HOW GREEN IS YOUR LIGHTING?

By:
Wade Johnson, Holophane
Jay Shah, JSHA Engineering

ABSTRACT

Biggest challenges for lighting in the future is regulatory influences such as promotion of “Green” lighting,
limiting light pollution (Dark Sky Rule), Carbon Foot Print, etc. This paper is going to cover some of these
regulatory terms’ definition, history, how they affect the lighting design and life cycle costs of different type
of lighting. Many a times these regulatory constraints are not only incomplete but they conflict among
themselves.

INTRODUCTION

“Green Lighting”- Defining the term “Green” has been elusive and largely used for marketing purposes.
Does Green mean easy to recycle? Does Green mean low energy consumption per unit or per project?
Does Green mean low carbon emissions to manufacture? Or does it have to be all of the above to qualify
as Green? Examples of these will be discussed in detail.

Carbon Foot Print – Defining the measurements for Carbon Foot Printing is in flux. There are no
established uniform standards for when we start counting the contributing carbon dioxide and when we
stop for any given activity.

Light Pollution (Dark Sky) Rules – Several governing bodies are trying to control light pollution. The ways
they try to control light pollution are often not successful in achieving their goals or create a larger Carbon
Foot Print or a “Non-Green” Project. We will discuss the difference between Luminance and Illuminance
and how this affects light pollution.

“GREEN” LIGHTING

The term “Green” is being put on everything from automobiles to yogurt. The more it is used the more it
seems to lose all meaning. Any product that shows a reduction in energy used to manufacture or energy
consumed during its lifetime as compared to an earlier version of a similar product is now considered to
be “Green”.

In lighting, light sources that use a small amount of energy, such as LED (light emitting diodes) or
Induction, are deemed “Green” by the general public and the Department of Energy. The amount of light
(measured in lumens) these light sources produce in relationship to the energy (measured in watts) is
largely ignored. Also ignored is the efficiency of the light fixture that contain “Green” light sources .
Because of the “Green” label, some lighting manufacturers will abuse this by placing “Green” light
sources in the lowest cost, least efficient housing they can obtain. (see slide) Unwittingly, municipalities
will use government grant funds to purchase these so called “Green” products. Even utilities have fallen
into this trap by giving rebates based on light sources instead of fixture efficiency or power density.

Efficacy is typically described in lumens/watt and for this discussion will be used to describe the light
emitting source. The Light Emitting Diode in the case of the LED and the lamp in the case of an HID
(High Density Discharge), Induction and Incandescent light fixture.
Efficiency, for the sake of our discussion, will be limited to the percentage of the produced visible light
emitted by a particular light source that reaches the defined area we are trying to illuminate.

As can be imagined, an efficacious light source could be placed in an inefficient light fixture with the end
result being more energy used to illuminate an area than would be used by a less efficacious light source
placed in a more efficient fixture. Typically, the more efficient the light fixture the more expensive it is due
to the cost of the materials required to reduce losses of lumens produced by a given light source. In other
words, more reflective materials cost more than less reflective materials. In addition, all lighting
manufacturers have to decide how much time to invest in design and re-design in order to gain a few
more percentage points of efficiency. As light sources with different shapes and sizes are used in the
same fixture housing the efficiency of the fixture will change. Typically, a small single light emitting
source will be more efficiently controlled than a large source or several small sources.

This background is helpful to understand some of the pitfalls to retro-fitting existing fixtures with what is
believed to be a more efficacious light source. It also illustrates the inherent flaws of awarding rebates or
grants based on a light source. Instead the overall energy used to light a defined area to a specific light
level would be a more intelligent way of incentivizing energy efficiency.

While energy savings is usually the main goal of a “Green” lighting project, the money saved in energy
should not be exchanged for increased maintenance costs. While it may not be agreed that a
manufacturer’s warranty should be used in order to determine the longevity of a product, most would
agree that manufacturer’s do put some thought and analysis into what warranty a product will be supplied
with. Most will use some type of statistical and risk analysis to decide exactly how long they will be
responsible for replacing the product. One thing noticeable today about warranties of LED fixtures is that
if the manufacturer also produces HID fixtures the warranty of the HID products are the same length or
longer than the LED products. This begs the question as to the confidence of the manufacturer has in
their own long life LED claims.

One issue in regards to life is the difference in calculation methods for HID lighting products and LED
lighting fixtures. HID components and lamps are measured using a mortality curve where the average
rated life is determined when 51% of tested components fail. LED components use a calculation method
referred to as MTBF. MTBF stands for Mean Time Between Failure. This rated life calculation may or
may not be equal to the components mortality curve. Therefore, comparing a rated life of an LED
component to the rated life of an HID component is not a valid method unless the same calculation
method is used.

As an extreme example, if five LED drivers were tested and failed at 1 hour, 2 hours, 3 hours, 4 hours
and 100 hours, the MTBF rated life would be 22 hours. If HID ballasts were tested with the same results
the rated life would be 3 hours.

Other areas often ignored are the ability to repair and re-use these “Green” products. LED’s require
highly engineered thermal management (heat dissipation) in order to achieve a long life. Because of this,
repair and replacement of parts are often impossible to install effectively in the field. The number of
components and number of different materials used in LED fixtures will require a substantial amount of
time and effort to separate when recycling these materials. If the recycled value of the materials is not
greater than the time and expense it takes to separate the materials the average end user will discard
instead of recycling. This will make it more likely to end up in a landfill. Land-filled electronic components
are universally accepted as a hazard and increasing the amount of material going into landfills has never
been accepted as a “Green” solution.

CARBON FOOT-PRINTING

Lighting is traditionally seen as an easy way to reduce energy and, for many companies, reduce their
carbon foot-print. This act of reducing your carbon foot-print has become a hallmark of a good corporate
citizen. Those companies which do not make this a priority are seen as less than good stewards of the
earth.

Reducing an operation’s carbon foot-print can be a good public relations initiative also a cost saving
incentive if managed correctly and in the right environment. Carbon creating processes one day may
become carbon credits that are able to be sold or traded. Lighting improvements or retro-fit applications
can pay for themselves by creating these carbon credits.

Recently the policy of trading credits for not creating carbon dioxide has fallen out of favor in the US but is
still viable in Europe for the time being. Our global economy makes it possible for a company to go to a
country with little or no environmental regulations and install a lighting system that has a large carbon
foot-print, then make improvements to that system and create carbon credits to pay for the initial
installation and improvements. As the value of carbon credits increase the incentive to install highly
inefficient lighting systems increases as well.

Carbon dioxide is a constituent of exhaled breath and is commonly measured as a screening tool to
evaluate whether adequate volumes of fresh outdoor air are being introduced into indoor air. The outdoor
level of carbon dioxide is usually 300 - 400 parts per million (ppm). The carbon dioxide level is usually
greater inside a building than outside, even in buildings with few complaints about indoor air quality. If
indoor carbon dioxide levels are more than 1,000 ppm, there is probably inadequate ventilation; and
complaints such as headaches, fatigue, and eye and throat irritation may be prevalent.

Carbon dioxide itself is not responsible for the complaints; however, a high level of carbon dioxide may
indicate that other contaminants in the building also may be present at elevated levels and could be
responsible for occupant complaints.

Figure 1 -Carbon Dioxide ppm historical data

Carbon trading (also known as Emission Trading or Cap and Trade) and offsets are beyond the scope of
this paper. However, information providing more details for anyone who is interested in pursuing this
subject further is included in the references.

LIGHT POLLUTION (DARK SKY) RULES

Various municipalities have attempted to address “Light Pollution” in their ordinances. Many of them fall
short of achieving the desired results and others are down right absurd. One of these requirements states
that there should be no reflected light from the illuminated surface.

Therefore, by definition, if there is no reflected light, it cannot be illuminated.

Lighting design for a cement plant in Colorado had to incorporate a county “Dark Sky” rule ordinance. Net
result was way more lights than normal practice.

In order to avoid costly and sometime absurd ordinances, various organization and their members (which
includes lighting manufactures, illumination engineers, governing authorities) have developed standards
for rating lighting fixtures and established guide lines. New “BUG” rating and Model Ordinance (to limit the
light pollution) are discussed in this paper.

In order to discern between a well written lighting ordinance and a well meaning one, we need to
understand some lighting terminology as it pertains to wasted or unwanted light.

ENVIRONMENTAL LIGHTING TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Sky glow –

Also, known as “light pollution.” The “haze” or “glow” that surrounds highly populated areas and reduces
the ability to view the nighttime sky. Specifically, light enters the sky from an outdoor lighting system by
indirect light reflected form atmospheric particles such as fog, dust, or smog.

Figure 2 -Sky Glow

Uplight –

The percentage of lamp lumens directed from a luminaire at or above 90 degrees.

Figure 3 – Uplight

Causes of sky glow –

• Direct uplight component emitted directly from a luminaire

• Reflected light from the pavement or other surfaces

Figure 4 - Causes of Sky Glow

Light Trespass –

Also known as “spill light.” Light that is emitted into an unintended area.

Figure 5 - Light Trespass

Glare –

The sensation produced by luminance within the visual field that exceeds the eye’s ability to adapt.
This can cause annoyance, discomfort, or loss in visual performance and visibility.

Figure 6 – Glare
Full Cutoff –

• A luminaire light distribution with zero candelas (intensity) at angles of 90 degrees or above.
Additionally, the candelas per 1,000 lamp lumens do not exceed 100 (10%) at a vertical angle of
80 degrees.
• 0% Uplight
• Benefits:
o No direct uplight component
o Excellent light control at the property line
o Limits “spill light”
o Reduces glare
• Limitations:
o Closer pole spacing
o Increased luminaire and pole quantities
o Concentrated down light component, which can cause higher amounts of reflected light
o Poorer uniformity
o Least cost effective

Figure 7 - Full Cutoff

Cutoff –

• A luminaire light distribution where the candelas per 1,000 lamp lumens do not exceed 25 (2.5%)
at an angle of 90 degrees or above. Additionally, the candelas per 1,000 lamp lumens do not
exceed 100 (10%) at a vertical angle of 80 degrees.
• 0 – 16% Uplight
• Benefits
o Small increase in high angle light compared to FCO
o Potential for increased pole spacing
o Improved uniformity
o Good light control at property line
• Limitations
o Can allow uplight
o Less control at property line
o May have lower amounts of vertical illumination compared with semi-cutoff and non-cutoff
 Figure 8 – Cutoff

Semi-cutoff –

• A luminaire light distribution where the candelas per 1,000 lamp lumens do not exceed 50 (5%) at
an angle of 90 degrees or above. Additionally, the candelas per 1,000 lamp lumens do not
exceed 200 (20%) at a vertical angle of 80 degrees.
• <1 – 32% Uplight
• Benefits
o Potential for increased pole spacing
o Accents taller surfaces
o Less reflected light than FCO/CO
o Increased vertical illumination
• Limitations
o Greater potential for direct uplight component
o Less control at the property line
o Increased high-angle light, which may contribute to visual discomfort

Figure 9 - Semi-cutoff

Non-cutoff –

A luminaire light distribution that doesn’t qualify for semi-cutoff.

• Benefits
o Potential for widest possible spacing
o Accents taller surfaces
 o Increased vertical illumination
o Potential for least amount of reflected light
• Limitations
o Direct uplight component potential greatest
o Least control at property line
o May not utilize light control through engineered optics
o Higher veiling luminance

Figure 10 - Non-cutoff

LIGHT ORDINANCES

The following is an example of a well meaning lighting ordinance.

Outdoor lighting performance standards:

The intent of these standards is to focus on the physical effects of outdoor lighting, as well as the effect
lighting may have on the surrounding neighborhood in all zone districts. Exterior lighting shall be
evaluated in the development review process to ensure that the functional and security needs of the
project are met in a way that will not adversely affect the adjacent properties or the surrounding
neighborhood. The degree to which exterior night lighting affects a property owner or neighborhood will
be examined based upon the light source, level of illumination, hours of illumination and the need for
illumination in relation to the effects of lighting on adjacent property owners and the neighborhood.

Use only fixtures that do not pollute the sky and neighboring properties with their light spill. Such fixtures
are energy-efficient — the maximum amount of generated light is projected onto the area they are
intended to illuminate. In addition, they do not produce sideways glare that may annoy neighbors and can
hamper surveillance by police and private security.

Following is a guideline for exterior lighting and Illuminated signs:

1. Designed, located, installed and directed in such a manner to prevent objectionable light at
and across the property lines and to prevent glare at any location on or off the property.
2. A white light, such as metal halide, incandescent or a lamp with a color rendering index
above seventy (70).
3. Not exceed the maintained horizontal illuminance recommendations set by the Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America (IES) or an average illumination level of one and five-
tenths (1.5) foot-candles for the illuminated area.
 4. Not exceed one-tenth (0.1) foot-candle as a direct result of the on-site lighting measured
twenty (20) feet beyond the property line of the development site.
5. Full cut-off style fixtures for all parking area lighting.
6. Illuminated with flush-mounted, flat lens light fixtures for all under-canopy fueling areas.
7. Shielded to prevent glare and/or light trespass from all building, site and aesthetic lighting.
8. Up lighting is prohibited for externally illuminated signs except for monument signs of less
than six (6) feet overall height.
9. Required to be turned off after business hours between midnight and 6:00 a.m., leaving only
the necessary lighting for site and building security for all nonessential lighting.
10. Not be installed, illuminated or maintained with a permanent beacon or searchlight.
11. Have the following maximum mounting height;
a. Twenty-four (24) feet when the fixture is located within seventy-five (75) feet of the site's
boundary or
b. Forty (40) feet when the fixture is located beyond seventy-five (75) feet from the site's
boundary; and
c. Constructed without wood poles.
12. Full cut-off or a shielded type fixture (wall pack style fixtures are not acceptable) for all
building lighting for security or aesthetics. Floodlighting is discouraged; however, if used, it
shall be shielded to prevent the following:
a. Glare for pedestrians or drivers;
b. Light trespass beyond the property line and
c. Light above a ninety (90) degree horizontal plane

Model Lighting Ordinance

A new approach to specify exterior lighting is described below.

Lighting Zone Definitions: The Lighting Zone shall define the limitations for outdoor lighting as specified
in this ordinance. The policymaking body is able to designate areas according to the following
descriptions, thereby creating a custom lighting plan according to local needs, functions, and geography.

A fundamental component of the Model Lighting Ordinance (MLO) divides lighting requirements into
lighting zones according to environmental impact. The joint IDA/IES task force in charge of drafting the
MLO reviewed TM-15 and realized that it could be modified to serve as a key measure of all forms of light
pollution related to shielding and the direction of light, becoming an important tool to determine which
luminaires are appropriate for each zone. Modifications were made, including subdividing the TM-15
uplight zone to better address artificial sky glow, and subdividing the upper downlight zone to better
address glare. The IES accepted these adjustments and released TM-15-07.

LZ0: No ambient lighting Areas where the natural environment will be seriously and adversely affected by
lighting. Impacts include disturbing the biological cycles of flora and fauna and/or detracting from human
enjoyment and appreciation of the natural environment. Little or no lighting is expected. When not
needed, lighting should be extinguished.

LZ1: Low ambient lighting Areas where lighting might adversely affect flora and fauna or disturb the
character of the area. The vision of human residents and users is adapted to low light levels. Lighting may
be used for safety, security and/or convenience but it is not necessarily uniform or continuous. After
curfew, most lighting should be extinguished or reduced as activity levels decline.

LZ2: Moderate ambient lighting Areas of human activity where the vision of human residents and users is
adapted to moderate light levels. Lighting may typically be used for safety, security and/or convenience
but it is not necessarily uniform or continuous. After curfew, lighting may be extinguished or reduced as
activity levels decline.
LZ3: Moderately high ambient lighting Areas of human activity where the vision of human residents and
users is adapted to moderately high light levels. Lighting is generally desired for safety, security and/or
convenience and it is often uniform and/or continuous. After curfew, lighting may be extinguished or
reduced in most areas as activity levels decline.

LZ4: High ambient lighting Areas of human activity where the vision of human residents and users is
adapted to high light levels. Lighting is generally considered necessary for safety, security and/or
convenience and it is mostly uniform and/or continuous. After curfew, lighting may be extinguished or
reduced in some areas as activity levels decline.

BUG ratings –

BUG stands for “Backlight”, “Uplight” and “Glare.”

The acronym describes the types of stray light escaping from an outdoor lighting luminaire. “B” stands for
backlight, or the light directed in back of the mounting pole. “U” stands for uplight, or the light directed
above the horizontal plane of the luminaire, and “G” stands for glare, or the amount of light emitted from
the luminaire at angles known to cause glare.

It is expected that BUG values will be published by luminaire manufacturers so lighting specifiers,
designers or purchasers can tell at a glance how well a certain luminaire controls stray light or compares
with other luminaires under consideration for an installation.

The BUG system was developed by the Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) to make comparing and
evaluating outdoor luminaires fast, easy and more complete than older systems.

Work on the BUG system started in 2005 when the IES upgraded the roadway shielding classification
system. The original system, which included the ratings full cutoff, cutoff, semi-cutoff and non cutoff, had
been designed as a rating system solely for street lighting. However, increasing demand for control of
glare and light trespass extended these terms to all types of outdoor lighting, and the IES realized that a
more comprehensive system was needed.

The Lighting Research Center, acting as an IES contractor, developed a new classification concept that
addresses light emitted from the luminaire in all directions, not just up into the sky. This system, released
to the public as IES Technical Memorandum TM-15, technically replaced the old system. It divides the
sphere around a luminaire into zones assigning values according to expected environmental impact. This
rating system offers the most complete evaluation of the total light emitted from luminaires to date. A point
to remember, however, is that while the values assigned by the new system are good indicators, they
may not in all cases directly correlate to light pollution. It still depends upon the site, the application and
how the luminaire is installed.

After reviewing hundreds of candidate luminaires, the MLO task force established the three composite
(BUG) ratings based on TM-15-07:

Backlight, which creates light trespass onto adjacent sites. The B rating takes into account the amount of
light in the BL, BM, BH and BVH zones, which are direction of the luminaire OPPOSITE from the area
intended to be lighted.

Uplight, which causes artificial sky glow. Lower uplight (zone UL) causes the most sky glow and
negatively affects professional and academic astronomy.

Upper uplight (UH) is mostly energy waste. The U rating accounts the amount of light into the upper
hemisphere with greater concern for the lower uplight angles in UL.
Glare, which can be annoying or visually disabling. The G rating takes into account the amount of
frontlight in the FH and FVH zones as well as BH and BVH zones.

The resulting rating system, called BUG for obvious reasons, is a comprehensive system that takes into
account uplight shielding, glare shielding and backlight shielding as well as limiting lamp lumens to values
appropriate for the lighting zone. BUG is a simple system consisting of a a table of consensus acceptable
values against which any luminaire having photometric data can be judged. A luminaire’s numerical rating
is the LOWEST light zone number in which it can be used. BUG will be part of the latest IES outdoor
lighting system update.

The BUG rating system is a principal component of the Model Lighting Ordinance (MLO). The
MLO is also a simple system that considers BUG ratings in the context of total lumens allowed per site,
which the total site lumens are restricted. Use of the BUG system as the measuring tool for the MLO
creates a straightforward system of controlling light pollution that can be implemented by persons having
minimal experience or education in outdoor lighting design.

CONCLUSION

The act of labeling a product or service as Green is largely arbitrary at this point. The act of reducing
ones carbon foot print is subject to interpretation and very difficult to enforce compliance with agreed
upon reductions. The need to and the degree to which we can impact the volume of CO2 in our
atmosphere is debatable. Forcing those using the label of “Green” to define it is the first step to being
able to make an educated decision.

The one thing we all seem to be able to agree upon is the need to preserve our natural resources and
reduce waste. The road to achieving that goal is ripe with well meaning but uninformed or misguided
gate keepers. Arm yourself with knowledge and skepticism and may the buyer beware.

GLOSSARY

Color rendering index (CRI) means the measured effect of light on objects. To determine the CRI of a
lamp, the color appearances of a set of standard color chips are measured with special equipment under
a reference light source with the same correlated color temperature as the lamp being evaluated. If the
lamp renders the color of the chips identical to the reference light source, the CRI is one hundred (100). If
the color rendering differs from the reference light source, the CRI is less than one hundred (100). A low
CRI indicates that some
color may appear unnatural when illuminated by the lamp.

Lumen is a measure used to describe the amount of light that a light source produces or emits.

Foot-Candle, the amount of light reaching a subject. The commonly United States unit of measurement of
lighting level (illumination) is the foot-candle (fc). The international unit of measurement of lighting level
(Illumination) is the lux (lx). The relationship between the lux and the foot-candle is 1 fc = 10.76 lux.

Illuminance, the total luminous flux incident on a surface, per unit area. It is a measure of the intensity of
the incident light, wavelength-weighted by the luminosity function to correlate with human brightness
perception. Similarly, luminous emittance is the luminous flux per unit area emitted from a surface.
Luminous emittance is also known as luminous exitance. The foot-candle is a non-metric unit of
illuminance that is used. Illuminance was formerly often called brightness, but this leads to confusion with
other uses of the word. "Brightness" should never be used for quantitative description, but only for non-
quantitative references to physiological sensations and perceptions of light.
Luminance, a photometric measure of the luminous intensity per unit area of light travelling in a given
direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through or is emitted from a particular area, and
falls within a given solid angle. The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre (cd/m2). A non-SI
term for the same unit is the "nit". The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb, which is equal to one candela
per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m2. Luminance is often used to characterize emission or reflection from
flat, diffuse surfaces. The luminance indicates how much luminous power will be perceived by an eye
looking at the surface from a particular angle of view. Luminance is thus an indicator of how bright the
surface will appear. In this case, the solid angle of interest is the solid angle subtended by the eye's pupil.
Luminance is used in the video industry to characterize the brightness of displays. A typical computer
display emits between 50 and 300 cd/m2. The sun has luminance of about 1.6×109 cd/m2 at noon.

Watt(age), the amount of electrical power consumed by a lamp or light fixture measured in “watts”. One
watt is equal to the power dissipated by 1 ampere of electrical current flowing across a resistance of 1
ohm or the power produced by 1 ampere of electrical current under an electromotive force of 1 volt.

Lighting Power Density, a measure of electrical power used to provide lighting to a space - expressed in
watts per square foot (or watts per square meter). This methodology calculates lighting power allowances
for building spaces and whole buildings. The process models lighting design assumptions from a
consensus of lighting design professionals for each of the space types used in ASHRE/IESNA 90.1-2004,
using currently available efficient lamp/ballast/fixture data, and illuminance values from current IESNA
illuminance recommendations. In this way, the needs of the occupants are taken into account and
energy-efficient design is promoted through the resulting lighting power densities.

LEED (Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design) is an internationally recognized green building
certification system, providing third-party verification that a building or community was designed and built
using strategies intended to improve performance in metrics such as energy savings, water efficiency,
CO2 emissions reduction, improved indoor environmental quality, and stewardship of resources and
sensitivity to their impacts.

Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), LEED is intended to provide building owners
and operators a concise framework for identifying and implementing practical and measurable green
building design, construction, operations and maintenance solutions.

Since its inception in 1998, the U.S. Green Building council has grown to encompass more than 14,000
projects in the United States and 30 countries covering 1.062 billion square feet (99 km²) of development
area. The hallmark of LEED is that it is an open and transparent process where the technical criteria
proposed by USGBC members are publicly reviewed for approval by the almost 20,000 member
organizations that currently constitute the USGBC. The Green Building Certification Institute (GBCI) was
established by USGBC to provide a series of exams to allow individuals to become accredited for their
knowledge of the LEED rating system. This is recognized through either the LEED Accredited
Professional (LEED AP) or LEED Green Associate (LEED GA) designation. GBCI also provides third-
party certification for projects pursuing LEED.

Efficacy, the luminous efficacy of a source is a measure of the efficiency with which the source provides
visible light from electricity. See table below for efficacy of the various light sources. The luminous
efficacy of radiation describes how well a given quantity of electromagnetic radiation from a source
produces visible light: the ratio of luminous flux to radiant flux. Not all wavelengths of light are equally
visible, or equally effective at stimulating human vision, due to the spectral sensitivity of the human eye;
radiation in the infrared and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum is useless for illumination. The overall
luminous efficacy of a source is the product of how well it converts energy to electromagnetic radiation,
and how well the emitted radiation is detected by the human eye.

LIGHT SOURCE EFFICACY

 Edison's first
1.4 L/W
lamp
Infrared Lamps 6-9 L/W
Incandescent
10-40 L/W
Lamps
Fluorescent 35-100
Lamps L/W
Mercury Vapor
50-60 L/W
Lamps
Metal Halide 80-125
Lamps L/W
High Pressure 100-140
Sodium Lamps L/W
Theoretical max
225 L/W
for white light

Efficacy and efficiency, in some other systems of units, luminous flux has the same units as radiant flux.
The luminous efficacy of radiation is then dimensionless. In this case, it is often instead called the
luminous efficiency or luminous coefficient and may be expressed as a percentage. A common choice is
to choose units such that the maximum possible efficacy, 683 lm/W, corresponds to an efficiency of
100%. The distinction between efficacy and efficiency is not always carefully maintained in published
sources, so it is not uncommon to see "efficiencies" expressed in lumens per watt, or "efficacies"
expressed as a percentage.

Dark Sky Society, supports educational and legislative efforts to eliminate light pollution--glare, trespass,
and up-lighting by unshielded, misplaced, excessive, or unnecessary outdoor night lighting--in order to
conserve energy, maintain our desirable community character, safeguard our wildlife, and restore our
view of the starry night sky.

IDA (International Dark sky Association) was founded in 1988, by Dr. David L. Crawford and colleague
Dr. Tim Hunter, to address the growing problem of light pollution. IDA incorporated in 1988 as a tax-
exempt non-profit organization operating exclusively for educational and scientific purposes under
Section 501(c)(3) of the United States Internal Revenue Code of 1987 (Federal Identification Number 74-
2493011). As such, IDA lawfully solicits donations and applies for grants in order to maintain the
organization and further its mission. IDA operates under a set of formal bylaws that were established at
the time of incorporation. These bylaws were revised in February 1989, September 1990, December
2005, and September 2006. As the leading organization combating light pollution worldwide, IDA
celebrated its 20th Anniversary in 2008. Over the past twenty years, IDA has grown from two members
and volunteers, to a membership of over 11,000 and full time staff. In leading the fight against light
pollution, IDA has published a number of articles and helpful guides and a quarterly newsletter
highlighting the leading topics in dark sky preservation. This is in addition to award winning and highly
popular meetings and events plus a number The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IES)
is the recognized technical authority on illumination. For over 100 years; its objective has been to
communicate information on all aspects of good lighting practice to its members, to the lighting
community, and to consumers, through a variety of programs, publications, and services.

IESNA (Illuminating Engineering Society of North America) is the recognized technical authority on
illumination. For over 100 years; its objective has been to communicate information on all aspects of good
lighting practice to its members, to the lighting community, and to consumers, through a variety of
programs, publications, and services. IES is a forum for the exchange of ideas and information, and a
vehicle for its members' professional development and recognition. Through technical committees, with
hundreds of qualified individuals from the lighting and user communities, IES correlates research,
investigations, and discussions to guide lighting professionals and lay persons via consensus-based
lighting recommendations. The Society publishes nearly 100 varied technical publications, and works
cooperatively with related organizations on a variety of programs and in the production of jointly published
documents and standards.

ASHRAE(American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers} founded in 1894, is

an international organization of 51,000 persons. ASHRAE fulfills its mission of advancing heating,
ventilation, air conditioning and refrigeration to serve humanity and promote a sustainable world through
research, standards writing, publishing and continuing education.

Light pollution, also known as photopollution or luminous pollution, is excessive or obtrusive artificial light.
Several of the definitions (by different organizations) of the “Light Pollution” are included below. The
International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) defines light pollution as - Any adverse effect of artificial light
including sky glow, glare, light trespass, light clutter, decreased visibility at night, and energy waste.

Skyglow (or sky glow) is the wide-scale unintended illumination of the night sky or parts of it. The most
common cause of skyglow is artificial light that emits light pollution, which accumulates into a vast glow
that can be seen from miles away and from high in the sky. Skyglow from artificial lights is common
throughout the world and can be observed over most cities and towns as a glowing dome of the
populated area. Skyglow's light domes can be large, as in that over a city, or small, as in that over an
over-illuminated shopping center or a stadium.

Spill Light is the light emitted by a lighting installation which falls outside the boundaries of the property on
which the installation is sited.

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many
devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,
early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet
and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are
relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent
lamp sources of comparable output.

Incandescent (light bulb) is a source of electric light that works by incandescence (a general term for
heat-driven light emissions, which includes the simple case of black body radiation). An electric current
passes through a thin filament, heating it to a temperature that produces light. The enclosing glass bulb
contains either a vacuum or an inert gas to prevent oxidation of the hot filament. U S federal law has
scheduled incandescent light bulbs to be phased out by 2014 to be replaced with more energy-efficient
light bulbs. In Brazil, they have already been phased out.

Fluorescent lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses electricity to excite mercury vapor. The excited
mercury atoms produce short-wave ultraviolet light that then causes a phosphor to fluoresce, producing
visible light. A fluorescent lamp converts electrical power into useful light more efficiently than an
incandescent lamp. Lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost of the lamp. The lamp is
more costly because it requires a ballast to regulate the current through the lamp. While larger
fluorescent lamps have been mostly used in commercial or institutional buildings, the compact fluorescent
lamp is now available in the same popular sizes as incandescent and is used as an energy-saving
alternative in homes.

Induction Lamp, aside from the method of coupling energy into the mercury vapor, these lamps are very
similar to conventional fluorescent lamps. Mercury vapor in the discharge vessel is electrically excited to
produce short-wave ultraviolet light, which then excites the phosphors to produce visible light. While still
relatively unknown to the public, these lamps have been available since 1990. The first type introduced
had the shape of an incandescent light bulb. Unlike an incandescent lamp or conventional fluorescent
lamps, there is no electrical connection going inside the glass bulb; the energy is transferred through the
glass envelope solely by electromagnetic induction.

Metal halide lamp, a member of the high-intensity discharge (HID) family of lamps, produce high light
output for their size, making them a compact, powerful, and efficient light source. By adding rare earth
metal salts to the mercury vapor lamp, improved luminous efficacy and light color is obtained. Originally
created in the late 1960s for industrial use, metal halide lamps are now available in numerous sizes and
configurations for commercial and residential applications. Like most HID lamps, metal halide lamps
operate under high pressure and temperature, and require special fixtures to operate safely.

Sodium vapor lamp is a gas discharge lamp which uses sodium in an excited state to produce light. There
are two varieties of such lamps: low pressure (LPS) and high pressure (HPS). Because sodium vapor
lamps cause less light pollution than mercury-vapor lamps, many cities that have large astronomical
observatories employ them.

LPS (Low Pressure Sodium) lamps are the most efficient electrically-powered light source when
measured for photopic lighting conditions—up to 200 lm/W,[ primarily because the output is light at a
wavelength near the peak sensitivity of the human eye. As a result they are widely used for outdoor
lighting such as street lights and security lighting where faithful color rendition is considered unimportant.

HPS lamps (High Pressure Sodium) are smaller and contain additional elements such as mercury, and
produce a dark pink glow when first struck, and a pinkish orange light when warmed. Some bulbs also
briefly produce a pure to bluish white light in between. This is probably from the mercury glowing before
the sodium is completely warmed. The sodium D-line is the main source of light from the HPS lamp, and it
is extremely pressure broadened by the high sodium pressures in the lamp; due to this broadening and
the emissions from mercury, colors of objects under these lamps can be distinguished. This leads them to
be used in areas where good color rendering is important, or desired. Xenon at a low pressure is used as
a "starter gas" in the HPS lamp. It has the lowest thermal conductivity and lowest ionization potential of all
the non-radioactive noble gases. As a noble gas, it does not interfere with the chemical reactions
occurring in the operating lamp. The low thermal conductivity minimizes thermal losses in the lamp while
in the operating state, and the low ionization potential causes the breakdown voltage of the gas to be
relatively low in the cold state, which allows the lamp to be easily started. High pressure sodium lamps
are quite efficient—about 100 lm/W—when measured for photopic lighting conditions. They have been
widely used for outdoor lighting such as streetlights and security lighting.

Lighting Research Center is a university-based research center devoted to lighting and is a part of
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

References:

IETA GHG Market Report 2008 - PIECING TOGETHER A COMPREHENSIVE INTERNATIONAL

AGREEMENT FOR A TRULY GLOBAL CARBON MARKET

De Brauw Blackstone Westbroek Legal Alerts: March 2009