (c) What is the rise in temperature, if 500 cm3 of
water is heated by the heat energy produced
Alcohol Heat of combustion (kJ mol–1) by the complete combustion of 2.28 g of
propan-1-ol?
CH3OH –715
(d) What is the rise in temperature if 250 cm3 of
C2H5OH –1371 water is heated by the heat energy produced
C3H7OH –2010 by the complete combustion of 0.57 g of
propan-1-ol?
Which of the following factors cause the increase (e) 2C3H7OH(l) + 9O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 8H2O(l);
in the heat of combustion of alcohols? ΔH = –x kJ
I The increase in the molecular size of alcohols. Determine the value of x in the thermochemical
II The increase in the number of carbon atoms equation given above.
per molecule. 3 The thermochemical equation for the combustion
III The increase in the number of hydrogen atoms of heptane is shown below.
per molecule. ’04
C7H16(l) + 11O2(g) → 7CO2(g) + 8H2O(l);
IV The increase in the forces of attraction ΔH = –5520 kJ mol–1
between the molecules of alcohol. The combustion of heptane in excess oxygen
A I and IV only C I, II and III only releases 1104 kJ of heat energy. What is the mass
4
B II and III only D I, II, III and IV of heptane used?
[Relative atomic mass: C, 12; H, 1]
Comments
The increase in molecular size and forces of 4 What are the advantages and disadvantages of
using (a) coal, (b) natural gas as fuel?
attraction increase the boiling points of alcohols but
not the heat of combustion. (I and IV are incorrect).
The increase in the heat of combustion of alcohols
is due to the combustion of carbon and hydrogen:
4.6 Appreciating the
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g); ΔH = –394 kJ mol –1
Existence of Various
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l); ΔH = –572 kJ Energy Sources
Answer B Various Sources of Energy
1 Fuels can be classified as renewable source of
4.5 energy or non-renewable source of energy.
2 The non-renewable sources of energy are fossil
1 (a) A student wants to carry out an experiment
to determine the heat of combustion of fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gases.
pentane (C5H12). State three measurements The renewable sources of energy are:
that he must take in order that the heat of (a) Nuclear power (e) Solar energy
combustion can be determined. (b) Hydroelectric power (f) Biomass and biogas
(b) The heats of combustion of propane, carbon (c) Geothermal energy (g) Energy from tides
and hydrogen are –2220 kJ mol–1, –394 kJ (d) Wind power
mol–1 and –286 kJ mol–1 respectively.
Predict the heat of combustion of butane. Choosing an Energy Source
2 In an experiment, the complete combustion of
1.14 g of propan-1-ol (C3H7OH) increases the In choosing an energy source, we need to know
temperature of 500 cm3 of water by 18.2 °C. (a) the advantages and disadvantages of using that
[Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1; particular energy source,
density of water = 1.0 g cm–3; relative atomic mass: (b) the costs involved,
H, 1; C, 12; O, 16]
(c) the environmental impact and
(a) Give the structural formula of propan-1-ol and (d) whether there are suitable sites for harnessing
propan-2-ol. this source of energy. For example, although
489 Thermochemistry
tide-powered plants produce great amounts of 5 Solar energy
energy, there are few suitable coastal sites that There are three methods to harness solar energy:
can be used to build such plants. (a) The solar energy can be absorbed on a solar
collector placed on a rooftop. This method is
Technology for Harnessing Various called solar heating and is used for providing
Energy Sources hot water or for heating the building.
(b) The solar energy can be converted into
1 Nuclear energy electricity in photovoltaic cell or more
Nuclear power stations use nuclear reactors simply, solar cells. Solar cells are now
to generate electricity. In the nuclear reactors, widely used to power small electronic
uranium-235 nuclei split to form lighter nuclei devices such as electronic calculators.
(fission reaction) and energy is released. (c) The solar energy is concentrated to heat
2 Hydroelectric power water and produce steam, which is used
Hydroelectric power is electricity generated by to produce electricity. This is called solar
the energy of water power. The most common thermal electric power.
form of hydroelectric power uses dams on 6 Biomass, biogas and biodiesel
rivers to create large reservoirs of water. Water (a) Biomass is plant material and animal
released from the reservoirs flows through manure used as sources of energy. The
turbines, causing them to spin and to generate energy produced by biomass is called
electricity when connected to generators. biomass energy.
4
3 Geothermal energy (b) Most biomass is

The layers of rock deep below the earth’s surface • burnt directly for heating, cooking or
is very hot. Heat contained in underground other industrial uses, or
rocks is an important source of energy. When • converted to gaseous and liquid biofuels.
water is pumped into the hot rocks, it is turned (c) The synthetic natural gas (gaseous biofuel)
into steam which can be used to operate produced from biomass is called biogas.
turbines and generate electricity. Methane in biogas is produced from
4 Wind power machines known as digesters. The digesters
Wind power can be used to generate electricity. can convert animal manure, such as cow
dung and chicken dung into methane
gas. Methane gas produced in this way is
called biogas.
(d) Biodiesel is a biofuel made from vegetable
oils such as palm oil. Biodiesel can be
used to power motor vehicles.
7 Energy from the tides
The power of tides is another potential source
of energy. Twice a day during high and low
tides, water that flows into and out of coastal
bays can spin turbines to produce electricity.
Wind turbines used to produce electricity
individually or in groups called wind farms.
The Advantages and Disadvantages in using
The kinetic energy of the moving air is Various Energy Sources
converted into mechanical energy for the
turbines. The turbine then drives a generator 1 The main advantages of these energy sources
that converts mechanical energy into electrical is that, they are renewable and they do not
energy. Wind turbines usually have two or produce carbon dioxide gas (except biomass)
three blades. The longer the blades and the that causes greenhouse effect or acidic gases
faster the wind speed, the more electricity that cause acidic rain or poisonous gases that
the turbine generates. To produce the most cause air pollution.
electricity, wind turbines must be located in 2 Table 4.5 shows the disadvantages of these
areas where the wind blows at a constant speed. renewable energy resources.
Thermochemistry 490
Table 4.5
Energy resource Disadvantages
Nuclear energy (a) Nuclear reactors produce radioactive wastes, which are difficult to dispose off.
(b) Accidents in nuclear reactors can cause thousands of deaths.
Hydroelectric power (a) It provides low-cost electricity but the construction cost is high.
(b) Danger of collapse which can cause catastrophic floods.
Geothermal energy (a) The geothermal power is low in cost (second only to hydropower) but can only
be obtained in areas where steam or hot water is at or near the surface.
(b) The wastewater is quite salty and its disposal is a problem.
Wind power (a) Steady wind needed.
(b) Contributes to noise pollution when located near populated areas.
Solar energy (a) The installation for solar heating is expensive. Solar collectors need to be
exposed to the sun 60% of the time.
(b) Solar cells are not very efficient. Generation of enough energy to meet demand
would require large areas of land with solar cells.
Biomass, biogas and Carbon dioxide emissions.
biodiesel
Energy from the tides Electricity can be generated only when the tide is coming in or going out.
4
1 An exothermic reaction is a reaction that releases heat θ (in °C) = change in temperature.
energy to the surroundings. The temperature of the 11 The heat of precipitation is the heat released when
reaction mixture increases. ΔH has a negative sign. 1.0 mol of a precipitate is formed from its ions.
2 An endothermic reaction is a reaction that absorbs heat 12 The heat of displacement is the heat released
energy from the surroundings. The temperature of the when 1.0 mol of a metal is displaced from its salt
reaction mixture decreases. ΔH has a positive sign. solution by another metal.
3 The energy level diagram shows the total energy 13 The heat of neutralisation is the heat released
content of the reactants and that of the products. when 1.0 mol of H+ ions react with 1.0 mol of OH–
4 Exothermic reaction: Total energy content of products ions to form 1.0 mol of water molecules.
is lower than that of the reactants. 14 For the neutralisation reaction between a strong acid
5 Endothermic reaction: Total energy content of products and a strong alkali, the heat of neutralisation is –57
is higher than that of the reactants. kJ mol–1.
6 Bond breaking is an endothermic process while 15 For the neutralisation of weak acid and strong alkali
bond making is an exothermic process. or the neutralisation of strong acid and weak alkali,
7 ΔH of reaction = ΔH1 (bond breaking) + ΔH2 (bond the heat of neutralisation is less than –57 kJ mol–1.
making) This is because weak acid and weak alkali do not
8 Cold packs contain chemicals such as NH4NO3(s) dissociate completely in aqueous solution. Some of
and water. The reaction between NH4NO3(s) and the heat released is absorbed to dissociate the weak
water is endothermic. acid or weak alkali.
9 Hot packs contain chemicals such as anhydrous 16 The heat of combustion is the heat released when
CaCl2 and water. The reaction between CaCl2 and 1.0 mol of a substance is burnt completely in excess
water is exothermic. oxygen.
10 The heat change in a reaction can be calculated using 17 The heat of combustion of alcohols increases as the
the formula: relative molecular mass increases.
ΔH = mcθ 18 Fuel value is the heat energy released when 1.0 g
where ΔH (in J) = heat released or absorbed in of fuel is burnt in excess oxygen.
aqueous solution, 19 Hydrogen is the best fuel because it has the highest
m (in g) = mass of solution, fuel value and is a clean fuel (that is, does not produce
c (in J g–1 °C–1) = specific heat capacity of solution air pollutants). However, it is an expensive fuel.
491 Thermochemistry
4
4.1 fever. products is 570 kJ.

Energy Changes in ’11 Which pair of substance is used C the reactant has more energy
Chemical Reactions in cold packs? than the products.
1 Which of the following A Ammonium nitrate and water D more bonds are formed than
operations absorbs heat energy B Anhydrous sodium carbonate are broken.
’08 from the surroundings? and water
7 The reaction between
A Dissolving sodium hydroxide C Fused calcium chloride and
methane and chlorine to form
in water water ’11 chloromethane and hydrogen
B Evaporating sodium chloride D Zinc powder and copper(II)
chloride is exothermic.
solution sulphate solution
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) +
C Adding sodium chloride 5 A simple experiment as shown HCl(g) ΔH = –102 kJ
solution to silver nitrate solution is carried out.
D Adding ethanoic acid to Which statement is correct about
ammonia solution this reaction?
4
A Heat is absorbed during the

2 The energy profile diagram reaction.
for the reaction, P → X + Y, is B The heat absorbed on bond
’05 shown below.
breaking is the same as the
heat released on bond making.
C The heat absorbed on bond
breaking is more than the heat
Which of the following will occur released on bond forming.
during the experiment? D The heat absorbed on bond
A The pH of the solution breaking is less than the heat
What is the heat of reaction? increases. released on bond forming.
A –40 kJ C +40 kJ B Heat energy is absorbed 8 When 25.0 cm3 of lime juice is
B +30 kJ D +70 kJ from the surroundings. added to 185.0 cm3 of milk to
C The temperature of the ’04 prepare yogurt, the temperature
3 Water can be converted to
solution decreases. of yogurt increases by 2.4 °C.
ice or steam as shown in the
’09 diagram below. D The total energy content of What is the total amount of heat
the products is lower than released?
the total energy content of [The specific heat capacity of
steam
the reactants. yogurt is X J g–1 °C–1; the density
6 The energy level diagram of a of the solution is 1 g per cm3].
reaction is shown below. A 444X J C 504X J
’09 B 444X kJ D 504X kJ
energy 9 The diagram shows an energy
profile diagram for a chemical
water CaO + CO2
ice reaction.
In which conversion is heat energy –1

= + 579 kJ mol
absorbed from the surroundings?
A Ice to steam
CaCO3
B Steam to ice TC 58
C Water to ice
Based on the diagram, it can be
D Steam to water
deduced that
4 Cold pack is used to put on the A it is an endothermic
TC 59 reaction.
forehead of a patient to reduce B the total energy of the
Thermochemistry 492
Which energy changes are the What is the rise in temperature? IV Use a screen to block the wind.
activation energy and heat of [Specific heat capacity of A I and III only
reaction for the uncatalysed solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1] B II and IV only
reaction? A 7 °C C 12 °C C I, II and III only
B 10 °C D 14 °C D I, II, III and IV
For the uncatalysed reaction
16 The equation shows the reaction
Activation Heat of 13 The following table shows the
between calcium chloride and
energy reaction volumes of 1.0 mol dm–3 silver
sodium sulphate.
nitrate (AgNO3) solution and
A ΔH1 ΔH3 1 mol dm–3 potassium chloride CaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) →
solution used for determining CaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq);
B ΔH1 ΔH3 – ΔH1
the heat of precipitation of silver ΔH = –x kJ mol–1
C ΔH2 ΔH4 chloride in four experiments. Which of the following pairs of
D ΔH2 ΔH4 – ΔH2 Which of the experiments gives solutions will produce the same
the highest rise in temperature? value for ∆H?
(The concentration and volume
4.2 Volume of Volume of the solutions are kept constant).
Heat of Precipitation Experiment AgNO3 of KCl A Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
10 Ag+ (aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s) (cm3) (cm3) B Ca(NO3)2(aq) + NaCl(aq)
What is the heat change when A 1 55 5 C CaCl2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
5.74 g of AgCl is precipitated D CaCl2(aq) + HCl(aq)
B 2 50 10
when mixing solutions of silver
4
nitrate and potassium chloride? C 3 40 20 4.3 Heat of Displacement
[Relative atomic mass: Ag, 108; D 4 35 25
Cl, 35.5; ∆H = –58.8 kJ mol–1] 17 When 6 g of magnesium powder
A 2.35 kJ C 23.6 kJ (in excess) is added to 50 cm3
14 The energy level diagram for the
B 3.38 kJ D 33.8 kJ of copper(II) sulphate solution
reaction between lead nitrate
containing 0.2 mol of Cu2+ ions,
11 The following equation solution and sodium bromide
the rise in temperature is t °C.
represents the reaction between solution is shown below.
The heat of displacement of
Pb2+ ions and CrO42– ions. copper from copper(II) sulphate
energy
Pb2+(aq) + CrO42–(aq) → Pb2+(aq) + 2Br–(aq) solution by magnesium is
PbCrO4(s) 50  4.2  t
H = –x kJ mol–1 A – ( — ———
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
— ) kJ mol–1
1000
When 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 PbBr2(s) 50  4.2  t
lead(II) nitrate solution is added B – ( — ———
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
—— ) kJ mol–1
0.2  1000
to 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3
What is the energy change 56  4.2  t
potassium chromate(VI) solution, C – ( — ———
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
—— ) kJ mol–1
when 1.0 mol of Pb2+ ions is 1000
the temperature rises by t °C.
added to 0.5 mol of Br – ions? 56  4.2  t
If the experiment is repeated D – ( — ———
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
—— ) kJ mol–1
1 0.2  1000
using 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 A –— x kJ C – x kJ
4
lead(II) nitrate solution and 18 The following shows the energy
1
50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 B –— x kJ D – 2x kJ level diagram for the displacement
potassium chromate(VI) solution, 2
’03 of iron by the metal, M.
what is the rise in temperature?
1 o 15 An experiment is carried out
A — t C C 2t °C to determine the heat of
2
precipitation of silver chloride
B t °C D 4t °C
for the reaction between silver
12 The heat of precipitation of nitrate solution and sodium
copper(II) hydroxide in the chloride solution. Which of the
reaction between copper(II) following steps must be taken What is the temperature
sulphate solution and sodium to obtain accurate results? reached if excess M is added to
hydroxide solution is –59 kJ I Stir the solution continuously. 50 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 iron(II)
mol–1. In one experiment, 50 II Use a container that is a good sulphate solution at 30 °C?
cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 sodium conductor of heat. [Specific heat capacity of
hydroxide solution is poured III Add the silver nitrate solution solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1]
into 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 quickly to the sodium A 14.4 °C C 37.8 °C
copper(II) sulphate solution. chloride solution. B 22.2 °C D 44.9 °C
493 Thermochemistry
19 Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → 4.4 A 4.6 °C C 9.1 °C
Heat of Neutralisation B 6.8 °C D 13.5 °C
Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq);
ΔH = –218 kJ mol–1 23 Which of the following
27 The heat of neutralisation
neutralisation reactions releases
What is the minimum mass of ’04 the least heat?
between hydrochloric acid and
zinc required in order that its sodium hydroxide is –57 kJ
A 1 mol of HCl(aq) +
reaction with excess copper(II) mol–1. What is the heat energy
1 mol NH3(aq)
sulphate solution produces released, when 500 cm3 of
B 1 mol of CH3COOH +
10.9 kJ of heat? 2 mol dm–3 sulphuric acid
1 mol of NH3(aq)
[Relative atomic mass: Zn, 65.4] reacts with excess potassium
C 1 mol of CH3COOH +
A 1.7 g hydroxide?
1 mol of KOH(aq)
B 3.3 g A –0.5 3 57 kJ
D 1 mol of HCl(aq) +
C 5.0 g B –57 kJ
1 mol of NaOH(aq)
D 6.6 g C –2 3 57 kJ
D –4 3 57 kJ
24 When 40 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3
20 When 4.8 g of magnesium is hydrochloric acid is mixed with 28 The information that must be
added to 50 cm3 of 2.0 mol 10 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm–3 sodium obtained in an experiment
’07 dm–3 copper chloride solution,
hydroxide solution, the rise in to determine the heat of
the temperature of the mixture temperature is t °C. What is the neutralisation are
increases by 4.0 °C. What is rise in temperature when 20 cm3 I volumes of acids and alkalis.
the heat of reaction in this of 0.1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid II concentrations of acids and
experiment? reacts with 30 cm3 of 0.1 mol alkalis.
4
[Specific heat capacity of dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution? III maximum rise in temperature.
solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1; relative 1 IV degree of dissociation of
atomic mass of Mg = 24] A — t °C C 2t °C
2 acids and alkalis.
A –0.42 J mol–1 B t °C D 4t °C A I and III only
B –0.84 J mol–1 B II and IV only
C –4.20 kJ mol–1 25 When 50 cm3 of 1.5 mol dm–3 C I, II and III only
D –8.4 kJ mol–1 HCl is added to 100 cm3 of D I, II, III and IV
1.5 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide
21 A student wanted to determine 29 Which of the following reactions
solution, x kJ of heat is produced.
the heat of displacement for the will produce the same amount
When 45 cm3 of sulphuric acid
reaction of heat of neutralisation?
is added to 100 cm3 of 1.5 mol
Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → dm–3 sodium hydroxide, the same
Reaction I Reaction II
MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s) amount of heat is produced.
What is the concentration of A HNO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) +
Which of the following sulphuric acid? NaOH(aq) KOH(aq)
measurements is not required A 0.2 mol dm–3 B HNO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) +
for the experiment? B 0.4 mol dm–3 NaOH(aq) NH3(aq)
A Temperature of CuSO4 solution C 0.8 mol dm–3
C HCl(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)
B Volume of CuSO4 solution D 1.5 mol dm–3
C Concentration of CuSO4 NH3(aq) + NH3(aq)
solution 26 D HCl(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)
D Mass of magnesium reacted NaOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)
22 Consider the following reactions.

I NaOH(s) → NaOH(aq) 4.5
’09 II NH Cl(s) → NH Cl(aq) Heat of Combustion
4 4
III NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) → 30 The combustion of 3.6 g of fuel
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Based on the energy level X increases the temperature of
IV Mg(s) + FeSO4(aq) → diagram given above, what is 500 cm3 of water by 22.8 °C.
MgSO4(aq) + Fe(s) the temperature rise when What is the temperature rise if the
Identify the energy-releasing 25 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 H2SO4 combustion of 7.2 g of fuel X is
reactions. is mixed with 50 cm3 of 1 mol used to heat up 1.0 dm3 of water?
A I and II dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution? A 11.4 °C
B II and III [Specific heat capacity of B 14.2 °C
C III and IV solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1; density C 22.8 °C
D I and IV of solution = 1 g dm–3] D 28.4 °C
Thermochemistry 494
31 The results of an experiment to 33 C4H9OH(l) + 6O2(g) → 1
B – —  2220 kJ
determine the heat change for 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(l); 4
’06 the combustion of propanol, 1
ΔH = –2670 kJ mol–1 C – ___  2220 kJ
C3H7OH, are shown below. 3
Volume of water in the copper Based on the thermochemical D – 4  3  2220 kJ
container = 300 cm3 equation given above, what is
Initial temperature of water the mass of butanol needed for 36 The heat of combustion of a
= 28.5 °C combustion in order to produce fuel, X is –273 kJ mol–1. What is
Final temperature of water 80 kJ of heat? the maximum temperature rise
= 69.0 °C [Relative atomic mass: C, 12; when 100 cm3 of water is heated
What is the heat released by the H, 1; O, 16] by the combustion of 0.80 g of
combustion of propanol? A 2.22 g X? [Relative molecular mass of
[Specific heat capacity of water B 4.44 g X = 40; specific heat capacity of
= 4.2 J g–1 °C–1; assume that C 6.66 g water = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1]
1 cm3 of water is equal to 1 g] D 8.88 g A 6 °C C 13 °C
A 25.20 kJ B 9 °C D 15 °C
B 34.65 kJ
34 The heat of combustion of 37 The equation for the combustion
C 51.03 kJ
alcohols increases in the order: of ethanol in excess oxygen is
D 86.94 kJ
ethanol < propanol < butanol ’07 shown below.
32 The diagram shows the C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) →
statements explain the trend?
arrangement of apparatus used 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l);
I The number of carbon atoms
4
for determining the heat of ΔH = –1371 kJ mol–1
per molecule increases.
combustion of methanol.
II The number of hydrogen Which of the energy level
atoms per molecule diagrams represents the
increases. reaction?
III The number of oxygen atoms A
per molecule increases
IV The chemical bonds in the
molecule become stronger.
A I and II only

B III and IV only
C II and III only B
D I, II and IV only
Which of the following steps
must be taken to ensure 35 The heat of combustion of
that the experimental results
propane is –2220 kJ mol–1.
obtained are accurate? C
I Replace the glass beaker with C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) →
a metal container. 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l);
II Stir the water continuously. ΔH = –2220 kJ mol–1
III Remove the wire gauze.
IV Place the spirit lamp closer to How much heat energy is evolved
the water. when 11 g of carbon dioxide D
A III and IV only is produced from the complete
B I, II and IV only combustion of propane?
C II, III and IV only 1 1
A – —  —  2220 kJ
D I, II, III and IV 4 3
495 Thermochemistry
1 Two experiments are carried out to determine the
heat of displacement of copper by zinc.
Experiment 1
A heating element is immersed in copper(II) sulphate
solution and 1.0 kJ of heat energy is supplied.
Experiment II
3.27 g of zinc powder is added to 200 cm3 of
copper(II) sulphate solution (in excess). Diagram 2
In both these experiments,
Which of these polystyrene beakers should be
• the copper(II) sulphate solution is placed in a
used? Why? [2 marks]
polystyrene beaker,
• the initial temperature of copper(II) sulphate is 2 The apparatus set-up as shown below is used to
30.4 °C. determine the heat of combustion of ethanol. The
Diagram 1 shows the thermometer readings for the copper container contains 100 cm3 of water.
maximum temperature reached in Experiments I
and II.
4
Diagram 1 The results of the experiment are shown below.

(a) What is meant by heat of displacement of copper
by zinc? [1 mark] Mass of ethanol + lamp before 150.38
combustion (g)
(b) Explain why polystyrene beaker is used in
Experiments I and II. [1 mark] Mass of ethanol + lamp after 149.83
combustion (g)
(c) Calculate the rise in temperatures in Experiments
I and II. [2 marks] Initial temperature of water (°C) 30.0
(d) (i) State two observations in Experiment II. Highest temperature of water (°C) 61.5
[2 marks]
(ii) State one precaution that must be taken (a) What is meant by heat of combustion of
while carrying out Experiment II. [1 mark] ethanol? [1 mark]
(e) (i) Calculate the heat energy change in (b) Write a chemical equation for the complete
Experiment II. combustion of ethanol. [1 mark]
(ii) Calculate the number of moles of copper (c) (i) Calculate the number of moles of ethanol
metal formed in Experiment II. used in the experiment. [2 marks]
(iii) With reference to your answers in (i) and (ii) Calculate the heat released in the
(ii), calculate the heat of displacement of experiment. [1 mark]
copper by zinc. [Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 J g–1
[Specific heat capacity of solution: 4.2 J °C–1; density of water = 1 g cm–3]
g–1 °C–1; density of solution: 1.0 g cm–3; (iii) Calculate the heat of combustion of
relative atomic mass: Zn, 65.4] ethanol. [1 mark]
[3 marks]
(d) The theoretical heat of combustion of ethanol is
(f) Experiment II can be carried out by using –1371 kJ mol–1. Give two reasons why the heat
polystyrene beaker A or polystyrene beaker B of combustion obtained from this experiment is
(Diagram 2). different from the theoretical value. [2 marks]
Thermochemistry 496
3 (a) Experiment I was carried out to determine the heat of neutralisation between sulphuric acid and
potassium hydroxide. The experimental result shows that the heat of neutralisation is –57 kJ mol–1.
(i) What is meant by heat of neutralisation? [1 mark]
(ii) Draw the energy level diagram for the reaction. [1 mark]
(b) In Experiment II, 50 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 nitric acid is added to 50 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 ammonia
solution in a polystyrene cup. The initial temperatures of the acid and alkali are measured.
The mixture is stirred slowly and the maximum temperature of the mixture is recorded. The results
of the experiment are shown below.
Initial temperature of nitric acid = 28.2 °C

Initial temperature of ammonia solution = 28.2 °C
The maximum temperature = 34.2 °C
[The specific heat of solution = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1; Density of solution = 1 g cm–3]
(i) State two precautions that must be taken when carrying out the experiment. [2 marks]
(ii) Calculate the number of moles of water molecules produced. [2 marks]
(iii) Calculate the heat of neutralisation between nitric acid and ammonia solution. [3 marks]
(c) Explain why the heat of neutralisation obtained in Experiment I is different from that in Experiment II. [2 marks]
(d) Predict the temperature change if Experiment II is repeated by adding 100 cm of hydrochloric acid
3
to 100 cm3 of 1 mol dm–3 ammonia solution.

Explain your answer. [1 mark]
4
4 (a) Diagram 3 shows the apparatus set-up for Experiments I, II and III and the readings of the initial
temperature and the highest or lowest temperature in each experiment.
Diagram 3
(i) Identify the exothermic and endothermic reaction in these reactions. [2 marks]
(ii) Three substances are used for this experiment: ammonium sulphate, sodium hydrogen
carbonate and sodium hydroxide. Match these substances with X, Y and Z. [2 marks]
(iii) Write the equation for Experiment III. [1 mark]
(iv) Draw an energy level diagram for the reaction in Experiment I. [2 marks]
(b) When 25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 silver nitrate solution is poured into 25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 of
sodium chloride solution, the temperature increases by 3 °C.
(i) Calculate the heat change in this experiment. [Specific heat capacity of solution is 4.2 J g–1 °C–1;
Density of solution is 1.0 g cm–3] [1 mark]
(ii) Calculate the heat of precipitation of silver chloride for this experiment. [2 marks]
(iii) The experiment is repeated using 25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 silver nitrate solution to react
with 25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid.
Predict the temperature change in this experiment. Give a reason for your prediction. [2 marks]
497 Thermochemistry
Essay Questions
1 (a) Describe one experiment to determine the (i) What is the fuel value of propanol.
heat of precipitation of lead(II) chloride. In your (ii) State two main factors that must be
answer, show the workings in your calculation, considered when choosing a fuel. [3 marks]
assumptions made and the energy level diagram
2 (a) Describe one experiment to determine the
for the precipitation of lead(II) chloride.
heat of neutralisation between dilute sulphuric
[12 marks]
acid and sodium hydroxide solution. Show the
(b) The heats of combustion of methanol and workings in your calculation. [12 marks]
ethanol are –715 kJ mol–1 and –1371 kJ mol–1
(b) Explain why the heat of neutralisation between
respectively. State two similarities between the
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide is the
combustion of methanol and the combustion of
same as the heat of neutralisation between nitric
ethanol. Explain why the heat of combustion of
acid and potassium hydroxide solution. [4 marks]
ethanol is different from the heat of combustion
of methanol. [5 marks] (c) The reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen to
form ammonia is an exothermic reaction. Explain
(c) The heat of combustion of propanol is –2010 kJ
this observation in terms of bond breaking and
mol–1.
bond forming. [4 marks]
Experiments
4
1 Diagram 1 shows two experiments carried out to (b) Construct a table to tabulate the results of
determine the heat of neutralisation. Experiments I and II. [3 marks]
’06
Experiment I: Reaction between 25 cm3 of methanoic (c) State three observations in Experiment I other
acid, HCOOH, 2.0 mol dm–3 and 25 cm3 of sodium than the change in temperature. [3 marks]
hydroxide solution, NaOH, 2.0 mol dm–3. (d) State one hypothesis for both experiments.
[3 marks]
45 (e) State the constant variables in this experiment.
[3 marks]
(f) Based on the temperatures in Experiment I,
predict the rise in temperature in Experiment II.
[3 marks]
(g) (i) Define heat of neutralisation. [3 marks]
Diagram 1 (ii) Calculate the heat of neutralisation for
the reaction between methanoic acid and
Initial temperature of the mixture = … … … °C sodium hydroxide. [3 marks]
Highest temperature of the mixture = … … … °C (Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J
Increase in temperature = … … … °C g–1 °C–1; density of solution = 1.0 g cm–3)
Experiment II: Reaction between 25 cm3 of
hydrochloric acid, HCl, 2.0 mol dm–3 and 25 cm3 of 2 A student bought two canisters of fuels (brand X and
sodium hydroxide solution, NaOH, 2.0 mol dm–3. brand Y) for camping. It is found that 200 g of fuel
of brand X can boil 200 cm3 of water in 12 minutes,
whereas 200 g of fuel of brand Y can boil 200 cm3
of water in 20 minutes.
With reference to the above observation, you are
asked to plan an experiment to compare the fuel
values (heat of combustion expressed in kJ g–1) of
fuel X and fuel Y.
Your planning should include the following aspects:
Initial temperature of the mixture = T1 °C (a) Aim of experiment
Highest temperature of the mixture = T2 °C (b) All the variables
Increase in temperature = T3 °C (c) Statement of the hypothesis
(a) Write the initial and the highest temperature (d) List of substances and apparatus
of the solution and the rise of temperature for (e) Procedure of the experiment
Experiment I. [3 marks] (f) Tabulation of data [17 marks]
Thermochemistry 498
CHAPTER FORM 5
5
THEME: Production and Management of Manufactured Chemicals
Chemicals for Consumers

Year 2008 2009 2010 2011
Paper 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
1
Number of questions 3 – 1 – – 2 – – – – 1 – — – – 2 – 1 – –
2
ONCEPT MAP
CHEMICALS FOR CONSUMERS
Cleansing agents Food additives Medicine
Soap Detergent • Preservative: sodium nitrite Traditional medicine Modern

Palm oil Preparation of sodium • Antioxidant: ascorbic acid • derived from plants medicine
+ alkyl sulphate • Flavouring agent: MSG and animals
NaOH R – O – SO3H • Stabiliser and thickening agent:
↓ + gelatin and acacia gum
Soap NaOH • Dyes: azo compound and triphenyl • Analgesic: aspirin, paracetamol and
+ ↓ compound codeine
Glycerol ROSO3–Na+ + H2O • Antibiotic: penicillin; streptomycin
• Psychotherapeutic medicine
Cleansing action of soap and Effects on health – stimulant
detergent • Allergy – antipsychotic
• The ‘head’ (hydrophilic) • Cancer causing – antidepressant
dissolves in water • Brain damage
• The ‘tail’ (hydrophobic) dissolves • Hyperactivity
in greasy dirt Side effects
• Wetting action Aspirin: causes stomach bleeding
Additives in detergents
• Emulsification Penicillin: allergy
• Builders (sodium tripolyphosphate):
Psychotherapeutic medicine: addiction
to soften hard water
Effectiveness of soap and • Whitening agent (sodium perborate):
detergent for making clothes white
• Soap is not effective in hard • Biological enzyme: decomposes protein
water or acidic water stains such as blood and food
• Detergents are effective in both
hard water and acidic water
5.1 Soaps and Detergents Fatty acid Example of soap
C17H33COOH C17H33COO–K+
Soaps Oleic acid Potassium oleate
C17H35COOH C17H35COO–K+
1 Cleansing agents are chemical substances used
SPM Stearic acid Potassium stearate
’04/P2 to remove grease and dirt.
2 There are two types of cleansing agents:
(a) Soaps (b) Detergents 2 Soap is produced by the reaction between sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide with animal
fats or vegetable oils. This reaction is known
The History of Soap Manufacturing
as saponification.
3 Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally
1 Soaps have been used for more than 3000
occurring ester molecules. When fats or oils
years. It was recorded that the Babylonians
are boiled with concentrated alkalis, such as
were making soap around 2800 B.C.
sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide,
2 In ancient times, soaps were made from ashes
saponification occurs and the ester molecules
of plants which contain sodium carbonate and
are broken down into soap and glycerol.
potassium carbonate. The ashes were boiled
with lime (calcium oxide) to produce caustic Fats and oils NaOH(aq) or
potash (potassium hydroxide). Caustic potash is +
(natural ester) KOH(aq) (alkali)
then boiled with animal fats to produce soap.
5
boil
(a) Ash + lime ⎯⎯→ caustic potash
(K2CO3) (CaO) (KOH) Glycerol (an alcohol Soap (RCOONa
+
with three –OH groups) or RCOOK)
boil
(b) Caustic potash + animal fats ⎯⎯→ soap
4 Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of
3 In 1816, the French chemist Michel Chevreul esters using alkali solutions. From a chemical
(1786 – 1889) discovered that animal fats aspect, soaps are sodium salts or potassium
are composed of fatty acids and glycerol. salts of long chain fatty acids (with 12 to 18
This discovery contributed to the rapid carbon atoms per molecule).
development of the soap and candle industry. 5 Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters
4 In 1861, the Belgian chemist Ernest Solvay commonly found in animal fats and vegetable
(1838–1922) discovered the process to make oils. When the ester is boiled with concentrated
soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt sodium hydroxide solution, saponification
(sodium chloride) and calcium carbonate. (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and a mixture of
This process is known as the Solvay Process sodium stearate (soap) and glycerol is obtained.
which produces sodium carbonate which is O
used for making glass, soaps and detergents. i
CH2– C – O – C17H35
SPM
Preparation of Soap by Saponification ’08/P1, ⎮ O concentrated
’09/P1, ⎮ i
’10/P1 NaOH
1 (a) Soap is a chemical used as a cleansing CH– C – O – C17H35 + 3Na OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→
boil
agent to remove grease and dirt. ⎮ O
(b) Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of ⎮ i
long chain fatty acids with 12 to 18 carbon CH2– C – O – C17H35
glyceryl tristearate (in fats and oils)
atoms per molecule. The general formula of
soap is RCOO–Na+ or RCOO–K+ (Table 5.1). CH2 – OH
⎮
Table 5.1 Examples of soap
CH – OH + 3C17H35COO–Na+
Fatty acid Example of soap ⎮ soap
⎮ (sodium stearate)
C15H31COOH C15H31COO–Na+
CH2 – OH
Palmitic acid Sodium palmitate
glycerol
Chemicals for Consumers 500

6 The soap produced can be precipitated by 8 Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are
adding common salt (sodium chloride) to the hard whereas soaps produced from potassium
reaction mixture. hydroxide are soft.
Sodium chloride reduces the solubility of 9 Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable
soap in aqueous solution and causes the soap oils (such as palm oil or olive oil) are used for
to be precipitated out. making soap.
7 The properties of soap depend on 10 Activity 5.1 describes the method for making
(a) the type of alkali used for saponification, soap by the saponification process.
(b) the type of animal fats or vegetable oils
used.
To prepare soap
Apparatus Beaker, measuring cylinder, glass rod, Bunsen burner, filter funnel, filter paper, wire gauze,
spatula and tripod stand.
Materials 5 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution, sodium chloride solution, palm oil, olive oil, corn oil
and peanut oil.
Procedure
5
(A) Preparation of soap
1 Using a small (100 cm3) measuring cylinder, 10 cm3 of palm oil is measured out into a beaker.
2 Using a large (250 cm3) measuring cylinder, 50 cm3 of concentrated (5 mol dm–3) sodium hydroxide solution
is measured out and poured into the palm oil in the beaker.
3 The mixture is heated until boiling (Figure 5.1 (a)). The solution is stirred with a glass rod throughout the
experiment.
4 The boiling is continued for about 5 minutes until the layer of oil disappears.
5 The Bunsen flame is then turned off and the reaction mixture is left to cool.
(B) To separate soap from the reaction mixture
1 Three to four spatula of sodium chloride is dissolved in about 100 cm3 of water.
2 The salt solution is then added to the soap solution obtained in Section A. The mixture is boiled again for
about 5 minutes (Figure 5.1 (b)).
Figure 5.1 Preparation of soap

Activity 5.1
3 When the mixture is cooled, a white precipitate is formed, which floats on the surface of the mixture.
4 The mixture is filtered (Figure 5.1 (c)) and washed with distilled water to remove excess alkali and salt.
5 A small amount of the residue on the filter paper is examined by (a) rubbing it on the hand, (b) shaking it
with water in a boiling tube. The observations are recorded.
6 The experiment is repeated using olive oil, corn oil and peanut oil.
501 Chemicals for Consumers

Results boiling the solution again. This process is called
salting out.
Test Observation 3 The salting out process occurs because sodium
(a) Rubbed on the hand Soapy (slippery) feel chloride reduces the solubility of soap in water
and causes it to be precipitated.
(b) Shaken with water A lot of foam is
4 The precautionary step in this experiment is to
produced
control the flame of the Bunsen burner. This is
because boiling a mixture of palm oil with sodium
Discussion
hydroxide solution produces a lot of froth.
1 The white residue on the filter paper is soap
because it has a slippery feel and produces foam Conclusion
when shaken with water. Soaps can be prepared from vegetable oils and
2 The soap produced in Section A can be precipitated concentrated sodium hydroxide solution by
from the solution by adding sodium chloride and saponification.
The Structure of Soap Molecule ‘tail’. The ‘head’ is negatively-charged and the
‘tail’ is a long hydrocarbon chain.
1 When soap is dissolved in water, it will O
dissociate and produce sodium ions and 
carboxylate ions (RCOO–). For example, 3 The ‘head’ contains the –C–O– ion which
5
sodium stearate (soap) dissolves in water to dissolves readily in water (hydrophilic) but
form sodium ions and stearate ions. does not dissolve in oil. Conversely, the ‘tail’
C17H35COONa(s) + water → C17H35COO–(aq) contains a long hydrocarbon chain which
sodium stearate stearate ions is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but
+ Na+(aq) dissolves readily in oil.
4 Soaps made from palmitic acid are known
2 The stearate ions take part in the removal of as sodium palmitate. Figure 5.2 shows the
dirt but the sodium ions do not. The stearate structure of the palmitate ion (C15H31COO–).
ion consists of two parts: the ‘head’ and the
SPM
’04/P1
’05/P2
Figure 5.2 The structure of a palmitate ion
5 Figure 5.3 (a) shows the molecular model of the palmitate ion and Figure 5.3 (b) shows
the simple representation of the structure of the palmitate ion.
Figure 5.3 The palmitate ion

Detergents SPM 3 The equations for the preparation of sodium
’08/P1
lauryl sulphate is shown below.
1 Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made Step 1 Preparation of lauryl hydrogen sulphate
from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum CH3(CH2)10CH2O H + H2SO4 ⎯→
fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals. lauryl alcohol ( HO SO3H)
2 Detergents can be classified into three main types, CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO3H + H2O
depending on the charge on the detergent ion. lauryl hydrogen sulphate
(a) Anionic detergents where the head of the
detergent particle contains a negatively- Step 2 Preparation of sodium lauryl sulphate
charged ion. CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO3 H + Na OH ⎯→
negatively- lauryl hydrogen sulphate
charged ion CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO3–Na+ + H2O
Example: R – O – SO3–Na+
(sodium alkyl sulphate) sodium lauryl sulphate
(b) Cationic detergents where the head of the

detergent particle contains a positively-
charged ion.
positively-
charged ion
Example: R – N(CH3)3+Br–
(c) Non-ionic detergents
5
Example: R– O– CH2CH2OH
Preparation of Detergent
1 The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be

prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of Toothpaste
12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.
The main ingredients in toothpaste are sodium
Step 1 Reaction with concentrated sulphuric dodecyl sulphate (detergent), calcium carbonate or
acid aluminium hydroxide (as abrasives to rub away the
O O food and bacteria), glycerol (sweetener), cellulose
  gum (thickener) and mint (for taste).
R–O– H+H–O –S–O–H→ R–O–S–O–H
  + H2O
O O The Structure of Detergent Molecule
long chain concentrated alkyl hydrogen
alcohol sulphuric acid sulphate When a detergent is dissolved in water, it dissociates
to form sodium ions and detergent ions. The
Step 2 Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide detergent ions have the same basic structure as the
solution soap ions, that is, it consists of two parts:
O O (a) The ‘head’ is the sulphate group (–OSO3–)
  which is negatively-charged and hydrophilic
R – O – S – O – H + NaOH → R – O – S – O–Na+ (dissolves readily in water but not in oils and
  + H2O grease).
O O (b) The ‘tail’ is the long hydrocarbon chain, which
alkyl hydrogen sodium alkyl is neutral and hydrophobic (dissolves readily
sulphate sulphate in oils and grease but not in water).
2 An example of a long chain alcohol is lauryl

alcohol (dodecan-1-ol), CH3(CH2)10CH2OH. The
detergent prepared from dodecan-1-ol is called
sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or
sodium lauryl sulphate (common name),
CH3(CH2)10CH2O-SO3–Na+. alkyl sulphate ion

The Cleansing Action of Soap and Detergent
The cleansing action of soap or detergent depends on their chemical bonding and structures.
(a) The ionic ‘head’ (negatively-charged) is soluble in water (hydrophilic) but insoluble in
oil.
(b) The long hydrocarbon ‘tail’ (neutral) is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble in
oil.
Step 1 Action of soap on dirt
• When soap or detergent is mixed with water,

it lowers the surface tension of water and
wets the dirty surface.
• The negatively-charged ‘heads’ of soap
or detergent ions dissolve in water
(hydrophilic),
• The hydrocarbon ‘tails’ of soap or detergent
The arrangement of soap or detergent
ions dissolve in the layer of grease
ions in the greasy layer
(hydrophobic).
5
Step 2 Dirt being surrounded by soap/

detergent ions
If the water is agitated slightly, the grease

begins to lift off the surface.
On agitation, grease begins to lift
off the surface
Step 3 Lifting dirt from cloth
On further agitation during washing, the

greasy dirt is lifted from the surface since the
density of grease is less than water.
Greasy dirt particles are lifted from

the layer of cloth
Step 4 Emulsifying dirt in water
(a) When the water is shaken, the grease will

be emulsified when it breaks into smaller
droplets.
(b) These greasy droplets repel one another
because they carry the same charge. As
a result, the grease is suspended in the
solution.
(c) When the cloth is rinsed with water, the
Emulsification of greasy dirt in
droplets will be carried away.
water as droplets

Part Y is soluble in water.
The structural formula represents a soap ion (a
• Soaps and detergents can act as emulsifying agents carboxylate). Since the formula contains 16 carbon
to emulsify oil and grease. atoms, it is called a palmitate.
• The process of emulsification breaks large drops of Answer C
grease into smaller droplets that float in water.
Additives in Detergents
The cleaning process becomes more efficient if the 1 Modern detergents used for washing clothes
water containing the soap or detergent solution is usually contain a few types of additives to
stirred vigorously or the washing is done at a higher (a) increase their cleaning power,
temperature. Heating and stirring help to loosen the (b) make them attractive and saleable.
dirt particles from the material being washed. 2 Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent
are cleansing agents (sodium alkyl sulphate or
sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other
substances are additives. The examples of
additives and their functions are described on
• When soap or detergent is added to clean water, the pages 508 to 509.
‘head’ of the soap or detergent ion dissolves in water
5
while the ‘tail’ sticks out from the surface of water.
• Figure 5.4 shows the action of brighteners. The

brighteners absorb the invisible ultraviolet light and
reradiate it as blue light.
The ‘heads’ of the soap or detergent ions will weaken

the forces of attraction between water molecules
and lower the surface tension of water. When the
surface tension is lowered, the water molecules will
spread out and wet the cloth or plates to be cleaned.
Hence, soaps act as wetting agents.
• The dirt particles surrounded by soap or detergent
ions are called micelles.
Figure 5.4 Action of brighteners
• Brighteners makes clothes appear whiter and brighter

1 because the blue light can hide any yellowing on the
’03 ’04 fabric.
Part of the structural formula of a cleansing agent
is shown below.
The Effectiveness of Soaps and
CH3(CH2)14COO– SPM
Detergents as Cleansing Agents ’11/P1
X Y
Which of the following statements is true? Advantages of Soaps SPM
’11/P2
A Part X represents alkylbenzene.
B Part Y is soluble in grease. 1 Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft
C The name of the structural formula is palmitate. water, that is, water that does not contain
D The structural formula represents a detergent ion. Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions.
2 Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the
Comments environment. This is because soaps are made
Part X represents an alkyl group and not from chemicals found in animals and plants.
alkylbenzene. This means that soaps are biodegradable.

Disadvantages of Soaps
1 Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, 2R – O – SO3–(aq) + Ca2+(aq) → (R – O – SO3)2Ca(aq)
water that contains magnesium and calcium alkyl sulphate ion calcium alkyl sulphate
salts. (detergent) (dissolves in water)
2 In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and
Ca2+ ions to form a precipitate called scum. Hence, scum is not formed and the detergents
Thus, soaps do not lather in hard water. are still active in hard water and lathers
3 Scum is a grey solid that is insoluble in water. easily.
It consists of magnesium stearate and calcium 3 Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This
stearate. means that the structure of the hydrocarbon
chain can be modified to produce detergents
Mg2+(aq) + 2C17H35COO–(aq) → (C17H35COO)2Mg(s) with specific properties. Nowadays, different
stearate ion magnesium stearate types of detergents have been synthesised
(soap ion) (scum) for specific uses such as shampoos and dish
cleaners.
Ca2+(aq) + 2C17H35COO–(aq) → (C17H35COO)2Ca(s) 4 Furthermore, detergents are also effective in
stearate ion calcium stearate acidic water because H+ ions in acidic water
(soap ion) (scum)
do not combine with detergent ions.
4 Soaps are also not effective in acidic water,
5
for example, rainwater containing dissolved Disadvantages of Detergents

acids. H+ ions from acids will react with soap
ions to produce fatty acid molecules of large 1 Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon
molecular size that are insoluble in water. chains and are non-biodegradable. As a
result, non -biodegradable detergents cause
C17H35COO–(aq) + H+(aq) → C17H35COOH(s) water pollution.
stearate ion stearic acid 2 Phosphates in detergents act as fertilisers and
(soap ion) promotes the growth of water plants and
algae. When the plants die and decay, they
5 Stearic acids and other fatty acids do not use up the oxygen dissolved in water. This will
act as cleansing agents because they exist decrease the oxygen content in water and kill
mainly as molecules and do not have anionic fishes and other aquatic organisms.
hydrophilic ends (‘heads’) that dissolve in 3 Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The
water. layer of foam that covers the water surface will
prevent oxygen from dissolving in water. This
Advantages of Detergents condition will cause fish and other aquatic
life to die from oxygen starvation.
1 Detergents are cleansing agents that are 4 Additives such as sodium hypochlorite
effective in soft water as well as hard water. (bleaching agent) releases chlorine gas in
This is because detergents do not form scum water that is acidic. Chlorine gas is highly
with Mg2+ ions and Ca2+ ions found in hard toxic and kills aquatic life.
water.
2 The detergent ions (R – O – SO3–) react with
Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions in hard water. However,
the magnesium salts and calcium salts which
are formed are soluble in water. The cleansing agents for window glass or mirrors are
volatile liquids. The chemicals usually used in the
2R – O – SO (aq) + Mg (aq) → (R – O – SO3)2Mg(aq)
– 2+
3 cleansing agents are isopropyl alcohol (propan-2-ol).
alkyl sulphate ion magnesium alkyl sulphate Ammonia is added to enhance the cleansing power.
(detergent) (dissolves in water)

2 ’06
The following chemical equations show the reactions C The concentration of stearate ions decreases.
between alkyl sulphate ions, ROSO3– and stearate D The concentration of stearate ions remains
ions, CH3(CH2)16COO– with magnesium ions, Mg2+ in unchanged.
hard water. R represents long hydrocarbon chain.
Comments
2ROSO3–(aq) + Mg2+(aq) → (ROSO3)2Mg(aq) The equation shows that alkyl sulphate ions do not
form a precipitate with Mg2+ ions but stearate ions form
2CH3(CH2)16COO–(aq) + Mg2+(aq) →
a precipitate with Mg2+ ions. As CH3(CH2)16COO–
(CH3(CH2)16COO)2Mg(s)
(aq) reacts with Mg2+(aq) to form a precipitate
What is the effect of adding magnesium ions to a
of (CH3(CH2)16COO)2Mg, the concentration of
solution containing alkyl sulphate ions or stearate
CH3(CH2)16COO–(aq) decreases.
ions?
A The concentration of alkyl sulphate ions decreases. Answer C
B The concentration of alkyl sulphate ions increases.
5
Cleansing agents
Soaps Detergents
• Soaps are cleansing agents made from • Detergents are synthetic cleansing
animal fats or vegetable oils. agents made from petroleum products.
Preparation of soap by Preparation of detergent from

History of soap making
saponification petroleum fractions
• In ancient times, soaps were
Fats or oils + NaOH(aq) • Sodium alkyl sulphate
made from ashes and soda.
→ soap + glycerol
• Ernest Solvay and Michel
∆ ROSO3H + NaOH(aq) → ROSO3Na + H2O
Chevreul are the chemists that
Soap is RCOONa (R is a
contributed to the development
long hydrocarbon chain)
of the soap industry in the past.
Cleansing action of soaps and detergents

• The ‘head’ dissolves in water.
Effectiveness of the cleansing
–COO – (in soaps) and OSO3– (in detergents)
action of soaps and detergents
• Soaps are ineffective in hard • The ‘tail’ (long hydrocarbon chain) dissolves in oil.
water or acidic water because of • Agitation of water causes grease to lift off the surface.
the formation of precipitates that
are insoluble in water.
• Soaps react with Mg2+ and Ca2+
in hard water to form scum. Additives in detergents
• Detergents are effective in both • Builders: soften water
hard water and acidic water • Whitening agents: remove coloured stains
because no scum is formed. • Biological enzymes: remove protein stains
• Detergents cause water pollution. • Brighteners: make clothes look brighter and whiter
• Drying agent: to keep the detergent dry
• Perfume: to make clothes smell fresh
• Stabilisers • Antiseptics

5
5

5
5

3 ’07
(a) Name the type of reaction that has occured in the Solution
following reaction. (a) Saponification (alkaline hydrolysis)
Vegetable oil + NaOH → soap + compound X (b) Glycerol
(c) Soap is precipitated out.
(b) State the name of compound X.
(c) What happens when sodium chloride is added to
the soap mixture?
5.1
1 (a) What is meant by soap? 3 Complete the flowchart to compare the advantages
(b) State the raw materials needed in the preparation and disadvantages of soap and detergent.
of soap.
(c) A naturally occurring ester has the structural Soap
formula as shown below.
O

5
CH2 – O – C – C17H35
Advantages Disadvantage
O (a)

CH – O – C – C15H31 (b)
O

CH2 – O – C – C17H35
Write an equation to show the reactions involved Detergent

when soap is prepared from this ester.
2 Sodium alkyl sulphate acts as a detergent and has
the formula shown below.
C12H25 – O – SO3–Na+
Advantages Disadvantages
(a) State the characteristics of sodium alkyl sulphate (a)
that enable it to act as a detergent.
(b) Using sodium alkyl sulphate as an example, (b)
describe the action of detergents on the greasy
stains found on a piece of cloth.
(a) making food last longer by preventing the

5.2 Uses of Food Additives growth of microorganism,
(b) making food last longer by preventing the
Types of Additives and Examples oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in air,
(c) making food taste or smell better,
1 Food preservatives have been used since (d) improving the texture of food and to
ancient times. Ancient civilisation used salt prevent food from becoming liquid,
to preserve meat and fish, herbs and spices to (e) restoring the colour of food destroyed
improve the flavour of food. during food processing, and
2 Food additives are chemicals that are added to (f) adding colouring to food so as to make
food in small quantities for specific purposes the food look fresher, more interesting or
such as more appetising.

3 There are six types of food additives as shown
below.
Preservatives Antioxidants Drying fruits and meat is one of the oldest methods of
food preservation. Drying is effective because water is
necessary for the growth of microorganisms.
Type
Salt and sugar can also be used for food preservation
Stabilisers of food Thickeners because the dissolved salt and sugar will cause water
additives to flow by osmosis from the microorganisms to its
surroundings. The dehydration process stops the growth
Flavouring agents Dyes of microorganisms.
Functions of Food Additives SPM

’09/P1, ’10/P2, ’11/P1, P2
Preservatives
1 Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the growth of microorganisms
such as bacteria, mould or fungus so that the food can be stored for a longer period.
2 In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such as salt, sugar and vinegar were used to
preserve food and to make the food taste better.
5
3 Nowadays, synthetic preservatives are used. Table 5.2 shows the types of preservatives commonly
used. Many of the preservatives are organic acids and salts of organic acids.
Table 5.2 Types of preservatives and their uses
Preservative Molecular formula Uses
Sodium nitrite NaNO2 • To preserve meat, sausage, cheese and dried fish
Sodium nitrate NaNO3 • To prevent food poisoning in canned foods
• To maintain the natural colour of meat and to make
them look fresh
Benzoic acid C6H5COOH • To preserve sauces (oyster, tomato or chili), fruit juice,
Sodium benzoate C6H5COONa jam and margarine
Sulphur dioxide SO2 • Used as bleaches and antioxidants to prevent browning

Sodium sulphite Na2SO3 in fruit juices
• Maintain the colour and freshness of vegetables
• To prevent the growth of microorganisms
Antioxidants
1 Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foul odours (for example, butanoic acid,
food to prevent the oxidation of fats and oils C3H7COOH).
by oxygen in the air. 3 Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes,
2 Food containing fats or oils are oxidised and sausages, biscuits and fried food to slow
become rancid when exposed to air. This makes down the oxidation process.
the food unfit for consumption. The rancid 4 Ascorbic acid, citric acid and sodium citrate
products are volatile organic compounds with are examples of antioxidants.

Flavouring Agents
1 There are two types of flavouring agents: in food and drink. However, the use of
artificial flavours and flavour enhancers. They saccharin is banned in many countries
are added to food to make them taste better. because it is a suspected carcinogen.
2 Flavour enhancers have little or no taste of 5 Many esters have fruity odours and tastes
their own. They are chemicals that are added and are used as artificial flavours. Table 5.3
to food to bring out the flavours or to enhance shows some examples of esters that are used
the tastes of food. An example of a flavour in making drinks.
enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG).
3 Artificial flavours include sweeteners and Table 5.3 Uses of esters as flavouring agents
other flavours such as peppermint or vanilla.
Ester Benzyl Octyl Ethyl
Aspartame and saccharin are examples of
ethanoate ethanoate butanoate
artificial sweeteners.
4 Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as Flavour Strawberry Orange Pineapple
a substitute for sugar to enhance the sweetness
Stabilisers and Thickening Agents

1 Stabilisers and thickening agents improve the of chocolate milk, oil and vinegar in salad
5
texture and the blending of food. dressing will separate as soon as mixing is
2 Stabilisers are chemicals that are used to enable oil stopped.
and water in the food to mix together properly in 5 Thickening agents are chemicals that are
order to form an emulsion. Examples of stabilisers added to food to thicken the liquid and to
are gelatin, acacia gum, lecithin and pectin. prevent the food from liquefying. Thickening
3 Stabilisers are added to improve the texture of agents (also called thickeners) absorb water
food. For example, stabilisers are added to ice and thicken the liquid in food to produce a
cream and peanut butter to keep them smooth jelly-like structure.
and creamy. 6 Most thickening agents are natural
4 Without stabilisers, ice crystals would form in carbohydrates. Gelatin and pectin are added
ice cream, particles of chocolate would settle out to help jams and jellies set.
Dyes
1 Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to food to • Pectin, gelatin and acasia gum
give them colour so as to improve their appearance. can be used as both stabilisers
2 Some food are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during and thickeners.
food processing. The food industry uses synthetic food colours to • Some food are hygroscopic,
(a) restore the colour of food lost during food processing, that is, they absorb moisture
(b) enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness from the air and become lumpy.
of food, Anticaking agents such as
(c) give colour to food that do not have colour. calcium silicate and magnesium
3 Some dyes are natural plant pigments while others are synthetically silicate are added to table salt
prepared. The synthetic colours used in food are azo and triphenyl and baking powder to keep them
compounds. Both these compounds are organic compounds. dry.
4 The synthetic dye, brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl • Other food additives include
compound. The synthetic dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are – acidity regulators (to control
examples of azo compounds. pH of food)
– antifoaming agents
5 Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo
– bulking agents (like starch to
group, – N = N –, and are usually yellow, red, brown or black in
increase food bulk)
colour. Triphenyl compounds are organic compounds containing
– humectants (prevent food
three phenyl groups, –C6H5, and are usually green, blue or purple from drying out)
in colour.

Brain damage
Naturally occurring colouring agents can be extracted Excessive intake of nitrites for a prolonged
from the flowers, leaves or roots of plants. period of time can cause brain damage. In this
For example, beta-carotene, the orange-red substance condition, the supply of oxygen to the brain is
in carrots and a variety of plants is an example of disrupted and this causes brain damage.
natural food colour. Beta-carotene is added to butter
and margarine.
Hyperactivity
Effects of Food Additives on Health SPM
’10/P2 1 Food additives such as tartrazine can cause
hyperactivity.
1 The types of food additives allowed and the 2 Children who are hyperactive become very
quantity permitted are controlled by the 1983 active, find it difficult to relax or sleep and
Food Act and the 1985 Food Regulation. are very restless.
2 The permissible quantity depends on the type
of food and the food additives. For example,
benzoic acid added must not exceed 800 mg
per kg in cordial drinks, whereas sodium Reading the Food Label
nitrite must not exceed 100 mg per kg in meat
products. 1 You must read the label on the food package
5
3 The excessive intake of food additives for a to identify
prolonged period of time will ruin our health. (a) brand name,
The side effects arising from taking food (b) the net weight,
additives are allergy, cancer, brain damage and (c) the halal symbol for Muslim consumers,
hyperactivity. (d) the nutrient content (for example, carbohy
drates, proteins and fats, minerals and
Allergy vitamins),
(e) food additives used,
1 Food additives such as sodium sulphite (f) expiry date,
(preservative), BHA and BHT (antioxidants), (g) address of the manufacturer.
MSG (flavouring) and some food colours 2 Food additives listed in the food labels are
(e.g. Yellow No. 5) can cause allergic reactions usually represented by the code number
in some people. – E. This code number shows that the food
2 The symptoms of MSG allergy are giddiness, additives have been approved.
chest pain and difficulty in breathing. This 3 Figure 5.5 shows a typical food label for an
condition is called the ‘Chinese restaurant orange drink.
syndrome’.
3 The presence of sodium nitrate or sodium ascorbic sodium expiry
acid benzoate date
nitrite in food can cause ‘blue baby’ syndrome
that is fatal for babies. This syndrome is due
to the lack of oxygen in the blood. Hence,
the use of nitrate and nitrite is not allowed XYZ Orange drink
in baby food. Ingredients: Water, sugar, Use before
citric acid, E330 31-1-2009
Stabilisers: E466, preservative E211
Cancer
Sweetener: aspartame
1 Chemicals that cause cancer are called Colouring agents: E110, E102, vitamins A and D
carcinogens. Sodium nitrite (a preservative)
is a potent carcinogen.
2 The nitrite reacts with the amines in food
yellow-orange tartrazine
to produce nitrosamine which can cause (dye) (dye)
cancer.
Figure 5.5 A typical food label

The Rationale for Using Food Additives Disadvantages
Advantages 1 Eating food additives such as preservatives,

antioxidants and flavour enhancers in excess
1 To prevent food spoilage quantities over a long period of time is
(a) Oxidation and microorganisms (bacteria, detrimental to health. These additives have
fungi) are the main causes in the little nutritional value.
decomposition of food. In a hot climate, meat 2 Some of the synthetic food additives can cause
and fish rot easily. The use of preservatives is allergy, cancer and hyperactivity.
an effective way to prevent food spoilage.
(b) If preservatives are not used, food spoilage Life Without Food Additives
might drastically reduce the food supply,
making for costlier food. Imagine life without food additives. The following
(c) Few deaths are associated with the use situations will occur.
of food additives. However, many people 1 Food spoilage will drastically reduce the food
have died due to food poisoning caused supply. This will result in food shortages
by bacterial toxins. around the world.
2 For medical reasons 2 Diseases will flourish again due to deficiencies
(a) Aspartame and sorbitol are used to make of vitamins and minerals in our food.
food and drink sweet without using sugar. 3 Loss of appetite will be common particularly
5
These food additives are particularly useful as among the younger generation because our
artificial sweeteners for diabetic patients. food will not look, taste and smell good and
(b) Artificial sweeteners give the sweet taste this will affect their appetites.
but without adding calories to the food.
Thus, they can be used to reduce obesity.
Uses of food additives

• To make food last longer (to extend the shelf life)
• To make food taste better and look better
Functions of food additives Effects on health

Types of food additives
• Preservative: to inhibit or prevent • Allergy: MSG
• Preservatives: sodium nitrite,
the growth of moulds, yeasts and • Carcinogenic: NaNO2
sodium benzoate
bacteria that spoil food • Brain damage
• Antioxidant: ascorbic acid
• Antioxidants: to prevent spoilage • Hyperactivity
• Flavouring: MSG, aspartame
• Stabiliser and thickener: gelatin of food due to oxidation by
and acacia gum oxygen
• Dye: azo compounds, triphenyl • Flavouring agents: to enhance the
compounds taste of food
• Stabilisers and thickeners: to
improve the texture of food
• Colouring agents: to restore the
colour or to enhance the natural
colour of food

2 Traditional medicine are medicine derived
5.2
from natural sources such as plants and animals
1 (a) What is meant by food additives? without being processed chemically.
(b) State two methods of food preservation which
’03 are used in our daily lives. Explain how these
methods work.
2 State the function and application of
(a) acacia gum, The source and uses of some animals and animal
(b) aspartame in the food industry. parts as medicine are shown below.
• Sea horses – For treating respiratory disorders such
3 Explain the advantages and disadvantages of using
as asthma and skin ailments
artificial colourings as food additives.
• Soft-shelled turtles – Improve blood circulation
• Tiger bones – For curing joint pain and stiffness, back
pain and rheumatism
• Bear bile (from bear gall bladder) – To treat illnesses
ranging from liver cancer to haemorrhoids (common
name: piles) to conjunctivitis
5.3 Medicine The use of animals or animal parts as medicine should
be banned. This is because killing animals or removing
animal parts is a cruel act. Furthermore, many of these
Sources and Uses of Traditional
animals are endangered and should be protected.
Medicine
5
1 Medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure 3 Medicine obtained from plants are known
diseases or to reduce pain and suffering due as herbal medicine. The sources and uses of
to illnesses. some herbal medicine are shown in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 Some examples of herbal medicine

SPM
’06/P2 Plant Part of the plant used Uses
Garlic Corm • For preventing flu or asthma attacks
• For reducing high blood pressure
Ginger Rhizome (horizontal • For treating stomach pain due to wind in the
underground stem) stomach
• For supplying heat energy to keep the body
warm
• For preventing flu attack
Aloe vera Leaves • For treating itchy skin
• For treating burns (scalding) on the skin
Lemon (lime) Fruits • For treating boils or abscesses on the skin
• For preventing flu attack
• For treating skin diseases
Quinine Bark of Cinchona tree • For treating malaria
• For preventing muscle cramps
Ginseng Roots • As a tonic to improve the overall health of
human beings
• For increasing energy, endurance and reducing
fatigue
Lemon grass Stem/leaves • Has antibacterial and antifungal properties
• For treating coughs
Tongkat ali Roots • As a tonic for after birth and general health

Modern Medicine
1 Modern medicine can be classified as follows Modern drugs have a trade name and a generic
based on their effects on the human body: name. For example, the analgesic aspirin (generic name)
(a) Analgesics is sold under different brand names such as Caprin
(b) Antibiotics and Disprin. Similarly, paracetamol (generic name) is
(c) Psychotherapeutic drugs sold under the trade name of Panadol.
2 Some examples of modern medicine are
shown in Table 5.5. SPM
Function of Each Type of Modern Drugs ’04/P1
’04/P2
Table 5.5 Examples of modern drugs ’05/P1
Analgesics
Type of modern drug Example
(a) Analgesics Aspirin, paracetamol, 1 Analgesics are medicine that relieve pain.
codeine Examples of analgesics are aspirin, paracetamol
and codeine. Analgesics are sometimes called
(b) Antibiotics Penicillin, painkillers.
streptomycin 2 Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers
(c) Psychotherapeutic Stimulant, whereas codeine is a powerful painkiller.
drugs antidepressant 3 Analgesics relieve pain but do not cure the
and antipsychotic disease. Table 5.6 shows the chemical aspect
5
and functions of some analgesics.

Table 5.6 Types of analgesics and their functions
Type of analgesic Chemical aspect Function
Aspirin IUPAC name: Acetyl salicylic acid • Relief pain and has anti-inflammatory
Functional groups: a carboxylic acid action
group and an ester group • Used to
– reduce fever
COOH carboxylic group – relieve headaches, muscle aches and
O joint aches
 – treat arthritis, a disease caused by
O – C – CH3 inflammation of the joints
– act as an anticoagulant. It prevents
ester group
the clotting of blood and reduce the
risk of heart attacks and strokes
Thus, aspirin is acidic in nature
Paracetamol Structural formula: • Similar to aspirin in its effects but it

SPM H O does not reduce inflammation
’07/P1,
’09/P1 |  • Reduces or relieves flu symptoms such
HO – – N – C – CH3 as fever, bone aches and runny nose
Thus, unlike aspirin, paracetamol is

neutral in nature
Codeine Codeine is an organic compound that • Used to relieve minor to moderate

contains the elements carbon, hydrogen, pain. It is more powerful than aspirin
oxygen and nitrogen and paracetamol but less powerful than
morphine. Codeine and morphine are
narcotic drugs
• Also used in cough mixtures for
suppressing coughs

Antibiotics: Antibacterial Medicine (c) Penicillin is only effective on certain
bacteria. For example, it cannot be used to
1 Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent treat tuberculosis.
the growth of infectious microorganisms. 5 Streptomycin is the antibiotic that is effective
2 Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and in treating tuberculosis.
streptomycin.
3 Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by Psychotherapeutic Medicine
bacteria and are not effective against diseases
caused by viral infections such as influenza, 1 Psychotherapeutic medicine are a group of
measles or small pox. drugs that change the emotions and behaviour
4 Penicillin of the patient and are used for treating mental
(a) Penicillin is derived from the mould or emotional illnesses.
Penicillium chrysogenum. 2 Table 5.7 shows the types and functions of
(b) Penicillin is used to treat diseases, caused by psychotherapeutic drugs.
bacteria, such as pneumonia, gonorrhoea
and syphilis.
Table 5.7 Types and functions of psychotherapeutic drugs

Type of
Functions Examples Comments
psychotherapeutic drug
5
Stimulants • To maintain or Caffeine • It is found in coffee, tea
These are drugs that increase alertness and Cola drinks
stimulate (excite) the • To counteract normal • It is a weak, naturally
activity of the brain fatigue occurring stimulant
and the central nervous • To elevate mood
system Amphetamine • A strong synthetic
stimulant
• It increases the heart and
respiration rates as well as
blood pressure
Antidepressants • To alleviate depression • Tranquiliser • They are substances

These are drugs that • To relieve anxiety or • Barbiturate that depress the central
increase the brain’s level tension nervous system and cause
of neurotransmitters and • To make a person feel drowsiness
thus improve mood calm and sleepy
Antipsychotic medicine • To treat mental illness • Lithium carbonate • Mental (psychotic)

such as schizophrenia (Li2CO3) patients have extreme
(madness) • Chloropromazine mood swings. Their mood
• Haloperidol changes rapidly from high
spirits to deep depression
• Antipsychotic medicine
do not cure mental illness
but it can reduce some of
the symptoms to help the
person live a more normal
life

4 ’07
Side Effects of Traditional Medicine
1 It is generally believed that traditional medicine
Which of the following can relieve joint and
have little side effects compared to modern
muscle aches?
medicine.
I Paracetamol
2 However, taking high doses of quinine for
II Barbiturate
a prolonged period may cause hearing loss.
III Aspirin
German health officials reported 40 cases of
IV Streptomycin
liver damage which were linked to the herbal
A I and II only C II and IV only
medicine containing kava-kava.
B I and III only D III and IV only
3 While the use of traditional medicine is rising
Comments globally, health experts have insufficient data
Analgesics such as aspirin, paracetamol and about how it affects patients.
codeine are used to relieved pain. 4 The World Health Organisation (WHO) hopes
Answer B to set up a global monitoring system to monitor
the adverse side effects of traditional medicine.
Side Effects of Modern Medicine

1 Table 5.8 shows the side effects of modern medicine.
5
Table 5.8 Side effects of modern medicine

Type of modern drug Side effects
Aspirin • Can cause bleeding in the stomach because aspirin is very acidic
• Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and asthmatic attacks
Amphetamine • People who abuse amphetamines are excitable and talkative
• Psychologically addictive and can cause heart attack
• Can cause anxiety, sleeplessness, aggressive behaviour and decrease appetite
• Can cause enlarged pupils, heavy perspiration and trembling hands
Codeine • Can cause addiction
Penicillin • Can cause allergic reactions
• Can cause death to people who are allergic to it
Streptomycin • Can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, rashes and fever
• Can cause loss of hearing following long-term use
Stimulant • Can cause addiction
Antidepressant • Can cause addiction
• Can cause headaches, grogginess and loss of appetite
Antipsychotic drug • Can cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation
• Can cause tremor and restlessness
• Sedation (make people calmer or make people sleepy)
2 Correct ways of using medicine Discuss with your doctor and listen to him
In taking any medicine, we should know why concerning the medicine to be taken.
the medicine is prescribed, how the medicine (b) Follow the instructions given
should be used, what special precautions should Follow the instructions given by your doctor
be followed, what special diet should be or pharmacist concerning the dosage and
followed, what are the side effects and what method of taking the medicine.
storage conditions are needed. In addition, we Dosage: Never take larger or more frequent
should note the following points: doses and do not take the drug for longer
(a) Self-medication than directed.
Do not prescribe medicine for yourself Method of taking: Different drugs are taken
(self-medication) or for other people. in different ways. For example, medicine

that are acidic (such as aspirin) must be
5.3
taken after food. If taken on an empty
stomach, the medicine will damage the 1 (a) State the difference in the effect of using
stomach lining. Conversely, antacid tablets aspirin and paracetamol as medicine.
are usually taken before food. (b) Give a simple chemical test that can be used
(c) Medicine for adults and children to distinguish aspirin from paracetamol.
Medicine for adults should not be given 2 State two similarities and one difference between
to children and vice versa. penicillin and streptomycin.
(d) Use of antibiotics 3 State
Complete the whole course of antibiotic (a) the use of aspirin,
treatment given by your doctor. Do not (b) the side effects of aspirin.
stop taking the antibiotic just because you are
already feeling well. If not, the remaining
bacteria will mutate and develop resistance
to the antibiotic and render it ineffective
in the future.
(e) Side effects Traditional medicine
Visit the doctor immediately if there are • Derived from plants and animals
symptoms of allergy or other side effects
of the drugs.
• Types and functions
5
(f) Expiry date of medicine
Like food, medicine also have expiry dates. • Side effects of modern
Do not take medicine after their expiry and traditional
dates. Medicine
medicines
• Correct usage of
modern and traditional
medicines
Addiction to certain medicine causes psychological

Modern medicine
dependence, physical dependence and tolerance.
• Psychological dependence: an uncontrollable desire
for the medicine.
• Physical dependence: acute withdrawal symptoms
such as convulsions.
• Tolerance for the medicine is shown by the increasing
Analgesics Antibiotics Psychotherapeutic
dosage required to produce the same effect.
• Aspirin • Penicillin drugs
• Paracetamol • Streptomycin • Stimulants
• Codeine • Antidepressants
• Antipsychotics
5 ’05
Which of the following statements about aspirin

are correct?
I It is an analgesic.
5.4 Appreciating the
II It destroys bacteria. Existence of Chemicals
III It can relieve headache.
IV It calms down the emotions of the patient. 1 Since the last 100 years, thousands of new
A I and III only C I, II and III only chemicals are synthesised. These new chemicals
B II and IV only D II, III and IV only include synthetic polymers, composite materials,
antibiotics, detergents and modern medicine.
Comments These chemicals improve the quality of life.
Aspirin is an analgesic and is used to relieve pain. 2 Modern chemical substances have brought
Answer A enormous benefits to mankind. However,
the chemicals have side effects on life and

the environment. We must practise proper
management of chemicals towards a better
life, hygiene and health. In recent years, food irradiation is used in food
3 Modern living depends on chemical substances. preservation. It is well known that gamma rays can kill
Try to imagine the world without chemicals. insects, parasitic worms (such as trichinae in pork) and
For example, without petroleum, the transport bacteria such as Salmonella sp. and E. coli (in beef) .
system will break down; without modern In food irradiation, the food is exposed to high-
medicine, diseases will spread and without soap energy gamma radiation. Irradiation can extend the
and detergent, the world will become more shelf lives of food for weeks or even months.
dirty and less hygienic.
1 Soaps are the sodium or potassium salts of long 11 Food additives that are commonly used are
chain fatty acids. preservatives, antioxidants, flavouring agents, stabilisers,
2 Detergents are the sodium salts of alkyl hydrogen thickening agents and dyes.
sulphate. 12 Preservatives (sodium nitrite and sodium benzoate)
5
3 Soap is prepared by the saponification (alkaline are used to retard the growth of bacteria, mould or
hydrolysis) of vegetable oils or animal fats. fungus.
boil
13 Antioxidants (ascorbic acid and sodium citrate) are
Vegetable oil + NaOH(aq) ⎯→ glycerol + soap used to prevent the oxidation of fats and oils by air.
4 The structure of a soap ion or a detergent ion consists 14 Flavouring agents such as monosodium glutamate
of a hydrophobic part and a hydrophilic part. The (MSG) enhance the taste of food.
hydrophobic part is the long chain hydrocarbon 15 Stabilisers and thickening agents (gelatin and
which is soluble in grease but insoluble in water. acacia gum) improve the texture and the blending
5 For a soap ion, the hydrophilic part is –COO –. For of food.
the detergent ion, the hydrophilic part is –OSO3–. 16 Dyes (azo compound and triphenyl compound) are
The hydrophilic part is negatively-charged and is colouring agents added to food to give them colour
soluble in water but insoluble in grease. so as to improve their appearance.
17 Traditional medicine are medicine derived from
6 The following additives are added to detergents to
natural sources such as plants and animals without
increase their cleaning power.
being processed chemically.
• Builders
18 Garlic is used for reducing high blood pressure and
• Whitening agents
ginger is used to remove wind in the stomach.
• Biological enzymes
19 Modern medicine can be classified as follows:
• Brighteners
• Analgesics • Psychotherapeutic drugs
7 Builders – to remove Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions in hard • Antibiotics
water 20 Analgesics are used to relief pain. Examples of
Whitening agents – to remove coloured stains analgesics are aspirin, paracetamol and codeine.
Biological enzymes – to remove protein stains 21 Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by
Brighteners – make fabrics appear whiter and bacteria. Examples of antibiotics are penicillin and
brighter streptomycin.
8 Soaps do not cause water pollution because they 22 Psychotherapeutic medicine are drugs used for
are biodegradable. However, they are not suitable treating mental or emotional illness.
for use in hard water (or acidic water) because they 23 Examples of psychotherapeutic medicine:
form scum and their cleansing action is reduced. • Stimulants (for example, amphetamine)
9 Detergents cause water pollution because they are • Antidepressants (for example, barbiturate)
non-biodegradable. However, they are suitable for • Antipsychotic medicine – to treat mental illness
use in hard water (or acidic water) because they do 24 Most medicine have side effects. For example,
not form scum. • aspirin can cause bleeding in the stomach,
10 Food additives are chemicals that are added to • amphetamine, codeine, stimulants and antide
food in small quantities for specific purposes. pressants can cause addiction.

5
5.1 Which statement about the

Soaps and Detergents reaction is correct? ’03
1 Which of the following is produced A It is a saponification reaction.

when a mixture of palm oil and B It is an esterification reaction. Which of the following
concentrated sodium hydroxide C It is used to make detergent. statements about the carbon
solution (in excess) is boiled? D The product glycerol is a compound is true?
A Fatty acids only cleaning agent. A It is a detergent ion.
B Salt of the fatty acids only B Part X and part Y are both
6 Which of the following ions
C A mixture of glycerol and soluble in water.
reacts with soap solution to
fatty acids C Part X and part Y are both
form scum?
D A mixture of glycerol and salt soluble in grease.
A Na+ C Cl–
of the fatty acids D Part X is soluble in grease
B Ca 2+
D SO42–
and part Y is soluble in water.
2 Which of the following is an ester?
5
A Palm oil chemicals is not needed in the 12 Soaps and detergents
B Soap preparation of the detergent, A are salts of fatty acids.
C Sodium palmitate sodium alkyl sulphate? B contain the same functional
D Glycerol A Sodium hydroxide group.
B Concentrated sulphuric acid C form scum with strongly
3 Which of the following is acidic solution.
correctly matched with the C Alkylbenzene sulphonic acid
D Alcohol with large molecular D contain the hydrophobic part
manufacturing process? that is soluble in oil and grease.
size
Chemical Manufacturing 8 Which of the following statements 13 Which of the following statements
process about detergent is true? are true regarding soaps?
A Detergents are covalent I Soaps are biodegradable.
A Soap Neutralisation of
compounds. II Soaps lather readily in hard
vegetable oils
B Detergents are made from water.
B Soap Alkaline III Soaps are ineffective in acidic
hydrolysis of petroleum.
C Detergents contain the water.
vegetable oils IV Soaps are prepared from
–COO– group in its molecules.
C Detergent Neutralisation D Detergents are less effective sulphonic acid.
of long chain than soap in hard water. A I and III only
alcohol B II and IV only
9 The hydrophilic group in the C I, III and IV only
D Margarine Oxidation of
detergent, sodium dodecyl D I, II, III, and IV
unsaturated fats
(lauryl) sulphate is
14 A sodium compound has the
A –OSO3–
4 In the soap industry, sodium following formula:
B –OSO42–
chloride is used to ’08
C –COO – O
A prevent the formation of scum. 
D CH3(CH2)10CH2–
B decrease the surface tension R – O – S – O –Na+
of water. 10 Which of the following substances 
C produce a softer soap. acts as a whitening agent? O
D decrease the solubility of A Sodium borate
soap in soap solution. B Sodium perborate R is a long hydrocarbon
C Sodium tripolyphosphate chain. Which of the following
5 The following equation shows a statements are true regarding
D Biological enzyme
chemical equation. this compound?
’09 Fat + NaOH → 11 The diagram shows the structure I The compound is used as a
Glycerol + sodium salt of a carbon compound. detergent.

II The molecule has a part that 19 Which of the following is true 5.3 Medicine
is insoluble in water. about soap or detergent?
III The compound is an example ’06 A Soap forms scum in soft water. 24 A student has a headache.
of sodium alkyl sulphate. B Detergent forms scum in Which of the following medicine
IV The compound can break large hard water. ’05 will relieve his headache?
droplets of grease into smaller C Scum decreases the A Streptomycin C Aspirin
droplets of grease. effectiveness of soap as a B Amphetamine D Insulin
A I and III only cleansing agent.
25 Which of the following modern
B II and IV only D The presence of sulphate
medicine is matched correctly
C I, II and III only ion in detergent forms
with its function?
D I, II, III and IV scum. ’09
Medicine Function
15 Amylase and lipase are additives
added to detergent. 5.2 A Aspirin Antibiotic
Uses of Food Additives
What is the function of these B Insulin Antibiotic
additives? 20 Which of the following are the
functions of food additives? C Paracetamol Analgesic
A They act as drying agents.
B They act as bleaching agents
’09 I To enhance the flavour of food D Streptomycin Analgesic
C They remove protein stains. II To increase the rate of
metabolism 26 Which of the following belongs
D They make clothes look
III To decrease the rate of to the class of medicine called
brighter.
oxidation of food psychotherapeutic drugs?
IV To make food more digestible A Codeine C Penicillin
5
16 Which of the following molecules

A I and II only B Aspirin D Stimulant
act as cleansing agents?
I CH3(CH2)3COONa B I and III only 27 A patient is experiencing
II CH3(CH2)16CH3 C II and IV only depression and has difficulty in
III CH3(CH2)16OSO3Na D I, III and IV only sleeping. Which of the following
IV CH3(CH2)15COONa medicine is suitable for treating
A I and II only 21 Which of the following food this patient?
B III and IV only additives is used to stop the A Barbiturate
C II, III and IV only activity of microorganisms in B Codeine
D I, II, III and IV food? C Lithium carbonate
A Ascorbic acid D Paracetamol
17 A section of the anion of a B Benzoic acid
cleaning agent is shown below. C Citric acid 28 Which of the following medicine
’04 D Triphenyl compounds have antibacterial properties?
CH3(CH2)14COO – I Barbiturate
22 Which of the following food II Penicillin
Which of the following is true
additives is used to improve the III Paracetamol
about the ion?
texture of ice cream? IV Streptomycin
A It is glycerol.
A Pectin A I and III only
B It is a detergent ion.
B Citric acid B II and IV only
C It is palmitate ion.
C Sodium nitrate C III and IV only
D It is stearate ion.
D Aspartame D I, II and III only
18 When a concentrated sodium 23 Which food additive is matched 29 Which of the following modern
chloride solution is added to correctly with its function? medicine can cause addiction?
solution Q, a white precipitate is ’11 A Streptomycin C Codeine
formed. Solution Q most likely Food B Paracetamol D Aspirin
contains Function
additive 30 A patient complained of pain in
I sodium stearate
II sodium palmitate A Thickener Tartrazine the stomach after taking aspirin.
’08 Which substance will help to
III lead(II) nitrate
IV methyl ethanoate B Flavouring Acasia gum relieve the pain?
A I and II only A Ammonia
Ascorbic
B III and IV only C Antioxidant B Ethanoic acid
acid
C I, II, and III only C Sodium chloride
D I, II, and IV only D Preservative Aspartame D Magnesium hydroxide

1 The following equation shows the reaction between palm oil and concentrated potassium hydroxide solution.

’05 boil
Palm oil + potassium hydroxide ⎯⎯→ potassium palmitate + glycerol

(a) What is the name of this reaction? [1 mark]
(b) (i) Which of the chemicals in the above equation is a soap? [1 mark]
(ii) Name the homologous series to which palm oil belongs. [1 mark]
(iii) Complete the anion part of the palmitate ion. [1 mark]

CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

(c) Diagram 1 shows part of the washing action of a detergent particle, sodium alkyl sulphate on a cloth stained with
grease.
5
Diagram 1
(i) Write the anion part of sodium alkyl sulphate. [1 mark]
(ii) State the part of sodium alkyl sulphate that is soluble in grease. [1 mark]
(iii) Identify the particles represented by + and – in Diagram 1. [2 marks]
(iv) Based on Diagram 1, explain the cleansing action of detergents. [3 marks]
(d) (i) State what happens to the grease particles on further agitation. [1 mark]
(ii) Complete Diagram 2 to illustrate your statement in (d)(i). [1 mark]

Diagram 2
2 A student carries out four experiments to study the effectiveness of two cleansing agents, X and Y, on an
oil-stained cloth in hard and soft water. Table I shows the arrangement of apparatus, the type of water used
and the observations for Experiments I, II, III and IV.
Experiment I II III IV
Arrangement of
apparatus
Observation Oily stains disappear Oily stains disappear Oily stains remain Oily stains disappear
Table 1

(a) Based on the observation shown above, deduce (iii) How is ginger used to treat this illness?
which of the cleansing agents, X or Y, is [1 mark]
(i) a detergent,
4 (a) State three reasons why food additives are used
(ii) a soap? [2 marks]
in the food industry. [3 marks]
(b) Describe the observation (if any) when solutions
(b) Pineapple jelly contains gelatin.
X and Y are separately shaken with hard water.
What is the role of gelatin in the jelly? [1 mark]
[2 marks]
(c) Modern medicines are classified based on their
(c) Predict the observation if hard water in Experiment
effects on the human body.
III is replaced by unpolluted river water. [1 mark]
Explain the terms analgesics and psychotherapeutic
(d) What inference can be drawn regarding the drugs. [2 marks]
effectiveness of X and Y as cleansing agents?
(d) Complete the table to show the type of medicine
[2 marks]
to which the following medicines belong to.
(e) State the variables involved in this experiment.
(i) Manipulated variable Name of medicine Type of medicine
(ii) Responding variable
(iii) Constant variable [3 marks] Aspirin
3 (a) Toothpaste contains the following chemicals: Barbiturate

Amphetamine
Sodium lauryl sulphate: CH3(CH2)11OSO3Na
Calcium pyrophosphate: Ca2P2O7 Codeine
Magnesium hydroxide: Mg(OH)2
5
[4 marks]
Silicon(IV) oxide: SiO2
Mint oil (e) State one side effect of taking (i) aspirin,
Cellulose gum (ii) barbiturate for a prolonged period. [2 marks]
Saccharin 5 Aspirin has the following structural formula:
(i) What is the purpose of using sodium ’04

lauryl sulphate, mint oil and saccharin in
toothpaste? [3 marks]
(ii) In the food industry, cellulose gum is used as a
thickening agent. What is meant by thickening
agent? [1 mark]
(iii) Suggest a reason why magnesium hydroxide
is used in toothpaste. [1 mark]
(iv) State the names of chemicals needed for
the preparation of sodium lauryl sulphate.
[2 marks]
(v) Write the equations for the reactions.
[2 marks] (a) What is the molecular formula of aspirin? [1 mark]
(b) Ginger can be used as a traditional medicine. (b) Write the formulae of the ions produced when
Diagram 3 shows a ginger plant. aspirin is added to water. [1 mark]
’06
(c) (i) State two observations for the reaction that
occurs when aspirin is added to sodium
carbonate solution. [2 marks]
(ii) Name one important application of aspirin.
[1 mark]
(d) State one side effect of aspirin. [1 mark]
(e) What is the correct way of taking aspirin? [1 mark]
(f) Give the name of a medicine that can be used
as a substitute for aspirin. [1 mark]
Diagram 3
(g) An aspirin pill contains 0.32 g of aspirin. Calculate
(i) What illness can be cured by using ginger? the volume of 0.050 mol dm–3 of sodium
[1 mark] carbonate needed to neutralise the aspirin pill.
(ii) Which of the parts W, X, Y or Z, is used to [3 marks]
treat the illness in (i)? [1 mark] (Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; O, 16)

Essay Questions
1 (a) Describe one experiment to prepare a sample of (d) State three wrong methods of taking medicine
soap using coconut oil in the school laboratory. and the problems that may arise. [6 marks]
[8 marks]
(b) Describe four types of additives in liquid 3 (a) What is meant by food additives? [3 marks]
detergents. Give one example of the additives (b) A label on a box of ice-cream states that it
and state its function. [7 marks] ’08 contains the following food additives:
(c) Describe the differences between soaps and • Azo compounds
detergents in terms of their effectiveness • Citric acid
as cleansing agents and their effects on the • Benzyl ethanoate
environment. [5 marks] • Sodium benzoate
• Sucrose
2 (a) What is meant by (i) medicine and (ii) traditional
medicine? [3 marks] State the function of each of the food additives
(b) Give two examples of traditional medicine derived used. [12 marks]
from plants and state their functions. [2 marks] (c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of
(c) Describe the types of modern medicine and using food additives. [5 marks]
their examples. State the function of each type of
modern medicine. [9 marks]
5
Experiment
1 You are asked to devise an experiment to compare the effectiveness of the cleansing action of soaps and
detergents in soft water and hard water.
Your explanation must contain the following:
(a) Aim of experiment
(c) Statement of the hypothesis
(d) Lists of materials and apparatus

PAPER 1 (50 marks) Time: 1 hour 15 minutes
Instructions: Question 1 to Question 50 are followed by four options A, B, C and D.

Choose the best option for each question.
1 The chemical used to coagulate I V 1.12 gram of acrolein contains Compound Relative
latex into solid rubber is 1.2 3 1023 molecules. formula
A ammonia A I and III only mass
B methanoic acid B II and III only
C sodium chloride C I, II and III only I CH3C6H2(NO2)3 227
D calcium carbonate D I, II, III and IV II HOOCC6H4COOCH3 180
III FeSO4.7H2O 278
2 The element 147 X 5 Graphs I and II show the
I has 5 valence electrons. heating of two samples of IV Cu(NH3)4SO4 228
II is located in Period 3 of the naphthalene. A I, II and III only
Periodic Table. B I, III and IV only
III forms a negatively charged temperature (°C) C II, III and IV only
ion of charge –3. graph I
D I, II, III and IV
IV has 7 protons and 14
neutrons. 80 X Y 7 Which of the elements below
A I and III only are inert?
B II and IV only I: 2W III: 8Y
C I, II and III only time (s) II: 4 X IV: 10 Z
D I, III and IV only A I and III only
temperature (°C) B I and IV only
graph II
3 The electronic configuration of C II and III only
the ion X2+ is 2.8.18.18.8. D II and IV only
80 P Q
The ion X2+ has 81 neutrons.
8 Brilliant blue is used as a food
Determine the nucleon number
colouring. Its molecular formula
of the atom of element X.
time (s) is C47H50N3O7S2 .
A 133 C 136
Calculate the number of moles
B 135 D 137 Why is the region XY of graph I
of brilliant blue in 2.08 gram of
shorter than region PQ of graph
the compound.
4 The diagram shows the II?
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1;
structural formula of the A Sample II used is purer than
C, 12; N, 14; O, 16; S, 32]
compound acrolein. sample I.
A 0.0025 mol
B Sample I is heated earlier
B 0.0030 mol
H2C == CH — C == O than sample II.
C 0.0050 mol
| C Sample I is heated more
D 0.0060 mol
H strongly than sample II.
Which statements below are D Sample I is heated using a 9 Which of the following
true concerning acrolein? water bath whereas sample II hydrocarbons burns with the
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; is heated directly. most soot?
C, 12; O, 16; Avogadro number [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12]
= 6 3 1023 mol-1] 6 Which compound in the table A C2H2 C C7H14
I Acrolein is soluble in ethanol. below is correctly matched with B C5H12 D C9H20
II Acrolein has a low melting its relative formula mass?
point. [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 10 The table shows the proton
III Acrolein can undergo 12; N, 14; O, 16; Na, 23; P, 31; numbers of four elements P, Q,
addition polymerisation. S, 32; Ca, 40; Fe, 56; Cu, 64] R and S.
526
Element Number Number of 15 Which of the following metallic 19 Streptomycin is an antibiotic.
of protons neutrons oxides is amphoteric? Its molecular formula is
A Aluminium oxide, tin(II) oxide C21H39N7O12.
P 3 4 and lead(II) oxide Calculate the number of
Q 8 8 B Aluminium oxide, lead(II) streptomycin molecules contained
R 9 10 oxide and silicon(IV) oxide in 1.162 gram of the compound.
C Magnesium oxide, tin(II) [Relative atomic mass: H, 1;
S 11 12 oxide and lead(II) oxide C, 12; N, 14; O, 16; Avogadro
D Magnesium oxide, aluminium number = 6 3 1023 mol–1]
Which of the following pairs oxide and tin(II) oxide A 1.2 3 1021 C 1.5 3 1022
of elements react to form a B 1.5 3 1021 D 1.5 3 1023
compound with the relative 16 Concentrated sodium chloride
formula mass of 54? solution is electrolysed using 20 Magnesium sulphate salt is used
A P and Q carbon electrodes. as laxative. 10 g of magnesium
B P and R At the anode, gas X is produced oxide is reacted with excess
C R and S first followed by gas Y. dilute sulphuric acid solution.
D Q and R What is gas X and gas Y? Calculate the maximum mass
of magnesium sulphate salt
11 The chemical that can be used Gas X Gas Y formed.
to differentiate dilute sulphuric
A Oxygen Chlorine [Relative atomic mass: O, 16;
acid and dilute hydrochloric acid
Mg, 24; S, 32]
solutions is B Oxygen Hydrogen
A 12 g C 24 g
I sodium carbonate solution C Chlorine Hydrogen B 28 g D 30 g
II silver nitrate solution
III lead(II) nitrate solution D Chlorine Oxygen
21 X and Y form a covalent
IV barium nitrate solution compound with the formula YX3.
17 Potassium iodide solution of
A I and III only Which of the following is the
concentration 1 mol dm–3
B II and IV only likely proton numbers of X and
is electrolysed using carbon
C I, II and IV only Y?
electrodes.
Which of the following half- Proton Proton
equations represent the reactions number of number of
12 20.00 cm3 of sulphuric acid
occurring at both electrodes? atom X atom Y
neutralises 25.0 cm3 of 2 mol
dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution. Anode Cathode A 13 9
Calculate the concentration of
A 4OH– → 2H+ + 2e– B 17 13
the sulphuric acid solution in
mol dm–3. 2H2O + O2 → H2 C 15 17
A 0.40 mol dm–3 + 4e–
D 17 15
B 0.80 mol dm–3 B 2I– → 2H+ + 2e–
C 1.25 mol dm–3 I2 + 2e– → H2
22 The diagram below shows a
D 2.50 mol dm–3 C 2H+ + 2e– 2I– → chemical cell.
→ H2 I2 + 2e–
13 As we go down Group 1, A
A reactivity decreases D 2H+ + 2e– 4OH– →
B electropositivity decreases → H2 2H2O + O2
C melting point decreases + 4e– zinc iron
D density decreases
18 Calculate the volume of oxygen
gas needed for complete sodium
14 Which of the following chloride(aq)
combustion of 3.2 g of methane
statements is true about
at room temperature and How can the voltage of the cell
halogens?
pressure. be increased?
A Chlorine is more reactive
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, I Increase the concentration of
than fluorine.
12; 1 mol of gas occupies 24 sodium chloride solution
B Iodine reacts with iron to
dm3 at r.t.p.] II Replace the iron electrode
produce iron(III) iodide.
A 2.4 dm3 with copper electrode
C Bromine exists as gas at room
B 4.8 dm3 III Replace the sodium chloride
temperature and pressure.
C 9.6 dm3 solution with iron(II) sulphate
D Bromine is more
D 12.0 dm3 solution
electronegative than chlorine.
527
time
volume II volume
of of I
CO2 (cm3) CO2 (cm3) II
IV Replace the zinc electrode I Sodium iodide solution C volume volume
with magnesium electrode II Potassium sulphate solution of I of
I CO2 (cm3) CO2 (cm3)
A I and III only III Hydrochloric acid solution
B II and IV only IV Ammonia solution
C I, II and IV only A I, II and III only II
time time
D II, III and IV only B I, II and IV only
C II, III and IV only time
23 Which of the following is a D I, II, III and IV
volume D volume
composite material? of I of II I
CO2 (cm3) CO2 (cm3)
A Fibreglass 29 The diagram shows some 50
B Borosilicate glass cents coins.
C Lead glass II
D Soda glass
time time
24 The bite of fire ants contains the 31 The diagram below shows a
compound with the molecular graph obtained when hydrogen
formula HCOOH. peroxide decomposed to oxygen
Which of the following chemicals when manganese(IV) oxide is
can be used to counter the The composition of elements in
the coins are added into the solution.
effect of this chemical?
A 10% tin and 90% copper volume of
A Ethanoic acid oxygen gas
B Ethyl ethanoate B 30% zinc and 70% copper V (cm3)
C Sodium bicarbonate C 50% tin and 50% lead
D Ethanol D 25% nickel and 75% copper
25 10.0 gram of sodium hydroxide 30 The table shows the volumes 90 150 time
(s)
is dissolved in V cm3 of distilled and concentrations of
From the graph we can
water. hydrochloric acid added to
conclude that
The solution obtained has a 10 g of marble (in excess) in
I the rate of decomposition of
concentration of 0.5 mol dm–3. experiments I and II.
hydrogen peroxide decreases
Calculate the value of V. with time.
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; Experiment Volume of Concentration
hydrochloric of hydrochloric II the average rate of
O, 16; Na, 23] decomposition of hydrogen
A 200 cm3 C 500 cm3 acid (cm3) acid
(mol dm–3) V
B 250 cm3 D 1000 cm3 peroxide is —— cm3 s—1.
90
I 50 1.0 III the rate of reaction at time
26 Which of the solutions below II 100 0.5 150 second is zero.
has the lowest pH value?
IV all the hydrogen peroxide
A 25 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 Which of the following graphs of had decomposed at 90
sulphuric acid total volumes of carbon dioxide seconds.
B 25 cm3 of 1.5 mol dm–3 collected against time for both A I, II and III only
nitric acid experiments I and II is correct? B I, III and IV only
C 25 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm–3 A volume
II volume C II, III and IV only
ethanoic acid of of I
D 45 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3
3
CO2 (cm ) CO2 (cm )D I, II, III and
3 II IV
hydrochloric acid I 32 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

I
The rate of the above reaction
27 nCHCH3CH2 → -(CHCH3CH2)n- above can be increased by
The reaction I represented by A adding vanadium powder.
time time
the equation above is B cooling the reaction vessel.
A cracking C increasing the pressure.
B polymerisation B
volume volume D immediately removing the
volume
C addition reaction II ofvolume II Itrioxide formed.
of of (cm3) I I of
3
sulphur
CO CO2 (cm )
D reduction reaction
CO2 (cm3) CO2 3
2 (cm )
II
I compounds does sulphur have
28 Which of the following reagents II
can be used to differentiate the highest oxidation state?
lead(II) nitrate and aluminium A H2S C H2S2O7
time time
nitrate solutions? time time B SO2 D H2SO3
volume volume 528

of I of II I
CO2 (cm3) CO2 (cm3)
34 W, X, Y and Z are four metals. III M x+ ion accepts electron acid, the heat energy released
Consider the reactions below during the reaction. increases the temperature of the
involving these metals: IV M x+ ion releases electron acid to y oC. Determine the heat
X + Z sulphate → during the reaction. of reaction between zinc and
Z + X sulphate A I and III only C II and III only hydrochloric acid.
W + Z sulphate → B I and IV only D II and IV only [Relative atomic mass: Zn, 65;
Z + W sulphate Specific heat capacity of water
W + X sulphate → 38 The diagram below shows = 4.2 J/g oC]
No reaction three iron nails wrapped with 1.3
A ———— 3 100 3 4.2 3
Y + Z sulphate → metals P, Q and R and then 65
No reaction left in agar-agar solution added (y – x) kJ/mol
Arrange the metals W, X, Y with a few drops of potassium 1.3 100
and Z in decreasing order of hexacyanoferrate(III) for 1 day. B ———— 3 —————————— 3 4.2 3
65 1 000
electropositivity. (y – x) kJ/mol
A X, W, Z, Y C W, X, Z, Y agar-agar solution + a few drops of potassium
65
B Y, Z, W, X D Y, Z, X, W hexacyanoferrate(III) C ———— 3 100 3 4.2 3
1.3
I II III (y – x) kJ/mol
35
65 100
P Q D ———— 3 —————————— 3 4.2 3
Alcohol Alkene 1.3 1 000
(y – x) kJ/mol
S
Alkane Chloroalkane
An alcohol can be converted to 41 Which of the following
iron nail + P iron nail + Q iron nail + R
chloroalkane via three processes statements is not true
P, Q and R. concerning soap?
Name the processes P, Q and The results of the experiment A Soap does not pollute
R. are tabulated below: river water because it is
Test tube Observation biodegradable.
P Q R
B Cleansing action of soap is
A Fermentation Hydrogenation Substitution I Large amount
not affected in acidic water
of dark blue
B Fermentation Hydrolysis Substitution but the cleansing action of
precipitate formed
soap is lower in hard water.
C Dehydration Hydrogenation Hydrolysis II No dark blue C Soap is produced by alkaline
D Dehydration Hydrogenation Substitution precipitate formed hydrolysis of fat molecules.
III Small amount D Part of the soap molecule
of dark blue dissolves in greasy stain
36 The IUPAC name for the precipitate formed and a part of the molecule
compound shown below is dissolves in water.
Arrange the metals P, Q and
C2H5
R in decreasing order of
electropositivity. 42 The diagram shows the content
CH3CHCH2CHCH3
A P, R, Q C Q, R, P of a box of ice cream.
C3H7 B P, Q, R D Q, P, R
Contents : Vanillin, Lecithin,
A 2,4-dimethyloctane 39 The heat of combustion of an Sugar, Full cream milk
B 3,5-dimethyloctane alkane X is 2020 kJ mol–1. Manufactured date :
C 2-ethyl-4-methylheptane When 11 g of the alkane X is Sept 2012
D 2-ethyl-4-propylpentane burned, 505 kJ of heat is released.
Determine the molecular What is the function of vanillin
37 Mx+ → My+ formula of alkane X. and lecithin?
The element M has two [Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12]
oxidation numbers. The A C2H6 C C4H10 Vanillin Lecithin
conversion of Mx+ to My+ is a B C3H8 D C5H12 A Emulsifier Colouring
reduction reaction if B Emulsifier Flavouring
I the value of x is more than 40 The initial temperature of
y. 100 cm3 dilute hydrochloric acid C Flavouring Colouring
II the value of y is more than solution is x °C. When 1.3 g of D Flavouring Emulsifier
x. zinc powder is added to the
529
43 Which of the following medicine is correctly categorised? 48 Which of the statements below
Analgesic Antibiotic Psychotherapeutic are true?
I Vulcanised rubber is more
A Streptomycin Colouring Valium elastic than natural rubber.
B Aspirin Flavouring Codeine II Vulcanised rubber is less
stretchable than natural
C Paracetamol Streptomycin Ketamine
rubber.
D Aspirin Insulin Barbiturate III Vulcanised rubber is harder
than natural rubber
44 The table shows the proton Which of the following IV The melting point of
numbers of four elements. experiments will produce graph vulcanised rubber is higher
Q? than natural rubber.
Element W X Y Z Experiment Manipulated variable
I 5 grams of zinc C II, III and IV only
Proton number 9 11 17 19 powder added to D I, II, III and IV
50 cm3 of 0.5 mol
Which of the following pairs dm–3 HCl at 30 °C 49 The diagram shows an
of elements reacts most II 5 grams of apparatus set-up of an
vigorously? granulated zinc experiment used to prepare gas
A W and Z added to 25 cm3 of X.
B X and Y 1.0 mol dm–3 HCl at mineral wool aluminium
C X and Z 30 °C soaked oxide gas X
in ethanol
D W and X
III 5 grams of
granulated zinc
45 When a mixture of bromine
added to 50 cm3 of
water, potassium iodide and
0.5 mol dm–3 HCl at heat water
carbon tetrachloride is shaken,
40 °C
I the iodide ions will be
oxidised. IV 5 grams of
II redox reaction will take place. granulated zinc Which of the statements below
III iodide ions act as reducing added to 50 cm3 of is true about gas X?
agent. 1.0 mol dm–3 HCl at A Rekindle a glowing splint
IV the carbon tetrachloride layer 30 °C B Decolourises brown colour of
will turn brown. bromine water
A I and III only
A I, II and III only C Produces a ‘pop’ sound when
B II and IV only
B I, III and IV only tested with a burning splint
C II, III and IV only D Changes colour of acidified
D I, II, III and IV potassium dichromate from
orange to green
47 Consider the reaction:
46 The diagram shows graph P phosphoric potassium acidified
obtained when 5 grams (in acid dichromate(VI) potassium
excess) of granulated zinc is C3H6 + steam ⎯⎯→ X ⎯⎯⎯→ Y dichromate(VI) butanol
added to 50 cm3 of 0.5 mol 50 C3H7OH ⎯⎯⎯→ A ⎯⎯→ B
What is the molecular formula
dm–3 hydrochloric acid at 30 oC. The flowchart above shows
of X and Y?
the conversion of C3H7OH to
total volume X Y products A and B.
of H2 (cm3) Q P
A C3H7OH C3H7COOH What of the following is the
molecular formula of product B?
B C3H7OH C2H5COOH
A C2H5COOC3H7
C C3H6(OH)2 C3H7COOH B C2H5COOC4H9
D C3H6(OH)2 C2H5COOH C C3H7COOC3H7
time (s) D C3H7COOC4H9
530
PAPER 2 Time: 2 hour 30 minutes
Section A (60 marks)

Answer all questions in this section.
The time suggested to complete this section is 90 minutes.
1 Table 1 shows a list of elements labelled P, Q, …… (b) Two drops of

V. phenolphthalein is
The letters are not the actual symbols of the phenolphthalein added
elements. into the sodium
Element 7
P 12
Q 14
R 16
S 27
T 35
U V
40 hydroxide solution.
3 6 7 8 13 17 20
Electronic
configuration
(c) A burette is filled
Table 1 with nitric acid of
nitric acid
concentration 2.0
(a) Write the electronic configuration of the elements mol dm–3.
in the spaces provided. [1 mark] The initial burette
(b) (i) Complete Table 2 below by writing the reading is 0.00 cm3.
formula of the compound formed between The sodium
a pair of elements given. hydroxide in the
(ii) State whether the compound formed is conical flask is then
ionic or covalent. 20 titrated with the
20
nitric acid until the
(iii) Determine the relative formula mass of the neutral point.
compound.
(d) Diagram shows
Pair of Formula of Ionic or Relative 20
the final burette
elements compound covalent formula mass reading.
30
Q and S 30
P and R
T and U
30
R and U
V and R
Q and U Diagram 1
T and S (a) Name the apparatus P used in measuring

Table 2 [7 marks] 25.0 cm3 of the sodium hydroxide solution.
[1 mark]
(c) Hydrogen (H) and R form a covalent compound. (b) State the colour change of the phenolphthalein
Draw the Lewis structure of this compound. indicator at the neutral point. [1 mark]
[2 marks]
2 Diagram 1 shows the steps involved in preparing a (c) (i) State the volume of nitric acid needed to
salt. neutralise the sodium hydroxide solution.
[1 mark]
(a) 25.0 cm3 of (ii) The experiment is repeated by adding
sodium hydroxide this volume of nitric acid in (c)(i) above
solution of to 25.0 cm3 sodium hydroxide solution
concentration of concentration 2.0 mol dm–3 without
P 2.0 mol dm–3 is addition of phenolphthalein indicator.
measured using Why was the experiment repeated without
sodium
hydroxide apparatus P and the addition of phenolphthalein indicator?
then transferred Write the chemical formula of this
into a conical flask. compound. [1 mark]
531
(d) (i) Write a balanced equation for the 0.2 g of lithium was added into 200 cm3 of water in
neutralisation reaction. [1 mark] a conical flask at room temperature and pressure.
(ii) Calculate the maximum mass of salt The gas collected was recorded at 20-second intervals.
formed. The result was tabulated below:
[Relative atomic mass: N, 14; O, 16;
Na, 23] [2 marks] Time (s) 0 20 40 60 80 100
(iii) State one use of this salt. [1 mark] Gas syringe 0 250 310 355 360 360
(e) The salt formed remained in the solution. Describe reading (cm3)
how the salt is removed from the solution.
[2 marks] (a) Write a chemical equation for the reaction
between lithium metal and water. [1 mark]
3 The flowchart below shows the steps involved in the
(b) Sketch a graph of volume of gas evolved against
production of ammonia in industry.
time. [3 marks]
Unreacted nitrogen
and hydrogen volume
of gas
(cm3)
Nitrogen
Compression Catalyst
Ammonia
chamber chamber
Hydrogen Liquid ammonia
(a) How are (i) nitrogen (ii) hydrogen obtained?

time (s)
[2 marks]
(b) To what pressure is the mixture of nitrogen and
hydrogen compressed? [1 mark]
(c) (i) State how the reaction rate changes with
(c) Name the catalyst used in the catalyst chamber. time. [1 mark]
[1 mark] (ii) Explain your answer. [1 mark]
(d) To what temperature is the catalyst heated? (d) Calculate the number of moles of gas collected.
[1 mark]
[1 mol of gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3 at
(e) After all these conditions are attained, the room temperature and pressure] [2 marks]
nitrogen and hydrogen react to form ammonia.
Write a equation for the reaction. [1 mark]
(f) How is the liquid ammonia removed from the
reaction chamber? [1 mark]
(g) State two uses of ammonia. [2 marks]
4 Diagram 2 shows the apparatus set-up used to

study the rate of reaction between lithium metal and
water.
(e) The experiment was repeated as stated below:
hydrogen gas Experiment II : 0.2 g of lithium was added to
200 cm3 of water at 40 °C.
Experiment III : 0.1 g of lithium was added to
burette 200 cm3 of water at 30 °C.
conical
flask Sketch the shape of the graphs for each of these
experiments on the same axes as graph (b)
lithium above. [2 marks]
5 Diagram 3 shows the apparatus set-up to study the

Diagram 2 reactivity of metals P, Q, R and S with oxygen.
532
potassium glass (d) Identify the metal
chlorate, KCIO3 wool Metal P
(i) P (ii) S [2 marks]
(e) (i) Identify metal Q : [1 mark]
(ii) Name the product formed when metal Q
heat heat was used in the reaction. [1 mark]
(iii) Write a chemical equation for this reaction.
[1 mark]
Diagram 3 (f) Suggest another experiment which can be carried

out to determine the position of the metals in
The P metal powder was heated strongly first. Then the reactivity series. [1 mark]
the potassium chlorate was heated. On heating, the
potassium chlorate decomposes to give oxygen gas. 6 Table 3 below shows four categories of medicine.
The reactivity of the reaction between the hot metal Category Example
and oxygen gas was recorded. The experiment was P Streptomycin
repeated by replacing P metal powder with Q, R and Q Valium
S metal powders.
R Aspirin
The result of the experiment is shown in the table
below: Hormone Insulin

Results Table 3
Metals Observation Colour of product formed (a) Name the category of the following medicine
when… (i) Streptomycin (iii) Aspirin
Hot Cold (ii) Valium [2 marks]
(b) State the function of each category of medicine.
P Burns brightly Yellow White
(i) P (ii) Q (iii) R [3 marks]
Q Glows dimly Black Black
(c) (i) Name a disease that can be treated with
R Burns very White White streptomycin. [1 mark]
brightly (ii) A patient must complete the dosage of
S Glows brightly Brown Yellow streptomycin prescribed by the doctor.
(a) What is the function of the glass wool in the Explain why. [1 mark]
experiment? [1 mark] (d) (i) Aspirin cannot be prescribed to small
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the children. Explain why. [2 marks]
decomposition of potassium chlorate when (ii) Name an alternative medicine to aspirin for
heated. [1 mark] small children. [1 mark]
(c) Arrange the metals P, Q, R and S in decreasing (e) Valium cannot be used for prolonged period.
order of reactivity. [2 marks] State a reason why. [1 mark]
Section B (20 marks)

Answer any one question from this section.
7 (a) Table 4 shows the products formed at the (ii) Using half-equations, explain how these
carbon electrodes when dilute and concentrated products are formed at the electrodes.
sodium chloride are electrolysed. [10 marks]
Products at (b) Electroplating can be used to coat an iron chain
Electrolyte Electrodes with a thin coat of silver.
Anode Cathode Explain how you carry out the process. [7 marks]
Dilute sodium chloride Carbon Gas P Gas Q 8 (a) Starting with magnesium oxide, describe how you
solution can prepare a sample of magnesium carbonate
Concentrated sodium Carbon Gas R Gas S salt. [10 marks]
chloride solution (b) You are given four solutions each containing
Table 4 sulphate, nitrate, carbonate and chloride ions.
Describe experiments on how you can identify
(i) Name the gases P, Q, R and S released at
the ions present in each solution. [10 marks]
the electrodes. [3 marks]
533
Section C (20 marks)
Answer any one question from this section.
(c) Describe an experiment to determine the heat
9 (a) With the aid of an energy level diagram, explain of precipitation of silver chloride. Your answer
the meaning of should include:
(i) exothermic reaction (i) Procedure of experiment
(ii) endothermic reaction [6 marks] (ii) Tabulation of result
(b) Table 5 shows the heat of displacement (iii) Calculation [8 marks]
10 (a) Using pentane as an example, define the term
Displacement reaction Heat of isomerism. [5 marks]
displacement
(kJ mol–1) (b) With an example, explain the meaning of
substitution reaction. [6 marks]
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ΔH1 (c) X = C6H12 Y = C6H14
Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq) X and Y are two organic compounds.
2Al(s) + 3ZnSO4(aq) → ΔH2 (i) Write the general formula of each
3Zn(s) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) compound. [2 marks]
Mg(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → ΔH3 (ii) Describe an experiment on how you can
2Ag(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq) differentiate both compounds. [5 marks]
(iii) X can be converted to Y.
Table 5
Name the reaction of this conversion.
Arrange the values of the heat of displacements
[1 mark]
of the three reactions above in increasing order.
Write a chemical equation for the reaction.
[2 marks]
[1 mark]
Explain your answer above. [4 marks]
Paper 3 (50 marks) Time: 1 hour 30 minutes
Instructions: Answer all questions.
1 Diagram 1 shows the apparatus set-up to determine below the water level. A thermometer is placed in
the melting point of a substance X. the boiling tube.
(d) The water bath is heated with a slow fire.
thermometer
(e) After some time the stopwatch is started and the
retort stand temperature of the substance X is recorded at
boiling tube 30-second intervals.
beaker
(f) The diagram below shows the temperature
readings of the substance at 30-second intervals.
substance X
water
80 80 80 80 80 80
heat
tripod stand
Diagram 1
(a) 3 spatulas of substance X are added into a boiling
tube.
70 70 70 70 70 70
(b) A 500 ml beaker is filled with water until it is
3 Time: 0 minute 1
about —— -full and placed on a tripod stand. Time: —— minute
4 Temperature = 2

(c) The boiling tube containing substance X is then Temperature =
clamped in the water bath with the substance X
80 80 80 80 80 80
534
80 80 80 (a) 80Record the temperature80reading in the spaces
80 80 80 80 80 80
provided. [3 marks]
80 80 80 80 80 80
(b) Construct a table to tabulate the results of the
experiment above. [3 marks]
(c) Plot a graph of temperature against time. [3 marks]
(d) Explain why a water bath is used to heat substance
X. [3 marks]
70 70 70
70 70 70 70 70 70 (e) 70What can you say about
70 the temperature from
1
70 70
Time: 1 minute 70
1 70 70 70
time 1 minute to 2— minutes?
Time: 1—— minutes 2
Temperature = 2 Explain your answer. [3 marks]
Temperature =
80 (f) 90 (i) What is the melting90point of substance X?
[3 marks]
80 80
80 80 80 80 80 80 (ii) If the melting point of substance X from
80 80 another laboratory is determined and is
80 80 80 80 80 80 found to be lower than this value, what can
you say about the sample? [3 marks]
2 Diagram 2 below shows the apparatus used in an

70 80 80
experiment carried out in the school laboratory to
70 70 study the property of oxide of elements in Period 3 of
70 70 70 70 70 70 the Periodic Table.
70 70
70 70 70 70 70 70
Time: 2 minutes 1
Time: 2—— minutes magnesium
magnesium
Temperature = 2 oxide
magnesium
oxide
magnesium
90 90 Temperature = oxide
glass oxide glass
80 80 90 90 90 90
rod
glass rod
glass
80 80 90 90 rod90 90 rod
80 80
MgO
80 80
70 70 80 80 80 80 nitric acid after sodium MgO
after
nitric acid stirring
after hydroxide
sodium stirring
after
70 70 80 80 80 80 stirring hydroxide stirring
70 70 Experiment I
Time: 3 minutes 1 Observation :
Time: 3—— minutes silicon(IV) silicon(IV)
Temperature = 2 oxide oxide
silicon(IV) silicon(IV)
Temperature = oxide oxide
glass glass
90 90 rod
glass rod
glass
rod rod
SiO2
SiO2
sodium hydroxide after sodium after
80 80 stirring hydroxide stirring
sodium hydroxide after sodium after
stirring hydroxide stirring
Time: 4 minutes Experiment II
Temperature = Observation : aluminium aluminium
oxide
aluminium oxide
aluminium
oxide oxide
glass glass
rod
glass rod
glass
rod rod
535
stirring hydroxide stirring
aluminium aluminium
(b) Record your observations in the spaces provided.
oxide oxide [3 marks]
glass glass (c) What conclusions can you make from the result of
rod rod
the experiment above? [3 marks]
(d) Name another oxide that has the same property
as
(i) magnesium oxide :
(ii) silicon(IV) oxide :
(iii) aluminium oxide : [3 marks]
nitric acid after sodium after

stirring hydroxide stirring 3 “Cleansing power of soap is lower in hard water
whereas the cleansing power of detergent is unaffected
Experiment III in hard water”.
Observation : Describe an experiment to prove the above
statement.
Diagram 2 Your planning should include the following:
The oxides of the elements are added into dilute nitric (b) Hypothesis
acid and dilute sodium hydroxide. (c) Variables of the experiment
The mixtures are stirred. The results are shown in (d) Apparatus and chemicals used in experiment
Diagram 2. (e) Procedure of experiment
(a) State three variables that must be kept constant (f) Tabulation of result [17 marks]
in the experiment. [3 marks]
536
Answers
Form 4 Structured Questions (ii) Volume of water
1 (a) (i) Concentration of hydrochloric (iii) Mass of salt that dissolved in
1 Introduction to Chemistry acid solutions 100 cm3 of water 3
Self Assess 1.1 (ii) Time taken for the 5 cm (c)
1 length of magnesium ribbon
Field Chemicals used to dissolve
Agriculture Fertilisers and pesticides (iii) The length of magnesium
Medicine Antibiotics and analgesic ribbon 3
drugs (b) The higher the concentration of
Food Food preservatives and the hydrochloric acid solution,
processing food flavourings the shorter the time taken for
the magnesium ribbon to
Self Assess 1.2 dissolve. 1
1 (a) Table salt is soluble in water but (c) (i)
not in kerosene.
(b) (i) Manipulated variable:
Solvents used, that is, water
and kerosene
(ii) Responding variable:
F
Solubility of table salt
(iii) Constant variable: 4 O
Volume of solvent (d) (i) The solubility of the salts R
(c) Apparatus: Two test tubes, glass increases with the increase M
rod, 10 cm3 measuring cylinder, in the temperature of the
electronic balance, filter paper water. 4
and spatula. (ii) The solubility of salt Q is
Materials: Water, kerosene and higher than that of salt P. 2
table salt. 3 (a) The higher the temperature of
(d) (i) 2 grams of table salt is the water, the greater the mass
weighed onto a filter paper. of sugar that can dissolve in
(ii) 5 cm3 of water is measured 5 it. 1
using a measuring cylinder and (ii) 0.425 mol dm–3 1 (b) (i) Temperature of water
then poured into a test tube. 2 (a) Volume of water 1 (ii) Mass of sugar that dissolves
(iii) The salt is added to the (b) (i) Temperature of water (iii) Volume of water 3
water and the mixture is
CHAPTER 1
stirred using a glass rod.
(iv) The procedure above is 3 (c)
Temperature of Initial mass of beaker Final mass of beaker Mass of sugar
repeated by adding 2 grams
water (°C) P and contents (g) P and contents (g) dissolved (g)
of salt to kerosene and
stirred. 30 92.50 87.50 5
(e) 40 87.50 77.50 10
Solvent Water Kerosene 50 77.50 62.50 15
Solubility of salt Soluble Not soluble 60 62.50 42.50 20
70 42.50 17.50 25
Self Assess 1.3
1 (a) Add concentrated acid to the water. 2
(b) Make sure the mouth of the
test tube is not directed at any (d) tartrazine) and food enhancer
student. (i.e. monosodium glutamate). 4
(c) Carry out the experiment in a (b) Pharmacist, dentist, agriculturist,
fume cupboard. chemical engineer, biochemist
and geologist. 6
SPM Exam Practice 1
Multiple-choice Questions (c) The government can collect tax
1 B 2 D 3 C 4 A 5 A from the export of these chemicals.
6 B 7 C 8 D 9 A 10 D 3 Jobs are created by these
11 A 12 C 13 A 14 B 15 C (e) 12.5 gram 1 industries.
16 C 17 A 18 B 19 B 20 B 4 (a) Food preservatives (i.e. potassium The country saves on foreign
21 D 22 C 23 A 24 D 25 B nitrate), antioxidant (i.e. ascorbic exchange if the chemicals needed
26 D 27 A 28 D acid), food colouring (i.e. are produced locally. 3
537 Answers
(d) Cooperate with fellow classmates (b) (i) Making an observation, Responding variable Mass of salt
when carrying out an experiment. making an inference, making that dissolved
Be honest in recording the results a hypothesis, identifying Constant variable
obtained in the experiment. variables, planning the Temperature of water 3
Do not waste chemicals and only procedure of the experiment, (d) Apparatus 100 cm3 measuring
take the required amount needed carrying out an experiment, cylinder, electronic balance,
for the experiment. collecting data, interpreting 100 cm3 beaker and spatula.
Always follow safety procedures data and making a conclusion.
Materials Water and common
while carrying out an experiment. 8 salt. 3
Clean the apparatus after carrying (ii) An inference is an initial
out an experiment. 5 (e) Procedure
opinion based on an
(e) Urea as nitrogenous fertiliser to (i) Initial mass of beaker A and
observation.
enhance growth. Paraquat as a salt is taken (x g).
A hypothesis is a statement
herbicide to kill the weeds which (ii) 50 cm3 of water is measured
that relates a manipulated
compete with the crop for using a measuring cylinder
variable to a responding
nutrients from the ground. 2 and poured into a 100 cm3
variable. An experiment has
to be carried out to prove the beaker.
Essay Questions Salt is added to 50 cm3 of
validity of the hypothesis. 4
1 (a) Apparatus Two test tubes, two water a little at a time while
(iii) In graphical form, a pie
rubber stoppers, test tube rack, stirring the mixture until
chart or tabulation. 6
sandpaper, 100 cm3 beaker, Bunsen no more salt can further
burner, tripod stand and wire gauze. Experiments dissolve.
Materials Water, iron nails, 1 (a) To determine the effect of the (iii) The final mass of beaker A
cooking oil. 3 volume of water on the solubility and salt is taken (y g).
F (b) (i) Water with air and water of salt 3 The mass of salt that
O without air (b) The greater the volume of water, dissolved is (x – y) gram.
R (ii) Rusting of iron nail the greater the amount of salt (iv) The experiment is repeated
M (iii) Presence of water in both sets by dissolving the salt in
that dissolves. 3
of experiments 3 30 cm3, 40 cm3, 60 cm3 and
(c) Manipulated variable Volume of
(c) Procedure
4 water 70 cm3 of water. 3
(f) Tabulation of data
Volume of Initial mass of beaker Final mass of beaker Mass of salt
water (cm3) A and contents (g) A and contents (g) dissolved (g)
30 x y (x –y)
40
(i) Two iron nails are cleaned 50
with sandpaper. 60
(ii) A 100 cm3 beaker is filled
CHAPTER 1 & 2
70
with water. The water is
heated until boiling to expel 3
the air from the water. 2 (a) Manipulated variable (d) (i) pH = 13.55
(iii) The boiled water is then Concentration of NaOH solution (ii) 0.25 mol dm–3 3
poured into test tube A. Responding variable pH value 3 (a) (i) Mass of catalyst
(iv) Cooking oil is poured onto Constant variable (ii) Time taken to collect 50 cm3
the water in test tube A to Volume of solution 3 of oxygen gas
prevent air from dissolving in (b) The higher the concentration of (iii) Volume and concentration of
the water. sodium hydroxide solution, the hydrogen peroxide solution
(v) Tap water is poured into test higher the pH value. 3 3
tube B. (c) (b) The greater the quantity of
(vi) An iron nail is then dropped catalyst added, the shorter the
into each of the tubes above time taken to collect 50 cm3 of
and left for three days. 10 oxygen gas. 3
(d) Results
Test tube A B
Observation Iron nail does Iron nail Self Assess 2.1
after 3 days not rust rusts 1 (a) Molecules
(b) lons
4 (c) Atoms
2 (a) Scientific method is a systematic (d) lons
approach taken when carrying out (e) Atoms
scientific research. 2 3 (f) Molecules
Answers 538
2 (a) T2 3 Carbon-14, 146C. (b) t3 minute 1
(b) Mixture of solid and liquid Radioisotope is an isotope that is (c) 115 °C 1
naphthalene. unstable and will decay by emitting (d) Heat is absorbed to overcome
(c) The heat is absorbed to radioactive rays. Carbon-14 is used the forces of attraction between
overcome the forces of attraction in dating the age of archaeological the solid particles.
between the naphthalene artifacts. Heat absorbed is equal to the
molecules. heat supplied in heating. 1
(d) Self Assess 2.4 (e)
1
2 (a) (i) Five valence electrons

Self Assess 2.2 (ii) 15 protons. (Number of
1 (a) Proton number = 92 protons is equal to the total
2
Nucleon number = 92 + 143 number of electrons)
3 (a) V: 2.4 W: 2.6 X: 2.6 Y: 2.8.1
= 235 (b) Nucleon number
Z: 2.8.6 2
Nuclear symbol is 235 U. = Number of protons +
92
Number of neutrons (b) Four 1
(b) It has 53 protons and 53
= 15 + 16 = 31 (c)
electrons.
(c) 31 X
Nucleon number 15
F
= proton number +
SPM Exam Practice 2 O
number of neutrons
Multiple-choice Questions R
127 = 53 + number of neutrons 1 C 2 C 3 B 4 D 5 B M
Number of neutrons 6 B 7 B 8 A 9 C 10 A
= 127 – 53 11 B 12 B 13 D 14 A 15 C 4
= 74 16 C 17 B 18 C 19 A 20 D 2
The 53 protons and 74 neutrons 21 D 22 C 23 A 24 B 25 C
are located in the nucleus of the 26 B 27 D 28 A 29 B 30 D (d) Three electron-filled shells. 1
atom, whereas the electrons are 31 C 32 A 33 C 34 A 35 D (e) Nucleon number is the sum of
arranged in shells surrounding the 36 B 37 B 38 D 39 A 40 C the number of protons and the
nucleus. number of neutrons. 1
2 (a) B and E are atoms of the same (f) 23 – 11 = 12 neutrons. 1
1 (a) (i)
element because they have the (g) (i) Isotopes are atoms with the
same proton number. Atom Proton number Nucleon number same proton number but
(Note: Atoms of different different nucleon numbers.
CHAPTER 2
12
C 6 12
elements have different proton 6 2
numbers)
14
6
C 6 14 (ii) W and X. 1
(b) Al is the symbol for aluminium. It 4 (a) Bromine and naphthalene. 1
2
has 13 protons, 13 electrons and (b) Iron 1
(ii)
12
C has six neutrons while 146C
14 neutrons (27 – 13 = 14). 6
(c) (i) Iron 1
has eight neutrons. 1
(Note: In a neutral atom, the (ii)
(b)
number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons)
Self Assess 2.3

1 Isotopes are atoms with the same
number of protons but different
number of neutrons. 2 1
Each has 92 protons. The number (c) In carbon dating: To determine (d) Sodium ions and chloride ions 1
of neutrons in each isotope are 142, the age of archaeological (e) (i) T1 1
143 and 146 respectively. specimens. 1 (ii) The heat is absorbed to
(Note: The number of neutrons are (d) 4 valence electrons 1 overcome the forces of
obtained by deducting the proton 2 (a) (i) Solid attraction between the
number from the nucleon number) (ii) Mixture of solid and liquid naphthalene molecules. 2
2 127
53
B and 131
53
E are isotopes because (iii) Liquid (iii) The speed of movement of
they have the same proton number (iv) Mixture of liquid and gas the particles increases during
but different nucleon numbers. (v) Gas 3 heating from R to S. 1
539 Answers
Essay Questions (ii) Nucleon number is the total
1 (a) number of protons and
Solid Liquid Gas neutrons in the nucleus of an
Particle
Particles are The particles are The particles are 2 atom. 1
arrangement closely packed. still closely packed very far apart. (iii) Valence electrons are the
but there are more electrons in the outermost
empty spaces electron shell. 1
between the (b) (i) Isotopes are atoms with the
particles. same proton number but
Forces of The forces The forces of The forces different nucleon numbers.
2
attraction of attraction attraction between of attraction 3
between the the particles are between the (ii) 16
8
O and 188O are isotopes of
particles are weaker than in a particles are very oxygen. 2
strong. solid but stronger weak. (iii) Six uses of isotopes:
than in a gas. 1 Medicine
(a) Cobalt-60 is used to kill
Kinetic energy
The kinetic The kinetic energy The kinetic energy 2
energy of the of the particles is of the particles is malignant cancer cells in
particles is low. high on average. very high. radiotherapy.
(b) Some medicine, surgical
Compressibility
Low Low High 2 gloves, bandages, plastic
hypodermic syringes which
(b) Apparatus Boiling tube, retort (vi) The experiment is repeated cannot be sterilised by boiling
stand and clamp, tripod stand, by replacing substance X with are sterilised using gamma
F Bunsen burner, wire gauze, substance Y. 6 radiation. 2
O thermometer (0 – 110 °C), Tabulation of results 2 Agriculture
R 500 cm3 beaker, 250 cm3 Substance X (a) Radioactive 14CO2 is used
M conical flask, test tube holder and to trace the path of carbon
Time 0 30 60 90 120 …
stopwatch. 1 during photosynthesis.
(s)
Material X and Y, water 1 (b) Radioactive 32PO43– ions are
4 Temp
Procedure used to determine the rate
(°C) of absorption of phosphorus
by the plant. 2
Substance Y 3 Industry
(a) Beta radiation is used to
Time 0 30 60 90 120 …
control the thickness of
(s)
paper, plastic, metals and
Temp rubber made in industry.
(°C) (b) Radioisotope is used to
detect leaks in pipes carrying
CHAPTER 2
1
A graph of temperature gas. 2
against time is plotted for both 4 Archaeology
substances. The melting point of The activity of the carbon-14 still
(i) Three spatulas of X powder
the substance is obtained from remaining in an archaeological
are put into a boiling tube.
the region where the temperature specimen can be used to
(ii) A 500 cm3 beaker is filled
remains constant at T. 1 estimate the age of the
with water until it is about –34
If the melting point of the specimen. 2
full and placed on a tripod
substance is 65 °C, then the 5 Food preservation
stand.
substance is naphthol. (a) Fungus, bacteria and larvae
(iii) The boiling tube containing
If its melting point is 80 °C, that cause the rotting of food
X powder is then clamped in
the water bath with the level then the substance is can be killed by irradiating
of X powder below the water naphthalene. 1 the food with radiation.
level. (b) Budding in potatoes and
(iv) The water bath is heated onions is slowed down by
until it reaches a temperature irradiation, thus extending
of about 55 °C. Then the their shelf-life. 2
water is heated with low 6 Electricity generation
flame. The nuclear energy released
(v) The stopwatch is started when uranium-235 decays
and the temperature of the 1 spontaneously is used to heat
substance X is recorded 2 (a) (i) Proton number is the water into steam which then
every 30 seconds. The result number of protons in the drives turbines of the generator to
is then tabulated. nucleus of an atom. 1 produce electricity. 2
Answers 540
Experiments 1 (b) Let the number of carbon atoms
1 (a) that has the same mass as one
Time (s) Initial 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
Mo atom be n.
Temp (°C) 70.0 78.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 82.0 85.0 95.0 12n = 96
3
96
(b) n = —
——= 8
12
(c) Let relative atomic mass of
phosphorus = m
Mass of five aluminium atoms
= mass of six lithium atoms +
mass of three phosphorus
atoms
(5  27) = (6  7) + 3m
3 3m = 135 – 42
93
(c) Materials Pure naphthalene, m=— —— = 31
3
a mixture of naphthalene with (d) (i) Relative atomic mass of Th
some acetamide and water. 3 = (6  7) + (2  39) +
(d) Procedure (2  56) = 232
(i) 3 spatulas of naphthalene (ii) Assume that the mass of n
powder are put into a boiling W atoms
tube. = mass of two X atoms +
(ii) A 500 cm3 beaker is filled with mass of one Y atom +
3
water until it is about — full mass of one Z atom
4
and is then placed on a tripod
7n = (2  39) + 56 + 195 F
n = 47 atoms O
stand.
2 (a) Relative molecular mass of R
(iii) The boiling tube containing
C17H35COONa
naphthalene is then clamped M
= 17(12) + 35(1) + 12 + 2(16)
3 in the water bath with the
+ 23
(d) 80 °C 3
level of naphthalene powder
= 204 + 35 +12 +32 +23 = 306 4
below the water level.
(e) A mixture of solid and liquid (b) Relative formula mass of
(iv) The water bath is heated until
naphthalene. 3 Cu(NH3)4SO4
it reaches a temperature of
(f) The heat energy absorbed is = 64 + 4(14 +3) + 32 + 4(16)
about 65°C. Then the water is
used to overcome the forces = 64 + 68 +32 +64 = 228
heated with a low flame.
of attraction between the
(v) The stopwatch is started There are four ammonia,
naphthalene molecules. Hence,
and the temperature of the NH3 molecules
the temperature remains constant
naphthalene is recorded at
during the melting process. 3 3 Assume the relative atomic mass of
30-second intervals until the
(g) the element X is a.
temperature reaches 90 °C.
CHAPTER 2 & 3
Relative molecular mass of X2B4O7
The results are tabulated.
= 202
(vi) The experiment is repeated
2a + 4(11) + 7(16) = 202
by replacing the pure
a = 23
naphthalene with a mixture
of naphthalene with The relative atomic mass of X is 23.
acetamide. 3 Thus, X is sodium atom.
3 (e) Tabulation of results

2 (a) Aim To show that the presence Pure naphthalene
of acetamide as an impurity will Time (min) 0
1
–2– 1
1
1–– 2
1
2–
–– 3
1
3–– 4
1
4–– 5
2 2 2 2
lower the melting point of
naphthalene. 3 Temp (°C)
(b) Manipulated variable Pure
naphthalene and a mixture of Mixture of naphthalene and acetamide
naphthalene with some acetamide. 1 1 1 1 1
Time (min) 0 –2– 1 1–– 2 2–
–– 3 3–– 4 4–– 5
Responding variable Melting 2 2 2 2
point of substance Temp (°C)
Constant variable Atmospheric 3
pressure, constant stirring during
heating. 3 3 Chemical Formulae and Equations
(c) Apparatus 500 cm3 beaker, two
boiling tubes, thermometer, stop- Self Assess 3.1
watch, retort stand and clamp, 1 (a) The relative atomic mass of Pt atom = 5  relative atomic mass of K atom
tripod stand, wire gauze. = 5  39 = 195
541 Answers
Self Assess 3.2 (b) 1 mol of C10H14N2 1 mol of C6H12O6 contains
1 = 10(12) + 14 + 2(14) g 6  1023 molecules.
1 (a) —6—  6  1023
= 162 g 0.2 mol of C6H12O6 contains
= 1  1023 copper atoms 4.05 0.2  6  1023 molecules
4.05 g of C10H14N2 = ——— mol
(b) 0.0625  6  1023 = 162
= 1.2  1023 molecules
3.75  1022 water molecules = 0.025 mol 5 (a) The molecule consist of 10
(c) 1.3  6  1023 = (c) 1 mol of (NH4)3PO4 carbon atoms, 16 hydrogen atoms
7.8  1023 sodium ions = 3(14 + 4) + 31 + 4(16) and one oxygen atom. Hence its
2 (a) 0.012 mol of C2H6 contains = 149 g molecular formula is C10H16O.
1.49
0.012  6  1023 molecules. 1.49
149
g of (NH4)3PO4 = ——— mol Thus, the mass of 1 mol of
One molecule of C2H6 has eight = 0.01 mol C10H16O = 10(12) + 16 + 16 g
atoms (two carbon and six (d) 1 mol of C2H5OH = 152 g
hydrogen atoms). = 2(12) + 6 + 16 g (b) 1 mol of C10H16O = 152 g
= 46 g 0.02 mol of C10H16O
Therefore, the number of atoms
2.3
2.3 g of C2H5OH = —— mol = 0.02  152 g = 3.04 g
= 8  0.012  6  1023 atoms 46
(c) 1 mol of C10H16O =152 g
= 5.76  1022 atoms = 0.05 mol Hence, 7.6 g of C10H16O
(b) 1.1 mol of SO3 contains 3 (a) 1 mol contains 6  1023 atoms.
1.1  6 1023 molecules. 3  1023 titanium atoms 152
= —7.6
—– mol
One molecule of SO3 has four 3 1023 atom = 0.05 mol
atoms (one sulphur and three = ——————————————— 1 mol
6 1023 atom 1 mol of C10H16O contains
oxygen atoms). = 0.5 mol 6  1023 molecules.
Therefore, the number of atoms 1 mol of Ti = 48 g 0.05 mol of C10H16O contains
= 4  1.1  6  1023 atoms 0.5 mol of Ti = 0.5  48 g 0.05  6  1023
F = 2.64  1024 atoms = 24 g = 3  1022 molecules.
O 3 (a) 1 mol of sodium ions contains (b) 1.2  1024 of argon atoms contain (d) 7.5  1022 molecules
R 1.2  1024 7.5  1022
6  1023 ions. = ————————23
—— mol = ——————————  1 mol
M 6 10 6 1023
Therefore, 6  1022 sodium ions = 2 mol = 0.125 mol
6 1022 ions 1 mol of argon = 40 g 1 mol of C10H16O = 152 g
4 = ———————— ——————  1 mol-ion
6 1023 ions 2 mol of argon = 2  40 g 0.125 mol of C10H16O
= 0.1 mol-ion = 80 g = 0.125  152 g = 19 g
(b) 1 mol of H2S contains 6  1023 (c) 7.5  1022 molecules of
molecules C12H16O14 Self Assess 3.4
7.5  1022 1 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of
Therefore 1.8 10 H2S 24 = ————————23
—— mol
6 10 24 dm3 at room temperature.
1.8 1024 molecules 1 mol- = 0.125 mol 0.55 mol of gas occupies a volume of
= ————————————————– 
6 1023 molecules molecule 1 mol of C12H16O14 0.55  24 dm3 = 13.2 dm3
= 3 mol-molecules = 12(12) + 16 + 14(16) g 2 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of
= 384 g 22 400 cm3 at s.t.p.
CHAPTER 3
0.125 mol of C12H16O14 The number of mol of gas in 672 cm3

Self Assess 3.3
= 0.125  384 g 672
is ———— mol = 0.03 mol
1 (a) 1 mol of He = 4 g 22 400
= 48 g
1.25 mol of He = 1.25  4 g 3 1 mol of C2H4 = 28 g
4 (a) 1 mol of S = 32 g
=5g 1.4
(b) 1 mol of Co = 59 g
4
4 g of S = —— mol 1.4 g of C2H4 = —
28
–— mol = 0.05 mol
32
2
–– mol of Co = –25–  59 g = 0.125 mol 1 mol of gas occupies a volume of
5 24 dm3 at room temperature
1 mol of S contains 6  1023
= 23.6 g 0.05 mol of gas occupies a volume of
atoms.
(c) 1 mol of CuSO4.5H2O 0.05  24 dm3 = 1.2 dm3
0.125 mol of S contains
= 64 + 32 + 4(16) + 5(18) g 4 (a) 1 mol of gas occupies a volume
0.125  6  1023 atoms
= 250 g of 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.
= 7.5  1022 atoms
0.15 mol of CuSO4.5H2O The number of mol of gas in
(b) 1 mol of Cd = 112 g
= 0.15  250 g 2.24 16.8
2.24 g of Cd = ——— mol 16.8 dm3 of gas is —––— mol
= 37.5 g 112 22.4
(d) 1 mol of KMnO4 = 0.02 mol = 0.75 mol
= 39 + 55 + 4(16) g 1 mol of Cd contains 6  1023 1 mol of CH4 = 16 g
= 158 g atoms. 0.75 mol of CH4 = 0.75  16 g
0.05 mol of KMnO4 0.02 mol of Cd contains 0.02  = 12 g
= 0.05  158 g 6  1023 atoms (b) 1 mol of gas occupies a volume
= 7.9 g = 1.2  1022 atoms of 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.
2 (a) 1 mol of Fe = 56 g (c) 1 mol of C6H12O6 = 180 g The number of moles of gas in
2.8 36 6720
2.8
56
g of Fe = ———  1 mol 36 g of C6H12O6 = ——— mol 6720

cm3 of gas is —————
22 400
mol
180
= 0.05 mol = 0.2 mol = 0.3 mol
Answers 542
1 mol of CO = 28 g 4 Assume that the relative atomic mass Relative molecular mass of gas is
0.3 mol of CO = 0.3  28 g of V is a. [12 + 3]n = 30
= 8.4 g n = 2
3.6
Element V O Therefore, its molecular formula
5 (a) 3.6
24
dm3 of gas = —–— mol
Mass 10.2 g 8g is C2H6.
= 0.15 mol
The number of molecules present Number of 10.2 8
————— —— = 0.5 Self Assess 3.6
is 0.15  6  1023 moles a 16
1 (a) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) →
= 9  1022 molecules Simplest 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2 5
1200
(b) 1200 cm3 of gas = ————— mol ratio (b) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) →
24000
ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
= 0.05 mol 10.2
—
——
a 2
(c) CuCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) →
The number of molecules present ——— = —— Cu(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
is 0.05  6  1023 0.5 5
(d) 2HCl(aq) + Na2S2O3(aq) →
= 3  1022 molecules 10.2  5
a = ————––––––— = 51 2NaCl(aq) + SO2(g) + S(s) +
6 9  1021 molecules of CO 2  0.5
H2O(l)
9  1021 5 Element
= ————————— = 0.015 mol N H (e) 2Pb(NO3)2(s) →
heat
6 1023 Mass 87.5 % 12.5 % 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
The volume occupied by 0.015 mol 2 (a) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
Number of 87.5 12.5
of gas is 0.015  22.4 dm3 ————— ————— (b) 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) →
moles 14 1
= 0.336 dm3 at s.t.p. K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
= 6.25 = 12.5
(c) 2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g) →
Self Assess 3.5 Simplest 6.25 12.5
4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)
————— —————
1 (a) AgNO3 ratio 6.25 6.25
(d) Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) →
(b) Na2S2O3 =1 =2
F
Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq) O
(c) (NH4)3PO4 (e) ZnCO3(s) → ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
(d) Ca(OH)2
(a) Empirical formula is NH2. heat R
(e) MgCO3
(b) Let its molecular formula be (NH2)n (f) PbO2(s) + 2H2(g) → M
(f) Zn3P2 (14 + 2)n = 32 Pb(s) + 2H2O(l)
(g) Fe(OH)3 16n = 32 3 (a) Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 4
(h) Al2O3 n=2 FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(i) CrCl3 Its molecular formula is N2H4. (b) (i) 1 mol of Fe (56 g) produces
(j) CuSO4 6 1 mol of FeCl2 (127 g)
Element Fe O Hence, 2.8 g of Fe produce
(k) NiCl
(l) Mg3N2 Mass xg 5.04 g 2.8
——–— 127 g = 6.35 g of FeCl2
2 Percentage by weight of hydrogen Number of 5.04
56
= (100 – 87.5)% = 12.5 % moles
x
—————
—————
16
(ii) 1 mol of Fe (56 g) produces
56
= 0.315 1 mol of H2 (24 dm3)
Element Si H Hence, 2.8 g of Fe produce
Percentage 87.5 % 12.5 % Simplest 2.8
CHAPTER 3
2 3 ——–— 24 dm3
mass ratio 56
Number of 87.5 12.5 x =1.2 dm3 of H2.
—56
— — 2
moles
————— ————— 4 (a) 1 mol of CaC2(40 + 12 + 12) g
28 1 —————— = ——
0.315 3 produces 1 mol of C2H2 (24
= 3.125 = 12.5
x = 11.76 g dm3) at room temperature and
Simplest 3.125 12.5 7 pressure. Hence, 4.8 g of CaC2
ratio ——————— —————— Element C H
3.125 3.125 4.8
Percentage produce ———  24 dm3 = 1.8 dm3
=1 =4 64
80 % 20 %
by weight of C2H2 gas.
Its empirical formula is SiH4.
Number of 80 20 (b) 1 mol of CaC2(40 + 12 + 12) g
3 Mass of oxygen that combines with tin ——— = 6.67 ——— = 20
moles 12 1 produces 1 mol of Ca(OH)2
is (7.55 – 5.95) g = 1.60 g
(40 + 17 + 17) g.
Simplest 6.67 20
Element Sn O ————— ————— Hence, 4.8 g of CaC2 produce
ratio 6.67 6.67
4.8
Mass 5.95 g 1.6 g =1 =3 ——–— 74 g
64
Number of 5.95 1.6 (a) Its empirical formula is CH3. = 5.55 g of Ca(OH)2
————— ———
moles 119 16 (b) 1 mol of gas has mass of 5 (a) 1 mol of CH4(16 g) produces
= 0.05 = 0.1 22.4 3 mol (3  24 dm3) of H2.
——––—  6 g = 30 g Hence, 60 dm3 of H2 is produced
Simplest 0.05 0.1 4.48
————— ————— Therefore, its relative molecular from
ratio 0.05 0.05
mass is 30. 60 dm3 H2
=1 =2 = ——————————————  16 g
(c) Assume its molecular formula is 3  24 dm3 H2
Its empirical formula is SnO2. (CH3)n. = 13.33 g of CH4
543 Answers
(b) 1 mol of CO (6  1023 (b) Empirical formula is MO2. 2
molecules) is produced together Element C H (ii) 2H2 + MO2 → M + 2H2O 2
with 3 mol of H2. (e) No. Magnesium is more reactive
Hence, the number of CO Percentage 82.76 % 100 – 82.76 than hydrogen. Thus, hydrogen
molecules produced together with mass = 17.24 % gas cannot reduce magnesium
60 dm3 of hydrogen is Number of 82.76 17.24 oxide. 2
—————— —————
60 dm3 H2 moles 12 1 3 (a) Cation 1
= ———————————3———  6  1023
3  24 dm H2 = 6.9 = 17.24 (b) Pb(NO3)2 1
= 5  1023 molecules (c) (i) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) →
Simplest 6.9 17.24
6 (a) 3Zn(s) + 2P(s) → Zn3P2 ———— ————— PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
ratio 6.9 6.9
(b) 2 mol of P react with excess zinc Yellow 2
=1 = 2.5
to produce 1 mol of Zn3P2. (ii) 1 mol of lead nitrate reacts
=132 = 2.5 3 2
2  31 g of P react with excess with 2 mol of potassium
=2 =5
zinc to produce 257 g of Zn3P2. iodide to form 1 mol of
Therefore, 51.4 kg of Zn3P2 is The empirical formula is C2H5 . 2 lead(II) iodide and 2 mol of
produced from (c) 1.2 dm3 of gas has a mass of 2.9 g. potassium nitrate. 1
51.4 kg Zn3P2 Hence, 1 mol of gas (24 dm3) (iii) Lead(II) iodide 1
—————————————  2  31 kg of P 24 (iv) 2 mol of KI produce 1 mol
257 kg Zn3P2 has a mass of ———  2.9 g = 58 g
1.2 of PbI2(461 g).
= 12.4 kg of phosphorus Hence 0.04 mol of KI will
The relative molecular mass of X
is 58. 2 0.04
Self Assess 3.7 produce ———  461 g
2
1 (a) HBr (d) Let the molecular formula be
(C2H5)n. = 9.22 g of PbI2 2
(b) Zn(OH)2
F (24 + 5)n = 58 4 (a) (i) 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO 2
(c) KNO3 (ii) 2 mol of Mg produce 2 mol
O

(d) Na2SO4 58
n = ——— = 2 of MgO.
R
(e) AgNO3 29
1 mol of Mg (24 g) produce
M (f) MgCI2 Hence the molecular formula is
C4H10. 2 1 mol of MgO (40 g).
2 (a) 1 mol of copper(II) oxide reacts Hence 3 g of Mg produce
4 with 1 mol of sulphuric acid to (e) 2C4H10 + 13O2 → 8CO2 + 10H2O
3
form 1 mol of copper(II) sulphate 2 ——  40 g
24
and 1 mol of water. (f) (i) 1 mol of C4H10 (58 g) = 5 g of MgO 2
(b) 2 mol of magnesium nitrate produces 5 mol of water (iii) Used as an antacid medicine
decomposes to form 2 mol of (5  18 g). 1
magnesium oxide, 4 mol of 11.6 g of C4H10 produce (iv) MgO + 2HNO3 →
nitrogen dioxide and 1 mol of 11.6 Mg(NO3)2 + H2O 2
————  5  18 g
oxygen gas when heated. 58 (b) (i) X : Copper(II) oxide
(c) 1 mol of hydrogen gas react with = 18 g of water 1 Gas P : Carbon dioxide 2
1 mol of lead(II) oxide to form (ii) 1 mol of C4H10 (58 g) (ii) CuCO3 → CuO + CO2 1
produces 4 mol of CO2 heat
CHAPTER 3
1 mol of lead metal and 1 mol

of water. (4  6  1023 molecules). (iii) (a) 1 mol of CuCO3 (124 g)
(d) 1 mol of calcium carbonate reacts 11.6 g of C4H10 produce produces 1 mol of CuO
with 2 mol of hydrochloric acid to 11.6 (80 g).
————  4  6  1023 6.2 g of CuCO3 produce
form 1 mol of calcium chloride, 58
= 4.8  1023 molecules 1 6.2
1 mol of carbon dioxide and 1 ———  80 g
124
mol of water. 2 (a) The air in the combustion tube
must be displaced before lighting = 4 g of CuO 1
the hydrogen gas. 1 (b) 1 mol CuCO3 (124 g)
produces 1 mol of CO2
SPM Exam Practice 3 (b) The heating, cooling and weighing
(24 dm3).
Multiple-choice Questions is repeated until a constant mass
6.2 g of CuCO3 produce
1 C 2 A 3 B 4 D 5 D is obtained. 1
6.2
6 C 7 B 8 A 9 A 10 C (c) (i) Zinc and hydrochloric acid 1 ———  24 dm3
124
11 B 12 D 13 D 14 B 15 A (ii) Zn + 2HCI → ZnCI2 + H2 1 = 1.2 dm3 of CO2 1
16 A 17 C 18 C 19 B 20 A (iii) Anhydrous calcium chloride
5 (a) 2NaHCO3 →
21 D 22 C 23 D 24 D 25 A 1 heat
26 B 27 B 28 D 29 C 30 B (d) (i) Na2CO3 +CO2 + H2O 2
31 C 32 D 33 C 34 B 35 A Element M O (b) The gas bubbles is passed into
36 C 37 A 38 C 39 D 40 B limewater. If CO2 is present, the
Mass 5.5 g 3.2 g limewater turns cloudy. 2
Structured Questions 5.5 3.2 (c) (i) 2 mol of NaHCO3 (168 g)
1 (a) A hydrocarbon is a compound Number of moles ———— = 0.1 ———— = 0.2
55 16 form 1 mol of CO2 (24 dm3)
that contains the elements carbon at room temperature.
Simplest ratio 1 2
and hydrogen only. 1 Hence, 8.4 g of NaHCO3
Answers 544
8.4 through the tube to cool (iii) The magnesium ribbon is
form ———  24 dm3
168 the lead and to prevent O2 coiled and then placed in the
= 1.2 dm3 of CO2 3 from air mixing with the crucible. The crucible, lid and
(ii) 2 mol of NaHCO3 (168 g) hot lead. the magnesium ribbon is
form 1 mol of Na2CO3 • The tube with the lead weighed again and its weight
(106 g).
metal formed is weighed recorded.
Hence, 8.4 g of NaHCO3
and its mass recorded. (iv) The crucible is heated until
8.4
form ———  106
168 • The heating, cooling and the magnesium ribbon starts
= 5.3 g of Na2CO3 3 weighing is repeated until to burn.
(d) (i) NaHCO3 + HNO3 → a constant mass is (v) The lid is lifted and closed
NaNO3 + CO2 + H2O 2 obtained. 4 occasionally during the
(ii) 1 mol of NaHCO3 (84 g) (ii) Tabulation of data burning of magnesium.
produces 1 mol of NaNO3 (vi) After combustion, the crucible
Mass of combustion tube + x gram and its contents is cooled
(85 g).
empty porcelain dish and weighed again. Its weight
Hence, 17 g of NaNO3 is
produced from Mass of combustion tube + y gram is recorded.
17 g NaNO3 porcelain dish + lead oxide (vii) The heating, cooling and

———————————
85 g of NaNO3
84 g weighing is repeated until a
Mass of combustion tube + z gram
= 16.8 g of NaHCO3 3 porcelain dish + lead metal constant weight is obtained.
(iii)

As a food preservative 2 5
(e) (i) Sodium hydroxide 1 3 (e) Tabulation of data
(ii) NaOH + HNO3 → (iii) Calculation
NaNO3 + H2O 2 Mass of lead formed = Mass of empty crucible + lid
(z – x) gram Mass of crucible + lid + F
Mass of oxygen that
Essay Question magnesium (before heating) O
combines with lead = (y – z)
1 (a) (i) The empirical formula of Mass of crucible + lid + R
gram
a compound shows the magnesium oxide (after M
simplest ratio of the atoms of Pb O heating)
the elements that combine 4
to form the compound. 2 Mass (z – x) gram (y – z) gram 3
(ii) The molecular formula of a Number z—x y—z
————— —————
compound shows the actual of moles 207 16
numbers of atoms of the 4 Periodic Table of Elements
Simplest
elements that combine to a b
ratio Self Assess 4.1
form the compound. 2
For example, the molecular 1 Valence electrons are electrons in the
Empirical formula is PbaOb. 4 outermost shell of an atom.
formula of glucose is C6H12O6
and its empirical formula is Experiment (a) One valence electron
CH2O. 1 (a) Statement of the problem (b) Two valence electrons
CHAPTER 3 & 4
(b) By reducing a sample of lead What is the empirical formula of (c) Five valence electrons
oxide with hydrogen gas. 2 magnesium oxide? 3 (d) Seven valence electrons
(c) No. Magnesium is more reactive (b) Variables 2
than hydrogen. Thus, hydrogen gas Manipulated variable Mass of Element W X Y Z
cannot reduce magnesium oxide. 3 magnesium ribbon used.
(d) (i) Procedure Electron 2.8.5 2.1 2.8.8.3 2.8.18.
Responding variable Mass of
• A combustion tube with arrangement 32.18.7
magnesium oxide formed.
an empty porcelain dish Group 15 1 13 17
Constant variable Excess supply
is weighed and its mass
of oxygen. 3 Period 3 2 4 6
recorded.
(c) List of substances and apparatus
• A spatula of lead oxide
is put into the porcelain Materials Magnesium ribbon 3 Arsenic has a proton number of 33;
dish. The combustion about 20 cm long, oxygen it has 33 electrons. The electron
tube and its contents is Apparatus Sandpaper, crucible arrangement of arsenic is 2.8.18.5.
weighed again. The mass with lid, tripod stand, Bunsen Arsenic belongs to Group 15 of the
is recorded. burner, clay pipe triangle, Periodic Table because it has five
• Dry hydrogen gas is electronic balance and tongs. 3 valence electrons.
passed through the tube (d) Procedure Arsenic belongs to Period 4 of the
to expel all the air before (i) An empty crucible with its Periodic Table because it has four
the excess hydrogen is lit lid is weighed and its weight electron shells filled with electrons.
and the lead oxide heated. recorded. Nitrogen (2.5) and phosphorus
• After the lead oxide is (ii) A 20 cm length of (2.8.5) have the same chemical
reduced to lead, a stream magnesium ribbon is properties as arsenic because each
of hydrogen gas is passed polished with sandpaper. element has five valence electrons.
545 Answers
4 (a) • Halogens have 7 valence electrons.
Element A B C D E F G H J K
During a chemical reaction all halogens
Proton number 2 9 13 19 18 16 7 20 17 6 will accept one electron so that it can
Electron attain a stable octet electron arrangement.
2 2.7 2.8.3 2.8.8.1 2.8.8 2.8.6 2.5 2.8.8.2 2.8.7 2.4
arrangement 1
— CI2 + e— → CI—
2
Group number 18 17 13 1 18 16 15 2 17 14
2.8.7 2.8.8
Period number 1 2 3 4 3 3 2 4 3 2 1
— Br2 + e— → Br—
2
(b) B and J have the same chemical properties because each element has seven 2.8.18.7 2.8.18.8
valence electrons. 1
— I2 + e —
→ I—
Self Assess 4.2 2 Francium, caesium, rubidium, 2
1 Element P has a duplet (2) electron potassium, sodium, lithium. 2.8.18.18.7 2.8.18.18.8
arrangement and element S (2.8.8) 3 (a) Decreases (c) Increases • As we go down the group, the atomic
has an octet electron arrangement. (b) Increases (d) Increases size increases. The force of attraction
These elements do not need to 4 The burning sodium metal reacts with between the nucleus and electrons
accept, donate or share electrons with the brown bromine gas to produce become weaker.
other elements. Therefore, they exist white sodium bromide salt. • The elements down the group has a
as monatomic gases. 2Na(s) + Br2(g) → 2NaBr(s) lower tendency to attract an electron to
2 Argon: To fill electric light bulbs so as form a halide ion.
to increase their lifespan. Self Assess 4.4
1 Chlorine dissolves in water to form • Therefore, the elements down the
Neon: Fill advertising bulbs. It gives a group is less reactive.
red light. hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous(I)
acid. 5
3 The melting points and boiling points Compound Uses
F CI2 + H2O → HCI + HOCI
increase as we go down the group
O because the sizes of the atoms These acids ionise to give hydrogen
Silver bromide To make photo
R (AgBr) graphic films
increase. As the sizes of the atoms ions, H+ resulting in the solution
M increase, the van der Waals forces of becoming acidic. Potassium iodide Added to
attraction become stronger. The hypochlorous acid (HOCI) formed (KI) iodised salt to
4 4 The electronic configuration of neon is has a bleaching property. prevent goitre
2.8. Neon has attained an octet in its 2 (a) Test both solutions with starch Silver chloride To make photo
electron arrangement. It does not need solution in separate test tubes. (AgCI) chromic glass
to share, donate or accept electrons from Iodine solution will form a dark
other elements to form a compound. blue precipitate with starch Dichlorodiphenyl- An insecticide
solution. Bromine solution does trichloroethane, used to kill
Self Assess 4.3 not show any reaction. CCI3CH(C6H4CI)2 mosquito larvae
1 (a) Pentium has a silvery surface; it is (b) See experiment 4.6 (Reaction of Tin(II) fluoride, Added to
soft and can be cut by a penknife halogen with iron wool) SnF2 fluoridated
and it is a conductor of electricity. 3 (a) Yes, it shows similar chemical
toothpaste
Pentium reacts with oxygen to properties. The electron
CHAPTER 4
form pentium oxide. This oxide arrangement of iodine is

2.8.18.18.7 and the electron Self Assess 4.5
dissolves in water, forming
arrangement of chlorine is 2.8.7. 1 (a) Decreases
pentium hydroxide solution.
Both elements have 7 valence (b) Increases
4Pn(s) + O2(g) → 2Pn2O(s) electrons. During a chemical (c) The oxides change from basic to
Pn2O(s) + H2O(I) → 2PnOH(aq) reaction, both iodine and chlorine amphoteric to acidic.
Pentium metal reacts with cold will accept one electron to attain 2 (a) The electron arrangement of X is
water, forming pentium hydroxide an octet electron arrangement. 2.1 and Y is 2.7.
solution and hydrogen gas. (b) (i) Higher (ii) Higher Both elements have two electron
(c) (i) I2(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → shells. Thus, they belong to
2Pn(s) + 2H2O(l) →
NaI(aq) + NaOI(aq) + H2O(I) Period 2 of the Periodic Table.
2PnOH(aq) + H2(g)
(ii) 2Fe(s) + 3I2(s) → 2FeI3(s) (b) Y is more electronegative. Y has
Pentium burns in chlorine gas, 4 This can be explained by atomic sizes. 7 valence electrons. Thus, it has
forming pentium chloride salt. a tendency to accept an electron
Proton Electron
2Pn(s) + CI2(g) → 2PnCI(s) Element during a reaction to form a negative
number arrangement
ion. It is more electronegative.
(b) Pentium is more reactive than
Chlorine 17 2.8.7 Element X has one valence
sodium because the atomic
electron. It will donate the valence
size of Pn is larger than Na. The Bromine 35 2.8.18.7
electron during a reaction to form
force of attraction between the
Iodine 53 2.8.18.18.7 a positive ion. It is electropositive.
nucleus and the valence electron
in pentium atom is weaker and
thus the electron is more easily 3
Na2O MgO AI2O3 SiO2 P4O10 SO2 or SO3 CI2O7
transferred to other elements
Basic Basic Amphoteric Acidic Acidic Acidic Acidic
during a chemical reaction.
Answers 546
4 (a) The melting point of silicon is (c) (i) 2Rb(s) + 2H2O(I) → of attraction of the nucleus of
higher than that of sulphur. 2RbOH(aq) + H2(g) atom R towards an electron is
(b) Silicon is a weak conductor of (ii) 2Rb(s) + CI2(g) → 2RbCI(s) stronger than atom T. Thus, R
electricity but iron is a good 2 is more electronegative. 2
conductor of electricity. (d) Each Group 1 element has one 5 (a) Good conductors of electricity and
valence electron. This electron will high melting points 2
Self Assess 4.6 be released in a chemical reaction. (b) Blue 1
1 To each solution, add sodium The atomic radius of rubidium is (c) (i) Iron powder
hydroxide reagent. The solution larger and the valence electron is (ii) Nickel powder 2
containing Cu2+ ion will form a blue further from the nucleus compared (d) They have more than one oxidation
precipitate. to potassium. The electrostatic force number in their compounds.
of attraction between the nucleus They form complex ions. 2
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH—(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)
and the valence electron is weaker. (e) Aqueous ammonia solution or
blue precipitate
Hence, the valence electron of sodium hydroxide 1
The solution containing the blue food rubidium is more easily released 6 (a) Na, Mg or AI 1
colouring does not form any blue compared to potassium. 2 (b) The atomic radius becomes smaller.
precipitate. (e) (i) RbNO3 (ii) Rb2SO4 2 The charge of the nucleus increases
2 The alloy is strong, light and can (f) White 1 by one unit from one element to
withstand high temperatures caused 3 (a) E, R, C, G, or H 2 the next element across the period
by combustion of the jet fuel. but the number of filled electron
(b) (i) E+ (ii) Q— 2
shells is the same. Thus, the force
(c) G 1
of attraction between the nucleus
SPM Exam Pracitce 4 (d) B. It is used to fill airships or and the valence electrons
Multiple-choice Questions meteorological balloons. 2 becomes stronger. 3
1 D 2 A 3 D 4 C 5 D (e) Q 1 (c) Argon (Ar). Argon has attained an F
6 B 7 A 8 C 9 B 10 D (f) R is more reactive. octet in its electron arrangement. It O
11 A 12 C 13 C 14 D 15 A Both E and R donate one valence does not need to donate, receive R
16 B 17 A 18 B 19 D 20 C electron each during chemical or share electrons with other M
21 A 22 D 23 A 24 B 25 A reactions. The atomic radius of R is elements. 2
26 B 27 C 28 D 29 B 30 C larger than the atomic radius of E. (d) Na2O, MgO, AI2O3, SiO2, 4
31 D 32 D 33 A 34 D 35 B The valence electron in R is further P4O10, SO2, CI2O7 3
36 C 37 C 38 D 39 A 40 B from the nucleus and the force (e) (i) Na2O
of attraction is weaker. Thus, the (ii) Na2O(s) + H2O(I) →
Structured Questions element R can donate its valence 2NaOH(aq)
1 (a) Liquid 1 electron more easily. 2 sodium hydroxide
(b) Br2(I) + H2O(I) → 4 (a) R and T or P and U 1 2
HBr(aq) + HOBr(aq) (b) (i) Group 1 2 (f) (i) Sulfur dioxide
hydrobromic hypobromous(I) (ii) Period 4 (ii) SO2(g) + H2O(I) → H2SO3(aq)
acid acid 1 (Note that the electron sulphurous acid
(c) arrangement of U is 2.8.8.1) 2
CHAPTER 4
(c) P is used in the hydrogenation of (g) Amphoteric oxide 1
oil to produce margarine. (h) Silicon is used as a semiconductor.
(P is hydrogen) 1 1
(d)
Essay Questions
1 (a) — Each Group 1 element has
one valence electron. 1
— During chemical reactions, a
2 2 Group 1 element will donate its
(d) Seven 1 (e) (i) U valence electron to attain the
(e) Bromine is more reactive. (ii) 2U(s) + 2H2O(I) → stable octet in its electron
Each halogen atom has seven 2UOH(aq) + H2(g) 2 arrangement. 1
valence electrons. During reactions, (f) U+ 1 — The reactivity of Group 1
a halogen will accept one electron (g) (i) Electronegativity is a elements depends on the
to attain the stable octet in its measurement of the tendency of the elements to
electron arrangement. A bromine tendency of an element to donate their valence electrons.
atom has a smaller atomic radius attract electrons towards the 1
than an iodine atom. Thus, nucleus. 1 — When descending Group 1 from
bromine has a greater tendency to (ii) R is more electronegative. 1 lithium to potassium, the atomic
accept an electron than iodine. T is below R in the same size becomes larger. 1
3 group (Group 17). Atom R — The force of attraction between
2 (a) It is a soft metal and is a has less filled electron shells the protons in the nucleus and
conductor of electricity. 2 than T. The atomic radius of R the valence electron becomes
(b) Store in paraffin oil. 1 is less than that of T. The force weaker. 1
547 Answers
— The elements lower in Group 1 (ii) Each element in Period 3 has 3 (a) Helium: used to fill airships.
loses its valence electron more three filled electron shells. 1 Neon: used to fill advertising
easily. 1 The proton number increases bulbs.
— Therefore, reactivity increases by one unit from one element Argon: used to fill electric
down Group 1. 1 to the next across Period 3. 1 bulbs. 5
(b) Physical properties As the number of protons in (b) Helium has attained a duplet in
Rubidium is a soft metal, it is a good the nucleus increases, the its electron arrangement. The
conductor of electricity and heat. 3 electrostastic force of attraction other noble gases have attained
Chemical properties between the nucleus and the
the octet in their electron
(i) Rubidium reacts with cold valence electrons become
arrangement. 2
water to form an alkaline stronger. 2
Therefore, they do not donate,
solution. The valence electrons are
attracted closer to the nucleus, accept or share electrons with
2Rb(s) + 2H2O(I) → other elements, thus they exist
causing the atomic radius to
2RbOH(aq) + H2(g) 2 decrease. 1 as monatoms. 3
(ii) Rubidium reacts with chlorine (b) — Transition elements have (c) (i) — A piece of sodium is
to form rubidium chloride salt. variable oxidation numbers heated in a gas jar spoon
2Rb(s) + CI2(g) → 2RbCI(s) in their compounds. 1 until it starts to burn. 1
2 For example, iron forms two — The ignited sodium in
(iii) Rubidium burns in the air to oxidation states: the gas jar spoon is
form rubidium oxide. This Fe2+ and Fe3+ 1 placed in a gas jar of
oxide dissolves in water to — Transition elements form chlorine gas. 1
form rubidium hydroxide coloured compounds in — The sodium burns brightly
solution. 1 aqueous solutions. 1 with a yellowish flame. A
4Rb(s) + O2(g) → 2Rb2O(s) For example, aqueous Fe2+ white solid is obtained. 2
F solution is green while an
O 1
aqueous Fe3+ solution is 2Na(s) + CI2(g) →
R Rb2O(s) + H2O(I) → 2NaCI(s) 1
brown. 1
M 2RbOH(aq) 1 — Transition elements or their (ii) — Iron wool inside a
(c) The number of protons in sodium compounds have catalytic combustion tube is heated
atom is 23 – 12 = 11. strongly. 1
4 The number of protons in chlorine
properties. 1
For example, iron powder is — Chlorine gas is passed
atom is 35 – 18 = 17. used as a catalyst in the Haber through the heated iron
The number of electrons is equal process to manufacture wool. 1
to the number of protons. 1 ammonia. 1
Therefore, the electron arrangement — The iron wool glows
— Transition elements can forming brown iron(III)
of Na is 2.8.1 and the electron form complex ions. 1
arrangement of CI is 2.8.7. 1 chloride. 2
For example, copper(II) ions
As both atoms have three filled form the dark blue tetraammine 2Fe(s) + 3CI2(g) →
electron shells, they belong to copper(II), Cu(NH3)42+ ion. 1 2FeCI3(s) 1
Period 3 of the Periodic Table. 1
4 (a) (Period 3 is used as an example)
CHAPTER 4
2 (a) (i) — Each halogen atom has

seven valence electrons. 1
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
— During a chemical reaction,
a halogen atom will accept Metal Metal Metal Semi-metal Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal Non-metal
one electron so that it can 5
attain a stable octet in its
electron arrangement. 1 (b) The electronegativity increases Procedure
— The reactivity of Group 17 from sodium to argon in Period 3. 1 1 A little sodium oxide powder is
elements depend on their Across Period 3, the number of added to two separate test tubes.
tendency to accept an protons increases by one for each 2 5 cm3 of nitric acid and 5 cm3
electron. 1 element. 1 of sodium hydroxide are added
— The atomic size of Group The force of attraction of the separately to the two different
17 elements increase nucleus increases as the number test tubes.
down the group as the of protons increases. 1 3 The contents in each test tube
number of filled electron The atomic radius decreases are heated slowly while being
shell increases. 1 across Period 3. 1 stirred with glass rods.
— The force of attraction This causes an increase in the 4 The solubility of sodium oxide in
between the nucleus force of attraction between the the two solutions is recorded.
and the valence electron nucleus and electrons. 1
5 The experiment is repeated by
becomes weaker when (c) Na2O, MgO, AI2O3, SiO2,
replacing the sodium oxide with
descending the group. 2 P4O10, SO2, CI2O7 2
magnesium oxide, aluminium
— The lower elements in the Experiment: Reaction of oxide, silicon(IV) oxide
group has a lower tendency oxides of Period 3 with 2 mol and phosphorus(V) oxide. 3
to accept an electron to dm—3 nitric acid and 2 mol dm—3
form an ion. 1 sodium hydroxide solutions
Answers 548
Results (b) Atoms P and Q will take part in
chemical bonding. This is because
Oxides Solubility in NaOH Solubility in HNO3 Inference they have less than 8 electrons in
the outermost shell.
Na2O Not soluble Dissolves in nitric acid Sodium oxide is a base
3 Ionic bond and covalent bond.
forming a colourless because it reacts with
solution an acid
Self Assess 5.2
MgO Not soluble Dissolves in nitric acid Magnesium oxide is a 1 (a) Ca2+
forming a colourless base because it reacts (b) P3—
solution with an acid (c) S2—
AI2O3 Dissolves in sodium Dissolves in nitric acid Aluminium oxide is ampho (d) K+
hydroxide forming a forming a colourless teric because it reacts (e) N3—
colourless solution solution with both acid and alkali 2 (a) P + e— → P–
2.7 2.8
SiO2 Dissolves in sodium Not soluble Silicon(IV) oxide is acidic
hydroxide forming a because it reacts with an Q → Q2+ + 2e—
colourless solution alkali 2.8.8.2 2.8.8
(b)
P4O10 Dissolves in sodium Not soluble Phosphorus(V) oxide is
hydroxide forming a acidic because it reacts
colourless solution with an alkali
Thus, we can conclude that the oxides change from basic to amphoteric and then
to acidic. 5
Experiments F
1 (a) O
(i) Manipulated variable: (i) The way to manipulate a variable: Pass
Types of halogens the different halogen gases over the R
heated iron wool 3 (a) E+, F2+, G2—, H — M
(ii) Responding variable: (ii) What to observe in the responding (b) (i) E2G
The glow of iron wool variable: Brightness of flame or glow (ii) EH 4
(iii) FG
(iii) Constant variable: (iii) The way to maintain the constant variable:
(iv) FH2
Quantity of iron wool Use the same amount of iron wool
6
Self Assess 5.3
(b) The higher the position of a 2 The lithium metal is then
halogen is in Group 17, the more dropped into a basin of water 1 (a) H (b) H H
reactive it is with heated iron carefully using a pair of tongs.
wool. 1 3 The observation is recorded.
(c) Chlorine, bromine, iodine 1 4 The solution formed in the (c) H (d)
(d) The reactivity of the halogens in basin is tested with a piece of
CHAPTER 4 & 5
Group 17 decreases down the blue litmus paper.
2 (a) (i) VZ4
group. 1 5 The experiment is repeated
(ii) VY2
(e) Least reactive, it will only glow using small pieces of sodium
(iii) XZ3
faintly with heated iron wool. 1 and potassium metal.
2 (a) Problem statement What is the (e) Tabulation of data (b) (i) (ii)
trend of the reactivity of Group
Metal Observation
1 metals when descending the
group from lithium to potassium? Lithium
(b) Hypothesis The reactivity of Sodium (iii)
Group 1 metals increases down Potassium
the group. 15
(c) Materials Small pieces of lithium, (c) (i) Covalent compound
sodium and potassium metals, (ii) Covalent compound
basin filled with water, filter paper 5 Chemical Bonding (iii) Covalent compound
and blue litmus paper.
3 (a) (b)
Apparatus Penknife, basin and Self Assess 5.1
tongs. 1 Neon: 2.8
(d) Procedure Argon: 2.8.8
1 A piece of lithium metal is Both are stable because each of them
removed from the bottle. A has 8 valence electrons corresponding
small piece of the metal is cut to the stable octet electron arrangement.
using a penknife. A piece of 2 (a) Atom R is chemically inert. This is (c)
filter paper is used to absorb because atom R has 8 electrons
the paraffin oil from the metal. in the outermost shell.
549 Answers
Self Assess 5.4 2 (a) P: 2.8.1, Q: 2.6 2 (ii) Element Q has a low
1 (a) Aluminium oxide, copper(II) (b) P is in Group 1, Q is in Group 16 melting point because the
chloride/silicon dioxide/ 2 intermolecular forces of
ammonium nitrate (c) (i) P → P+ + e– attraction between molecules
(b) Ammonium nitrate, copper(II) (ii) Q + 2e– → Q2– 2 (van der Waals forces) are
chloride (d) (i) P2Q 1 weak. 1
(c) Ethanol (d) Silicon dioxide (ii) Ionic bond 1
Essay Questions
(e) Ethanol, tetrachloromethane (iii) 1
1 (a)
(f) Aluminium oxide
2 (a) R and S (c) Q and S Element C Na Cl
(b) Q and S
3 Carbon dioxide is a covalent No. of protons 6 11 17
compound consisting of simple (e) Low melting point and boiling No. of neutrons 6 12 18
covalent molecules with weak point/does not conduct
intermolecular forces of attraction electricity in any state. 1 Electron arrangement 2.4 2.8.1 2.8.7
between the molecules. Little energy 3 (a) (i) Covalent bond 1 No. of valence 4 1 7
is required to overcome these weak (ii) Ionic bond 1 electrons
intermolecular forces of attraction. (b) The weak intermolecular forces
Hence, it exists as a gas. Magnesium 4
require little energy to overcome
chloride is an ionic compound with (b) • One carbon atom forms 4
it. 2
strong ionic bonds holding the ions covalent bonds with 4 chlorine
(c) Any ionic compound, example:
together. High energy is required to atoms to form a CCl4 molecule.
sodium chloride, magnesium
separate the strong bonds. It has a • One carbon atom shares
chloride 1
high melting point and hence it exists 4 valence electrons with 4
(d) R 1
F as a solid. (e) There are freely moving ions
chlorine atoms while each
O Magnesium chloride can conduct in the liquid state. The ions are
chlorine atom shares 1 valence
R electricity in the molten state. The ionic electron with the carbon atom.
not able to move freely in the
• The sharing of 4 pairs of
M bonds between ions are overcome in solid state because they are held
the molten state. The ions are free to together by the strong electrons enables carbon and
move to conduct electricity. electrostatic force of attraction. 2 chlorine to achieve the stable
4 octet electron arrangement as
(f) Particles in R are atoms. Particles
in S are molecules. in the noble gases.
SPM Exam Practice 5
R: any metal, examples: copper/ • The electron arrangement of
aluminium CCl4 is as follows:
1 B 2 C 3 B 4 B 5 D
6 C 7 A 8 C 9 C 10 B S: macromolecules , examples:
11 B 12 D 13 D 14 A 15 C diamond/silicon dioxide. 2
16 D 17 B 18 B 19 A 20 C 4 (a) 19 1
21 C 22 D 23 A 24 C 25 A (b) (i) Covalent bond 1
26 A 27 D 28 B 29 A 30 B (ii) WY4 1
31 D 32 D 33 A 34 C 35 B (iii) 88 (12 + 4 3 19) 1
CHAPTER 5
• A sodium atom donates 1

36 D (c) W and X. They have the same
valence electron to form a
number of protons but different
Structured Questions sodium ion with the stable
number of neutrons. 2
1 (a) (i) Ionic bond 1 octet electron arrangement as
(d) (i) Y and Z 1
(ii) in the noble gases:
(ii) They have the same number
Na → Na+ + e–
of valence electrons. 1
2.8.1 2.8
(e) (i) FeZ3 1
• A chlorine atom accepts 1
(ii) High melting point and boiling
electron to form a chloride ion
2 point/soluble in water/conducts
with the stable octet electron
(iii) High melting point and boiling electricity in liquid state or in
arrangement as in the noble
point/soluble in water/conducts aqueous solution. 1
gases:
electricity in liquid state or in 5 (a) PQ4 1
Cl + e– → Cl–
aqueous solution. 1 (b) P is in Group 14, Q is in Group 17
2.8.7 2.8.8
2
(b) (i) 2.8 1 • The sodium ions and the chloride
(ii) (c) Covalent bond 1
ions are attracted by the strong
(d) It has low melting point and
electrostatic force of attraction.
boiling point, it is insoluble in
• The electron arrangement of
water but soluble in organic
2 sodium chloride is as follows:
solvents and it cannot conduct
(c) No, because U has a stable octet electricity in any state. 3
in the electronic configuration. U (e) (i)
does not gain, lose or share
electrons with other elements. 2
(d) 2V + 2H2O → 2VOH + H2 1 2 8
Answers 550
(c) — An ionic compound has high — Two nitrogen atoms share 3 pairs
boiling and melting points but of electrons between them. 1
CCl4 NaCl a covalent compound has low — Diagram showing the electron
melting and boiling points. arrangement of a nitrogen
Low melting and High melting and
boiling points boiling points 1+1 molecule:
— An ionic compound is soluble
Insoluble in water Soluble in water in water but insoluble in
Soluble in organic Insoluble in organic organic solvents whereas a
1
solvents solvents covalent compound is soluble
in organic solvents but (b) An ionic compound consists of
Does not conduct Conducts electricity ions that carry charges. 1
electricity in any in the liquid and insoluble in water. 1+1
• In the liquid state, heat energy
state aqueous state — An ionic compound conducts
has overcome the ionic bond;
electricity in the liquid state or
4 the ions are free to move. 1
in an aqueous solution but a
2 (a) (i) — Two elements that form covalent compound does not • In aqueous solution, water
an ionic compound are conduct electricity in any state. molecules separate the ions so
W and Z. 1 that the ions are free to move.
1+1
— The electron arrangement 1
3 (a) — A single covalent bond is
of atom W is 2.8.1 and • A covalent compound consists
formed from the sharing of
the electron arrangement of molecules. 1
one pair of electrons. 1
of atom Z is 2.8.7. 1 + 1 • There are no freely moving ions
— Example: a chlorine molecule
— To achieve the stable octet and therefore it does not
consists of a single covalent
electron arrangement as in conduct electricity. 1
bond formed between 2
the noble gas: 1 chlorine atoms. 1 Experiments
— An atom W donates one — A chlorine atom has 7 valence 1 (a)
electron to form a W+ ion.
F
electrons and requires 1 more
1 electron to achieve the stable Observation when O
— An atom Z accepts one octet electron arrangement. 1 Chemical Physical shaken with R
electron to form a Z– ion. — Two chlorine atoms share 1 compound state M
1 pair of electrons. 1 Water Acetone
— The positive ions and — Diagram showing the electron Potassium Solid Forms a Does not 4
negative ions formed are arrangement of a chlorine chloride colourless dissolve in
attracted by the strong molecule: solution acetone
electrostatic force of
attraction. 1 3
(b) X is soluble in water but is
1 insoluble in acetone.
— A double covalent bond is Y is insoluble in water but is
formed from the sharing of 2 soluble in acetone.
pairs of electrons. 1 Z is soluble in both water and
1 — For example, an oxygen acetone. 3
CHAPTER 5
(ii) — Two elements that form a molecule consists of a double (c) (i) X and potassium chloride
covalent compound are Y covalent bond formed (ii) Y and Z 3
and Z. 1 between 2 oxygen atoms. 1 (d) X is potassium nitrate because
— The electron arrangement — An oxygen atom has 6 valence potassium nitrate is a solid ionic
of atom Y is 2.4 and the electrons and requires 2 compound, soluble in water and
electron arrangement of electrons to achieve the stable insoluble in acetone. 3
atom Z is 2.8.7. 1 octet electron arrangement. 1 (e) Z is ethanol because ethanol is a
— One atom of Y contributes — Two oxygen atoms share 2 pairs
liquid and is soluble in both water
4 electrons to be shared of electrons between them. 1
and acetone. 3
with 4 atoms of Z. 1 — Diagram showing the electron
2 (a) Problem statement Do ethanol
— Four pairs of shared arrangement of an oxygen
and aqueous sodium nitrate
electrons form 4 single molecule:
solution conduct electricity?
covalent bonds. 1 (b) Hypothesis Ethanol does not
conduct electricity whereas
1 aqueous sodium nitrate solution
— A triple covalent bond is formed conducts electricity.
from the sharing of 3 pairs of (c) Variables
electrons. 1 Manipulated variable Types of
— For example, a nitrogen molecule compounds.
consists of a triple covalent bond Responding variable Electrical
between 2 nitrogen atoms. 1 conductivity.
2 — A nitrogen atom has 5 valence Constant variable Physical state
(b) Three differences between an electrons and requires 3 of compound.
ionic compound and a covalent electrons to achieve the stable (d) Substances Ethanol and
compound: octet electron arrangement. 1 aqueous sodium nitrate solution.
551 Answers
Apparatus Beaker, measuring are not free to move and hence cannot conduct electricity. In the molten state, heat
cylinder, graphite rods, batteries, energy has overcome the ionic bonds. The ions are freely moving and hence able to
light bulb, switch and connecting conduct electricity.

wires.
Self Assess 6.2
(e) Procedure
1
(i) 30 cm3 of ethanol is measured Ions that move to
by a measuring cylinder and Name of compound Ions produced
anode cathode
is poured into a beaker.
(ii) Two graphite rods are (a) Zinc chloride Zn , Cl
2+ –
CI —
Zn2+
immersed in ethanol and (b) Magnesium oxide Mg , O
2+ 2—
O 2—
Mg2+
the circuit is completed by
connecting to batteries, light 2
bulb and a switch. Name of Half-equation at Products formed at
(iii) The switch is turned on and compound anode cathode anode cathode
the bulb is checked if it lights (a) Calcium 2O2— → O2 + 4e— Ca2+ + 2e— → Ca Oxygen gas Calcium metal
up. oxide
(iv) The experiment is repeated
using aqueous sodium nitrate (b) Aluminium 2I— → I2 + 2e— AI3+ + 3e— → AI Iodine vapour Aluminium
solution to replace ethanol. iodide metal
(f) Tabulation of data
3 (a) (i) Shiny grey metal is deposited (ii) Greenish-yellow gas is evolved
Chemical (b) (i) Lead metal (ii) Chlorine gas
Observation
compound (c) (i) Pb2+ + 2e— → Pb (ii) 2CI— → CI2 + 2e—

Ethanol Bulb does not light Self Assess 6.3
F up when circuit is 1
O Ions discharged Ions discharged
completed. Aqueous solution Ions present
at the cathode at the anode
R
Aqueous sodium Bulb lights up when (a) Aqueous nitric acid H+, NO3—, OH— H+ OH—
M
nitrate solution circuit is completed.
(b) Silver nitrate Ag+, NO3—, H+, OH— Ag+ OH—
4 17
(c) Very dilute Cu2+, H+, CI—, OH— Cu2+ OH—
copper(II) chloride
6 Electrochemistry 2 (a) Cell I: copper(II) ions, hydrogen (c) (i) Ag+ + e— → Ag

ions, sulphate ions, hydroxide ions (ii) Ag → Ag+ + e—
Self Assess 6.1
Cell II: silver ions, hydrogen ions, (d) No change. The concentration
1 (a) (i) An electrolyte is a chemical
nitrate ions, hydroxide ions of silver ions remains constant
substance that conducts
(b) (i) Colourless gas bubbles are because the rate of formation
electricity in the molten state
formed at electrode P. A of silver ions at the anode is the
or in aqueous solution and
brown deposit is formed at same as the rate of discharge of
undergoes chemical changes.
CHAPTER 5 & 6
electrode Q. silver ions at the cathode.

Examples: molten lead(II)
(ii) The blue colour becomes (e) The iron key is polished with a
chloride, aqueous potassium
paler. The concentration of piece of sandpaper. Electrolysis
iodide solution (molten or
copper(II) ions decreases. is carried out using a low current
aqueous solution of any
(iii) Electrode R becomes thinner. over a longer period of time.
other ionic compounds).
Electrode S becomes thicker.
(ii) A non-electrolyte is a chemical
(iv) Electrode P: Self Assess 6.5
compound that does not
4OH— → 2H2O + O2 + 4e— 1 (a)
conduct electricity in any state.
Electrode R: Ag → Ag+ + e—
Examples: naphthalene, glucose
(c) (i) Electrode Q: Positions of ions
(or any covalent compounds).
in the electrochemical series.
(b) A conductor can conduct electric
(ii) Electrode R: Types of
current. An electrolyte can
electrodes used.
conduct electric current as well as
be decomposed by electricity. Self Assess 6.4
2 Electrolytes: molten zinc oxide, aqueous 1 Three uses of electrolysis:
zinc chloride solution, aqueous ethanoic (a) To extract reactive metals from
acid solution and molten sodium chloride. their ores (b) Iron metal is the negative
Non-electrolytes: molten sulphur, solid (b) To purify impure metals terminal
zinc oxide, molten zinc metal, solid (c) To electroplate a metal object (c) At the negative terminal:
zinc metal, acetone and aqueous with another metal Fe → Fe2+ + 2e—
glucose solution. 2 (a) Silver At the positive terminal:
3 Solid magnesium chloride consists of (b) The iron key is deposited with a Cu2+ + 2e— → Cu
positive ions and negative ions held layer of shiny silver metal. The (d) The iron metal corrodes while the
together by strong ionic bonds. The ions silver electrode becomes thinner. copper metal thickens.
Answers 552
2 4 (a) Cu2+, SO42–, H+, OH– 1
Type of cell Advantages Disadvantages
(b) Electrons flow from the zinc plate
Dry cells • Cheap • Cannot last long to the copper plate through the
• No spillage occurs • Cannot be recharged external circuit. 1
• Produces moderately stable • Zinc metal will dissolve and (c) (i) The cathode increases in
current and voltage the electrolyte leaks, corroding mass. 1
• Can be carried around easily electrical instruments (ii) Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu 1
• Can be made into different sizes • Current and voltage produced is low (iii) The colour intensity remains
Alkaline • Can last longer than a dry cell • Not rechargeable the same. 1
cells • Produces a higher and more • More expensive than a dry cell (iv) Oxygen gas 1
stable voltage • If leakage occurs, the electrolyte is (d) (i) The zinc plate becomes
more corrosive thinner. 1
(ii) Zn → Zn2+ + 2e– 1
3 Lead-acid accumulator (c) At the anode: brown gas is
(iii) Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu 1
At the negative terminal: Lead metal evolved. At the cathode: grey
releases electrons. Pb → Pb2+ + 2e— metal is deposited. 2 (iv) The cell voltage increases. 1
Electrons that are released flow to the (d) At the cathode: Pb2+ + 2e— → Pb 5 (a) Positive terminal is copper
positive terminal through the external At the anode: 2Br– → Br2 + 2e— metal.
circuit, producing electric current. 2 Negative terminal is lead metal. 2
At the positive terminal: Electrons are (e) Zinc metal will form at the (b) (i) Pb → Pb2+ + 2e— 1
received by lead(II) oxide. cathode and chlorine gas will (ii) Cu2+ + 2e— → Cu 1
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e— → Pb2+ + 2H2O form at the anode. 2 (c) Pb + Cu2+ → Pb2+ + Cu 1
2 (a) H+, Cl–, OH– 1 (d) To complete the circuit for the ions
Self Assess 6.6
(b) Carbon/graphite/platinum 1 to flow. 1
1 (a) X, Z, Y, W
(b) (i) W becomes the negative (c) (i) Gas X is oxygen gas, gas Y is (e) Higher than 0.57 V. 1 F
terminal. hydrogen gas. 2 6 (a) Electrode L and electrode S. 2 O
(ii) 0.7 volt [(1.2 – 0.9) + 0.4] (ii) 4OH—→ 2H2O + O2 + 4e— 1 (b) Cu2+, SO42–, H+, OH– 2 R
(c) (i) Y will displace metal Z and Y (d) (i) H+ ions and OH– ions are (c) (i) Cu → Cu2+ + 2e– M
ions are produced. discharged at the cathode (ii) Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu 2
(ii) No change will occur. and anode respectively in (d) (i) Copper metal
electrolysis. The effect is (ii) Oxygen gas 2 4
(iii) W will displace metal X and
W ions are produced. equal to the removal of (e) Intensity of blue colour in beaker I
2 (a) No change occur. water which causes the is constant. Intensity of blue colour
(b) Displacement reaction occurs: concentration of hydrochloric in beaker II decreases. 2
copper will displace silver from acid to increase. 2 (f) (i) Rheostat.
silver nitrate. Copper metal (ii) Chlorine gas is collected at (ii) To control and to ensure that
dissolves, silver metal deposits and the anode. This is because the magnitude of electric
a blue colour solution is formed. the concentration of Cl– ions current remains constant. 2
Cu + 2Ag+ → 2Ag + Cu2+ is higher than OH– ions,
hence Cl– ions are selectively Essay Questions
(c) Displacement reaction occurs: 1 (a) Electrolysis is a process involving
discharged at the anode. 2
CHAPTER 6
magnesium will displace silver the decomposition of an ionic
from silver nitrate. Magnesium (iii) 2Cl— → Cl2 + 2e— 1
compound (electrolyte) in the
metal dissolves and silver metal 3 (a) In cell A, chemical energy is
molten form or in aqueous
deposit is formed. converted into electrical energy. In
solution by an electric current. 2
Mg + 2Ag+ → 2Ag + Mg2+ cell B, electrical energy is converted
(b) Magnesium chloride is an ionic
into chemical energy. 2
SPM Exam Practice 6 compound. In the solid state, the
(b) (i) Mg → Mg2+ + 2e— 1 ions are held by strong electrostatic
(ii) Cu2+ + 2e— → Cu 1 force of attraction. Hence, the
1 C 2 C 3 B 4 C 5 B
(c) (i) Carbon electrode Q 1 ions are not free to move and
6 D 7 A 8 D 9 A 10 C
(ii) Q is connected to the subsequently cannot conduct
11 C 12 C 13 D 14 B 15 D
negative terminal (magnesium electric current. When it melts, the
16 D 17 D 18 A 19 A 20 D
electrode) in cell A. 1 ions are free to move and
21 A 22 C 23 B 24 A 25 A
(iii) Electrons flow from the can conduct electric current. 4
26 C 27 D 28 D 29 C 30 A
magnesium electrode (c) The arrangement of apparatus for
31 C 32 C 33 C 34 B 35 B
through the external circuit to the experiment to be carried out is
36 C 37 B 38 C 39 C 40 C
electrode Q. 1 shown in the diagram below.
Structured Questions (d) (i) Copper metal,
1 (a) Naphthalene does not contain Cu2+ + 2e— → Cu 2
freely moving ions. 1 (ii) Oxygen gas,
(b) In lead(II) bromide solid, the ions 4OH— → 2H2O + O2 + 4e— 2
are held in a lattice by strong (e) Electrons flow from the copper
bonds and are not free to move. electrode to the silver electrode. 1
In the molten form, the ions are (f) Electrode P will dissolve forming
free to move when the bonds copper(II) ions. Copper metal
holding them are overcome. 2 will deposit on electrode Q. 1
553 Answers
Magnesium chloride is heated Anode: 4OH— → • P releases electrons to form P
until it melts and the circuit is 2H2O + O2 + 4e— 1 ions, P2+.
completed to allow the flow of If concentrated copper(II) P → P2+ + 2e— 2
electric current. Shiny grey solids solution is used, chloride ions • Q ions receive electrons to
will deposit at the cathode and are discharged at the anode and form metal Q.
greenish-yellow gas will evolve chlorine gas is produced. 1 Q2+ + 2e— → Q 2
at the anode. In terms of the This is because in concentrated • Electrons flow from metal P to
ionic theory, molten magnesium copper(II) chloride solution, metal Q. 1
chloride consists of freely moving the concentration of chloride • Deflection of the voltmeter
magnesium ions, Mg2+ and ions is higher than that of 1 needle indicates the flow of
chloride ions, Cl—. hydroxide ions. Hence, chloride an electric current. 1
MgCl2 → Mg2+ + 2Cl— ions are discharged. (c) Displacement reaction will occur.
Magnesium ions, Mg2+ move to Anode: 2Cl— → Cl2 + 2e — 1 P will displace Q from Q(NO3)2
the cathode to accept electrons (b) Electroplating of an iron spoon solution. Metal P will dissolve to
and form magnesium metal. with copper in electrolysis: form P2+ ions. Metal Q will be
Mg2+ + 2e– → Mg In the experiment, copper(II) deposited.
sulphate solution is used as the P + Q2+ → P2+ + Q 4
Chloride ions move to the anode
electrolyte. The iron spoon is 1
and donate electrons to form
used as the cathode and 1
chlorine atoms. Two atoms of Experiments
copper metal is used as the anode.
chlorine combine to form a 1 (a) (i) Anode: oxygen gas
Copper anode will dissolve and 1
chlorine molecule. Cathode: hydrogen gas
copper metal will be deposited on
2Cl— → Cl2 + 2e— 14 (ii) Positions of ions in the
the surface of the iron spoon. 1
2 (a) (i) In the electrolysis of aqueous electrochemical series. 3
F copper(II) chloride solution, (b) (i) Iodine
O the ions present are Cu2+ (ii) Add a little starch solution, a
R ions and Cl— ions from CuCl2, dark blue colour will be
H+ ions and OH– ions from
M formed.
water. If carbon is used as (iii) Concentration of ions in the
the anode and cathode, 1 electrolyte 3
4 hydroxide ions, OH— ions are
2 (c) (i) Anode: 2I— → I2 + 2e—
discharged at the anode and Anode: Cu → Cu2+ + 2e— 1 Cathode: 2H+ + 2e— → H2
oxygen gas is released. 1 Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu 1 (ii) 4OH— → O2 + 2H2O + 4e— 3
Copper is deposited at the 3 (a) An electrolytic cell is a circuit (d) (i) Copper metal
cathode. arrangement consisting of electrodes, (ii) Bromine gas
Anode: 4OH— → connected by wires to batteries, (iii) Copper(II) bromide 3
2H2O + O2 + 4e— immersed in an electrolyte. 1 2 (a) Aim of experiment
Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e— → Cu The passage of an electric current To investigate the effect of the
1 produces a chemical reaction. 1 concentration of an electrolyte on
If copper metal is used as A voltaic cell is a circuit the types of products formed in
CHAPTER 6
the cathode and anode, arrangement that consists of electrolysis. 2

copper anode dissolves to different metals as electrodes (b) Hypothesis Ions with higher
form copper(II) ions. 1 immersed in an electrolyte. A 1 concentration will be selectively
Anode: Cu → Cu2+ + 2e— chemical reaction takes place discharged during electrolysis. 3
Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e— → Cu 1 and chemical energy is converted (c) Variables
When different substances into electrical energy. 1 • Manipulated variable
are used as the anode, (b) Concentration of aqueous
different products will be copper(II) chloride solutions 1
produced at the anode, • Responding variable
even though copper metal is Products of electrolysis 1
deposited at the cathode in • Constant variables Types of
both cases. 1 electrodes and electrolytes
(ii) In the electrolysis of copper(II) used 1
chloride aqueous solution using 2 (d) Substances 1.0 mol dm–3
carbon as the anode and • 30 cm3 of P(NO3)2 solution copper(II) chloride solution and
cathode, the ions present are and 30 cm3 of Q(NO3)2 1 0.001 mol dm–3 copper(II)
Cu2+ ion and Cl— ion from solution are placed into chloride solution.
CuCl2, H+ ions and OH– ions different beakers. 1 Apparatus Batteries, carbon
from water. 1 • Metal P is dipped in P(NO3)2 electrodes, rheostat, ammeter,
If dilute copper(II) chloride solution and metal Q is dipped connecting wires with crocodile
solution is used, hydroxide in Q(NO3)2 solution. 1 clips, switch and test tubes. 3
ions are discharged at the • A salt bridge is used to complete (e) Procedure
anode producing oxygen gas. the circuit by allowing the ions 1 1.0 mol dm–3 aqueous
1 to flow. 1 copper(II) chloride solution is
Answers 554
placed in an electrolytic cell 5 Hydrochloric acid dissociates to H+ (c) Number of moles of NaOH in
with carbon electrodes. ions in aqueous solution. H+ ions react 100 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm—3 NaOH
2 Two test tubes filled with with magnesium to produce hydrogen 0.2  100
= ————————
1000
= 0.02
copper(II) chloride solutions gas: 2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2
are inverted on top of the Hydrogen chloride dissolved in Number of moles of NaOH in
anode and cathode. methylbenzene exists as molecules 20 cm3 of 2.0 mol dm—3 NaOH
3 The switch is turned on and and is not acidic. H+ ions are not 2.0  20
= —————— =
1000
0.04
electrolysis is carried out. produced to react with magnesium.
Total number of moles of NaOH
4 Observations at the anode
Self Assess 7.2 = 0.02 + 0.04 = 0.06
and cathode are recorded.
1 (a) (i) E (ii) A Total volume = 100 + 20
5 The experiment is repeated
(b) (i) E (ii) A (iii) D/F (iv) C = 120 cm3
using 0.001 mol dm–3
(c) (i) B (ii) E (iii) C (iv) A Molarity of new solution
copper(II) chloride solution. 3
2 A strong acid is a chemical substance ————
= 0.06
—————
(f) Tabulation of data (120 / 1000)
that dissociates completely into
Chemical Observation Observation hydrogen ions in water. An example = 0.5 mol dm—3
substance at the anode at the cathode is hydrochloric acid, which undergoes
Self Assess 7.4
complete dissociation in water to form
Copper(II) Greenish- Brown deposit 1 (a) MgCl2, H2
hydrogen ions, H+ and chloride ions, Cl—:
chloride yellow gas is is formed (b) ZnSO4, 2H2O
HCl → H+ + Cl—
solution of 1.0 evolved (c) CH3COOH
A weak acid is a chemical substance
mol dm–3 (d) Ca(OH)2, H2SO4
that dissociates partially into hydrogen
2 (a) 2HNO3 + Mg(OH)2 →
Copper(II) Colourless Brown deposit ions in water. An example is ethanoic
Mg(NO3)2 + 2H2O
chloride gas is evolved is formed acid, which undergoes partial
dissociation in water to form hydrogen (b) From the equation, 1 mol of
solution of
ions, H+ and ethanoate ions, CH3COO—: Mg(OH)2 reacts with 2 mol of F
0.001 mol dm–3 HNO3. Hence, 0.001 mol of O
CH3COOH CH3COO— + H+
3 pH value of the strong acid is lower Mg(OH)2 will react with 0.002 R
than that of the weak acid of the mol of HNO3. M
7 Acids and Bases same concentration.
0.002 mol =—M V M  10
——— = —————
1000 1000
3 (a) Propanoic acid, ethanoic acid, 4
Self Assess 7.1 Concentration of HNO3,
methanoic acid 1000
1 (a) (i) An acid is a chemical (b) pH of methanoic acid < 3, pH of M = 0.002  ————
10
compound that produces propanoic acid > 3 = 0.2 mol dm—3
hydrogen ions when it
MAVA 2
dissolves in water. Self Assess 7.3 3 ———V—
M — = —1—
Mass
(ii) A base is a chemical 1 (a) Concentration = —————— B B
Volume 1.25  VA 2
compound that neutralises an mass
∴ ————————
1.0  25.0
= —1—
∴46.4 g dm—3 = ——————— 3
acid to produce salt and water. 2.0 dm Volume of HCl, V = 2  25.0  —1.0
——
(iii) An alkali is a chemical Mass of KOH = 2.0  46.4 g 1.25 A
compound that produces = 92.8 g = 40 cm3
CHAPTER 6 & 7
hydroxide ions when it (b) Relative molecular mass of KOH 4 H2SO4 + 2NH3 → (NH4)2SO4
dissolves in water. = 39 + 16 + 1 = 56 MAVA
—M—— ——
1
= —2—
(b) An acid changes moist blue litmus Number of moles = — MV V
B B
—
——
——
1000 MB  VB 1 2.0  25.0
paper to red. An alkali changes ∴ MA = ———
———— —— = ————————
Number of moles of KOH V 2 15.0  2
moist red litmus paper to blue. A
2 100 = 1.67 mol dm—3

Uses Acids or bases = 2.0  — ——— = 0.2
1000
Mass of KOH = 0.2  56 = 11.2 g
To make antacid Mg(OH)2 Mass SPM Exam Practice 7
2 (a) Concentration = —
————
To make fertiliser H2SO4, HNO3, Volume Multiple-choice Questions
NH3, NaOH 2.12 g
= —————————————3 = —2.12
————g—3 1 A 2 D 3 C 4 B 5 C
(500/1000) dm 0.5 dm 6 D 7 B 8 A 9 C 10 B
To make soap NaOH = 4.24 g dm—3 11 C 12 D 13 D 14 D 15 D
To neutralise CaO, Ca(OH)2 (b) Relative molecular mass of Na2CO3 16 B 17 A 18 A 19 C 20 C
acidity in soil = (23  2) + 12 + (16  3) 21 B 22 B 23 D 24 D 25 D
= 106 26 B 27 C 28 D 29 B 30 B
4.24
3 Q = MgCO3 R = HNO3 Molarity = ——— = 0.04 mol dm—3
106 31 C 32 A 33 B 34 A 35 B
X = HCl Y = KOH Z = NH3 3 (a) Relative molecular mass of NaOH 36 C 37 B 38 C 39 C 40 B
4 (a) H2SO4 + MgO → MgSO4 + H2O = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
(b) 6HNO3 + 2Al → 2Al(NO3)3 + 3H2 8.0
(c) 2HCl + CaCO3 → Molarity = —40
—— g dm—3 1 (a) To prevent the solution from

CaCl2 + CO2+ H2O = 0.2 mol dm—3 being sucked up. 1
(d) CH3COOH + NaOH → (b) M1V1 = M2V2 (b) (i) No noticeable change in 1
CH3COONa + H2O M final  (100 + 100) = 0.2 100 beaker A. Effervescence
(e) KOH + NH4Cl → NH3 + KCl + H2O M final = 0.1 mol dm—3 occurs in beaker B. 1
555 Answers
(ii) Hydrogen chloride in (e) Concentration of H2A Essay Questions
methylbenzene does not have 0.5  25.0 1 (a) Neutralisation is a reaction
= ———————— = 0.24 mol dm —3
2
any acidic properties. In 1 2  26.1 between an acid and a base to
beaker B, hydrogen chloride (f) produce salt and water only. 1
in water produces H+ ions For example, sulphuric acid reacts
which react with magnesium with sodium hydroxide to 1
to produce hydrogen gas. 1 produce the salt, sodium sulphate
(c) (i) Hydrogen chloride molecules and water only. 1
1 H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
(ii) Hydrogen ions and chloride 1
ions 1 (b) Sodium hydroxide is a strong
(d) (i) Carbon dioxide gas. Deliver the alkali that undergoes complete 1
gas produced into limewater.
dissociation in aqueous solution. 1
Limewater will turn cloudy. 1 2
Ammonia is a weak alkali that 1
(ii) In the presence of water, 4 (a) (i) H+ ion. 1
hydrogen chloride dissociates undergoes partial dissociation 1
(ii) Mg + 2H+ → Mg2+ + H2 1 only. The concentration of hydroxide
to H+ ions that will react with (b) (i) Experiment I. 1
sodium carbonate solution to ion in sodium hydroxide is thus
(ii) Sulphuric acid is a strong acid higher than that in ammonia. 1
produce carbon dioxide gas. 1 whereas ethanoic acid is a
(iii) 2H+(aq) + CO32—(aq) → Hence the pH value of sodium
weak acid. Sulphuric 1 hydroxide is higher than that of
CO2(g) + H2O(l) 1 acid undergoes complete
(iv) Hydrogen chloride can only ammonia. 1
dissociation to produce more (c) Molar mass of KOH
act as an acid in the hydrogen ions whereas 1
presence of water. 1 = 39 + 16 + 1 = 56 g mol–1 1
ethanoic acid undergoes
F 2 (a) (i) A standard solution is a 250 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm—3 KOH
partial ionisation in the
O solution with a known presence of water. 1
1.0  250
contains ——1000
————— mol KOH

R concentration. 1 (c) pH value of sulphuric acid is lower which is 0.25  56
M (ii) Molarity of the solution gives than that of ethanoic acid. 1 = 14.0 g of KOH. 1
the number of moles of The concentration of hydrogen • Weigh exactly 14.0 g of KOH
4 sodium hydroxide dissolved ions is higher in sulphuric acid accurately in a weighing bottle. 1
in 1 dm3 of the solution. 1 than in ethanoic acid. 1 • Dissolve 14.0 g of KOH in a little
(b) Number of moles of NaOH (d) pH value will be higher. 1 water in a beaker and transfer 1
0.5 3 100 Addition of water will dilute the
= ——————————— = 0.05 the contents into a 250 cm3
1000 1 sulphuric acid. This will lower the
volumetric flask. 1
Mass of NaOH = 0.05 3 40 hydrogen ion concentration and • Rinse the beaker with distilled
= 2 g 1 hence increase the pH value. 1 water and transfer all the contents
(c) (i) A measuring cylinder is 5 (a) pH value is 7 (see graph). 2 into the volumetric flask. 1
unsuitable because it cannot
• Distilled water is added to
measure the volume of water
the volumetric flask until the
accurately. 1
CHAPTER 7
graduation mark. The solution

(ii) A volumetric flask 1 produced is 1.0 mol dm—3
(d) Parameter I: mass of sodium
potassium hydroxide. 1
hydroxide 1 • To prepare a 0.1 mol dm—3
Parameter II: volume of the potassium hydroxide solution,
solution 1 25.0 cm3 of 1.0 mol dm—3 1
(e) Water is added carefully (drop by
potassium hydroxide solution is
drop) so that the level of the solution (b) Volume of nitric acid is 20.0 cm3 transferred to a 250 cm3 1
does not exceed the graduation (see graph). 2
volumetric flask using a 25.0 cm3
mark of the volumetric flask. 1 (c) HNO3 + NaOH → pipette.
The volumetric flask is stoppered NaNO3 + H2O 1 • Distilled water is added to the
to prevent the evaporation of water (d) From yellow to orange 1 volumetric flask until the 1
which can change the concentration
(e) Concentration of HNO3 graduation mark.
of the solution prepared. 1
0.5  25.0 2 (a) Chemical formula of magnesium
3 (a) 1 mol of acid reacts with 2 mol of = ————————
20.0
= 0.625 mol dm—3 2
hydroxide is Mg(OH)2. 1
OH— ions (or 1 mol of acid (f)
produces 2 mol of H+ ions) 1 Magnesium hydroxide is a base 1
(b) H2A(aq) + 2KOH(aq) → which can neutralise the excess
K2 A(aq) + 2H2O(l) 1 hydrochloric acid in the stomach. 1
Another chemical found in antacid
(c) From pink colour to colourless. 1
is aluminium hydroxide. 1
(d) (i) 26.05 cm3, 26.15 cm3, 26.10
(b) (i) Solution X is an acid whereas
cm3 1
(26.05 + 26.15 + 26.10) cm3 solution Y is an alkali. 1
(ii) ——————————3———————————
• Solution X is sour in
= 26.10 cm3 1 2 taste. 1
Answers 556
• It can react with a base to ions, H+ which is responsible (d)
produce salt and water. 1 for its acidic properties. 1
• It can react with a reactive • CH3COOH(aq)
metal to produce a salt H+(aq) + CH3COO—(aq) 1
and hydrogen gas. 1 • H+ ions change blue litmus
• It can react with a metal to red and react with reactive
carbonate to produce a metals or carbonates or bases.
salt, carbon dioxide gas 1
and water. 1 (b) (i) Test with magnesium ribbon.
• Solution Y is bitter in taste • About 3 cm of magnesium
and it feels soapy. 1 ribbon is added to about
• It can react with an acid to 5 cm3 of acidic solution
produce salt and water. 1 in a test tube. 1
• When it is heated with • The gas evolved is tested
by placing a glowing
ammonium salts, ammonia
wooden splint near 1 3
gas is produced. 1
the mouth of the test tube. (e) The pH value of a 0.020 mol dm—3
• It forms a metal hydroxide
If a ‘pop’ sound is nitric acid is 1.69 (accept 1.68-
when it is added to an
produced, indicating the 1.70). 3
aqueous salt solution. 1
presence of hydrogen gas, 2 (a) Problem statement How to
An example of solution X is
the solution in the test 1 determine the volume of sulphuric
hydrochloric acid. An example tube is proven to be acidic.
of solution Y is sodium acid required to neutralise 25.0 cm3
• Mg + 2H+ → Mg2+ + H2 1 of 0.5 mol dm—3 potassium
hydroxide solution. 1 (ii) Tests with sodium carbonate
(ii) When solution X and solution hydroxide solution?
• A little sodium carbonate (b) Variables F
Y are mixed together, powder is added to about Manipulated variable Volume of O
neutralisation reaction takes 1 5 cm3 of acidic solution in potassium hydroxide solution used R
place, salt and water is a test tube. 1
produced. The solution 1
Responding variable Volume of M
• The gas evolved is tested sulphuric acid required
produced has a pH value of 7. by passing the gas into lime-
1 water. If the limewater 1
Constant variables 4
Concentrations of sulphuric acid
The ionic equation is: turns milky, indicating the
and potassium hydroxide used
H+ + OH— → H2O 1 presence of carbon dioxide
(c) Statement of hypothesis
(iii) M1V1 = M2V2 gas, the solution in the test
The volume of sulphuric acid
M final  (80 + 20) 1 tube is proven to be acidic.
required in neutralisation depends
= 0.1  20 1
on the volume of potassium
M final = 0.02 mol dm—3 1 • CO32— + 2H+ → CO2 + H2O
hydroxide used.
3 (a) • Pure and dry acid, for 1
(d) Apparatus 25 cm3 pipette,
example, glacial ethanoic acid (iii) Test with copper(II) oxide
pipette filler, 50 cm3 burette,
does not show any acidic • A little copper(II) oxide
retort stand and clamp, conical
CHAPTER 7
property. 1 powder is added to about
flasks, filter funnel, dropper and
• Glacial ethanoic acid exists as 5 cm3 of acidic solution in
white tile.
molecules. 1 a test tube and the mixture
Materials Sulphuric acid, 0.5
is heated. 1
• Hydrogen ions are not present mol dm—3 potassium hydroxide
• If the black copper(II)
to show any acidic properties. solution and methyl orange.
oxide powder dissolves and
1 (e) Procedure
a blue solution is formed,
• Glacial ethanoic acid does not 1 A 25 cm3 pipette is cleaned
the solution in the test tube
change blue litmus to red. with distilled water and
is proven to be acidic. 2
It also does not react with rinsed with a little potassium
• CuO + 2H+ → Cu2++ H2O 1
reactive metals or carbonates hydroxide solution.
or bases. 1 Experiments 2 Using a pipette, 25 cm3 of 0.5
• When water is added to 1 (a) Manipulated variable mol dm—3 potassium hydroxide
glacial ethanoic acid, aqueous Concentration of nitric acid solutions. is transferred to a clean conical
ethanoic acid produced shows Responding variable pH values flask. Three drops of methyl
acidic properties. 1 Constant variable Type of acid orange indicator are added to
• In the presence of water, used 3 the alkali and the colour of the
aqueous ethanoic acid (b) The higher the concentration of H+ solution is noted.
dissociates to form hydrogen ions, the lower the pH value. 3 3 A 50 cm3 burette is cleaned
with distilled water and is rinsed
(c) with a little sulphuric acid.
Concentration of H+ ions 0.100 0.060 0.040 0.025 0.015 0.010
(mol dm—3) 4 The burette is then filled with
sulphuric acid and is clamped
pH value 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
to a retort stand. The initial
3 burette reading is recorded.
557 Answers
5 The conical flask containing 25 0.3 5 Add aqueous ammonia a little at a
Hence, —
0.3
— mol of Pb2+ ions
cm3 of potassium hydroxide time until in excess to the salt solution.
0.6
is placed below the burette. reacts with —— mol of Br – ions.
0.3 If a white precipitate that dissolves in
A piece of white tile is placed 1 mol of Pb2+ ions reacts with excess aqueous ammonia is formed,
below the conical flask for 2 mol of Br — ions. the salt is zinc nitrate. If no precipitate
clearer observation of the colour is formed, the salt is calcium nitrate.
Pb2+ + 2Br — → PbBr2
change. Add potassium iodide solution to the
5 Number of moles of Ba2+ ions
6 Sulphuric acid is added 5 salt solution. If a yellow precipitate is
slowly from the burette to the = 0.2  — ——— = 0.001
1000 formed, the salt is lead(II) nitrate.
potassium hydroxide solution in Number of moles of CrO42— ions 6
the conical flask while swirling
—10
= 0.1  1000
—— = 0.001
the flask gently. Test Inference
7 Titration is stopped when methyl 0.001 mol of Ba2+ ions react with
0.001 mol of CrO42— ions. 1 Zn , Al or Pb2+ ions may be present.
2+ 3+
orange changes from yellow
colour to orange colour. The Hence, 1 mol of Ba2+ ions react with 2 Zn2+ ions may be present.
final burette reading is recorded. 1 mol of CrO42— ions.
Ba2+ + CrO42— → BaCrO4 3 NO2 gas and O2 gas are evolved.
8 Steps 1 to 7 are repeated
NO3— ions may be present.
until accurate titration values
6 Number of moles of Ag + ions = 0.5  10
—— ————
1000 The residue may be ZnO, Zn2+ ion may
are obtained, that is, until the
difference in the volumes of = 0.005 be present.
sulphuric acid used in two Number of moles of CO32— ions 4 SO42— ions are not present.
0.5  5
experiments is less than = —————— = 0.0025
1000
0.10 cm3. Salt Z contains Zn2+ ions and NO3— ions.
0.005 mol Ag + react with 0.0025 mol
(f) Tabulation of data SPM Exam Practice 8
of CO32—.
F Accurate Hence, 2 mol of Ag + react with 1 mol Multiple-choice Questions
O Rough of CO32— . 1 C 2 B 3 B 4 B 5 D
R 1 2 3 6 C 7 C 8 B 9 C 10 C
2Ag + + CO32— → Ag2CO3
11 D 12 D 13 B 14 B 15 D
M Final burette 7 (a) 3MgO + 2H3PO4 → 16 C 17 C 18 A 19 C 20 D
reading (cm3) Mg3(PO4)2 + 3H2O 21 C 22 A 23 A 24 A 25 A
4 Initial burette (b) 3 mol of MgO produce 1 mol of 26 C 27 D 28 C 29 B 30 D
reading (cm3) Mg3(PO4)2. Hence, 3  1.2 = 3.6
mol of MgO is used to produce Structured Questions
Volume of 1.2 mol of Mg3(PO4)2. 1 (a) (i) Nitric acid 1
sulphuric acid (ii) PbO + 2HNO3 →
used (cm3) Self Assess 8.2 Pb(NO3)2 + H2O 1
1 (a) PbCl2, ZnCO3, CuCO3 (b) (i) Gas B is nitrogen dioxide. 1
17
(b) PbCl2, ZnSO4, ZnCO3, Na2CO3, Solid D is lead(II) oxide. 1
Al2(SO4)3, Mg(NO3)2 (ii) Gas C will rekindle a glowing
8 Salts (c) CuCl2, Cu(NO3)2
wooden splint. 1
(d) ZnSO4, Al2(SO4)3
CHAPTER 7 & 8
Self Assess 8.1 (c) (i) Lead(II) iodide. Yellow 1

(e) ZnSO4, Al2(SO4)3
1 (a) Neutralisation reaction between (f) Al2(SO4)3, Mg(NO3)2 (ii) Pb2+ + 2I– → PbI2 2
NaOH and H2SO4. (d) (i) Lead(II) hydroxide 1
2 (a) Iron(III) carbonate
(b) Neutralisation reaction between (ii) The white precipitate formed
(b) Fe2(CO3)3 + 6HNO3 →
NH3 and H2SO4. dissolves in excess aqueous
2Fe(NO3)3 + 3CO2 + 3H2O
(c) Reaction between excess Al sodium hydroxide to produce
(c) Y decomposes to iron(III)
powder/ Al2O3/ Al2(CO3)3 and a colourless solution. 1
oxide and carbon dioxide gas is
H2SO4. (e) Lead(II) carbonate or lead metal
(d) Reaction between excess Pb evolved.
(d) A blood red colour solution is 1
powder / PbO/ PbCO3 and HNO3.
formed. 2 (a) MgO + 2HNO3 →
(e) Reaction between excess Zn
(e) Fe3+ + 3OH— → Fe(OH)3 Mg(NO3)2 + H2O 1
powder/ ZnO/ ZnCO3 and HCl.
3 P contains chloride ions, Q contains (b) Number of moles of HNO3
(f) Precipitation between Pb(NO3)2
sulphate ions and R contains 2.0  50
and Na2SO4/ K2SO4/ H2SO4. = ——————— = 0.1 1
carbonate ions. 1000
(g) Precipitation between AgNO3 and
NaCl /KCl/ HCl. 4 Add barium chloride solution to each 0.1 mol of HNO3 will produce
2 Magnesium powder (or magnesium type of the acid. If a white precipitate 0.05 mol of Mg(NO3)2. 1
carbonate or magnesium oxide) and is formed, sulphuric acid is present. Mass of the salt, Mg(NO3)2
nitric acid. Add silver nitrate solution to each type produced
Mg + 2HNO3 → Mg(NO3)2 + H2 of the acid. If a white precipitate is = 0.05  {24 + 2(14+16  3)}
3 (a) Mole ratio of Ca2+: SO42— = 1 : 1 formed, hydrochloric acid is present. = 7.4 g 1
(b) Mole ratio of Al3+: OH— = 1 : 3 If there is no precipitate formed with (c) (i) A white precipitate is formed,
4 (a) 2Ag+ + CrO42— → Ag2CrO4 either barium chloride solution or 1
(b) 0.3 mol of Pb2+ ions react with silver nitrate solution, nitric acid is insoluble in excess aqueous
0.6 mol of Br — ions. present. sodium hydroxide. 1
Answers 558
(ii) Magnesium nitrate 1 (ii) To prepare lead(II) chloride, • The reaction that occurs:
(d) (i) Gas E is nitrogen dioxide. the reactants are lead(II) nitrate Na2CO3 + Pb(NO3)2 →
Solid C is magnesium oxide. solution and sodium chloride / PbCO3 + 2NaNO3 1
2 potassium chloride solution. 3 • The precipitate formed is lead(II)
(ii) Gas D will rekindle a glowing (b) • The unsaturated salt solution is carbonate salt.
wooden splint. 1 evaporated until it is saturated. • Filter the mixture to obtain the
3 (a) (i) Carbon dioxide 1 1 precipitate. 1
• This is tested by placing a drop • The residue is rinsed with
(ii) Carbonate ion, CO32– 1
of the solution on a piece of distilled water and dried
(b) Zinc ion, Zn2+ 1 between filter papers. 1
glass plate. If crystals are formed,
(c) ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2 1 then the solution is saturated. 1 (c) • Add ammonia solution to
(d) Yellow when hot, white when • The saturated salt solution is 2 cm3 of solution X in a test tube, a
cold. 1 cooled to allow crystallisation to little at a time until the ammonia
(e) (i) ZnO + 2HCl → H2O + ZnCl2 occur. 1 solution is in excess. 1
1 • The salt crystals formed are • Repeat the test on solution Y
(ii) Residue B dissolves in HCl then filtered. 1 followed by solution Z to replace
solution X. 1
effervescence occurs 1
• If a white precipitate that does not
(f) (i) Zinc(II) hydroxide 1 dissolve in excess ammonia is
(ii) Zn2+ + 2OH– → Zn(OH)2 1 formed, the solution is
(g) A white precipitate is formed magnesium sulphate. 2
which is soluble in excess sodium • If a white precipitate that dissolves
hydroxide solution. 1 in excess ammonia is formed,
4 (a) ZnO + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2O 1 the solution is zinc sulphate or
(b) Hydrochloric acid is heated in diagram 1 , label 1 zinc nitrate. 2
a beaker. Add zinc oxide to (c) (i) The anion present is nitrate • Add a little barium nitrate solution to F
hydrochloric acid a little at a time ion. 1 2 cm3 of the solutions in separate O
until a little of solid zinc oxide is Chemical test: Add a little test tubes. 1 R
in excess. Filter the mixture and 1 dilute sulphuric acid and • If the solution produces a white M
the filtrate is salt solution P. 1 iron(II) sulphate solution precipitate that dissolves in excess
to about 5 cm3 of salt X ammonia and also a white
(c) (i) Sodium carbonate solution 1
precipitate with barium nitrate
4
(ii) Double decomposition 1 solution in a test tube, 1
followed by concentrated solution, the solution is zinc
(iii) Zn2+ + CO32— → ZnCO3 1 sulphate. 1
sulphuric acid along the sides
(d) (i) Number of moles of HCl • If the solution produces a white
of the test tube. 1
30 A brown ring will be formed, precipitate that dissolves in 1
= 2.0  ————— = 0.06 1
1000 thus confirming the presence excess ammonia but does not
ZnO + 2HCl → of nitrate ions. 1 produce any precipitate with
ZnCl2 + H2O (ii) The 3 cations present are barium nitrate solution, the
Al3+ ions, Pb2+ ions and Zn2+ solution is zinc nitrate. 1
0.06 mol of HCl will produce
0.03 mol of salt P. 1 ions. 3 Experiment
CHAPTER 8
(ii) ZnCl2 + Na2CO3 → Add potassium iodide 1 (a) 50.00 cm3 burette 3
ZnCO3 + 2NaCl solution to a little salt X (b) Manipulated variable Volume of
0.03 mol P will produce solution in a test tube. 1 potassium chromate(VI) solution
0.03 mol of ZnCO3 1 The formation of yellow Responding variable Height of
precipitate will confirm the precipitate
Mass of ZnCO3 produced presence of Pb2+ ions. 1 Constant variable Volumes of
= 0.03  125 = 3.75 g 1 2 (a) A salt is an ionic compound barium nitrate solution and size of
(e) Heat zinc carbonate strongly, zinc formed by replacing the hydrogen test tubes 3
carbonate will decompose to zinc ion of an acid by a metal ion or (c)
oxide. 1 ammonium ion. 2
5 (a) Filtration 1 (b) • Add lead metal powder a little
(b) Ammonia gas, ammonium ion 2 at a time to 30 cm3 of dilute
(c) Barium sulphate, sulphate ion 2 nitric acid, 1
• until the lead metal powder is in
(d) Zinc ion 1
excess, with a little remaining
(e) Metal Q is zinc, gas T is hydrogen
undissolved. 1
gas. 2
• The reaction that occurs:
Essay Questions Pb + 2HNO3 → H2 + Pb(NO3)2
1 (a) (i) 1
• Filter off the excess undissolved
Soluble salt Insoluble salt 3
lead metal powder, keep the
filtrate. 1 (d) (i) 5.0 cm3
Sodium sulphate Lead(II) chloride
• 30 cm3 of sodium carbonate (ii) Number of moles of Ba2+ ion
Magnesium nitrate
solution is added to the filtrate. 0.5  5.0
= —————————— = 0.0025 3
3 1 1000
559 Answers
(e) From the formula BaCrO4, 0.0025 Self Assess 9.3 • Reduce, reuse and recycle
mol of Ba2+ ions will precipitate 1 (a) An alloy is a mixture of two or • Produce biodegradable polymers
with 0.0025 mol of CrO42– ions. more elements with a fixed
Molarity of CrO42– ion composition of which the major Self Assess 9.5
1000 component is a metal. 1 (a) Silicon dioxide or silica
= 0.0025 mol  ————— dm–3 (b) Sand
5 (b) (i) Carbon
= 0.5 mol dm–3 3 (ii) Chromium and nickel (c) Fused glass, soda lime glass,
(f) All the barium ions have been (c) (i) borosilicate glass and lead glass
precipitated. The chromate ions 2 (a) Silicon dioxide
are in excess. 3 (b) Similarities: Hard, brittle,
inert to chemicals, withstand
compression, poor conductors of
9 Manufactured Substances in heat and insulators of electricity.
Industry Differences:
Self Assess 9.1
Glass Ceramics
1 (a) (i) Ammonium sulphate,
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4 (ii) • Transparent • Opaque
(ii) Potassium sulphate,
• Becomes soft • Withstand heating
2KOH + H2SO4 →
K2SO4 + 2H2O when heated
(b) H2SO4 + Ba(OH)2 → • Impermeable • Usually porous
BaSO4 + 2H2O unless glazed
2 To make fertilisers, detergents and
white paint pigment (c)
• To make lenses
3 (a) To absorb water • To make laboratory apparatus
F (b) (i) Carbon (d) Stainless steel does not rust, whereas • To make light bulbs
O (ii) C6H12O6 → 6C + 6H2O iron rusts. • To make mirrors and window
R 4 (a) Contact process 2 (a) Tin, lead and antimony panes
M (b) Gas X is sulphur dioxide, gas Y (b) Harder, stronger and more shiny • To make cooking utensils
is sulphur trioxide and liquid Z is when polished (d) In making cement, in making bricks
oleum. (c) To make decorative ornaments 3
4
(c) Step 1 : S + O2 → SO2 3 (a) Copper alloys are stronger, harder
and more resistant to tarnish than Soda lime Borosilicate
Step 2 : 2SO2 + O2 2SO3 Differences
pure copper. glass glass
(d) Temperature of 450 °C – 550 °C,
pressure of one atmosphere and (b) Bronze and brass (a) Composition Sodium Boron oxide
vanadium(V) oxide as the (c) Pure copper metal contains atoms oxide,
catalyst. of the same size arranged in a calcium oxide
(e) A lot of heat will be evolved regular and organised manner. Pure
when gas Y dissolves in water, copper is soft and ductile because (b) Property Does not Withstand
this vaporises the sulphuric acid the orderly arrangement of atoms withstand heating
produced as acid mist. enables the layers of atoms to slide heating
CHAPTER 8 & 9
over each other easily when an

Self Assess 9.2 external force is applied. There are Self Assess 9.6
1 (a) Nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas empty spaces in the structures of 1 (a) Composite material is a structural
(b) Iron powder pure copper due to imperfections. material made by combining two
(c) Temperature of 450 °C – 550 °C; Pure copper is malleable because or more materials with different
pressure of 200 – 500 groups of metal atoms may glide properties into a complex mixture.
atmospheres into new positions in these empty (b)
(d) N2 + 3H2 2NH3 spaces when pressed.
(e) To make fertilisers and nitric acid Composite
Self Assess 9.4 Uses
2 (a) Gas A is nitrogen gas, gas B is materials
1 (a) A polymer is a large molecule
ammonia, acid C is nitric acid made up of many smaller and Reinforced Construction of
(b) Haber process identical repeating units, joined concrete framework of high rise
(c) Air together by covalents bonds. buildings
(d) White fumes are formed. (b) Cotton and silk
(e) NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3 (c) Nylon and Terylene Superconductor To make stronger and
(f) Relative molecular mass of 2 lighter electromagnets
NH4NO3 Fibre optic Transmit data in
= 14 + 4(1) + 14 + 3(16) Ethene Polythene
telecommunications
= 80 Chloroethene Polychloroethene or PVC
1 mol of NH4NO3 consists of Fibreglass To make boats, fishing
2 mol-atoms of nitrogen. Propene Polypropene rods and containers
Percentage of nitrogen in 1 mol of Styrene Polystyrene Photochromic To make light sensitive
2(14)
NH4NO3 = ————  100% glass optical lens and
80 3 Nonbiodegradable and produces
camera lens
= 35% poisonous gas when burnt
Answers 560
2 (a) Fibreglass is a composite material (e) To make fertilisers and to make (d) (i)
made by embedding glass fibre paint pigments/ detergent/ as an
filaments in plastic. Fibreglass is electrolyte in lead-acid
lighter, stronger and tougher than accumulator 2
glass and is not brittle. It is more 2 (a) Process P is the Contact process. 1
resilient and flexible than plastic Process Q is the Haber process.
and is not flammable. 1
(b) Reinforced concrete is a composite 1
(b) Temperature of 450 – 550 °C 1
material made by adding a concrete
Pressure of 200 – 500 (ii)
mixture of cement, water, sand and
atmospheres. 1
small stones into a frame of steel
Presence of iron powder as
bars or wire netting. catalyst 1
It is strong, hard, can withstand
(c) (i) Ammonium sulphate 1
compression and pressure. It
(ii) H2SO4 + 2NH3 →
does not rust like iron.
(NH4)2 SO4 1
3 Lenses of spectacles made of
(d) 0.4 mol of NH3 is required to
photochromic glass will darken when
the light intensity is high and becomes react with 0.2 mol of sulphuric
1
clear when the light intensity is low. This acid. 1
(e) (i) Aluminium, copper,
eliminates the necessity for a separate pair Mass of ammonia = 0.4 3 17
= 6.8 g 1 magnesium 1
of sunglasses. (ii) Stronger, harder and does
Photochromic glass is produced when a (e) Urea 1
not tarnish easily compared
dispersion of silver chloride, AgCl or silver 3 (a) Temperature of 450 °C – 550 °C, 1 to aluminium. 1
bromide, AgBr is added to normal glass. pressure of 200 – 500 1 (iii) In the making of aircraft
When exposed to ultraviolet light, AgCl atmospheres and in the presence body 1
or AgBr decomposes to form silver and
F
of iron powder as a catalyst. 1 6 (a) Polymerisation 1
halogen atoms. The fine silver deposited O
(b) (i) Ostwald process 1 (b) (i) Ethene 1
in the glass is black and the glass is (ii) To make plastic bag / R
(ii) Platinum 1
darkened. containers / toys 1 M
(c) Physical property: Pungent smell/
ultraviolet 1 very soluble in water. 1 H H
AgBr → Ag + — Br2  
2
Chemical property: Dissolves 4
(c) (i) H – C = C – Cl 1
When the ultraviolet ray intensity in water to produce an alkaline
(ii) Polyvinyl chloride is lighter 1
decreases, silver atoms and bromine solution/forms white fumes with
gas recombine to form silver bromide. and does not rust. 1
hydrogen chloride gas. 1
1 (iii) It is not biodegradable. It 1
Ag + — Br2 → AgBr (d) Nitric acid 1
2 produces poisonous gas
NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3 1 when burnt. 1
SPM Exam Practice 9 (e) (i) Potassium hydroxide 1 (d) Petroleum 1
Multiple-choice Questions (ii) KOH + HNO3 →
1 B 2 D 3 B 4 B 5 C KNO3 + H2O 1 Essay Questions
6 B 7 D 8 D 9 C 10 C 4 (a) (i) Silicon dioxide 1 1 (a) A polymer is a big molecule
CHAPTER 9
11 D 12 A 13 A 14 B 15 D formed by many small molecules
(ii) Sand 1
16 D 17 D 18 D 19 A 20 A (monomers) joined together by
(iii) Boron oxide 1 covalent bonds. For example, in
21 D 22 C 23 B 24 D 25 B
26 A 27 B 28 D 29 C 30 B (b) (i) Polypropene 1 polythene, many molecules of
31 A 32 C 33 C 34 B 35 B (ii) Lighter / does not rust 1 ethene are joined by covalent
36 D 37 D (c) (i) Magnesium metal 1 bonds to form the big molecule
(ii) Magnesium atoms disrupt called polythene. 4
Structured Questions the orderly arrangement of (b) (i) Three examples of natural
1 (a) (i) Sulphur dioxide 1 polymers are:
aluminium atoms. Hence 1
(ii) S + O2 → SO2 1 layers of aluminium atoms Natural rubber: to make car
(b) (i) Sulphur trioxide 1 are prevented from sliding tyres
(ii) Temperature of 450°C over each other easily. 1 Protein: as a class of food
– 550°C, one atmosphere Carbohydrate: as a class of
(d) Z is reinforced concrete. 1
pressure and in the presence food 3
of vanadium(V) oxide as a (e) (i) T is a composite material. 1
(ii) Three examples of synthetic
catalyst. 2 (ii) It is sensitive to light intensity
polymers are:
(darkens when light intensity
(c) (i) Oleum 1 Polythene: to make plastic
is high, becomes clear when
(ii) Gas Z (or sulphur trioxide) is bags or bottles
dissolved in concentrated light intensity is low). 1 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): to
sulphuric acid. 1 5 (a) An alloy is a mixture of two or make water pipes
(d) A lot of heat will be evolved when more elements in which the Polystyrene: to make
sulphur trioxide gas is dissolved major component is a metal. 1 packaging materials 3
in water. This will vaporise the (b) (i) Zinc 1 (c) Sulphuric acid is manufactured by
sulphuric acid produced into fine (ii) Tin 1 the Contact process in industry.
droplets as acid mist. 1 (c) Copper atoms 1 1
561 Answers
• Sulphur is burned in air to (b) An example of an alloy is brass, a Experiments
produce sulphur dioxide gas. mixture of copper and zinc. 1 (a) Brass : 3.0 mm
S + O2 → SO2 2 To compare the hardness of Copper : 4.0 mm 3
• Sulphur dioxide gas is converted brass and copper, the following (b)
to sulphur trioxide gas by excess experiment is carried out. Type of Diameter of
air in the presence of vanadium Materials Block depression (mm)
(V) oxide as a catalyst, Copper block, brass block, ball
Brass 3.0
450 – 550 °C temperature and bearing, 1 kg weight, metre rule,
one atmosphere pressure. retort stand with clamp, cellophane Copper 4.0
2SO2 + O2 2SO3 3 tape and thread. 3
Procedure (c) Alloy is a mixture of two or
• Sulphur trioxide gas is dissolved
1 A metre rule is clamped to more elements with a fixed
in concentrated sulphuric acid to
a retort stand and a piece of composition in which the major
produce oleum.
copper block is placed on the component is a metal. 3
SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7 2 base of the retort stand. (d) The smaller the diameter of the
• Oleum is diluted with an equal 2 A steel ball bearing is placed on depression, the harder the metal.
volume of water to produce the copper block and a piece of 3
concentrated sulphuric acid. cellophane tape is used to hold (e) Brass is harder than copper /
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4 2 the ball bearing in place. copper is softer than brass. 3
2 (a) A composite material is a 3 A 1 kg weight is hung at a (f) Mass of weight used, height of
structural material formed by height of 50 cm above the weight from which it is dropped,
combining two or more materials copper block. The weight is size of steel ball bearing. 3
with different properties into a dropped onto the ball bearing 2 (a) Problem statement
complex mixture. placed on the copper block. How to compare the rate of rusting
• An example of composite 4 The diameter of the dent of an iron nail and a stainless steel
F material is reinforced concrete made by the ball bearing is nail?
O made from concrete and steel. measured to the nearest (b) Variables
R • Concrete is hard but brittle, 0.5 mm. • Manipulated variable Types
with low tensile strength and 5 The experiment is repeated
M three times using different
of nails (iron nail and stainless
can crack under the action of steel nail).
bending forces. areas of the surface of the • Responding variable Rate of
4 • Steel is strong with high tensile copper block. rusting.
strength but can corrode and is 6 The average diameter of the • Constant variable Size of nails,
expensive. dent is calculated. duration for rusting and conditions
• Reinforced concrete is formed 7 The whole experiment from of experiment (temperature,
by adding a concrete mixture of steps 1 to 6 is repeated supply of water and air).
cement, water, sand and small using a piece of brass block (c) Hypothesis
stones into a frame of steel bars in place of the copper block. Stainless steel can resist rusting
or steel wire netting and allowed better than iron.
to set. The structural material (d) Materials
formed on setting combines Iron nail, stainless steel nail,
the compressive strength of sandpaper, 5% jelly solution and
CHAPTER 9
concrete and the tensile strength potassium hexacyanoferrate(III)

of steel. It can withstand very solution.
high pressures and can support (e) Procedure
heavy loads. 1 Two test tubes are half-filled
• Reinforced concrete is used in with jelly solution.
the construction of framework 2 1 cm3 of potassium
To compare the hardness of an
for highways, bridges and high- hexacyanoferrate(III) solution
alloy with a pure metal
rise building. 5 is added to each test tube.
Results
• Another example of composite 3 An iron nail and a stainless
material is fibreglass made from Diameter of the dent (mm) steel nail are polished with
plastic and glass. Metal sandpaper and placed in the
• Plastic is light, flexible and elastic block two test tubes separately.
I II III Average
but is weak and inflammable. 4 The two test tubes are
• Glass is strong but is heavy, Copper allowed to stand for 2
brittle and non-flexible. Brass days after which they are
• Fibreglass is formed by embedding examined to see if any colour
glass filaments in polyester resin (a If the average diameter of the change has taken place.
type of plastic). The new material dents made by the steel ball (f) Tabulation of data
formed is strong, tough, resilient, bearing on the copper block is
flexible, impermeable to water and bigger than that on the brass block, Test tube Type of nail Observation
is not inflammable (does not catch the steel bearing has been pressed 1 Iron nail
fire easily). deeper onto the surface of copper
• Fibreglass is used in the making metal than that on brass. This will 2 Stainless steel
of boats, containers, pipes and show that, brass, a type of alloy, is nail
fishing rods. 5 harder than pure copper. 10 17
Answers 562
Form 5 (d) From the graph, the total volume of From the graph:
H2 produced at 1 minute = 4 cm3. Volume of O2 = 62 cm3
1 Rate of Reaction Average rate of reaction
∴ The average rate of reaction
Self Assess 1.1 between magnesium and 62
=— —
——
——
— = 0.43 cm3 s–1
1 (a) Reactions I and IV. hydrochloric acid 144
(b) Reactions II and III. volume of hydrogen (cm3) or,
=— ——
——————
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
———
——
———
———
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
2 (a) • Place zinc in dilute sulphuric acid. time taken (minutes) Average rate of reaction
• Using a stopwatch, record the 4 62
time taken for all the zinc to =— —— = 4 cm3 min–1 =— —
——
——— = 25.8 cm3 min–1
1 2.4
dissolve. The average rate of reaction (b) Time taken for the overall
(b) Let the time taken for zinc to between hydrochloric acid and reaction
dissolve completely be t s. another metal = 12 cm3 min–1. = 4 minutes (from the table
Mass of zinc dissolved = 2.0 g Thus, the average rate of reaction given in the question) = 240 s
Units of reaction rate are g s–1. between hydrochloric acid and Average rate of the overall
(c) Assumptions: another metal is higher. reaction
Sulphuric acid is in excess. 5 Average rate of reaction between 74
All the zinc (2.0 g) dissolves =— —
——
——— = 0.31 cm3 s–1
nickel and hydrochloric acid 240
completely in sulphuric acid. volume of hydrogen (cm3) (c) The average rate of reaction
3 Method 1: Measure the total volume =— ——
——
———
——
——
—————
——
———
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
———
——
——
———
——
———
——
—
time taken (s) between 1 minute and 3 minutes
of hydrogen given off at 60 (69 – 32) 37
regular time intervals. =— ——
——
—— = 0.5 cm3 s–1 =— —
——
———
——
——
——
——
——
——
—= — ——
——
— cm3 min–1
120 (3 – 1) 2
Plot the graph of volume Average rate of reaction between zinc = 18.5 cm3 min–1
of hydrogen released and hydrochloric acid (d) Time taken = 150 s
against time. 45 150 F
Method 2: Measure the mass of =— ——
—— = 0.8 cm3 s–1 =— —
——
——— = 2.5 minutes
56 60 O
the conical flask and The reaction between zinc and Rate of reaction at 2.5 minutes R
its contents (mixture of hydrochloric acid is a faster reaction.
iron and sulphuric acid)
= gradient of the curve at 2.5 M
Hence, zinc is a more reactive metal minutes
at regular time intervals. than nickel. 78 – 50 5
Calculate the loss of mass 6 (a) The reaction stops at 70 s. =— —
——
———
——
——
——
——
—— = 13.3 cm3 min–1, or
3.6 – 1.5
at regular intervals. total volume of H2 13.3
Plot the graph of loss of Average rate = — ——
———
——
———
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
— =— —
——
——— = 0.22 cm3 s–1
time 60
mass (of the conical flask 36
and its contents) against =— ——
—— = 0.51 cm3 s–1 Self Assess 1.2
70
time. (b) After 0.5 minutes, amount 1 The rate of reaction of zinc powder with
(Comments: The loss of mass of the reacted = 0.0030 3 0.5 3 60 dilute sulphuric acid can be increased by
conical flask and its contents is equal = 0.09 mol (a) increasing the temperature of
to the mass of hydrogen released.) Mass of Mg reacted = 0.09 3 24 sulphuric acid,
4 (a) 5.6 minutes = 2.16 g (b) increasing the concentration of
CHAPTER 1
(Comments: The time at which Mass of Mg unreacted = 4.0 – 2.16 sulphuric acid,
the curve becomes completely = 1.84 g (c) using a catalyst (for example,
flat is the time at which the 144 copper(II) sulphate solution).
reaction is complete). 7 (a) Time = 144 s = — —
——
——— = 2.4 min. 2 (a) At 6.6 seconds (the point when
60
(b) The slope of the graph at 1 the graph becomes flat)
Since the volume of O2 gas
minute is less steep than the (b) The reaction stops because all
collected at 2.4 minutes is not
slope at 2 minutes. Hence, the the hydrochloric acid has reacted.
given in the table, we need to
rate of reaction at 1 minute is (Comment: As stated in the
plot a graph of volume of O2
lower than the rate at 2 minutes. evolved against time and use the question, excess calcium carbonate
(c) It is not a normal behaviour. graph to determine this value. is used in this experiment).
Normally, the curve is steepest at (c)
the start because the reaction is
most vigorous at the start. But as
the reaction proceeds, it becomes
less vigorous and the graph
becomes less steep.
This unusual behaviour is due
to the fact that the magnesium
ribbon is not cleaned and is
therefore covered with a layer of
magnesium oxide. The acid must
first dissolve the magnesium
oxide layer before it can react
with the magnesium ribbon.
563 Answers
Comments: At a lower 4 (a) Hypothesis: The higher the (d) (i) A blue precipitate will be
temperature, the rate of reaction temperature of the reaction, the formed, insoluble in excess
is lower. Hence, the curve is faster the reaction, that is, the sodium hydroxide.
less steep. Since the reaction is higher the rate of release of (ii) Cu2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) →
slower, it takes a longer time to carbon dioxide. Cu(OH)2(s)
complete. The total volume of Comment: The experimental (e) A catalyst remains chemically
CO2 collected at the end is the results in the table below confirm unchanged at the end of the
same because the same amounts the hypothesis. The decrease in reaction.
of CaCO3 and HCl are used. mass corresponds to the mass of
Self Assess 1.3
(d) Constant variables: Concentration carbon dioxide released.
1 Only I and II will increase the rate of
and volume of hydrochloric acid,
Temperature Decrease in reaction.
mass of calcium carbonate.
Experiment Explanation:
3 (a) (°C) mass (g)
I: Effect of concentration on reaction
I 28 270.35 – 270.04 rate
= 0.31 When the concentration of
II 35 271.42 –270.01 sulphuric acid increases, the
= 1.41 number of reacting particles per
III 40 268.20 –266.00 unit volume also increases. As
= 2.20 a result, the particles are closer
together and they collide more
(b) Constant variable: Size and mass
frequently. Hence, the frequency
of marble, concentration and
of effective collisions increases and
volume of hydrochloric acid.
this causes the rate of reaction to
(c) There is a loss of mass due to
F the release of carbon dioxide gas
increase.
O II: Effect of temperature on reaction
(b) Step 1: Calculate the total into the atmosphere.
rate
R number of moles of oxygen The loss of mass = mass of
When the temperature is increased,
M released. carbon dioxide released
the particles gain energy and they
Experiment I: = 270.35 – 270.04
move faster and collide more
5 Number of moles of H2O2 used = 0.31 g
frequently. At a higher temperature,
MV 1.0  100 (d) Different beakers are used for the
=— ——
——
——
——
—= — —
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
— the number of reactant particles
1000 1000 experiments.
having the activation energy
= 0.1 Although the beakers are the same
increases. As a result, there are
From the equation, size, their masses are different.
more effective collisions and the
1 5 (a)
1.0 mol of H2O2 produces — mol rate of reaction increases.
2 III: An increase in the volume of
of O2.
sodium thiosulphate solution will
∴Total number of moles of O2 not increase the rate of reaction.
released IV: The sodium hydroxide solution
1
CHAPTER 1
added will neutralise the sulphuric

= —  0.1
2 acid. Hence, the concentration of
= 0.05 sulphuric acid decreases and this
Experiment II: will decrease the rate of reaction.
Number of moles of H2O2 used 2 (a) Number of moles of H2O2 used
MV 0.2  300 0.2 3 30
=— ——
——
——
——= — ——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
—— =— ——
——
——
————
——
——
——
— = 0.0060
1000 1000 1000
= 0.06 2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
Total number of moles of O2
Number of moles of O2 produced
released
0.0060
1 =— ——
——
——
——
——
—— = 0.0030
= —  0.06 2
2 (b) (i) Reaction II is faster than
Volume of O2 produced
= 0.03 reaction I because it is carried
= 0.0030 3 24 000 = 72 cm3
Step 2: Predict which reaction out at a higher temperature.
(b) (i)
has a higher rate of reaction. The higher the temperature,
Since the concentration of the higher the rate of reaction.
hydrogen peroxide used in (ii) Reaction III is a faster reaction
Experiment I is higher than than reaction II because the
the concentration of hydrogen catalyst, copper(II) sulphate,
peroxide in Experiment II, the increases the rate of reaction.
rate of reaction in Experiment (c) This shows that the catalyst is
I is higher. Thus, the graph in the Cu2+ ion. Both the Na+ and
Experiment I is steeper than the SO42– ions are not the catalyst for
graph in Experiment II. the reaction.
Answers 564
(ii) • The graph is steep at the the activation energy (iii) Both reactions have stopped.
start of reaction because decreases. Consequently, The reaction for experiment
the rate of reaction is the the frequency of effective II was completed earlier than
highest. collisions decreases and experiment I.
• As the reaction proceeds, the rate of reaction also (iv) The mass of zinc, the
the concentration of decreases. concentration and volume of
hydrogen peroxide 4 Negative catalysts reduce the rate of sulphuric acid used are the
decreases. As a result, reaction by increasing the activation same for both experiments.
the graph becomes less energy of the reaction. In the 4
steep because the rate of presence of a negative catalyst, the (e) The smaller the particle size,
reaction decreases. reaction occurs via a pathway with a the larger the total surface area
• The graph becomes flat higher activation energy. exposed for reaction and the
when the reaction stops, Ea = activation energy without a higher the rate of reaction. 1
that is, when all the catalyst (f)
hydrogen peroxide has Ea’ = activation energy with a negative
decomposed. The total catalyst
volume of oxygen gas As a result, fewer particles have
produced is 72 cm3. sufficient energy to overcome the
(c) (i) It acts as a catalyst. higher activation energy (Ea’).
Hence, the frequency of effective
(ii) Manganese(IV) oxide lowers
collisions decreases and this causes
the activation energy of the
the rate of reaction to decrease.
reaction by providing an
alternative reaction route.
Thus the effective rate of
2 (a) (i) C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O F
collision between hydrogen
peroxide molecules increases 1 mol of propane needs O
and this causes the rate of 5 mol of O2 for complete R
decomposition of hydrogen reaction. M
peroxide to increase. Rate of consumption of O2
3 (a) (i) The rate of reaction at the 1st = 0.20 3 5 5
minute is higher than the rate = 1.0 mol s–1 1
of reaction at the 2nd minute. (ii) 1 mol of propane produces
(ii) When the reaction continues, 3 mol of CO2.
the total surface area of
Rate of production of CO2
calcium carbonate decreases,
= 0.2 3 3 = 0.6 mol s–1 1
and the concentration
of hydrochloric acid also (b) (i) Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) →
SPM Exam Practice 1
decreases. As a result, the Mg2+(aq) + H2(g) 1
effective collisions that (ii) The time, t1, is shorter
1 C 2 C 3 D 4 A 5 D
cause the reaction to occur
CHAPTER 1
6 A 7 C 8 C 9 C 10 D because HCl is a strong acid
decrease. Thus, the reaction but CH3COOH is a weak
11 D 12 C 13 C 14 A 15 A
rate decreases.
16 D 17 D 18 C 19 A 20 D acid. 1
(b) (i)
21 D 22 A 23 B 24 B 25 C A weak acid dissociates
26 A 27 A 28 A 29 C 30 B only partially in water but
31 A 32 C 33 A 34 D 35 A a strong acid dissociates
36 D completely in water. Hence
the concentration of H+ ions
Structured Questions in Experiment I is higher.
1 (a) The size (total surface area) of 1
reactant. 1 The higher the concentration,
(b) Temperature/concentration of the faster the reaction, the
acid/mass of zinc (any two shorter the time needed
variables). 1 to dissolve magnesium
(c) (i) Hydrogen completely. 1
(ii) The volume of hydrogen
(c) (i) Curve X: Experiment II
can be measured easily. 2
(ii) When the experiment (d) (i) Experiment II. Curve Y: Experiment III
is carried out at a lower (ii) The gradient of curve II is Curve Z: Experiment I 3
temperature, steeper than the gradient of (ii) The amount (in moles) of
• the reactant particles move curve I. HCl used in Experiment II
slower, Alternative answer: It takes a (curve X) is half the amount
• the number of reactant shorter time for reaction II to (in moles) of HCl used in
particles that possess complete. Experiment I (curve Z). 1
565 Answers
3 (a) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 1 (iii)
(c) Rate of reaction ∝ — ———
——
——
——
——
——
——
———
—
MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) time taken
1 The time taken for Experiment Concentration
Experiment Time (s)
(b) Number of moles of magnesium III is longer than Experiment II (mol dm–3)
0.12 because the reaction rate in A 0.15 65
= ————— = 0.005 C 0.10 85
24 Experiment III is lower than in
From the equation, Experiment II. This is because E 0.05 105
volume of hydrogen liberated hydrogen peroxide used in
= 0.005 3 24 = 0.12 dm3 Experiment III has a lower The higher the concentration
= 120 cm3 2 concentration after dilution with of the acid, the shorter the
(c) Maximum volume of hydrogen water. When the concentration time taken for a fixed mass
= 120 cm3. of a reactant decreases, the of sulphur to be precipitated.
CuSO4(aq) acts as a catalyst. number of particles per unit 1
As rate of reaction ∝ ———
———
——,
A catalyst increases the rate of volume decreases. Therefore, the time
reaction but does not affect the frequency of effective collisions this shows that the higher
yield of the products. 2 decreases. This causes a lower the concentration of the acid,
(d) Volume of hydrogen produced in rate of reaction. 3 the higher the rate of
Experiment II = 120 cm3 (d) Increase the temperature of the reaction. 1
120 hydrogen peroxide solution. 1 (c) (i) Experiments B and C or
Rate of reaction = ———— Fe2O3
32 1 Experiments D and E. 1
= 3.75 cm3 s–1 (e) 2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l)+O2(g) (ii) Comparing Experiments B
(e) (i) Experiment III has the highest 1 and C, the acid concentration
rate of reaction. It takes the (f) is fixed at 0.10 mol dm–3,
shortest time to complete but the temperature varies
F
the reaction. 1 from 30 °C to 20 °C.
O Comparing Experiments D
(ii)
R and E, the acid concentration
M is fixed at 0.05 mol dm–3 but
the temperature varies from
5 30 °C to 20 °C. 1
(iii) Comparing Experiments B
and C or Experiments D and
E show that the higher the
temperature, the shorter the
time taken for the cross ‘X’ to
disappear from view.
2 1
Since rate of reaction ∝ — —
——
———,
5 (a) (i) Na2S2O3 + H2SO4 → time
2 S + Na2SO4 + SO2 + H2O this shows that the higher
CHAPTER 1
4 (a) Average rate of reaction (ii) S2O32- + 2H+ → the temperature, the higher
30 S + SO2 + H2O 2 the rate of reaction. 1
=— —
——
— (b) (i) Experiments A, C and E. 1 (d) At a higher temperature, the H+
35
= 0.857 cm3 s–1 2 (ii) In these three experiments, and thiosulphate (S2O32–) ions
the temperature was kept have greater kinetic energy and
1
(b) Rate of reaction ∝ ——
———
——
——
——
——
——
———
—— constant at 20 °C but the move faster. The frequency of
time taken acid concentration varies effective collisions between the
The time taken for experiment from 0.15 mol dm–3 to ions increases. Hence, the rate of
II is shorter than Experiment 0.05 mol dm–3. 1 reaction increases. 2
I. Hence, reaction rate in
6 (a)
Experiment II is higher than in
Experiment I. This shows that Experiment 1 2 3 4
iron(III) oxide acts as a catalyst in
Experiment II. Volume of hydrogen peroxide (cm3) 40 40 40 80
A catalyst provides an alternative Volume of water (cm3) 40 40 40 0
reaction pathway that has a lower
Temperature (°C) 30 30 32 30
activation energy than the original
reaction. As a result, a larger Mass of MnO2 used (g) 1.0 0 1.0 1.0
number of reactant particles have
sufficient energy to overcome the • Comparing Experiments 1 and 2
lower activation energy. Thus the Constant variable: Concentration and temperature of hydrogen peroxide
frequency of effective collisions Manipulated variable: Mass of catalyst
increases and the rate of reaction Explanation
increases. 3 Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide does not occur because a catalyst is not used.
Answers 566
• Comparing Experiments 1 and 3 Essay Questions (ii) A rubber stopper with a
Constant variable: 1 (a) (i) Average rate of reaction delivery tube is immediately
Concentration of hydrogen 480 inserted into the conical flask
peroxide and mass of catalyst = ———— and the stopwatch is started
Manipulated variable: 100 simultaneously.
Temperature of hydrogen peroxide = 4.8 cm3 s–1 2 (iii) The total volume of oxygen
Explanation (ii) The gradient of graph I at evolved is determined from
The total volume of oxygen any time is steeper than that the burette readings at half-
released is the same for both of graph II. Hence, the rate minute intervals.
Experiments 1 and 3. Thus, the of reaction for Experiment (iv) The experiment is repeated
concentration and volume of I is greater than that of using 0.5 g of copper(II)
hydrogen peroxide are the same Experiment II. 2 oxide instead of 0.5 g of
for both Experiments 1 and 3. This is because 1 mol of lead(IV) oxide.
The volume of oxygen released H2SO4 dissociates in water to
Tabulation of data
(Table 4) shows that the rate form 2 mol of H+ ions but 1
Experiment I: The decomposition
of reaction in Experiment 3 mol of HCl dissociates to form
of hydrogen peroxide in the
is higher than Experiment 1 only 1 mol of H+ ions. Thus
presence of PbO2
because a higher temperature the concentration of H+ ions in
is used in Experiment 3. Experiment I is higher. 2 Time 1 1 1 1
0 — 1— 2— 3—
• Comparing Experiments 1 and 4 At a higher concentration, (minute) 2 1 2 2 2 3 2
Constant variable: Mass of catalyst the frequency of effective
Burette
and temperature of reaction collisions between H+ ions
reading 50
Manipulated variable: and iron atoms is greater.
(cm3)
Concentration of hydrogen Hence the rate of reaction is
peroxide higher. 2 Volume of F
0 O
Explanation (b) O2 (cm3)
The total volume of oxygen R
released in Experiment 4 is Experiment II: The M
twice the total volume of oxygen decomposition of hydrogen
released in Experiment 1. This peroxide in the presence of CuO 5
implies that the concentration
of hydrogen peroxide used Time 1 1 1 1
0 — 1— 2— 3—
in Experiment 4 is twice the (minute) 2 1 2 2 2 3 2
concentration of hydrogen Burette
peroxide in Experiment 1. reading 50
The volume of oxygen released (cm3)
(Table 4) shows that the rate
Volume of
of reaction in Experiment 4 0
O2 (cm3)
is higher than Experiment 1 Experiment To investigate the
because a higher concentration effectiveness of lead(IV) oxide
CHAPTER 1
Based on the experimental results obtained,
of hydrogen peroxide is used and copper(II) oxide on the rate
two graphs of total volume of oxygen against
in Experiment 4. 5 of decomposition of hydrogen
time for the decomposition of hydrogen
(b) (i) The volume of oxygen collected peroxide.
peroxide are plotted on the same axes.
is less than 18 cm3 because of Hypothesis Lead(IV) oxide is
the lower rate of reaction. a more effective catalyst than
(ii) The total volume of oxygen copper(II) oxide.
collected remains the same Variables
(that is, 38 cm3) because a Manipulated variable Type of
catalyst does not affect the catalyst used.
yield of the product obtained Responding variable Volume of
when the reaction is oxygen liberated at particular time
complete. 2 intervals.
(c) (i) This means that the mass Constant variables Volume and
and chemical composition concentration of hydrogen peroxide,
of the catalyst are the same temperature of experiment and
before and after the reaction. mass of catalyst used. Graph I shows the effect of PbO2 on the
(ii) The catalyst is weighed Procedure decomposition of hydrogen peroxide while
before the experiment. After (i) Using a measuring cylinder, graph II shows the effect of CuO on the
the reaction, the reaction 25 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm–3 decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
mixture is filtered. The catalyst hydrogen peroxide is measured
is collected and dried. It is out and poured into a conical Conclusion
then weighed again. The flask. 0.5 g of lead(IV) oxide The gradient of graph I is steeper than
mass of the catalyst remains is then added to the conical the gradient of graph II at any particular
the same after the reaction. 3 flask. time. This shows that the rate of reaction
567 Answers
in Experiment I is higher than the rate of refrigerator. The souring of milk is Variables
reaction in Experiment II. Thus, lead(IV) a decomposition reaction caused Manipulated variable
oxide is more effective as a catalyst for the by bacteria. If the milk is kept at a Concentration of sodium
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. The low temperature in the fridge, the thiosulphate solution.
hypothesis is accepted. 12 rate of decomposition is reduced Responding variable Time taken for
2 (a) The dissolving of iron in dilute and it will remain fresh for a the cross 'X' to disappear from view.
hydrochloric acid is a chemical longer period of time. 4 Constant variables The
reaction. When iron dissolves in (d) Hydrogen peroxide decomposes total volume of solution, the
hydrochloric acid, the following slowly at room temperature to concentration of hydrochloric
reaction occurs: acid and the temperature of the
give water and oxygen.
experiment.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) → FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) Chemicals Sodium thiosulphate
Iron powder has a much larger solution (0.2 mol dm–3),
The human blood contains
surface area than an equal hydrochloric acid (1 mol dm–3)
enzymes. Enzymes are
mass of coarse iron filings. and distilled water.
With a larger surface area, the biological catalysts. The enzyme Apparatus Measuring cylinders,
frequency of effective collisions in the blood catalyses the conical flask, stopwatch and white
increases. Hence, even at room decomposition of hydrogen paper marked with a cross ‘X’.
temperature, the reaction rate peroxide. Hence, adding a drop Procedure
of iron powder with dilute of blood suddenly speeds up (i) A white piece of paper
hydrochloric acid is much greater the decomposition of hydrogen with an ink cross ‘X’ on
than the rate of coarse iron filings peroxide to produce bubbles of it, 0.2 mol dm–3 sodium
with acid. This explains why iron oxygen gas. Thus, a vigorous thiosulphate solution and
powder dissolves readily in cold effervescence occurs. 3 1 mol dm–3 hydrochloric
F dilute hydrochloric acid at room 3 (a) (i) The rate of reaction is acid are prepared.
O temperature. defined as the amount (ii) Using a measuring
R In the case of coarse iron filings, of a reactant used up or cylinder, 50 cm3 of sodium
M the rate of reaction is low at the amount of a product thiosulphate solution is
room temperature. Hence, a obtained per unit time. 2 measured out and poured
5 higher temperature is required into a conical flask.
(ii) The collision theory states
to speed up the reaction. When (iii) The conical flask is placed
that for a chemical reaction
a substance is heated, the on the white piece of paper
particles in the substance absorb to occur, the reactant marked with ‘X’.
energy. This causes the number particles must collide with (iv) Using a small measuring
of reactant particles having the each other. cylinder, 5 cm3 of 1 mol
activation energy to increase. As a At high pressures, the dm–3 hydrochloric acid is
result, the frequency of effective nitrogen and hydrogen measured out.
collisions increases, and the rate molecules are packed closer (v) Hydrochloric acid is quickly
of iron dissolving in dilute together. This means that poured into the sodium
hydrochloric acid increases. 7 the number of gaseous thiosulphate solution and
CHAPTER 1
(b) Coal is a solid fuel and thus molecules per unit volume is the mixture is shaken.
flammable. But big pieces of coal increased. (vi) The stopwatch is then
are safe because they do not Consequently, the frequency started simultaneously.
catch fire easily. In contrast, coal of effective collisions (vii) The cross ‘X’ is viewed
dust is highly explosive because from the top of the conical
increases and the rate of
it is in the finely divided state. flask. The solution becomes
reaction also increases.
Explosions are caused by very cloudy because sulphur is
rapid chemical reactions. 5 precipitated.
In the coal mine, the air is filled (b) (viii) The time is taken as soon as
with coal dust which forms an the cross disappears from view.
explosive mixture with air. It only (ix) Steps (ii) to (viii) are repeated
needs a spark to trigger off an using different volumes of
explosion because the reaction sodium thiosulphate solution
between finely divided coal and which are diluted with distilled
oxygen is a very fast reaction. 6 water as shown in the
(c) A reaction can be made to following table.
go slower by decreasing the Calculations
temperature. Conversely, a The concentration of sodium
reaction can be made to go faster thiosulphate solution after
by increasing the temperature. Hypothesis The rate of reaction mixing
Milk will turn sour very quickly between hydrochloric acid
volume of
if it is exposed to the air at and sodium thiosulphate is
Na2S2O3 (aq)
room temperature, but it will proportional to the concentration = 0.2  ———————————————— mol dm–3
keep for several days in a of sodium thiosulphate used. 50
Answers 568
energy to overcome the
Experiment 1 2 3 4 5
lower activation energy
Volume of sodium thiosulphate (cm3) 50 40 30 20 10 required for effective
Volume of water (cm3) 0 10 20 30 40 collisions. 1
• Hence, the frequency
Total volume of solution (50 cm3) 50 50 50 50 50 of effective collisions
Concentration of Na2S2O3(aq) after mixing 0.20 0.16 0.12 0.08 0.04 increases and the rate of
reaction increases. 2
Time taken (s)
(b) (i) Combustion of charcoal
1 The rate of reaction between
———— (s–1)
Time charcoal and oxygen in the
air depends on the area of
Results Based on the graph obtained, contact between them. A
1 the rate of reaction between large block of charcoal will
A graph of ————— against sodium thiosulphate solution not catch fire easily and thus
time
and hydrochloric acid is directly will burn slowly. If the block
concentration of sodium thiosulphate
proportional to the concentration of charcoal is cut into smaller
solution is plotted.
of sodium thiosulphate used. The pieces, the total surface area
hypothesis is accepted. 10 of the charcoal increases and
(c) 20 cm3 of ethanedioic acid is the rate of burning is higher.
added to 5 cm3 of potassium The larger the total surface
manganate(VII) solution. The area, that is, the smaller the
time taken for the purple colour size of the charcoal pieces,
of potassium manganate(VII) to the higher the rate of
disappear (that is, for decolourisation combustion. 3 F
to occur) is recorded. The (ii) Cooking food in a pressure O
experiment is repeated by adding 20 cooker R
cm3 of ethanedioic acid to 5 cm3 of The pressure cooker is a M
potassium manganate(VII) solution cooking utensil that allows
containing one or two drops of (i) the pressure inside it to 5
manganese(II) sulphate solution, become greater than the
Conclusion (ii) sodium sulphate solution. atmospheric pressure.
1 All other conditions are kept Pressure cookers are used
Rate ∝ ——————————— to speed up cooking. In the
time taken unchanged.
pressure cooker, the high
Experiment H2C2O4 + KMnO4 H2C2O4 + KMnO4 H2C2O4 + KMnO4 pressure causes the water to
+ + boil at a temperature above
MnSO4(aq) Na2SO4 100 °C or the cooking oil to
boil above its boiling point.
Time taken (s) t1 t2 t3
Furthermore, an increase in
CHAPTER 1
The results of the experiment show that t1 = t3 but t2 is very much less than t1 or pressure causes the number
t3. This proves that the manganese(II) ion, Mn2+ and not the sulphate ion, SO42–, of water vapour or cooking oil
increases the rate of reaction. Thus, sulphate ion does not act as a catalyst. 3 molecules that are in contact
with the food to increase.
4 (a) (i) Experiment I: Sulphuric acid (ZnCl2 + H2) is lower Thus, food cooks faster in
Experiment II: Hydrochloric than the energy content a pressure cooker than at
acid of the reactants (Zn + normal atmospheric pressure.
(ii) Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → 2HCl). Hence, the reaction Faster cooking preserves the
ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) is exothermic and the essential vitamins and other
(iii) temperature of the reaction nutrients in the food. 3
increases. 2
• The energy profile diagram Experiments
also shows that the 1 (a) t1 = 52 s t4 = 36 s
activation energy for a t2 = 46 s t5 = 32 s
catalysed reaction is lower t3 = 38 s 3
than that of an uncatalysed (b) Manipulated variable The
reaction. 1 temperature of sodium
• A catalyst lowers the thiosulphate
activation energy by Responding variable Time taken
providing an alternative for the ‘X’ sign to disappear
Explanation reaction pathway for the Constant variable The
• The energy profile diagram reaction. 1 concentrations and volumes of
shows that the energy • As a result, more reacting both sodium thiosulphate solution
content of the products particles possess sufficient and dilute sulphuric acid 3
569 Answers
(c) (c) The volume of gas evolved 3 (a) C3H6 + Cl2 → C3H6Cl2
decreases as the reaction proceeds. (b) C3H6 + H2O → C3H7OH
Temperature Thus it can be concluded that (c) C3H6 + H2 → C3H8
25 30 35 40 45
(°C) rate of reaction decreases as the (d) 2C3H6 + 9O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Time (s) 52 46 38 36 32 reaction proceeds. 3 (e) C3H6 + H2O + [O] → C3H6(OH)2
1
————— (s–1) 0.019 0.022 0.026 0.028 0.031 Self Assess 2.4
Time
1 (a) 2-methylbut-2-ene
2 2 Carbon Compounds
(b) 3,4-dimethylpent-1-ene
(d) (i) Self Assess 2.1 (c) 2,4-dimethylpent-2-ene
1 2 C5H10 has five isomers.
Organic Inorganic
compounds compounds H H H H H
| | | | |
Rubber, sugar, Limestone, carbon H—C=C—C—C—C—H
vinegar, dioxide, calcium | | |
polyvinylchloride, carbonate, sand, H H H
urea sodium chloride, pent-1-ene
ammonium H H H H H
sulphate | | | | |
H—C—C=C—C—C—H
2 (a) Hydrocarbons are organic | | |
compounds that contain the H H H
elements carbon and hydrogen only. pent-2-ene
(b) Three sources of hydrocarbon are H
F petroleum, natural gas and coal. |
O 3 Two main products formed are carbon H—C—H
R dioxide and water. H H H
M Rubber is an organic compound | | |
containing carbon and hydrogen. H—C=C—C—C—H
| |
5 When rubber is burnt in excess air,
H H
the carbon combines with oxygen to
2-methylbut-1-ene
form carbon dioxide and the hydrogen
4 combines with oxygen to form water. H
|
1
(ii) The rate of reaction  ————— . Self Assess 2.2 H H H — C — H H
time | | | |
The graph shows that the 1 (a) Propane, C3H8
H  C = C  C  C  H
rate of reaction increases as (b) Pentane, C5H12 | |
the temperature of sodium (c) Hexane, C6H14 H H
thiosulphate solution 2 (a) C8H18 3-methylbut-1-ene
increases. 3 (b) 2C8H18 + 25O2 → 18H2O + 16CO2
CHAPTER 1 & 2
H
1 3 (a) The presence of ultraviolet light or |
(e) At 50 °C, ————— = 0.0345 s–1 sunlight
time H—C—H
Time = 29 s 3 (b) Substitution reaction H H H
(f) The higher the temperature, (c) C2H6 + Cl2 → C2H5Cl + HCl | | |
the higher the rate of reaction. 4 The general formula of a saturated H—C—C=C—C—H
hydrocarbon is CnH2n+2. | |
Conversely, the lower the
CnH2n+2 = 58 H H
temperature, the lower the rate
12n + 2n+2 = 58 2-methylbut-2-ene
of reaction. 3
(g) Meat and fish decay (turn bad) 56 3 Cl H
n = ——— = 4
rapidly at room temperature. The 14 | |
lower the temperature, the lower X is C4H10, butane. H—C—C—H
| |
the rate of decay. Hence, meat
Self Assess 2.3 Cl H
and fish are kept in refrigerators to
1 (a) CnH2n, where n = 2, 3, 4… 1,1-dichloroethane
prevent them from turning bad. 3
2 (a) Rate of reaction is the volume (b) (i) C3H6 and
of gas evolved per second. (ii) C5H10
H H
Rate of reaction (iii) C7H14 | |
2 (a) Both have low boiling points and H—C—C—H
volume of gas evolved (cm3) both are insoluble in water but | |
=— —
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
————
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
——
—
time taken (s) 3 soluble in organic solvents. Cl Cl
(b) At 30 s (b) Both will undergo complete 1,2-dichloroethane
Burette reading = 28.10 cm3 combustion in excess oxygen 1,2-dichloroethane is formed when
At 40 s to produce carbon dioxide and ethene reacts with chlorine in addition
Burette reading = 24.70 cm3 3 water. reaction.
Answers 570
Self Assess 2.5 (b) The functional group of X is the temperature whereas oils have
1 (a) The hydroxyl (–OH) group carboxyl group, –COOH. lower melting points / exist as
(b) CnH2n+1OH where n = 1, 2, 3… The general formula is liquids at room temperature.
(c) C4H9OH has four isomers. CnH2n+1 COOH, where n = 0, 1, 2 (a) Saturated fatty acids are long-
H H H H 2, 3… chained carboxylic acids that do
| | | | (c) 2CH3COOH + CaCO3 → not contain carbon-carbon double
H—C—C—C—C—H (CH3COO)2Ca + CO2 + H2O bonds. Unsaturated fatty acids are
| | | | Effervescence occurs and a gas that long-chained carboxylic acids that
O H H H turns limewater cloudy is produced. contain carbon-carbon double
|
2 (a) Pentanoic acid, C4H9COOH bonds.
H
butan-1-ol (b) C4H9COOH + NaOH → (b) Shake 5 cm3 of each type of oil
C4H9COONa + H2O with 1 cm3 of bromine dissolved
H H H H
| | | | 2C4H9COOH + Mg → in trichloromethane (or acidified
H—C—C—C—C—H (C4H9COO)2Mg + H2 potassium manganate(VII)).
| | | | 3 (a) Compound Q is propanoic acid, Oleic acid will decolourise the
H O H H C2H5COOH. brown colour of bromine (or
| Compound R is propyl propanoate, the purple colour of potassium
H C2H5COOC3H7. manganate(VII)) whereas there
butan-2-ol (b) Reflux the reagents in the is no noticeable change in stearic
H presence of concentrated acid.
| sulphuric acid as a catalyst. 3 (a) Hydrogenation
H—C—H (c) Step I is oxidation. (b) Heat with nickel as a catalyst
H H Step II is esterification. (c) Palm oil has a lower melting point
| | than margarine.
H—C—C—C—H Self Assess 2.7 F
| | |
1 (a) Methyl methanoate, methanol Self Assess 2.9 O
O H H
| and methanoic acid 1 R
Natural polymer Monomer
H (b) Propyl ethanoate, propanol and M
2-methylpropan-1-ol ethanoic acid Protein Amino acid
(c) Methyl butanoate, methanol and Rubber Isoprene 5
H
| butanoic acid
2 (a) Methyl propanoate, Carbohydrate Glucose
H—C—H
H H O Starch Glucose
| | i

H—C—C—C—H CH3 — CH2 — C — O — CH3 2 (a) Acids such as methanoic acid or
| | | (b) Propyl ethanoate, ethanoic acid; the liquid latex is
H O H O changed to solid rubber.
| i (b) Sulphur of sulphur compounds;
H CH3 — C — O — CH2 — CH2 — CH3 the rubber becomes harder,
2-methylpropan-2-ol (c) Propyl methanoate, stronger, more elastic and more
CHAPTER 2
(d) C4H9OH + 2[O] → O resistant towards oxidation and
C3H7COOH + H2O i heat.
2 (a) Compound P is ethanol, C2H5OH. H — C — O — CH2 — CH2 — CH3 3 The organic acids produced by
Compound Q is ethanoic acid,
3 (a) CH3OH + C3H7COOH → bacteria present in latex neutralise
CH3COOH.
C3H7COOCH3 + H2O the negative charges on the
Compound R and compound S
(b) Reflux methanol and butanoic acid membranes of the latex colloidal
are carbon dioxide and water.
in the presence of concentrated particles. Coagulation occurs when
Compound T is ethene, C2H4.
3 (a) Dehydration, W is C3H7OH. sulphuric acid as a catalyst. the membranes of the latex particles
(b) Hydration, X is C3H6. (c) Has a sweet fruity smell, insoluble break during collision.
(c) Oxidation, Y is C3H7COOH. in water. To prevent this, aqueous ammonia is
(d) Combustion, Z is C4H9OH. added to neutralise the organic acids
Self Assess 2.8 produced by the bacteria.
Self Assess 2.6 1 Similarity:
1 (a) (CH2O)n = 60 (a) Both molecular structures have
(12 + 2 + 16)n = 60 the carboxylate group, –COO– as
60 SPM Exam Practice 2
n = ——— = 2 the functional group.
30 Multiple-choice Questions
(b) Both are insouble in water but
Molecular formula of X is C2H4O2
soluble in organic solvents. 1 B 2 A 3 A 4 A 5 B
or CH3COOH.
Difference: 6 D 7 B 8 A 9 D 10 B
Structural formula of X is
(a) Fats do not have carbon-carbon 11 C 12 C 13 B 14 D 15 C
H O
| i double bond, C = C in their 16 C 17 D 18 C 19 D 20 A
H—C—C—O—H structures whereas oils have. 21 B 22 C 23 B 24 A 25 A
| (b) Fats have higher melting 26 B 27 C 28 C 29 B 30 D
H points / exist as solids at room 31 A 32 C 33 D 34 D 35 C
571 Answers
Structured Questions (e) (i) C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH 1 (b) (i)
1 (a) Alkane, CnH2n+2, n = 1, 2, 3… (ii) C2H5OH + 2[O] →
1 + 1 CH3COOH + H2O 1 Element C H O
(b) Propane, C3H8 1 (iii) Acidified potassium Mass in
40 6.7 53.3
Butane, C4H10 1 dichromate(VI) / potassium 100 g
H manganate(VII) 1
Mol
40 6.7 53.3
| 4 (a) (i) Fermentation 1 ——— ——— —————
(c) H — C — H 12 1 16
(ii) H H
| | | = 3.3 = 6.7
1 = 3.3
H 1 H — C — C — H 1 2 1 1
Mol ratio
(d) (i) Gas 1 | |
(ii) Liquid 1 O H The empirical formula is
|
(e) Hexane, C6H14 1 CH2O. 1
H 1
(f) 2C2H6 + 7O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O 1 (CH2O)n = 60
(b) (i) Oxidation 1
2 (a) Alkene 1 (12 + 2 + 16)n = 60
(ii) C2H5OH + 2[O] →
(b) Hydrogenation 1 n = 2 1
CH3COOH + H2O 1
H H H The molecular formula of
(c) Add magnesium powder /
| | | carbon compound X is
magnesium carbonate powder
(c) nH — C = C — C — H C2H4O2. 1
| to liquid A and liquid B in two
(ii) The structural formula of X is
H separate test tubes.
H O
propene Effervescence occurs / gas bubbles | i
H CH3 form in liquid B but no noticeable H—C—C—O—H
polymerisation | | change occurs in liquid A. 1 + 1 |
F → – C — C  (d) (i) Ester 1 H 1
O | | (iii) The name is ethanoic acid.
(ii) Ethyl ethanoate 1
R H H n 1
(iii) As a solvent 1
M polypropene (iv) The general formula is
1 (e) Hydration of ethene 1
5 (a) Process I is coagulation. CnH2n+1COOH, n = 0, 1, 2…
(d) (i) Heat propene vapour with
5 steam over phosphoric(V) Process II is vulcanisation. 1
1 + 1 (c) Structures
acid as a catalyst 1 + 1
(b) Ethanoic acid / methanoic acid Similarity:
H H H
| | | 1 Both margarine and palm oil are
(ii) H — C — C — C — H (c) Vulcanised rubber 1 esters / they have –COO– as the
| | | (d) Compound X is stronger / functional group 1
O H H harder / more elastic / more Differences:
| resistant to heat / more resistant Margarine is saturated / has
H 1 to oxidation than natural rubber covalent single bonds 1
(e) (i) Purple colour changes to (any 2) 1 + 1 Palm oil is unsaturated / has
colourless 1
CHAPTER 2
(e) Heat natural rubber with sulphur covalent double bonds 1

(ii) C3H6 + H2O + [O] → 1 Physical properties
C3H6(OH)2 1 (f) (i) Aqueous ammonia 1 Similarity:
(f) The quantity of soot produced (ii) The hydroxide ions of Both are insoluble in water /
by the combustion of propene aqueous ammonia neutralise non-conductors of electricity 1
is more than that by propane. the organic acids produced Differences:
This is because the percentage of by the bacteria in latex. 1 Margarine is a solid / has a
carbon by weight in propene is
(g) To make tyres / shoe soles / higher melting point 1
more than in propane. 1 + 1
mattress / balloons 1 Palm oil is a liquid / has a
3 (a) For complete reaction between
ethanol and ethanoic acid to Essay Questions lower melting point 1
take place / to prevent the vapour H H H H Palm oil can be converted to
of ethanol and ethanoic acid to | | | | margarine by hydrogenation. 1
escape into the atmosphere. 1 1 (a) H — C — C = C — C — H Hydrogen gas and palm oil is
| | passed over heated nickel
(b) As a catalyst (or as a dehydrating 1
H H at 200 °C 1
agent) 1
but-2-ene 1
(c) (i) Esterification 1 2 (a) To prepare ethanoic acid from
H ethanol
(ii) CH3COOH + C2H5OH → |
CH3COOC2H5 + H2O 1 Materials Ethanol, concentrated
H—C—H
sulphuric acid, potassium
(d) (i) Methyl ethanoate 1 H H
| | dichromate(VI) 1
O
i H—C=C—C—H Apparatus Boiling tubes, delivery
(ii) CH3 — C — O — CH3 1 | tube with stopper, test tube,
H 1 Bunsen burner, test tube holder,
(iii) Has a sweet / fragrant /
2-methylpropene 1 blue litmus paper 1
fruity smell 1
Answers 572
potassium dichromate + 6 Equation (c) Reduced.
concentrated sulphuric acid + C2H5OH + CH3COOH → Loss of oxygen.
ethanol ethanoic acid CH3COOC2H5 + H2O 1 (d) Oxidised.
Loss of hydrogen or gain of oxygen.
Experiment 2 (a) (i) Calcium
1 (a) Statement of the problem (ii) Chlorine
water How to differentiate between (b) Oxidising agent: chlorine
hexane, a saturated hydrocarbon Reducing agent: calcium
and hexene, an unsaturated 3 (a)
heat hydrocarbon? 3
Compound Oxidation number
Diagram + label (b) All the variables
1 + 1 Manipulated variable (i) CaCrO4 +6
Procedure Types of hydrocarbon, hexane (ii) HNO2 +3
1 A boiling tube is filled with and hexene
Responding variable (iii) NaClO3 +5
about 5 cm3 of potassium
dichromate(VI) solutionTC A2/1 Reactions towards addition (iv) Cr2(SO4)3 +3
and 2 cm3 of concentrated reaction / bromine water /
(v) FeCl3.6H2O +3
sulphuric acid. About 3 cm3 acidified potassium manganate(VII)
of ethanol is added to the Constant variables (vi) K2MnO4 +6
tube. 1 Quantity of hydrocarbon and
2 A piece of tiny porcelain is quantity of reagent 3 (b)
put in to promote smooth (c) Hypothesis Ion Oxidation number
boiling. The boiling tube Hexene undergoes addition
is closed with a stopper reaction whereas hexane does (i) SO42– +6
connected with a delivery not undergo addition reaction /
(ii) CuCl43– +1 F
tube. The end of the delivery Hexene decolourises the brown O
tube is placed in a test tube (iii) ClO –
+1
colour of bromine water whereas R
cooled by cold water in a hexane does not. 3 (iv) NO3– +5 M
beaker (or The content in the (d) List of materials and apparatus
boiling tube is heated and the 4 (a) (i) Cu2SO4
Hexene, hexane, acidified potassium (ii) MnCl2 5
distillate is collected in the test
manganate(VII) solution, bromine (iii) NiSO4
tube cooled by water). 1
water, test tubes. 3 (b) (i) Chromium(III) chloride
3 Observation The potassium
dichromate(VI) changes from (e) Procedure (ii) Cobalt(II) oxide
orange to green 1 1 5 cm3 of hexene is put in a (iii) Iron(III) sulphate
4 Test The distillate changes test tube. (c) (i) Fe: +3
blue litmus to red, indicating 2 1 cm3 of acidified potassium Al: +3
manganate(VII) solution is (ii) Iron(III) oxide
an acid is produced. 1
added to hexene. Aluminium oxide
5 Equation C2H5OH + 2[O] →
3 The mixture is then shaken (iii) Iron shows variable oxidation
CH3COOH + H2O 1
and any colour changed is states.
CHAPTER 2 & 3
6 The carboxylic acid produced
recorded. The Roman numeral III refers
is ethanoic acid. 1 4 The experiment is repeated to the oxidation number of
(b) Ester prepared Ethyl ethanoate 1 using hexane to replace iron in the compound.
Alcohol used Ethanol 1 hexene. Aluminium has only one
Carboxylic acid used 5 Steps 1 to 4 are repeated oxidation state, that is, +3.
Ethanoic acid 1 using bromine water Hence, the Roman numeral
Apparatus Beaker, boiling tube, to replace the acidified figure, III, is not shown in
Bunsen burner, test tube holder 1 potassium manganate(VII) the names of aluminium
Procedure solution. 3 compounds.
1 About 3 cm3 of ethanol and (f) Tabulation of data 5 (a) Magnesium is oxidised.
3 cm3 of ethanoic acid are
Hydrocarbon Observation (b) (i) Loss of electrons to form
put in a boiling tube. 1
Mg2+ ion in the compound,
2 About 1 cm3 of concentrated Hexene
sulphuric acid is added to the MgO.
Hexane Mg(s) → Mg2+(s) + 2e—
mixture. 1 3
3 A piece of tiny porcelain is put
in to promote smooth boiling. loss of electrons
1 (ii) Increase in oxidation number
4 The contents of the boiling of magnesium from 0 in Mg
tube are heated to boiling Self Assess 3.1 to +2 in MgO.
for a few minutes. 1 1 (a) Oxidised. 6 (a) Zinc powder dissolves.
5 The contents are then poured Oxidation number of Fe increases. The brown solution of Fe3+(aq)
into a beaker half-full of water. (b) Oxidised. changes to the green solution of
1 Oxidation number of Zn increases. Fe2+(aq).
573 Answers
(b) Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– (a) T > P > Q > R
→
Fe3+(aq) + e– → Fe2+(aq) reactivity decreases
(c) Zinc is oxidised because it has donated electrons to form Zn2+ ions.
(b) Metal Q does not react with the
7 (a) (i), (ii) and (v) are redox reactions.
oxide of metal P because metal
(b) Reaction (i) Reaction (ii) Reaction (v)
Q is less reactive than metal P.
Cl2 + 2e– → 2Cl– Fe → Fe3+ + 3e– Fe3+ + e– → Fe2+
2 (a) Metal X is less reactive than
2Br– → Br2 + 2e– O2 + 4e– → 2O2– Sn2+ → Sn4+
carbon but more reactive than
(c)
Oxidising agent Reducing agent hydrogen. Thus, X is zinc.
(decrease in oxidation number) (increase in oxidation number) C > Zn > H
→
(i) FeCl3 (Fe: +3 to +2) SnCl2 (Sn: +2 to +4) reactivity decreases
(ii) Pb(NO3)2 (Pb: +2 to 0) Zn (Zn: 0 to +2) (b) (i) 2Al(s) + 3ZnO(s) →

3Zn(s) + Al2O3(s)
(iii) Cl2 (Cl: 0 to –1) KBr (Br: –1 to 0)
(ii) Oxidising agent : ZnO
(iv) H2O2 (O: –1 to –2) KI (I: –1 to 0) Reducing agent : Al
3 Method 1: Reduction of hot lead(II)
8 (a) Oxidising agent: potassium dichromate(VI) oxide by carbon in
Reducing agent: iron(II) sulphate powdered form
(b) At the negative terminal
2PbO(s) + C(s) → 2Pb(s) + CO2(g)
Fe2+ → Fe3+ + e–
Method 2: Reduction of lead(II) oxide
At the positive terminal by hydrogen gas
Cr2O72– + 14H+ + 6e– → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
PbO(s) + H2(g) → Pb(s) + H2O(l)
F (c) At the negative terminal, oxidation process occurs. Fe2+ is oxidised to Fe3+. The
oxidation number of iron increases from +2 to +3. Electrons are donated to the Method 3: Electrolysis of molten
O lead(II) oxide
electrode. At the positive terminal, reduction process occurs. Cr2O72– is reduced
R Molten lead is produced at
to Cr3+. The oxidation number of chromium decreases from +6 to +3. Electrons
M are accepted from the electrode. the cathode
(d) At the negative electrode Pb2+(l) + 2e– → Pb(l) … reduction
5 The colour changes from green (Fe2+) to brown (Fe3+).
At the positive electrode Method 4: Displacement of lead from
The colour changes from orange (Cr2O72–) to green (Cr3+). its salt solution
Step 1: Prepare lead(II) nitrate solution
Self Assess 3.2 by dissolving lead(II) oxide in
1 (a) A brown substance is formed on the surface of iron. dilute nitric acid.
(b) Iron reacts with oxygen in the air and water to form rust, PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) →
Fe2O3. xH2O. Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
2 (a) 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2H2O(l) → 2Fe2O3.H2O(s)
(b) A layer of grease can prevent iron from having contact with air (oxygen) and Step 2: Add zinc powder to lead(II)
CHAPTER 3
water. nitrate produced

Without oxygen and water, rusting of iron cannot occur. Zn(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) →
3 (a) Galvanised iron refers to iron that has been coated with a layer of zinc to protect Pb(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)
it from corrosion.
(b) Zinc is more electropositive than iron. Hence, zinc donates electrons more readily. Self Assess 3.4
When galvanised iron is exposed to air and water, zinc will corrode first. 1 (a) Electrolysis of concentrated
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e– potassium iodide solution
The electrons donated by zinc will move to iron. It is, therefore, difficult for At the anode (carbon)
iron(II) ions to form. Anions present: I– and OH–
Hence, rusting of iron does not occur. Oxidation of iodide ions to
4 (a) (i) 2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g) iodine occurs because of its high
(ii) Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e– concentration.
(b) Magnesium is more electropositive than zinc This means that magnesium Iodide ions are oxidised to form
donates electrons more readily than zinc to form Mg2+ ions. Hence, magnesium iodine and electrons are
prevents the corrosion of zinc. released.
2I–(aq) → I2(aq) + 2e–
Self Assess 3.3
At the cathode (carbon)
1
Mixture Observation Inference Cations present: K+ and H+
Metal P + oxide of metal Q Glows P is more reactive than Q Reduction of H+ ions to hydrogen
occurs.
Metal Q + oxide of metal R Glows Q is more reactive than R H+ ions accept electrons and are
Metal Q + oxide of metal T Does not glow T is more reactive than Q preferentially discharged to form
hydrogen gas.
Metal P + oxide of metal T Does not glow T is more reactive than P 2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g)
Answers 574
(b) Electrolysis of copper(II) Structured Questions (ii) A mixture of hydrogen and
sulphate solution 1 (a) Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) → air explodes easily when burnt.
At the anode (copper) Fe2+(aq) + Cu(s) 1 In order to avoid an explosion,
Anions present: SO42– and OH– ions (b) Iron is less electropositive than all the air in the apparatus
Both OH– and SO42– ions are not magnesium. Hence there is must be removed before
discharged. no reaction between iron and hydrogen gas is ignited. 1
The copper anode dissolves magnesium chloride solution. (iii) Melting point: 0 °C
because oxidation of copper to Iron is more electropositive than Boiling point: 100 °C 1
Cu2+ ions occurs. copper. Hence it displaces copper (iv) The oxide of X is iron(III)
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e– from copper(II) nitrate solution. oxide. 1
At the cathode (copper) 2 Reason: Iron(III) oxide is
Cations present: Cu2+ and H+ (c) (i) Copper metal 1 brown and can be reduced
Reduction of Cu2+ ions to Cu occurs. (ii) A brown precipitate of copper to iron which is grey in colour.
Cu2+ ions accept electrons and is formed. (v) The oxide of Y is zinc oxide.
are reduced to form copper. The solution changes from (vi) Y > H > X 1
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s) blue to green. 2 (vii) Hydrogen reduces the oxide
2 (a) (i) The diagram shows that of X into metal X. 1
(d) (i) Cu2+ ion (ii) Fe 2
electrode X is an anode This means that hydrogen
(e) Cu2+ oxidises Fe to Fe2+. Hence it
because it is connected to is more reactive than the
is an oxidising agent. Fe reduces
the positive terminal of the metal X.
Cu2+ to Cu. Hence it is reducing
battery. Hydrogen does not react with
agent. 2
Anions present: OH– and the oxide of Y.
SO42– ions 2 (a) (i) From +2 to 0. 1
(ii) Ammonia is oxidised. The Hence, hydrogen is less
Oxidation occurs. OH– ions reactive than Y. 2
oxidation number of nitrogen
are oxidised to oxygen. (b) (i) To produce oxygen for the F
4OH–(aq) → increases from –3 to 0. 1
(b) (i) An oxidising agent is a combustion of magnesium, O
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– carbon and zinc. 1 R
Electrode Y is the cathode substance that brings about
the oxidation of another (ii) M
because it is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery. substance but is itself
reduced. 1 Observation 5
Cations present: H+ and Fe2+ Element
ions (ii) Oxidising agent Flame/glow Residue (if any)
Reduction occurs. Hydrogen Potassium manganate(VII)
Magnesium Very bright White powder
ions are reduced to hydrogen solution 1
flame
gas. Substance reduced
2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g) The manganate(VII) ion, Zinc The glow The residue is
Comment: Hydrogen MnO4– 1 spreads yellow when
is below iron in the hot and white
(iii) Electrode Y 1
electrochemical series. when cold
(iv) Fe2+(aq) → Fe3+(aq) + e– 1
Hence, hydrogen ions are Carbon Bright flame No residue
(v) Potassium nitrate solution 1
preferentially discharged.
CHAPTER 3
(ii) The electrons are transferred (c) At electrode X: Green to brown 1 3
At electrode Y: Purple to (iii) The powdered element
from electrode X to electrode
colourless 1 (magnesium, carbon and
Y through the external circuit.
3 (a) (i) zinc) is first heated strongly.
(b) In electrolysis, electrical energy is
When the powdered element
converted into chemical energy.
has become very hot,
3 (a) Oxidising agent: NiO2
potassium manganate(VII) is
Reducing agent: Cd
then heated strongly.
(b) (i) Cd + 2OH– →
The oxygen released is
Cd(OH)2 + 2e–
allowed to pass over the
(ii) NiO2 + 2H2O + 2e– →
elements. 2
Ni(OH)2 + 2OH–
4 (a) The presence of water and
(c) From Cd electrode to NiO2
oxygen. 1
electrode.
Some pieces of zinc are put (b)
SPM Exam Practice 3 into the round-bottomed
Multiple-choice Questions flask.
1 B 2 D 3 C 4 A 5 C By means of a thistle funnel,
6 C 7 D 8 B 9 C 10 B dilute sulphuric acid is added
11 B 12 A 13 A 14 B 15 C to the zinc.
16 D 17 C 18 A 19 C 20 A Hydrogen gas released is
21 B 22 B 23 A 24 B 25 D passed through a U-tube
26 D 27 A 28 C 29 B 30 D containing a drying agent 3
31 B 32 A 33 D 34 A 35 D such as anhydrous calcium (c) The electrons flow to the edge of
36 A 37 B 38 A 39 B 40 D chloride. 3 the water droplet. Oxygen accepts
575 Answers
these electrons and is reduced to The coke burns in the hot air Oxide (O2–) ion has the same
hydroxide ions. and is oxidised to carbon stable electron arrangement as
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– → 4OH– dioxide. neon (2.8). Chloride (Cl–) ion
(aq) C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) has the same stable electron
Fe2+ and OH– combine to form Carbon dioxide then ascends to arrangement as argon (2.8.8).
Fe(OH)2. the top part of the furnace and 10
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) is reduced by coke to carbon (c) Galvanising is the coating of iron
The iron(II) hydroxide produced is monoxide. or steel with zinc for protection
oxidised by oxygen to form C(s) + CO2(g) → 2CO(g) against rusting.
Fe2O3. xH2O(rust). 3 Iron ore: Reduced to iron. Even if the zinc coating is
5 (a) Metal X is magnesium. This is a The iron ore is reduced by coke scratched, the iron below it does
displacement reaction. Copper and carbon monoxide to produce not rust.
and lead are less reactive than molten iron. Rusting occurs when iron donates
iron. They will not displace iron Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → electrons to form Fe2+ ions.
from its salt solution. Potassium 2Fe(l) + 3CO(g) Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e–
will react vigorously with water Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → In galvanised iron, zinc is
and hence cannot be used. 3 2Fe(l) + 3CO2(g) corroded and not iron. This
(b) (i) Magnesium: Changes from 0 Molten iron flows to the bottom is because zinc is more
to +2. of the furnace and is collected. electropositive than iron. When
Iron: Changes from +3 to +2. Limestone: To remove impurities zinc corrodes, zinc ions are
2 Limestone decomposes to formed and electrons are
(ii) Mg → Mg2+ + 2e– calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. released.
Fe3+ + e– → Fe2+ 2 CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
(c) Iron(III) chloride acts as the The calcium oxide produced reacts
F oxidising agent in this reaction. It with the impurities such as sand The electrons released will
O oxidises Mg to Mg2+ and is itself to form calcium silicate (slag). prevent iron from forming Fe2+
R reduced to Fe2+. 2 CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3 ions and thus prevent the rusting
M sand slag of iron. 4
6 (a) (i) Oxidation and reduction 1
(ii) In cell P, electrical energy is (silica) (calcium silicate) 2 (a) Experiment 1
5 coverted to chemical energy. The molten slag floats on top of Apparatus
In cell Q, chemical energy is the molten iron. The two layers Wire gauze, tripod stand and
converted to electrical energy. are run off from separate tap Bunsen burner.
1 holes and allowed to solidify. 6 Materials
(b) (i) 2Cl–(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e– (b) Metals: reducing agents Magnesium powder, copper(II)
(ii) 2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g) 2 Reducing agents are electron oxide and asbestos paper.
(c) (i) 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) → donors. Metals are reducing Procedure
2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g) agents because they tend to 1 Magnesium powder is added
(ii) Cl– ions are oxidised to donate electrons to form stable to copper(II) oxide and
chlorine and H+ ions are metal ions (cations) with the mixed uniformly.
reduced to hydrogen. 2 noble gas electron arrangement. 2 The mixture is placed on an
CHAPTER 3
(d) (i) The copper plate is coated For example, asbestos paper.
with a brown deposit of Na → Na+ + e– 3 The asbestos paper with the
copper metal. (2.8.1) (2.8) mixture is placed on a wire
(ii) The zinc plate becomes Mg → Mg2+ + 2e– gauze over a tripod stand.
thinner. 2 (2.8.2) (2.8) 4 The mixture of powdered
(e) (i) Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Al → Al3+ + 3e– magnesium and copper(II)
Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) 1 (2.8.3) (2.8) oxide is then heated strongly.
(ii) Zinc is oxidised to Zn2+ ions. Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+ ions have the
Cu2+ ions are reduced to same stable electron arrangement
copper. 2 as a neon atom (2.8).
Non-metals: oxidising agents
Essay Questions
Oxidising agents are acceptors
1 (a) Iron can be extracted from
of electrons. Non-metals are
haematite by reduction with
oxidising agents because they
carbon. Haematite is the iron ore
accept electrons readily to form
that contains iron(III) oxide.
stable anions (negative ions) with
Iron ore, coke (carbon) and
the stable electron arrangement
limestone (calcium carbonate)
of noble gases.
are added at the top of the blast Observation
For example,
furnace. A glow appears and spreads
A blast of hot air is blown into O2 + 4e– → 2O2– across the surface of the mixture.
the furnace from the bottom. (2.6) (2.8) Conclusion
Coke: It is oxidised to carbon Cl2 + 2e– → 2Cl– Magnesium is more reactive with
monoxide. (2.8.7) (2.8.8) oxygen than copper.
Answers 576
Discussion as iron is precipitated. When (ii)
1 The experiment shows that excess sodium hydroxide is
Metals more reactive Metals less reactive
magnesium reacts with added to the reaction mixture, a
than carbon than carbon
copper(II) oxide. white precipitate is formed. The
2 Magnesium reduces precipitate dissolves in excess Magnesium Copper
copper(II) oxide to copper sodium hydroxide solution to Sodium Lead
and is itself oxidised to form a colourless solution. This 2
magnesium oxide. shows the presence of Zn2+ ions. (c) (i) The purpose is to produce
Mg(s) + CuO(s) → In this reaction, iron(II) sulphate oxygen gas from potassium
Cu(s) + MgO(s) acts as the oxidising agent. Iron(II) manganate(VII). 1
sulphate oxidises zinc to Zn2+ ions (ii)
Experiment 2 and is itself reduced to iron (Fe). Metal Observation
Apparatus Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
Spatula and test tube. …oxidation Iron • Moderately bright flame
Materials Fe2+(aq) + 2e– → Fe(s) • Bright glow
Magnesium powder and …reduction Lead • Faint flame
copper(II) sulphate solution. The overall redox reaction • Moderately bright glow
Procedure between zinc and iron(II)
A spatula of magnesium powder sulphate can be represented by Magnesium • Very bright flame
is added to copper(II) sulphate the equation: • Very bright glow
solution in a test tube. The FeSO4(aq) + Zn(s) → Fe(s) + 3
mixture is shaken gently. ZnSO4(aq) (d) The more reactive the metal, the
oxidising reducing brighter the flame or the glow is
agent agent on the metal. 3

The reaction of iron(II) sulphate (e) F
as a reducing agent O
Magnesium Iron Lead Copper R
When chlorine water is added
to iron(II) sulphate solution, the 3 M
green colour of iron(II) sulphate (f)
changes to a brown colour. Metal Metal 5
When sodium hydroxide solution
(i) Manipulated (i) Use different
is added to the reaction mixture,
variable metals for the
a brown precipitate is formed,
experiment
which is insoluble in excess
sodium hydroxide. This shows (ii) Responding (ii) Observe the
Observation the presence of Fe3+(aq) ions. In variable brightness of the
1 The magnesium powder this reaction, iron(II) sulphate acts flame or the glow
dissolves. as the reducing agent. It reduces on the metal
2 The blue colour of copper(II) chlorine to chloride ions and is (iii) Constant (iii) Use the same
sulphate changes to colourless. itself oxidised to Fe3+ ions.
CHAPTER 3
variable mass of potassium
3 A reddish-brown precipitate is Cl2(aq) + 2e– → 2Cl–(aq) manganate(VII)
produced. … reduction and the same
Conclusion 2Fe2+(aq) → 2Fe3+(aq) + 2e– mass of each
A more reactive metal will … oxidation metal
displace a less reactive The overall redox reaction
metal from its salt. Hence, between chlorine and iron(II) 3
the experiment shows that sulphate can be represented by 2 (a) Problem statement
magnesium is more reactive than the ionic equation: Is steel more resistant to rusting
copper. 2Fe2+(aq) + Cl2(aq) → than iron?
Discussion reducing oxidising (b) Hypothesis
1 The brown precipitate is agent agent Iron rusts more readily than steel.
copper. 2Fe3+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) (c) Manipulated variable
2 Magnesium displaces copper 10 Steel and iron nails
from copper(II) sulphate Responding variable
solution. Experiments Colour change in the gelatin
Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → 1 (a) Copper(II) oxide reacts vigorously solution
Cu(s) + MgSO4(aq) 10 with carbon. Constant variables
(b) The reaction of iron(II) sulphate (b) (i) If carbon is more reactive Conditions of experiment
as an oxidising agent than the metal, a reaction will (d) Apparatus
When excess zinc powder is added occur and the mixture will Test tubes
to iron(II) sulphate solution, zinc glow. Materials
dissolves to form zinc sulphate. Conversely, if carbon is less Iron nail, steel nail, gelatin,
The green colour of iron(II) reactive than the metal, the sandpaper and potassium
sulphate slowly disappears mixture will not glow. 3 hexacyanoferrate(III).
577 Answers
(e) Procedure 4 (a) The formation of covalent bonds Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)
1 The iron nail and steel nail between nitrogen and oxygen to 0.02 mol of Ag+ ions on mixing
are cleaned with sandpaper. form NO2 molecule. with 0.02 mol of Cl– ions will
2 They are then placed in test (b) The breaking of covalent bonds produce 0.02 mol of AgCl.
tubes A and B respectively. in nitrogen molecules and oxygen Step 2: Calculate the heat
3 A solution of gelatin in hot molecules. released when 0.02 mol of AgCl
water is prepared. A few (c) Total energy content in nitrogen is precipitated
drops of potassium hexacyano and oxygen is less than the total The precipitation of 1.0 mol of
ferrate(III) are added to the hot energy content in NO2 molecule. AgCl releases 66 kJ of heat.
gelatin solution. The reaction between nitrogen Heat change for the precipitation
4 The mixture is stirred and and oxygen to form nitrogen of 0.02 mol of AgCl
poured into test tubes A and B. dioxide is endothermic, that is, = –0.02  66
5 The test tubes are set aside heat energy is absorbed when = –1.32 kJ
for three days and examined. the reaction occurs. 2 (a) M2+(aq) + CO32–(aq) → MCO3(s)
(f) Tabulation of results 5 (a) Number of moles of anhydrous (b) Heat change (mcθ)
copper(II) sulphate needed = (100 + 100) 3 4.2 3
Intensity of Inference on 16.5
Test tube (30.5 – 29.5)
blue colour rate of rusting = —————
66 = 840 J = 0.84 kJ
A (iron nail) 1 mol → 66 kJ
= 0.25 (c) Number of moles of M2+
? mol → 16.5 kJ
B (steel nail) MV
= —————
Relative molecular mass of CuSO4 1000
17 = 64 + 32 + (4  16) 0.5 3 100
= 160 = ———————————
Mass of CuSO4 needed 1000
F 4 Thermochemistry = 0.25  160 = 0.05
O = 40 g Number of moles of CO32–
R Self Assess 4.1
(b) Number of moles of nitrogen MV 1.0 3 100
1 (a) Endothermic = ————— = ———————————
M used 1000 1000
(b) Exothermic
12 = 0.10
(c) Endothermic = ———
5 (d) Exothermic 24 Number of moles of MCO3
= 0.5 precipated = 0.05
2 (a) The temperature of the solution
increases until the maximum Number of moles of oxygen used ∆H of precipitation
temperature is reached. The 24 –0.84
= ——— = ——————
temperature then decreases until 24 0.05
room temperature is reached. = 1.0 = –16.8 kJ mol–1
(b) 0.5 mol of N2 will react with (d)
0.5 mol of O2 to form 1.0 mol
of NO2.
Heat absorbed
CHAPTER 3 & 4
1
= ——— 3 66
2.0
= 33 kJ
∆H = +33 kJ
Self Assess 4.2

3 (a) Exothermic 1 (a) (i) 2AgNO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) →
(b) 3 Experiment 1
2AgCl(s) + Ca(NO3)2(aq)
Number of moles of M2+ ions
Reaction in the (ii) Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)
0.5  100
Characteristic (b) Step 1: Calculate the number of = ——————————
hot pack 1000
moles of AgCl precipitated
(i) Temperature Temperature = 0.05
Number of moles of AgNO3 used
change increases Number of moles of Cl– ions
0.1  200
= ——————————— 1.0  100
(ii) Energy content Energy content of 1 000 = ——————————
1000
of reactants products is higher = 0.02 = 0.1
and products than energy Number of moles of CaCl2 used Number of moles of MCl2 formed
content of the 0.1  100 = 0.05
reactants = ———————————
1 000 Total volume of solution = 200 cm3
(iii) Energy Energy absorbed = 0.01 (a) Experiment 2
involved in in bond breaking Number of moles of Cl– ions Number of moles of M2+ ions
bond breaking is less than produced 0.5  200
and bond energy released = ——————————
= 2  0.01 1000
forming in bond forming = 0.02 = 0.1
Answers 578
Number of moles of Cl– ions 2 Step1: Calculate the number of moles Step 2: Calculate the number of
1.0  200 of copper displaced moles of iron displaced
= —————————— Number of moles of Fe2+ used
1000 Number of moles of copper displaced
= 0.2 mass 0.25  50
= ————————————————————— = ———————————
M2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) → MCl2(s) relative atomic mass 1000
0.1 mol of M2+ ions react with 2.56 = 0.0125
= ————— = 0.04
0.2 mol of Cl– ions to form 0.1 64 Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq) →
mol of MCl2. Step 2: Calculate the heat energy Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s)
Total volume = 400 cm3 released 0.0125 mol of Fe2+ reacts with
Rise in temperature is also 10 °C. From the thermochemical equation excess magnesium to form
(Comment: The total number given, the displacement of 1.0 mol 0.0125 mol of Fe.
of moles of MCl2 increases two of copper releases 210 kJ of heat Step 3: Calculate the heat
times (from 0.05 mol to 0.1 energy. of displacement of iron by
mol), but the total volume of Heat change when 0.04 mol of magnesium
solution also increases 2 times. copper is formed From steps (1) and (2),
Hence, the temperature remains = –210  0.04 displacement of 0.0125 mol
unchanged). = –8.4 kJ of Fe releases 2.52 kJ of heat
(b) Experiment 3 3 Step 1: Calculate the number of energy.
Number of moles of M2+ ions moles of copper displaced Heat released for the formation of
1.0  100 Number of moles of Cu2+ used 1.0 mol of Fe
= ——————————— = 0.10
1000 0.50  50 1
= ——————————— = 0.025 = 2.52  ———————
Number of moles of Cl– ions 1000 0.0125
2.0  100 Number of moles of iron used = 201.6 kJ
= ——————————— = 0.2
1000 mass That is, heat of displacement of
= ————————————————————— F
Number of moles of MCl2 formed relative atomic mass iron by magnesium
= 0.10
O
0.7 = –201.6 kJ mol–1
Total volume = 200 cm3
= ————
(d) Number of moles of iron
R
56
Rise in temperature = 2  10 °C = 0.0125 displaced M
= 20 °C 252
Fe(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Fe2+(aq) +Cu(s) = —————— = 1.25 5
(Comment: Number of moles of 201.6
0.0125 0.0125 (in excess)
MCl2 precipitated is increased two Mg(s) + Fe2+(aq) →
times (from 0.05 mol to 0.10 Number of moles of Cu displaced Mg2+(aq) + Fe(s)
mol), but the total volume of = 0.0125
Number of moles of Mg needed
solution does not change. Thus,
Step 2: Calculate the heat energy = 1.25
the temperature of the solution is
released in the experiment Relative atomic mass of
increased two times).
The heat of displacement magnesium = 24.3
= –150 kJ mol–1 Mass of magnesium needed
Self Assess 4.3
Displacement of 0.0125 mol of Cu = 1.25  24.3 = 30.4 g
1 (a) (i) Magnesium powder, lead
nitrate solution. releases 0.0125  150
CHAPTER 4
(ii) Magnesium is used in excess = 1.875 kJ of heat energy. Self Assess 4.4
to ensure all the lead metal Step 3: Calculate the maximum 1 (a) ∆H represents the heat energy
is displaced from lead temperature reached evolved when 1.0 mol of H2SO4
nitrate. ∆H (in J) = mcθ reacts with 2.0 mol of NaOH.
(b) (i) From step 2, That is, when 2 mol of H+ ions
1.875  1000 = 50  4.2  θ react with 2 mol of OH– ions to
∆T = 8.9 °C form 2 mol of water molecules,
Maximum temperature reached 114 kJ of heat energy is released.
= 30 + 8.9 = 38.9 °C (b) Heat of neutralisation.
4 (a) As the mass of magnesium –114
added increases, more iron is = ————— = –57 kJ mol–1
2
displaced from iron(II) chloride (c) Heat change (mcθ)
solution. Hence more heat = (50 + 50) 3 4.2 3 6.5 J
energy is released and the rise in = 2730 J
temperature increases. = 2.73 kJ
(b) All the iron present in iron(II)
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l);
chloride is displaced on the
∆Hneut = –57 kJ mol–1
(ii) Measuring cylinder, electronic addition of 0.3 g of magnesium.
balance. (c) Step 1: Calculate the heat Number of moles of OH– ion
(c) (i) Maximum increase in released in the experiment Heat change
= ————————————
temperature, volume and Heat released (mcθ) ∆Hneut
concentration of lead nitrate = 50  4.2  12 2.73
= —————
solution. = 2520 J 57
(ii) Mass of zinc added. = 2.52 kJ = 0.045
579 Answers
MV Concentration The molecular formula of
0.045 = ——————  Volume (cm3)
1000 (mol dm–3) propane is CH3CH2CH3.
= ——————————————————————————————— 1
M 3 50 1000 H2(g) + — O2(g) → H2O(l);
= ————————
1000 (a) Reactions I and IV 2
M = 0.9 Reason Same number of moles ∆H = –286 kJ mol–1
Concentration of NaOH of water molecules produced C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g);
= 0.9 mol dm–3 from strong acid and strong base ∆H = –394 kJ mol–1
2 Number of moles of acid/alkali
reaction. One molecule of butane contains
one CH2 group more than one
Number of moles of Number of moles of Number of moles of molecule of propane.
Reaction
H+ ions OH– ions H2O formed Expected heat of combustion of
I 1.0 3 50 1 3 25 butane
————————— = 0.05 ————————— = 0.025 0.025 = heat of combustion of propane
HNO3 + NaOH 1000 1000
+ heat of combustion of carbon
II 1.0 3 50 1.0 3 50 + heat of combustion of
————————— = 0.05 ————————— = 0.05 0.05
HCl + NaOH 1000 1000 hydrogen
= (–2220) + (–286) + (–394)
III 1.0 3 50 1.0 3 25
————————— = 0.05 ————————— = 0.025 0.025 = –2900 kJ mol–1
CH3COOH + 1000 1000 2 (a)
NH3
H H H H H H
IV 1.0 3 50 1.0 3 25 0.025      
————————— 3 2 = 0.10 ————————— = 0.025
H2SO4 + KOH 1000 1000 H – C – C – C – OH; H – C – C – C – H
     
F V 1.0 3 25 2.0 3 25 0.025
————————— = 0.025 —————————— = 0.05 H H H H OH H
O CH3COOH + 1000 1000 propan-1-ol propan-2-ol
NaOH
R (b) The temperature rise is 18.2 °C
M (b) Reaction II the formation of 0.08 mol of water because propan-1-ol and propan-
Reason The largest number will increase the temperature by 2-ol are isomeric, that is, containing
5 of moles of water molecules 0.08 the same number of carbon,
—————  5.5 = 4.4 °C hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
produced from strong acid and 0.1
strong base reaction. 4 (a) Number of moles of NaOH The heat energy released
(c) Reaction III used depends on the molecular
Reason 0.025 mol of water formula and not on the structural
1.0  50
produced from weak acid and = —————————— = 0.05 formula of the isomer.
1000 (c) Increase in temperature
weak base reaction. 0.05 mol of OH– ions will react 2.28
3 Experiment 1 = —————  18.2
with 0.05 mol of H+ ions to form
Number of moles of CH3COOH 1.14
0.05 mol of H2O molecules.
1.0  100 = 36.4 °C
= ——————————— = 0.1 Formation of 0.05 mol of water
CHAPTER 4
1000 (d) The mass of propan-1-ol decreases

releases 2.65 kJ of heat.
Number of moles of NaOH by two times, that is, from 1.14 g
Heat of neutralisation
1.0  100 to 0.57 g, but the mass of water
= ——————————— = 0.1 1
1000 = –2.65  ————— also decreases by two times, that
0.05 is, from 500 cm3 to 250 cm3.
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → = –53 kJ mol–1 The rise in temperature is the
CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) (b) For weak acid/strong alkali
0.1 mol of CH3COOH reacts with same, that is, 18.2 °C.
reaction, the heat of neutralisation (e) Step 1: Calculate the heat change
0.1 mol of NaOH to form 0.1 mol of is less than –57 kJ mol–1.
water. when 1.14 g of propan-1-ol is
Hence, the acid, HA, is a weak burnt
Experiment 2 acid. Heat change (mcθ)
Number of moles of CH3COOH (c) The calculation is based on the = –500  4.2  18.2 J
0.8  100 assumption that the apparatus = –38 220 J
= ——————————— = 0.08 is well insulated and there is no
1000 = –38.2 kJ
Number of moles of NaOH heat loss to the surroundings.
Step 2: Calculate the number of
0.8  100 moles of propan-1-ol used
= ——————————— = 0.08 Self Assess 4.5
1000 1 (a) Mass of pentane used. Relative molecular mass of
CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → The volume of water heated by propan-1-ol
CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) pentane. = (3  12) + 8 + 16
0.08 mol of CH3COOH reacts with The initial temperature and the = 60
0.08 mol of NaOH to form 0.08 mol final temperature of water after Number of moles of propan-1-ol
of water. heating. used
The total volume of solution for the (b) The molecular formula of butane 1.14
= ————— = 0.019
two experiments are the same. Thus, is CH3CH2CH2CH3. 60
Answers 580
Step 3: Calculate the heat of Increase in temperature in (ii) Heat released = mcθ
combustion of propan-1-ol Experiment II = 100  4.2  (61.5 – 30.0)
The combustion of 0.019 mol of = 51.2 – 30.4 = 13 230 J
propan-1-ol releases 38.2 kJ of heat. = 20.8 °C. 2 = 13.23 kJ 1
Heat change when 1 mol of (d) (i) The blue colour of copper(II) (iii) ∆H of combustion
propan-1-ol is burnt sulphate becomes colourless. 13.23
1 A brown precipitate of copper = —————
= –38.2  —————— = –2011 kJ 0.012
0.019 is produced. 2
(ii) The solution must be stirred = 1102 kJ mol–1 1
Step 4: Calculate the value of x (d) The heat of combustion obtained
continuously to obtain a
In the equation given, ∆H = –x kJ from the experiment is less than
uniform temperature. 1
refers to 2 mol of propanol burnt. the theoretical value because
(e) (i) Experiment I shows that
Hence, x = 2  2011 = 4022 • of the loss of heat to the
3 Number of moles of heptane used the release of 1.0 kJ of
heat energy increases the surroundings,
1104 1 mol → 5 520 kJ • the combustion of ethanol
= —————— temperature by 2.4 °C.
5520 2 mol → 1 104 kJ is incomplete (or, some of
Energy change in Experiment II
= 0.2 the ethanol escaped due to
20.8
Relative molecular mass of heptane = 1.0  —————— evaporation).
2.4
(C7H16) = 8.67 kJ NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) →
= (7  12) + (16  1) = 100 (ii) Relative atomic mass of zinc NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Mass of heptane used = 0.2  100 = 65.4
= 20.0 g Number of moles of zinc used 3 (a) (i) Heat of neutralisation is the
4 (a) Coal as fuel. 3.27 heat energy released when
Advantages: Cost per gram is cheap. = ———— 1 mol of H+ ions react with
65.4
Can be stored easily and safely. 1 mol of OH– ions to form F
= 0.05
Disadvantages: Low fuel value. A Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) →
1 mol of water. 1 O
lot of residue is produced after Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
(ii) R
combustion. From the equation, 1 mol of M
(b) Natural gas as fuel Zn displaces 1 mol of copper
Advantages: High fuel value. metal. 5
Products of combustion do not 0.05 mol of Zn displaces
pollute the air. 0.05 mol of Cu.
Disadvantages: Explodes easily if (iii) Displacement of 0.05 mol of
not handled properly. Cu releases 8.67 kJ of heat.
It is a fossil fuel which is non- Heat change in the
renewable. displacement of 1 mol of Cu
1
SPM Exam Practice 4 = –8.67  ————
Multiple-choice Questions 0.05
(b) (i) • The acid must be added
1 B 2 C 3 A 4 A 5 D = –173.4 kJ
quickly to the alkali to
CHAPTER 4
6 A 7 D 8 C 9 D 10 A Heat of displacement of Cu
prevent heat loss to the
11 C 12 A 13 D 14 A 15 A by Zn = –173.4 kJ mol–1. 3
surroundings.
16 A 17 B 18 D 19 B 20 C (f) The polystyrene container A
• The mixture must be stirred
21 D 22 D 23 B 24 C 25 C should be used. If polystyrene
continuously to ensure
26 C 27 C 28 C 29 A 30 C A is used, the surface area of
that the temperature is
31 C 32 D 33 A 34 A 35 A the solution exposed to the
constant.
36 C 37 C atmosphere is reduced. This will
(ii) Number of moles of nitric
reduce the loss of heat to the
MV
Structured Questions surroundings. 2 acid = —————
2 (a) The heat of combustion of 1000
1 (a) The heat of displacement is the
ethanol is the heat released 1.0 3 50
heat evolved when 1 mol of = ————————— = 0.05
when 1 mol of ethanol is burnt 1000
copper is displaced by zinc from
completely in excess oxygen. 1 Number of moles of ammonia
copper(II) sulphate solution. 1
(b) C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O MV 1.0 3 50
(b) The polystyrene beaker is an = ————— = ————————— = 0.05
insulator of heat. The polystyrene 1 1000 1000
beaker is used to reduce the loss (c) (i) Mass of of ethanol used HNO3(aq) + NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)

of heat to the surroundings. 1 = 150.38 – 149.83 = 0.55 g ammonia solution
(c) The highest temperature reached Relative molecular mass of → NH4NO3(aq) + H2O(l)
in Experiment 1 = 32.8 °C. C2H5OH = 46 From the equation, the
Increase in temperature in number of moles of water
Number of moles of ethanol
Experiment 1 molecules formed = 0.05
used
= 32.8 – 30.4 = 2.4 °C. (iii) Temperature change
The highest temperature obtained 0.55 = 34.2 – 28.2
= ————— = 0.012 2
in Experiment II = 51.2 °C 46 = 6 °C
581 Answers
∆H = mcθ (iv) The mixture is stirred and the
= –(50 + 50) 3 highest temperature is recorded.
4.2 3 6 J Results
= –2520 J Initial temperature of sodium
= –2.52 kJ chloride solution = t1 °C
Formation of 0.05 mol of Initial temperature of lead(II)
water molecules releases nitrate solution = t2 °C
2.52 kJ of heat. Maximum temperature of the
∴ Heat evolved in the reaction mixture = t3 °C
formation of 1.0 mol of (b) (i) Heat change = mcθ Rise in temperature
water molecules t1 + t2
= (25 + 25)  4.2  3 = t3 – (——————— ) = t °C
1 = 630 J = 0.63 kJ 1 2
= 2.52 3 ————— Assumptions
0.05 (ii) Step 1: Calculate the number
= 50.4 kJ of moles of AgCl precipitated Specific heat capacity for solution
∴ Heat of neutralisation Number of moles of AgNO3 = 4.2 J g–1 °C–1
between HNO3(aq) and used Density of solution = 1.0 g cm–3
NH3(aq) 0.5  25 Calculation
= ————————— = 0.0125 Heat change
= –50.4 kJ mol–1 1000
= mcθ
(c) In Experiment I, sulphuric acid Number of moles of NaCl
= –(25 + 25)  4.2  t J
is a strong acid and potassium used
–y
hydroxide is a strong alkali. Strong 0.5  25 = –y J = —————— kJ
= —————————— = 0.0125 1000
acids and strong alkalis are fully 1000
dissociated in aqueous solution. Number of moles of Pb2+ ions
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s) used
F In Experiment II, nitric acid is a
0.50  25
O strong acid but ammonia solution Number of moles of AgCl = ———————————
1000
R is a weak alkali. A weak alkali is precipitated = 0.0125
only partially dissociated in = 0.0125
M Step 2: Calculate the heat of
Number of moles of Cl– ions used
aqueous solution. Part of the precipitation of silver chloride
heat energy released during Precipitation of 0.0125 mol of 0.50  25
5 = ——————————— = 0.0125
1000
neutralisation is absorbed AgCl releases 0.63 kJ of heat.
to produce hydroxide ions. Precipitation of 1.0 mol of Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) → PbCl2(s)
Consequently, heat of AgCl releases The equation shows that 2 mol
neutralisation of nitric acid and 1 of Cl– ions react with 1 mol of Pb2+
0.63  ————————
ammonia solution is less than 0.0125 ions to produce 1 mol of PbCl2.
–57 kJ mol–1. = 50.4 kJ of heat 0.0125 mol of Cl– ions reacts
(d) Both nitric acid and hydrochloric Heat of precipitation of AgCl with 0.00625 mol of Pb2+ ions to
acid are strong acids. is –50.4 kJ mol–1. 2 form 0.00625 mol of PbCl2.
When the volume of acid (iii) Rise in temperature = 3.0 °C Heat evolved on the precipitation
The volume of the reaction of 0.00625 mol of PbCl2
and alkali is increased by two
CHAPTER 4
mixture remains constant, y

(from 50 cm3 to 100 cm3), the = —————— kJ
number of moles of water that is, 50.0 cm3. 1000
The concentrations of Ag+ ions Heat evolved on the precipitation
molecules produced is also
and Cl– ions remain constant. of 1.0 mol of PbCl2
increased by two. This means that
Hence, the temperature rise y 1
the heat released is increased = ——————  ————————— kJ
remains constant, that is, 1000 0.00625
by two. However, the total
3.0 °C. 2 Heat of precipitation of lead(II)
volume of solution also increased
by two (from 100 cm3 to chloride
Essay Questions –y 1
200 cm3), hence the rise in = ——————  ————————— kJ mol–1
1 (a) Procedure 1000 0.00625
temperature remains the same,
Using a measuring cylinder, –y
that is, 6 °C. = —————— kJ mol–1
25 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3
4 (a) (i) Exothermic reaction: 6.25
sodium chloride solution is
Experiment I. measured into a plastic cup. The Energy level diagram
Endothermic reactions: initial temperature of sodium
Experiments II and III. 2 chloride solution is measured
(ii) X is sodium hydroxide. and recorded. Using another
Y is ammonium sulphate. measuring cylinder, 25 cm3 of
0.5 mol dm–3 lead(II) nitrate
Z is sodium hydrogen
is measured out. The initial
carbonate. 2
temperature of lead(II) nitrate is
(iii) NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) → measured and recorded. Lead(II)
NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) nitrate solution is poured quickly
1 into the sodium chloride solution. 12
Answers 582
3 hydroxide solution. The mixture Sodium hydroxide and potassium
(b) CH3OH(l) + — O2(g) →
2 is stirred and the highest hydroxide are strong alkalis that
CO2(g) + 2H2O(l); temperature is recorded. dissociate completely in aqueous
∆H= –715 kJ mol–1 Results solution.
CH3CH2OH(l) + 3O2(g) → Initial temperature of sodium NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)
2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l); hydroxide = t1 °C KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH–(aq)
∆H = –1371 kJ mol–1 Initial temperature of sulphuric
acid = t2 °C In the reaction between 1 mol
Similarities in combustion of hydrochloric acid and 1 mol
Both the alcohols burn in excess air Maximum temperature of reaction
mixture = t3 °C of sodium hydroxide or 1 mol
to form carbon dioxide and water. of nitric acid and 1 mol of
Both the alcohols release a large Average initial temperature
1 potassium hydroxide, the change
amount of heat energy when = —  (t1 + t2) °C that occurs is the combination of
burnt in excess air. 2
1 mol of H+ ions with 1 mol of
Difference in heat of combustion Rise in temperature
OH– ions to form 1 mol of water
The heat of combustion of 1
= t3– —  (t1 + t2) °C = t °C molecules.
ethanol is higher than the heat 2
of combustion of methanol. This Assumptions H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
is because a molecule of ethanol Specific heat capacity of solution Heat of neutralisation is the heat
contains one carbon atom and = 4.2 J g-1 °C–1 released when 1 mol of H+ ions
two hydrogen atoms (that is, Density of solution = 1.0 g cm–3 react with 1 mol of OH– ions to
the –CH2 group) more than a Calculation form 1 mol of water.
molecule of methanol. Total amount of heat energy Hence, the heats of neutralisation
Hence, the combustion of 1 mol released for all reactions between a strong
of ethanol produces 1 mol of CO2 = mcθ
and 1 mol of H2O more than the
acid and a strong base are the F
= (100 + 100)  4.2  t J
combustion of 1 mol of methanol. y
same, that is, –57 kJ mol–1. 4 O
(c) When N2 and H2 react, the bonds R
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g); = y J = ————— kJ
1000 between N2 and H2 molecules are
∆H = –x kJ mol–1 M
Number of moles of H2SO4 used broken and new N – H bonds in
1 NH3 are formed. Bond breaking
H2(g) + — O2(g) → H2O(l); 0.5  100 5
2 = ——————————— = 0.05 absorbs heat and bond forming
1000
∆H = –y kJ mol–1 releases heat. In this reaction, the
Hence, the heat released on the Number of moles of NaOH used heat released in bond forming is
combustion of 1 mol of ethanol 1.0  100 greater than the heat absorbed in
= ——————————— = 0.1
increases by (1371 – 715) 1000 bond breaking. Hence the
= 656 kJ. reaction is exothermic. 4
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) →
That is, (x + y) = 656 5 Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
(c) (i) Relative molecular mass of Experiments
propanol (C3H7OH) = 60 From the equation, 1 mol of 1 (a) Initial temperature of the mixture
Fuel value H2SO4 reacts with 2 mol of NaOH = 29 °C
CHAPTER 4
to produce 2 mol of water. Highest temperature of the
Heat of combustion
= ———————————————————————— 0.05 mol of H2SO4 reacts with mixture = 41 °C
Relative molecular mass 0.1 mol of NaOH to form 0.1 mol Increase in temperature = 12 °C
2010 of water. 3
= —————
60 Formation of 0.1 mol of water (b)
= 33.5 kJ g–1 y
releases —————— kJ of heat energy. Experiment I Experiment II
(ii) The factors are high fuel 1000 Experiment (HCOOH + (HCl +
value and no pollution Heat energy released when 1 NaOH) NaOH)
problem (or low fuel price). mol of water is formed
3 y 1 Initial
= —————  ——— kJ temperature
2 (a) Experiment 1000 0.1
• Using a measuring cylinder, 100 of the mixture
Heat of neutralisation for the
cm3 of 1.0 mol dm–3 sodium (°C)
reaction between sulphuric acid
hydroxide solution is measured and sodium hydroxide Highest
into a plastic cup. The initial –y 1 temperature
temperature of the alkali is = —————  ——— kJ mol–1 of the mixture
1000 0.1
determined and recorded. –y (°C)
• Using another measuring = ————— kJ mol–1
100 12 Increase in
cylinder, 100 cm3 of 0.5 mol
(b) Hydrochloric acid and nitric acid temperature
dm–3 sulphuric acid is measured
are strong acids that dissociate (°C)
out and its initial temperature
completely in aqueous solution.
determined. 3
• The sulphuric acid is poured HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) (c) The polystyrene cup gets warmer
quickly into the sodium HNO3(aq) → H+(aq) + NO3–(aq) when reaction occurs.
583 Answers
The mercury level in the calorimeter, tripod stand,
thermometer rises. measuring cylinder
The smell of methanoic acid (e) Procedure Self Assess 5.1
disappears. 3 1 (a) Soaps are sodium or potassium
(d) The heat of neutralisation salts of long chain fatty acids that
between methanoic acid and contain 12 to 18 carbon atoms
sodium hydroxide is lower per molecule.
than the heat of neutralisation (b) Animal fats or vegetable oils,
between hydrochloric concentrated sodium hydroxide or
acid and sodium hydroxide. 3 potassium hydroxide, water and
(e) Concentrations of acids and sodium chloride.
sodium hydroxide solution. (c) Naturally occurring ester +
Volume of acids and sodium 1 200 cm3 of water is measured 3NaOH
hydroxide solution. out using a measuring ↓
Polystyrene cup 3 cylinder and poured into a 2C17H35COONa + C15H31COONa
(f) In Experiment I, the reaction metal calorimeter.
is between a weak acid and a 2 The initial temperature of soap
strong alkali. In Experiment II, the water is read and recorded. +
reaction is between a strong acid 3 The metal calorimeter is put CH2OH
and a strong alkali. Therefore, the on a tripod stand. 
rise in temperature in Experiment 4 A canister containing fuel of CHOH
II is higher than 12 °C. 3 brand X is weighed and its 
(g) (i) The heat of neutralisation is mass recorded. CH2OH
the heat released when 1.0 5 The canister with fuel of glycerol
F mol of H+ ions react with 1.0 brand X is then placed below 2 (a) The detergent ion has two parts.
O mol of OH– ions to produce the metal calorimeter and lit. (i) The ‘tail’ is a long
R 1.0 mol of water molecules. The flame is protected from hydrocarbon chain, C12H25,
M 3 air movement by putting a that is insoluble in water but
(ii) ∆H = mcθ screen around it as shown in dissolves readily in grease.
= –50 g 3 4.2 J g–1 °C–1 the diagram. (ii) The ‘head’ is a negatively-
5
3 12 °C 6 The water in the metal charged ion, –O – SO3–, that
= – 2520 J calorimeter is stirred dissolves readily in water but
Number of moles of methanoic continuously with a does not dissolve in grease.
acid used thermometer. (b) When the detergent is dissolved
2.0 3 25 7 The flame from the burning in water, the detergent molecule
= ——————————— = 0.05 of fuel X is extinguished
1000 dissociates into the detergent
when the temperature of
Number of moles of NaOH ion (negatively-charged) and the
water has gone up by 30 °C.
used sodium ion (positively-charged).
8 The canister containing fuel
2.0 3 25 C12H25 – O – SO3–Na+ →
= ——————————— = 0.05 of brand X is weighed again
C12H25 – O – SO3– + Na+
CHAPTER 4 & 5
1000 and its mass recorded.

CH3COOH + NaOH → detergent ion
9 The experiment is repeated
CH3COONa + H2O • When detergent ions come
using canister of brand Y to
Number of moles of water into contact with grease-stained
replace canister of brand X.
molecules formed = 0.05 (f) Tabulation of data cloth,
Heat of neutralisation Experimental results – the ‘head’ dissolves in water
– 2520 because it is hydrophilic,
= ——————— = – 50.4 kJ mol–1 Type of fuel Brand X Brand Y – the ‘tail’ dissolves in the
0.05
Initial mass of canister greasy stain because it is
2 (a) Aim
(g) hydrophobic.
To compare the fuel values of
fuel X and Y. • On agitation, the greasy stain is
Final mass of canister lifted from the cloth.
(b) Variables (g)
Manipulated variable Type of fuel. • Finally, the stain is broken up to
Responding variable Heat of Mass of fuel used (g) form tiny oily drops, which are
combustion. Mass of water in metal then suspended in the solution.
Constant variable Volume of calorimeter (g) • When rinsed with water, the
water and the metal container. cloth becomes clean, because
Initial temperature of the oily droplets are removed
(c) Hypothesis
water (°C) by water.
Fuel X has a higher heat of
combustion than fuel Y. Final temperature of 3 Soap
(d) Substances Water, canisters X water (°C) Advantages
and Y Temperature rise (°C) (a) Effective in soft water
Apparatus (b) Biodegradable, do not cause
Screen, thermometer, metal 17 pollution
Answers 584
Disadvantage Eating food that are not fresh can (ii) The long hydrocarbon chain
Forms scum in hard water cause food poisoning and eating (the alkyl group). 1
Detergent food containing unapproved dyes (iii) ⊕ represents Na+ ions and
Advantages may affect the health. represents the anion
(a) Effective in both soft water and part of the detergent ion. 2
hard water Self Assess 5.3 (iv) When the detergent particles
(b) Different types of detergent can 1 (a) Both aspirin and paracetamol come into contact with
be synthesied for specific uses are analgesics, that is, medicine grease, the negatively-
Disadvantages that relieves pains. However, charged ‘heads’ of the
(a) Non-biodegradable aspirin is strongly acidic and can detergent ions dissolve in
(b) Phosphates in detergents cause cause bleeding in the stomach. water and the hydrocarbon
water pollution In contrast, paracetamol is neutral ‘tails’ dissolve in the grease
in nature and does not cause (Diagram 1 (a)). On agitation,
Self Assess 5.2 stomach bleeding. grease particles begin to
1 (a) Food additives are chemical (b) Add aspirin and paracetamol separate from the cloth
substances added in small separately to two solutions of (Diagram 1 (b)). 3
quantities to food for specific sodium carbonate. (d) (i) On further agitation, each
purposes, such as preserving food For aspirin, effervescence occurs large drop of grease particle
or enhancing the flavour or smell and the gas evolved turns lime- is completely separated from
of food. water cloudy. the cloth and broken into
(b) Any method that prevents the This is because aspirin contains small droplets and
growth of microorganisms or –COOH group which is acidic. suspended in water. 1
retards oxidation is an effective For paracetamol, no effervescence (ii)
preservation process. is seen. This is because – – + +
F
–
Method 1: By adding preservative paracetamol does not contain the + – –
– –
By adding a preservative such as – COOH group. – –
O
sodium nitrate or benzoic acid, 2 Similarities – –
+
–
– –
R
the growth of microorganisms • Both penicillin and streptomycin are – –
–
– +
M
such as bacteria or mould is organic compounds. –
+
–
–
retarded. As a result, the food can • Both penicillin and streptomycin 5
be kept longer. are antibiotics. They are used to
Method 2: By adding antioxidant kill bacteria so that illnesses and
By adding an antioxidant such as infections caused by bacteria can be 2 (a) (i) Cleansing agent Y is a
ascorbic acid, the oxidation of fats cured. detergent.
and oils by atmospheric Differences (ii) Cleansing agent X is a
oxygen can be prevented. In this Penicillin is used to treat infectious soap. 2
way, the food does not go rancid. diseases such as pneumonia and (b) Solution X produces little lather.
2 (a) Acacia gum acts as a stabiliser gonorrhaea. Streptomycin is used Solution Y produces a lot of
to improve the texture of food to treat tuberculosis. lather. 2
so that the different ingredients 3 (a) Aspirin is used as a an analgesic (c) The oily stain disappears and
CHAPTER 5
(for example, oil and water) can (painkiller) to relieve pain. lather is formed. 1
blend (mix together) properly. (b) Aspirin can cause stomach bleeding. (d) Y is a more effective cleansing
For example, acacia gum is agent because Y can remove oily
added to ice cream so that the SPM Exam Practice 5 stains in both hard water and soft
oil and water ingredients can Multiple-choice Questions water. In contrast, the cleansing
mix properly. In this way, tiny ice 1 D 2 A 3 B 4 D 5 A agent X can only remove oily
crystals do not form in the ice 6 B 7 C 8 B 9 A 10 B stains in soft water. 2
cream. 11 D 12 D 13 A 14 D 15 C (e) (i) Manipulated variable Type
(b) Aspartame is an artificial 16 B 17 C 18 C 19 C 20 B of cleansing agent and type
sweetener. It is used to enhance 21 B 22 A 23 C 24 C 25 C of water.
the sweetness of food. 26 D 27 A 28 B 29 C 30 D (ii) Responding variable
3 Advantages Disappearance of oily stains.
Artificial colourings Structured Questions (iii) Constant variable Amount of
• restore colours lost during food 1 (a) Saponification 1 cleansing agent, amount of
processing, (b) (i) Potassium palmitate 1 oil stains and volume of
• enhance natural colours of food, and (ii) Ester 1 water. 3
• make food look more interesting or (iii) O 3 (a) (i) Sodium lauryl sulphate: To
appetising.  act as cleansing agent
Disadvantages C – O– 1 Mint oil: To provide a fragrant
• The food may not be fresh and the O flavour
dyes are used to make the food  Saccharin: To make the
look fresh. (c) (i) – O – S – O– toothpaste taste sweet 3
• The dyes used may not be the  (ii) A thickening agent is a food
permitted dyes. O 1 additive to absorb water and
585 Answers
prevent food from becoming (c) (i) Aspirin dissolves slowly. 3 The mixture is boiled and
liquid. 1 Effervescence occurs as stirred continuously until the
(iii) Tooth decay is caused –COOH reacts with Na2CO3 layer of oil disappears.
by bacteria that converts and a colourless gas is (B) Precipitation of soap
sugars to acids. Magnesium released. 2 1 100 cm3 of water is added
hydroxide is used to (ii) It is used as an analgesic to to the reaction mixture
neutralise the acid and thus relieve pain. 1 followed by three spatulas of
prevents tooth decay. 1 (d) Aspirin is an acid. It irritates sodium chloride.
(iv) Lauryl alcohol (dodecan-1-ol), the stomach to cause gastric 2 The mixture is boiled for 5
concentrated sulphuric acid problems. In severe cases, it can minutes with constant stirring
and sodium hydroxide. 2 cause bleeding of the stomach and then set aside to cool.
(v) CH3(CH2)10CH2OH + H2SO4 lining. 1 3 When cooled, a white
→ CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO3H + (e) Aspirin should be taken after food precipitate of soap is
to reduce irritation of the stomach produced.
H2O
wall. 1 4 The solution is filtered to
CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO3H + NaOH
(f) Paracetamol 1 obtain soap. The soap is then
→ CH3(CH2)10CH2OSO3–Na+ washed with distilled water
(g) The formula of aspirin is C9H8O4.
+ H2O 2 Relative molecular mass and dried. 8
(b) (i) Wind in the stomach 1 = (9  12) + (8  1) + (4  16) (b) Four types of additives in liquid
(ii) X 1 = 180 detergent are builder, whitening
(iii) Boil part X in water. Drink the Number of moles of aspirin agent, biological enzyme and
ginger water obtained. 1 0.32 brightening agent.
4 (a) • To prevent the growth of = ————— Builder: sodium
180
microorganisms = 0.00178 tripolyphosphate
F • To prevent the oxidation of fats 1 mol of aspirin contains one Function: It is used to soften hard
O and oils in food –COOH group. water. In the presence of builders,
R • To enhance the taste of food Let formula of aspirin be RCOOH. Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions are removed.
M 3 2RCOOH + Na2CO3 → Whitening agent:
(b) Gelatin acts as a stabiliser/ 2RCOONa + H2O + CO2 sodium perborate
5 thickener. 1 1 Function: Whitening agents
1 mol of aspirin reacts with — mol
(c) Analgesics are medicines that 2 remove the colour of dirty stains
relief pain. of Na2CO3. (such as coffee or tea stains) by
Psychotherapeutic medicines Number of moles of Na2CO3 the oxidation process.
are medicines that change the needed When the stain is oxidised, the
mood and behaviour of the 1 colour of the stain disappears.
patient. 2 = —  0.00178 Biological enzyme: amylase
2
(d) Function: To break down protein
= 0.00089
Name of Type of stains such as blood stains or
0.05  V
medicine medicine 0.00089 = ——————————— food stains
1 000
Aspirin Analgesic Brightening agent:
CHAPTER 5
V = 17.8 cm3 3
Blancophor R
Barbiturate Antidepressant Function: It is used to make white
Amphetamine Stimulant Essay Questions fabrics whiter and coloured
1 (a) Soaps can be prepared in the fabrics brighter. 7
Codeine Analgesic
laboratory by boiling a mixture (c) Soaps act as good and effective
4 of coconut oil and concentrated cleansing agents in soft water.
(e) (i) Can cause bleeding in the sodium hydroxide solution. However, soaps are not effective
stomach in hard water. This is because
(ii) Can cause addiction 2 the Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions in hard
5 (a) C9H8O4 1 water react with soap ions to
(b) Aspirin molecule dissociates in form scum. Soaps are also not
water to form H+ ion and the effective in acidic water because
following ion: 1 the H+ ions from the acid react
with soap ions to form a white
precipitate of long chain fatty
The following steps are taken in acid. The advantage of soaps is
the preparation of soap. that they do not cause pollution
(A) Saponification of coconut because they are biodegradable.
oil They can be decomposed by
1 10 cm3 of coconut oil is bacteria.
poured into a beaker. Detergents are effective cleansing
2 50 cm3 of 5.0 mol dm–3 agents in both hard and soft
sodium hydroxide solution is water because they do not form
added to the coconut oil. precipitates with hard or soft
Answers 586
water or acidic water. However, Antidepressants make a person • Aspartame (artificial sweetener)
detergents cause water pollution. feel calm and more cheerful. is a good substitute for sugar
For example, the phosphates Example: Prozac for diabetic patients
in detergents act as nutrients Antipsychotic medicine: Disadvantages
for water plants and algae and Antipsychotic medicine are • Artificial food additives, when
speed up their growth. When medicine used to reduce the consumed in large quantities,
the water plants and algae die, symptoms of mental illness such may harm our health
they are decomposed by bacteria as fear, hallucination and hearing • Some food additives can
which use up dissolved oxygen. of voices. cause allergy, cancer, brain
Consequently, fish and aquatic Example: Chloropromazin 8 damage and hyperactivity 5
life will die because of lack of (d) Wrong methods of taking
oxygen. 5 medicine include
2 (a) (i) Medicine are substances • not taking the dosage directed Experiment
used for treating illnesses, by the doctor. 1 (a) Aim of experiment
preventing illnesses or If a diabetic patient takes a To compare the effectiveness of
reducing pain or suffering. higher dosage of insulin than the cleansing action of a soap
(ii) Traditional medicine is recommended, the patient and a detergent in soft water and
medicine derived directly may suffer or die from insulin hard water
from plants (leaves, roots shock. (b) All the variables
or barks of the plants) or • not taking the medicine at the Manipulative variable Type of
animals without being proper time. cleansing agent and type of
chemically processed. 3 If aspirin or other acidic water
(b) Two examples of traditional drugs are taken on an empty Responding variable Effect of
medicine derived from plants: stomach, the patient may the cleansing agent on the oily F
Garlic and quinine. suffer from gastritis (irritation of stain O
Garlic stomach wall). Constant variables Amount of R
— reduces high blood pressure • not completing the whole the cleansing agent and oil stain, M
— prevents attack of common course of treatment. volume of water, soft water and
colds or influenza If antibiotics given by the doctor hard water used. 5
Quinine – for treating malaria 2 are not taken until the course (c) Hypothesis
(c) Analgesics: Medicine to relieve is completed, the bacteria will (i) Both soap and detergent are
pain. develop resistance towards the effective in soft water.
Examples: Aspirin, paracetamol antibiotic and cause the (ii) Soap is ineffective but
and codeine. antibiotic to be ineffective. 6 detergent is effective in hard
Antibiotics: Medicine to destroy 3 (a) Food additives are chemical water.
or prevent the growth of substances added in small (d) Materials
infectious microorganisms. quantities to food for specific Soap solution, detergent solution,
Examples: Penicillin and purposes, such as preventing 1 mol dm–3 magnesium sulphate
streptomycin. food spoilage, or enhancing the solution, four pieces of cloth of
CHAPTER 5
Psychotherapeutic medicine: flavour, smell and colour of the same size and stained with
For treating mental or emotional food. 3 the same volume of oil.
illness. (b) • Azo compound is used as a Apparatus
Types of psychotherapeutic dye to give colour to food. Beaker, measuring cylinder and
medicine: Stimulant, • Citric acid is used as an glass rod.
antidepressant and antipsychotic antioxidant to prevent the (e) Procedure
medicine. oxidation of fats and oils by 1 Four beakers are labelled as
Stimulants: oxygen in the air. In this way, A, B, C and D.
Stimulants are chemical food does not become rancid. 2 Beakers A and C are filled
substances that can stimulate • Benzyl ethanoate is an ester with the cleansing agent and
the activities of the brain and and has a fruity smell. It is distilled water.
the central nervous system and used as artificial flavour. Beakers B and D are
hence increase alertness and • Sodium benzoate is used as a filled with the cleansing
physical activity. preservative to stop the growth agent, distilled water and
Examples of stimulants are of microorganisms. magnesium sulphate.
caffeine and amphetamine. • Sucrose is used as an artificial 3 A piece of oil-stained cloth
Stimulants stimulate the heart to sweetener to give a sweet is placed in each of the
beat faster and make a person taste to food. 12 beakers and the solution is
more alert and less tired. (c) Advantages stirred.
Antidepressants: • Reduce food spoilage 4 The observation of the
Antidepressants are medicine that • Make food taste better, effect of soap and detergent
decrease the activities of the brain smell better and look more on the oily stain for each
and the central nervous system. attractive beaker is recorded.
587 Answers
Beaker Chemicals used (c) Fine iron powder
(d) 450 °C
A 50 cm3 of soap solution + 50 cm3 distilled water (e) N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
B 50 cm3 of soap solution + 20 cm3 of MgSO4(aq) + 30 cm3 distilled water (f) The ammonia gas is cooled to
liquefy it
C 50 cm3 of detergent solution + 50 cm3 distilled water (g) To make nitric acid and urea
4 (a) 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) →
D 50 cm3 of detergent solution + 20 cm3 of MgSO4(aq) + 30 cm3 distilled water
2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
(f) Tabulation of data (b)
volume of
Experiment Solution Observation on oily stain Inference gas (cm3)
A Soap + soft water
I
360
B Soap + hard water
C Detergent + soft water
D Detergent + hard water
17 time (s)
80
SPM Model Test (c) (i) Rate decreases with time

Paper 1 (ii) The quantity of lithium
1 B 2 A 3 D 4 C 5 C 6 D 7 B 8 A 9 A 10 D decreases with time.
11 B 12 C 13 C 14 B 15 A 16 D 17 B 18 C 19 A 20 D 360
(d) Number of moles = ——————
F 21 D 22 B 23 A 24 C 25 C 26 A 27 B 28 A 29 D 30 B 24000
O 31 D 32 C 33 C 34 A 35 D 36 B 37 A 38 C 39 B 40 D = 0.015 mol
41 B 42 D 43 C 44 A 45 A 46 C 47 B 48 D 49 B 50 B (e)
R
M volume of gas (cm3)
Paper 2
360
1 (a) P = 2.1; Q = 2.4; R = 2.5; S = 2.6; T = 2.8.3; U = 2.8.7; V = 2.8.8.2 II I
4 (b)
&
5 Pair of elements Formula of compound Ionic or covalent Relative formula mass 180
III
Q and S QS2 Covalent 12 + 2(16) = 44
P and R P3R Ionic 3(7) + 14 = 35 time (s)
T and U TU3 Ionic 27 + 3(35) = 132

5 (a) To prevent the KClO3 from mixing
R and U RU3 Covalent 14 + 3(35) = 119 with the metal powders
(b) 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2
V and R V3R2 Ionic 3(40) + 2(14) = 148 heat
(c) R, P, S, Q
SPM Model Test
Q and U QU4 Covalent 12 + 4(35) = 152 (d) (i) Zinc

T2S3 Ionic 2(27) + 3(16) = 102 (ii) Lead
T and S
Note: ZnO is yellow when hot
Note: Metals and non-metals form ionic compounds. and white when cold;
Non-metallic and non-metallic elements form covalent compounds. PbO is brown when hot
and yellow when cold
(c) o xx o 1 mol of NaNO3 salt
Hx x
R H (e) (i) Copper
ox = (23 + 14 + 48) g (ii) Copper(II) oxide
H
= 85 g (iii) 2Cu + O2 → 2CuO
2 (a) Pipette 0.05 mol of NaNO3 salt Note: Copper(II) oxide is black
(b) From pink to colourless = 0.05 x 85 g (f) Carry out displacement reactions.
(c) (i) 24.00 cm3 = 4.25 g A more electropositive metal can
(ii) So that the salt obtained is (iii) Used as food preservative displace a less electropositive
not contaminated with the (e) The mixture is heated in an metal from its salt solution.
phenolphthalein indicator evaporating dish to expel excess 6 (a) (i) Antibiotic
(d) (i) NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) → water so as to saturate the (ii) Psychotherapeutic medicine
NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) solution. When the saturated (iii) Analgesic
(ii) Number of moles of sodium solution is cooled, sodium nitrate (b) (i) To kill pathogenic bacteria
hydroxide neutralised, n salt will form. (ii) Treat psychotic patients
25 3 2 3 (a) (i) From fractional distillation of (iii) Relieve pain and fever
= ——————– mol
1000 liquid air (c) (i) Tuberculosis
= 0.05 mol (ii) From reaction of methane (ii) If the dosage is not
0.05 mol NaOH will produce with steam completed, the surviving
0.05 mol of NaNO3 salt. (b) 200 atmosphere bacteria will continue to
Answers 588
multiply and become At anode solutions. 1
resistant to the antibiotic. Silver anode ionises. Each silver The mixture which produces a
A higher dosage of the atom releases one electron to white precipitate contains
antibiotic is needed to kill off form silver ion. 1 sulphate ions. 1
the mutant bacteria. Ag → Ag+ + e– 1 Barium ions react with sulphate
(d) (i) It is acidic and can cause At cathode ions to form insoluble white
intestinal wall bleeding. The silver ions are then attracted barium sulphate salt according to
(ii) Paracetamol to the cathode. the equation:
(e) It can cause dependency / At the cathode, the silver ion will Ba2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) →
addiction. discharge by accepting one BaSO4(s) 1
electron and form silver atom. 1 The othe two solutions either
Section B Ag+ + e– → Ag 1 contain nitrate or chloride ions.
7 (a) (i) Gas P = Oxygen ; The silver atoms will deposit on Each of the two remaining
Gas Q = Hydrogen ; the iron chain. solutions is poured into separate
Gas R = Chlorine ; 8 (a) 25 cm3 of nitric acid is poured
test tubes.
Gas S = Hydrogen 3 into a 100 ml beaker. The
Dilute nitric acid is added followed
(ii) Dilute sodium chloride solution is heated. 1
by silver nitrate solution. 1
solution Magnesium oxide powder is
The ions present in dilute The mixture which produces a
added into the acid solution while
NaCl solution are Na+, H+, white precipitate is the one which
stirring the mixture with a glass
Cl– and OH–. 1 contains chloride ions. 1
rod until some magnesium oxide
The Cl– and OH– ions move remains undissolved. 2 Silver ions react with chloride ions
to the anode. The hydroxide The reaction taking place can to produce insoluble white silver
ions are selected for be represented by the chemical chloride salt according to the
discharge to produce oxygen equation: equation: F
gas because it is lower in the 2HNO3(aq) + MgO(s) → Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s) 1 O
electrochemical series. 1 Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) 1 To confirm the presence of nitrate R
4OH– → 2H2O + O2 + 4e– The mixture is filtered to remove ions in the remaining solution, the M

1 the excess magnesium oxide following procedure is performed:
The Na+ and H+ ions move powder. 1 Dilute sulphuric acid is added to
4
to the cathode. 1 The filtrate contains the soluble the solution, followed by iron(II)
The H+ ions are selected
&
magnesium nitrate salt. sulphate solution and then
for discharge to produce Now excess sodium carbonate concentrated sulphuric acid is
5
hydrogen gas because it is solution is poured into the filtrate added. 1
lower in the electrochemical and stirred. 1 A brown ring formed confirms the
series. 1 Double decomposition takes presence of nitrate ions.
2H+ + 2e– → H2 1 place and insoluble magnesium
Concentrated sodium carbonate salt is formed. 1 Section C
chloride solution The reaction can be represented 9 (a) (i) An exothermic reaction is one
The Cl– and OH– ions by the chemical equation: that releases heat energy to
SPM Model Test

move to the anode. The Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → the surroundings. 1
chloride ions are selected for MgCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq) 1 Thus the temperature of the
discharge to produce chlorine The mixture is filtered to separate surrounding increases. 1
gas because its concentration the insoluble magnesium In the exothermic reaction,
is higher. 1 carbonate salt. 1 the energy content of
2Cl– → Cl2 + 2e– 1 The salt is rinsed with distilled products is lower than the
The Na+ and H+ ions move water and then dried by pressing
energy content of the
to the cathode. 1 with dry filter paper. 1
reactants. 1
The H+ ions are selected (b) Each solution is poured into four
for discharge to produce different test tubes.
hydrogen gas because it is Dilute nitric acid is added into energy reactants
lower in the electrochemical each solution. 1
series. The solution which releases gas
∆H = –x kJ mol-1
2H+ + 2e– → H2 1 which turns limewater cloudy,
(b) The iron chain is connected to contains carbonate ions. 1 products
the negative terminal of the cell. Carbonate ions react with
1 hydrogen ions from acid to
A piece of silver metal is connected release carbon dioxide gas
(ii) An endothermic reaction
to the positive terminal of the according to the equation:
cell. 1 is one that absorbs heat
2H+ + CO32– → CO2 + H2O 1
The electrolyte used is aqueous energy from the
The other three solutions do not
silver nitrate solution. surroundings. 1
show any reaction.
The switch is closed and current Now barium nitrate solution is Thus the temperature of the
is passed through the solution. 1 added to the three remaining surrounding decreases. 1
589 Answers
In the endothermic reaction, the energy content of products is higher than H H H H H H
the energy content of the reactants. 1
H C C C C C H H C C
products
energy
H H H H H H
∆H = +y kJ mol-1 pentane
reactants
H H H H H H H CH3 H H CH
H C C C C C H H C C C C H H C C
(b) (Lowest) ∆H2, ∆H1, ∆H3 (Highest) 2
H H H H H H H H H H CH
The reactivity series of metals is shown below:
2-methylbutane
Mg
Al
∆H2
Zn H H H H H H H CH3 H H CH3 H
Fe
Sn ∆H3 H C C C C C H H C C C C H H C C C H
∆H1
Pb
Cu H H H H H H H H H H CH3 H
Hg 2,2-dimethylpropane

Ag 3
1
The further apart the two metals, the higher the heat of displacement. 1 (b) When a mixture of methane
F The distance between the metals Mg/Ag > Fe/Cu > Al/Zn. 1 and chlorine gas is exposed
O Thus the value of ∆H2 < ∆H1 < ∆H3. 1 to ultraviolet light, substitution
R (c) reaction will take place. The
M hydrogen atoms in methane will
thermometer be substituted by the chlorine
thermometer
4 atoms. 2
& CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
5 polystyrene methane chloromethane
cup
CH3Cl + Cl2 → CH2Cl2 + HCl
AgCl
chloromethane dichloromethane
NaCI(aq) AgNO3(aq)
Procedure CH2Cl2 + Cl2 → CHCl3 + HCl

(i) The initial temperatures of 25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 silver nitrate solution dichloromethane trichloromethane
and 25.0 cm3 of 0.5 mol dm–3 of sodium chloride were recorded. 1
(ii) The solutions are then mixed in a polystyrene cup and stirred. 1 CHCl3 + Cl2 → CCl4 + HCl
SPM Model Test
(iii) The highest temperature attained by the mixture was recorded. 1 trichloromethane tetrachloromethane
4
Tabulation
(c) (i) X = CnH2n
Initial temperature of AgNO3 solution = a °C
Initial temperature of NaCl solution = b °C Y = CnH2n + 2 2
Highest temperature of mixture = c °C 2 (ii) X and Y solutions are poured
into two different test tubes.
Calculation Bromine water is added into
a+b
Average initial temperature of reactants is —————— = t °C each solution.
2
The mixture is shaken. 3
Rise in temperature of mixture = (c – t) = T °C 1
Observation
Heat released in the experiment = 50 3 4.2 3 T joule
= 210T joule Solution Observation
= 0.21T kJ 1
0.5 3 25 X Brown colour of bromine
Number of moles of silver chloride formed is ———————— = 0.0125 mol water is decolourised
1000
0.21T
The heat released when 1 mol of AgCl is formed is ————— kJ Y Brown colour of bromine
0.0125
water is not decolourised
= 16.8T kJ
Heat of precipitation of silver chloride is, ∆H = –16.8T kJ mol–1 1 2
10 (a) Isomerism is a phenomena whereby there exists organic molecules with the (iii) Hydrogenation
same molecular formula with different structural formulae. 2 C6H12 + H2 → C6H14 2
For example, pentane has three isomers as shown:
Answers 590
Paper 3 Responding variable
1 (a) & (b) Removal of greasy spots
Controlled variable
1 1 1 1 Mass of soap and detergent
Time (min) 0 — 1 1— 2 2— 3 3— 4
2 2 2 2 added
(d) Apparatus
Temperature Two 500 ml beakers, glass rod,
73.0 75.0 77.0 77.0 77.0 77.0 79.0 82.0 85.0
(°C) fabric stained with five spots of
grease, weighing balance and
(Note : All temperature readings must be in 1 decimal place) 6
measuring cylinder
(c) temperature (ºC) Chemicals
5 g of soap and 5 g of detergent
90
powder, magnesium sulphate salt
and distilled water
80 (e) Procedure
• Two portions of 400 ml of
distilled water were poured into
70 two beakers labelled A and B.
• Two spatulas of MgSO4 salt
were added into each beaker
and stirred until it dissolved.
0 1 2 3 4
time (min)
3 (Dissolution of MgSO4 in water
(d) To ensure even heating. 3 produces hard water)
(e) The temperature remains constant. • 5 g of soap was added into
Heat supplied by the Bunsen burner is used to overcome the force of attraction beaker A and 5 g of detergent F
between the molecules. 3 powder was added into beaker O
(f) (i) 77 °C 3 B. R
(ii) The substance from the laboratory is contaminated / impure. 3
• Two pieces of fabric stained M
with five greasy spots are
2 (a) Mass of oxides added to the acid (c) Magnesium oxide is basic, dropped into each beaker and 4
the mixtures were stirred with a
and alkali solutions silicon(IV) oxide is acidic and &
Concentrations and volumes of aluminium oxide is glass rod for 10 minutes.
• The fabrics were removed and
5
the nitric and sodium hydroxide amphoteric. 3
solutions 3 observation recorded.
(d) (i) Copper(II) oxide
(b) Experiment I : Magnesium oxide (f) Tabulation
(ii) Phosphorus pentoxide
is soluble in nitric (iii) Tin(II) oxide / lead(II) oxide Beaker A B
acid solution 3 (Soap (Detergent
but insoluble in 3 (a) Problem statement added) added)
sodium hydroxide Is the cleansing action of soap Observation Greasy Greasy
solution.
SPM Model Test

and detergent affected by hard spots spots
Experiment II : Silicon(IV) oxide remain on removed
water?
is soluble in fabric from fabric
(b) Hypothesis
sodium hydroxide
Cleansing power of soap is 17
solution but
lower in hard water whereas the
insoluble in nitric
cleansing power of detergent is
acid solution.
unaffected in hard water.
Experiment III : Aluminium oxide
is soluble in both (c) Variables
nitric acid and Manipulated variable
sodium hydroxide Addition of soap and detergent to
solutions. 3 hard water
591 Answers
Glossary
Form 4 Relative atomic mass Chapter 6: Electrochemistry
The number of times an atom of an
Chapter 1: Introduction to Chemistry element is heavier than one-twelfth of the Anion
mass of a carbon-12 atom. Negatively-charged ion
Hypothesis Anode
A statement that relates a manipulated Relative molecular mass
The number of times a molecule of a An electrode connected to the positive
variable with a responding variable. terminal of a battery or power supply in
Constant variable compound is heavier than one-twelfth of
the mass of a carbon-12 atom. an electrolytic cell.
The factor that is kept constant throughout Cathode
an experiment. An electrode connected to the negative
Manipulated variable Chapter 4: Periodic Table of Elements terminal of a battery or power supply in
The factor that is changed during the an electrolytic cell.
experiment. Amphoteric oxide
Cation
Responding variable An oxide which react with both acid and
Positively-charged ion.
The variable that responds to the change base to form salt and water.
Electrochemical series
due to the manipulated variable. Catalyst
An arrangement of metals based on the
Variable A chemical which alter the rate of a
tendency of each atom to donate electrons.
A factor that affects the result of an reaction.
Electrolysis
experiment. Electronegativity
A process in which an electrolyte is
A measure of the tendency of an element
decomposed by the passage of an electric
Chapter 2: The Structure of the Atom to gain electron and form a negative ion.
current.
Electropositivity
Compound Electrolyte
A measure of the tendency of an element
A compound is made up of two or more A chemical compound which conducts
to lose electron and form a positive ion.
elements bonded together. electricity in the molten state or in
Group
Element aqueous solution and undergoes chemical
The horizontal row of elements in the
A substance that cannot be split into changes.
Periodic Table.
simpler substances by a chemical reaction. Electrolytic cell
Inert
Ion A cell that consists of two electrodes
Unreactive
A charged particle. The positively-charged connected to a battery and immersed in
Period
ion is called cation whereas the negatively- an electrolyte.
The vertical column of elements in the
charged ion is called anion. Voltaic cell
Periodic Table.
Isotopes A cell that produces electrical energy from
Metalloids
Isotopes are atoms having the same chemical energy.
Elements which show metallic and non-
number of protons but different number metallic properties.
of neutrons. Chapter 7: Acids and Bases
Nucleon number
The total number of protons and neutrons Chapter 5: Chemical Bonds Acid
in the nucleus of an atom. A chemical compound that ionises in
Covalent bond water to produce hydrogen ions, H+.
A chemical bond formed from the sharing Alkali
Chapter 3: Chemical Formulae and
of electrons between two atoms. A chemical compound that ionises in
Equations
Duplet electron arrangement water to produce hydroxide ions, OH–.
Chemical formulae A stable electron arrangement in which Base
A concise way of writing the exact number the only electron shell is occupied with A chemical compound that can neutralise
of atoms of elements that make up a two electrons. an acid to produce salt and water.
compound. Ionic bond Concentration
Empirical formula A chemical bond formed by the transfer The number of grams or moles of solute
A chemical formula which gives the of electrons from a metal atom to a non- that is present in 1 dm3 of solution.
composition of elements in a molecule in metal atom. Dilution
their lowest relative proportions. Octet electron arrangement A process of diluting a concentrated
Mole A stable electron arrangement in which solution by adding a solvent such as water
A mole is the amount of substance which the outermost electron shell is occupied to obtain a dilute solution.
contains the same number of particles with eight electrons. End point
as there are in 12 grams of carbon-12 Volatile compound The point in a titration process when an
isotope. A compound with low boiling point that acid-base indicator changes colour to
Molecular formula can be changed to the vapour state easily. indicate the end of titration.
A formula which gives the actual number Volatility Molarity
of atoms of each element present in a The ability of a compound to be changed The number of moles of solute that is
compound. to the vapour state. present in 1 dm3 of solution.
Glossary 592
Neutralisation a certain composition in which the major Alkene
A reaction in which an acid reacts with a component is a metal. A family of unsaturated hydrocarbons that
base to produce salt and water only. Catalyst have the general formula, CnH2n.
pH scale A substance that changes the rate of a Amino acids
A set of numbers which measures the chemical reaction. Organic compounds containing the amino
degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Composite material group (–NH2) and the carboxylic acid
pH value A structural material formed by combining group (–COOH).
A value that measures the concentration two or more materials with different Carbohydrates
of hydrogen ions, H+ in a solution. physical properties, producing a complex Organic compounds that have the
Standard solution mixture with more superior properties. empirical formula, CH2O, and the general
A solution of known concentration. Monomer formula, Cn(H2O)n.
Strong acid A small molecule that make up the Carboxylic acid
A chemical that dissociates completely to repeating unit of a polymer. An organic acid that has the general formula,
form hydrogen ions, H+ in water. Polymer CnH2n+1COOH, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3…
Strong alkali A large molecule made up of many Dehydration
A chemical that dissociates completely to smaller and identical repeating units joined A chemical reaction in which a water
form hydroxide ions, OH– in water. together by covalent bonds. molecule is removed from the organic
Weak acid Polymerisation compound.
A chemical that dissociates partially to A chemical process in which monomers Diol
form hydrogen ions, H+ in water. are joined together to form big molecules A saturated alcohol with two hydroxyl
Weak alkali known as polymers. (–OH) groups on adjacent carbon atoms.
A chemical that dissociates partially to Esterification
form hydroxide ions, OH– in water. The reaction between a carboxylic acid
Titration and an alcohol to produce ester and water.
A quantitative analysis that involves the Form 5 Ester
gradual addition of a chemical solution An organic compound produced from the
from a burette to another chemical Chapter 1: Rate of Reaction reaction between a carboxylic acid and an
solution of known quantity. Activation energy alcohol.
The minimum energy that the reactant Fermentation
Chapter 8: Salts The chemical process in which
molecules must possess at the time of
Crystallisation collision in order for a chemical reaction microorganisms such as yeast act on
A process in which salt crystals are formed to occur. carbohydrates to produce ethanol and
from saturated salt solution. Catalyst carbon dioxide.
Double decomposition A substance than changes the rate of a Functional group
A reaction in which two aqueous solutions chemical reaction but is itself chemically An atom or a group of atoms that
react to produce an insoluble salt as a unchanged at the end of the reaction. determines the characteristic properties of
precipitate and another soluble salt. Contact process an organic compound.
Ionic equation The industrial process of making sulphuric Glycerol
An equation that shows the ions that take acid from sulphur dioxide and oxygen. An alcohol that contains three hydroxyl
part in a chemical reaction. Effective collision (–OH) groups per molecule.
Precipitate The collision that is successful in Halogenation
An insoluble solid produced from a producing a chemical reaction. The addition reaction between an alkene
solution during a chemical reaction. Haber process and a halogen (chlorine or bromine).
Precipitation The industrial process of making ammonia Homologous series
A reaction used in the preparation of an from nitrogen and hydrogen. A family of organic compounds that have
insoluble salt. Inhibitor the same functional group and similar
Qualitative analysis of salts A negative catalyst that decreases the rate chemical properties.
A technique used to determine the of a chemical reaction. Hydration
cations and anions of a salt. Rate of reaction The reaction in which a water molecule is
Recrystallisation Change in amount or concentration of a added across the carbon-carbon double
A process used to purify a salt by the reactant or a product per unit time. bond.
repeat crystallisation process. Hydrocarbons
Salt Chapter 2: Carbon Compounds Organic compounds that contain carbon and
A compound formed when the hydrogen Addition reaction hydrogen only.
ion of an acid is replaced by a metal ion A reaction in which an unsaturated Hydrogenation
or ammonium ion, NH 4+. organic compound combines with another The addition of a hydrogen molecule
element of compound to form a single across a carbon-carbon double bond.
Chapter 9: Manufactured Substances in Isomers
Industry new compound which is saturated.
Alcohol Organic compounds which have the same
An organic compound that contains the molecular formula but different structural
Acid rain
hydroxyl (–OH) group and have the formulae.
Rain that has a pH value between 2.5
general formula, CnH2n+1OH. Oils and Fats
to 5.0 when acidic gases dissolve in rain
Alkane Naturally occurring esters produced from
water.
A family of saturated hydrocarbons that glycerol and carboxylic acids with long
Alloy
have the general formula, CnH2n+2. hydrocarbon chains.
A mixture of two or more elements with
593 Glossary
Organic compounds oxygen, loses hydrogen, loses electrons or of the reactants (as shown in the
Compounds containing carbon atoms increases in oxidation number. thermochemical equation) react to form
joined to other atoms by covalent bonds. Oxidation number the products.
Polymer A large molecule made up of An arbitrary charge assigned to an
many smaller and identical repeating units. element according to a set of rules. Chapter 5: Chemicals for Consumers
Proteins Polymers formed by linking Oxidising agent Analgesics
together different amino acids. A substance that brings about the Medicines that relieve pain.
Refining The separation of petroleum oxidation of another substance but is itself Antibiotics
into useful fractions by fractional reduced. Chemicals that destroy or prevent the
distillation. Plating growth of infectious microorganisms.
Saponification A process carried out to coat the surface Antidepressants
The alkaline hydrolysis of esters using of metal objects with a thin layer of another Medicines that can increase the brain’s
alkali. metal. level of neurotransmitters, thus improving
Saturated fats Reactivity series mood.
Fats that contain saturated fatty A list of elements arranged according to Antioxidants
(carboxylic) acids. their chemical reactivity with oxygen. Food additives used to prevent the
Saturated hydrocarbons Redox reaction oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in
Hydrocarbons that contain only carbon- A reaction in which both oxidation and the air.
carbon single bonds (– C – C –). reduction take place simultaneously. Antipsychotic drugs
Starch Reducing agent Medicines used for treating psychotic
Naturally occurring polymer that is A substance that brings about the patients, such as schizophrenics.
produced from glucose monomers by reduction of another substance but is itself Colouring agents
condensation polymerisation. oxidised. Food additives that restore or enhance
Substitution reaction Reduction natural colours of food or give colour to
A reaction in which an atom (or a group The reaction in which a substance loses food which do not normally have it.
of atoms) in an organic molecule is oxygen, gains hydrogen, accepts electrons Detergents
replaced by another atom (or group of or decreases in oxidation number. Synthetic cleaning agents produced from
atoms). Rusting petroleum products.
Unsaturated fats A redox reaction that occurs slowly Psychotherapeutic medicine
Fats that contain fatty (carboxylic) acids between iron and oxygen to form hydrated A group of drugs for treating mental or
with at least one carbon-carbon double iron(III) oxide. emotional illnesses.
bond. Soaps
Unsaturated hydrocarbons Chapter 4: Thermochemistry
Cleaning agents made from animal fats or
Hydrocarbons containing carbon-carbon Bond energy vegetable oils by saponification.
double bonds Energy needed to break one mole of Stabilisers
(C = C) or carbon-carbon triple bonds covalent bonds. Food additives that are used to enable oil
(– C ≡ C –). Endothermic reactions and water in the food to mix properly.
Vulcanisation Reactions that absorb heat energy from Stimulants
The process of hardening rubber by the surroundings. Drugs that stimulate (excite) the activity
heating it with sulphur or sulphur Exothermic reactions of the brain and central nervous system.
compounds. Reactions that release heat energy to the Thickeners
Chapter 3: Oxidation and Reduction surroundings. Food additives used to thicken liquids and
Fuels to prevent food from becoming liquid.
Accumulator Chemical substances that can burn easily Flavour enhancers
A chemical cell that can be recharged by in air to produce heat energy. Food additives that bring out the flavours
passing a direct current through it. Heat of combustion in food.
Anodising Heat released when one mole of a Food additives
The electrolytic process of depositing substance is burnt completely in excess Chemicals added in small quantities to food
a thin layer of aluminium oxide on the oxygen. to preserve the food, to give or enhance the
surface of aluminium. Heat of displacement colours, taste or smell of food.
Corrosion Heat released when one mole of a metal Food preservatives
A redox reaction in which a metal is is displaced by more electropositive Chemicals added in small quantities to
oxidised spontaneously at room condition metals from an aqueous solution of its food in order to slow down or to prevent
to produce metal ions. salt solution the growth of microorganisms such as
Daniell cell Heat of neutralisation bacteria or fungi that cause food spoilage.
A chemical cell made up of a zinc plate Heat released when one mole of H+ Traditional medicines
dipped into zinc sulphate solution and ions react with one mole of OH– ions to Drugs obtained from natural resources
a copper plate dipped into copper(II) produce one mole of water. such as animals, plants and minerals
sulphate solution. Heat of precipitation without being processed chemically.
Galvanising Heat released when one mole of a Tranquilisers
The coating of iron or steel with zinc for precipitate is formed from its ions. Medicines that calm the central nervous
protection from rusting. Heat of reaction system and make people calmer when
Oxidation Heat energy absorbed or released in they are very anxious or agitated.
The reaction in which a substance gains a reaction when the number of moles
Glossary 594

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OXFORD FAJAR ADVISORY BOARD

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Text set in 10 point ITC Giovanni by

CHAPTER 1 Thermochemistry 452

FORM 4 denominator – penyebut decomposition – penguraian

SPM Topical Analysis

History of chemistry Importance of chemistry Methodology in chemistry

Meaning of chemistry The scientific method Scientific attitudes

Science that studies the

alchemy originated from the Arabic word ‘al-

(d) Materials used for making clothing such as

A chemist carrying out research

3 Modern chemistry originated from an Nylon

The Importance of Chemistry

Chemistry Related Careers

1 Many careers require knowledge of chemistry.

3 Table 1.1 shows the uses of some chemical

6 A farmer uses fertilisers to increase the yield of

administering are used to control pests. Therefore, even the

Chemical-based Industries in Malaysia and

Does the solubility of sugar increase

(g) Carrying out the experiment (a) Manipulated variable:

To investigate the effect of the temperature of water on the solubility of sugar

4 The sugar is added a little at a time to the water

Initial mass of a b c d e A graph of the mass of sugar dissolved against

1 A student must develop the following good

(ii) the table must be wiped dry with a

B Presence or absence of water Presence or absence of air D R, T, U, S, Q

2 Table 2 shows the mass of two salts P and Q that

(a) State the variables of this experiment. [3 marks]

Quantity of manganese(IV) oxide (g) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

(a) State the

The Structure of the Atom

SPM Topical Analysis

Kinetic theory of matter Atomic structure

Subatomic particles: proton, electron and neutron

Substance Chemical formula

15 The Structure of the Atom

observation through a microscope. He found

Figure 2.3 Model of sodium chloride crystal

16 Ions which are positively-charged are called

The Kinetic Theory of Matter

The Structure of the Atom 16

States of matter solid liquid gas

1 Diffusion refers to the process by which particles

17 The Structure of the Atom

(A) Diffusion in a gas

2 The gas jar is covered with a gas jar cover.

(B) Diffusion in a liquid

(C) Diffusion in a solid

The Structure of the Atom 18

Solid Liquid Gas

19 The Structure of the Atom

Melting Point and Boiling Point

a change. will change when there is a small amount of

To determine the melting and freezing points of

Apparatus (A) Heating of naphthalene

naphthalene 1 The boiling tube containing the molten naphthalene