Lecture 2.

Working Principles of Microsystems

2.1 Microsensors
 Definition of Sensor:
A sensor is a device that converts one form of energy into another and provides
the user with a usable output in response to a specific measurable input.

2.1.1 Acoustic Wave Sensors

 Principal application:
- To detect chemical components in a gas.

 Basic idea:
- To fabricate a sensor in which acoustic waves are propagated, and where
some aspect of that propagation (e.g., velocity, amplitude, etc.) is changed by
the adsorption/reaction or viscosity of the sensed species. (Kovacs, 2000)
- Generation of acoustic waves: piezoelectric (the most popular),
magnetostrictive, etc.

2.1.2 Biomedical Sensors and Biosensors

 BioMEMS encompasses:
1. Biosensors;
2. Bioinstruments and surgery tools;
3. Biotesting and analytical systems

 Biomedical Sensors:
 To detect biological substance.
 Example: one for glucose (血糖) concentration
- Glucose + O2 → gluconolactone + H2O2
- Then, H2O2 → O2 + 2H+ + 2e-
- By measuring the current or the pH, the glucose concentration can be
determined.

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 表一 二十位糖尿病專家對糖尿病診斷之分歧標準

(http://www.ilshb.gov.tw/dm/)

血糖 mg/dl 正常人最高限 糖尿病人最低限

空腹血糖 105-120 120-160

1 小時血糖 160-209 185-250

2 小時血糖 120-250 105-180

 Biosensors
 Definition: Any measuring devices that contain a biological element.
 The biomolecules (such as enzymes, antibodies, etc.), when attached to
the sensing elements, can alter the output signals of the sensors.
 Schematic of biosensors:

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 Biotesting and Analytical Systems
 These systems separate various species in biological samples.
 Electrohydrodynamics involves the driving of an ionized fluid by the
application of electric fields.

2.1.3 Chemical Sensors

 Used to sense particular chemical components, such as various gas
species.

 4 types:
I. Chemiresistor sensors
- Chemiresistros are simply structures in which the resistance (or impedance)
between two electrical contacts is modified depending on the quantity of an

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 unknown in the environment. (Kovacs, 2000)
- Example: A polymer called phthalocyanine is used with copper to sense NH 3
and NO2.

II. Chemicapacitor sensors:

- Some polymers can be used as dielectric materials in a capacitor.
- Exposed to certain gases → its dielectric constant changes → capacitance
changes

III. Chemimechanical sensors

- Certain materials (e.g., polymers) would change shape when exposed to
chemicals including moisture.
- One may detect such chemicals by measuring its dimension change.
- Example: A moisture sensor using pyraline PI-2722.

IV. Metal xodie gas sensors

- The working principle is similar to that of chemiresistor sensors.
- Several semiconducting metals, such as SnO2, change their electric resistance

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 after absorbing certain gases.

 Catalyst deposition can speed up the reaction and hence increase the
sensitivity of the sensor.

2.1.4 Optical Sensors

 Figure 2.6(a):
The photovoltaic junction can produce an electric potential when the more
transparent substrate of semiconductor A is subjected to incident photon energy.

 Figure 2.6(b):
A special material changes its electric resistance when exposed to light.

 Incident photon energy can be converted into electric current output

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 from these devices.

2.1.5 Pressure Sensors

 Principle:

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 - Mechanically induced diaphragm deformation and stresses are then
converted into electrical signal output through several means of transduction.

 Two types: absolute and gage pressure sensors

- Absolute: has an evacuated cavity on one side of the diaphragm so that the
measured pressure is the absolute value with vacuum as the reference.
- Gage: no evacuation is necessary.

 Back-side and front-side pressurization (Fig. 2.7):

- Back side: no interference with signal transducer.
- Front side: used under special circumstances because of interference of
pressurizing medium with the signal transducer

 In Fig. 2.8, four piezoresistors implanted beneath the silicon die, and
a Wheatstone bridge circuit is used.
- By an applied pressure, the values of R1 and R3 increase, whereas those of R2
and R4 decrease.
- The output voltage from the Wheatstone bridge is:

 R1 R2 
Vo  Vin    [eq. 2.1]
 R1  R4 R2  R3 

- Advantages: high gains and good linearity.

- Disadvantage: temperature sensitive.

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 R2 (-v)

R3 (+v)

 Capacitive type (Fig. 2.9):

- Principle:
Any deformation of the diaphragm due to the applied pressure will
narrow the gap between two electrodes, leading to a change of capacitance
across the electrodes.

- Capacitance:
A
C   r 0 [Eq. 2.2]
d
where εr: relative permittivity, ε0: permittivity of vacuum, d: gap, and A:
area.

- Output Voltage:

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 C
Vo  Vin [eq. 2.3]
2( 2C  C )

- Advantages: independent of the operating temperature.

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 - Disadvantages:
 Not as sensitive as those with piezoresistors.
 The relation between the output and the capacitance change is
nonlinear.

 Vibrating-beam type (Fig. 2.12):

- has a n-type silicon beam and p-type electrode.
- The beam is made to vibrate at its resonant frequency by applying an ac
signal to the electrode before the application of pressure.
- The stress induced in the diaphragm (and the die) will be transmitted to the
vibrating beam, causing a shift of natural frequency.
- The shift of natural frequency can be correlated to the applied pressure.
- Advantage: (1) insensitive to temperature; and (2) good linearity.
- Disadvantage: costly on fabrication.

2.1.6 Thermal Sensors

 Thermocouples:
- A voltage is produced at the open ends of two dissimilar metallic wires when
the junction of the wires is heated (Fig. 2.13a).
- Seebeck effect:
 A thermocouple is arranged with both hot and cold junctions (Fig.
2.13b), and the following voltage is generated:
V=βΔT
where β is the Seebeck coefficient, and ΔT is the temperature

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 difference between hot and cold junctions.

 Microthermopile:
- Thermopiles operate with both hot and cold junctions, but they are arranged
with thermocouples in parallel and voltage output in series (Fig. 2.14).
V=NβΔT
where N is the number of thermocouple pairs.

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 In Fig. 2.15, a total of 32 polysilicon-gold thermocouples were used
in the thermopile.
- The chip dimension: 3.6mm X 3.6mm X 20μm
- A typical output signal of 100 mV was obtained from a 500 K blackbody
radiation source of Q=0.29 mW/cm2.

2.2 Microactuation
 Four commonly used means for microdevice actuation are:
(1) thermal forces;
(2) shape memory alloys;
(3) piezoelectric crystals;
(4) electrostatic forces.

2.2.1 Actuation Using Thermal Forces

 Principles:
 Bimetallic strips are made by binding two materials with distinct
thermal expansion coefficients (also called thermal bimorph actuator).
 The strip will bend when heated or cooled from the initial reference
temperature (Fig. 2.16).
 Examples: microclamps or valves.

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2.2.2 Actuation Using Shape Memory Alloys
 Principles:
- The shape memory alloys (SMA) tend to return to their original shape at
a preset temperature.
- Example in Fig. 2.17,
 A SMA strip is in a bent shape at a designed preset temperature T.
 The silicon beam is set straight at the room temperature.
 Heating the SMA to temperature T would prompt the SMA strip to
return to its original bent shape, causing the beam to deform with
the strip.

2.2.3 Actuation Using Piezoelectric Crystals

 Principles:
- Certain crystals deform with the application of an electric voltage.
- The reverse is also valid. Deforming the crystal would generate a
voltage.

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 - Example:

2.2.4 Actuation Using Electrostatic Forces

 Coulomb’s Law:
Two charge particles with charges q and q’ would exert an electrostatic
force to each other:
1 qq '
F [Eq. 2.5]
4 r 2
where ε: permittivity of the material.

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 Electrostatic Force in Parallel Plates
- In Fig. 2.21, the induced capacitance between the plates is
A WL
C   r 0   r 0 [Eq. 2.6]
d d
- The energy associated with the electric potential can be expressed as:
1   WLV 2
U   CV 2   r 0 [Eq. 2.7]
2 2d
- The associated force that is normal to the plates is
U 1   WLV 2
Fd    r 0 2 [Eq. 2.8]
d 2 d
- The associated forces in the W and L directions are
U 1  r  0 LV 2
FW    [Eq. 2.10]
W 2 d
U 1  r  0WV 2
FL    [Eq. 2.11]
L 2 d
- Drawback:
The force magnitude is low.

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2.3 MEMS with Microactuators
2.3.1 Microgrippers
 Principle:
The required gripping forces in a gripper can be provided either by normal
force (Fig. 2.24a) or by the in-plane forces from pairs of misaligned plates (Fig.
2.24b).

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 Disadvantage of the design in Fig. 2.24a:
The electrodes occupy excessive space.

 Comb drives as Fig. 2.24b or:

2.3.2 Micromotors
 Two types: linear and rotary motors
- Linear motors:
 Energizing the pair of electrodes A and A’ causes the top plate to
move to the left until they are fully aligned.
 Then, energize the pairs of electrodes B and B’, C and C’, and D
and D’ in sequence.

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18
 - Rotary motors:

2.3.3 Microvalves
 Applications:
- Precision control of gas flow for manufacturing processes;
- Biomedical systems such as in controlling the blood flow in an artery
(動脈).

 The microvalve in Fig. 2.29 (Jerman, 1991) uses the thermal bimorph
actuation (like the one in Fig. 2.16).
- Heating the two electrical resistor rings can cause a downward
movement of the diaphragm to close the flow passage.

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 Figure 2.30,
- The downward bending of the silicon diaphragm (to close the valve) is
activated by heat supplied to a special liquid in the sealed compartment
(隔間) above the diaphragm.

2.3.4 Micropumps
 Figure 2.31,
- Use the electrostatic actuation to deform the diaphragm.
- Apply a voltage across the electrodes
 Diaphragm: deform upward
 Chamber volume: increase

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  Chamber pressure: reduce
 Inlet check valve: open (fluid flows in)
Then, cut off the applied voltage
 Diaphragm: return to its initial position
 Chamber volume: reduce
 Chamber pressure: increase
 outlet check valve: open (fluid flows out)
- Zengerle (1992) reported
 Diaphragm size: 4mm×4mm×25μm thick
 Gap between the diaphragm and electrode: 4μm
 Actuation frequency: 1 to 100 Hz
 Pumping rate: 70μL/min at 25 Hz

2.4 Microaccelerometers
 Functions:
- measure accelerometer;
- measure the applied force by F=ma.

 Applications:
- ±2g range for the car’s suspension system and antilock braking system.

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 - ±50g range for the actuation of air bags.

 Principal components of an accelerometer (Fig. 2.32):

 Figure 2.33 shows a microaccelerometer:

- Silicon beam: serve as a spring.
- Mass M: also called a seismic mass or proof mass.
- Air in the surrounding: produce damping.
- Piezoresistor: measure the deformation
 correlated to the acceleration
(Details: discussed in Chapter 4.)

 Figure 2.34: use differential capacitance

- Components: a proof mass (thin beam), two springs (tethers [ 拴繩 ,拴

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 鏈] made of elastic material), and a differential capacitive sensing.
- Principles:
 In the event of acceleration, the proof mass will displace in the
direction opposite to the acceleration. (??)
 The differential capacitive sensor cell senses the movement.

 Figure 2.36: dual-axial-motion sensor.

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2.5 Microfluidics
 Applications:
- Chemical analysis
- Biological and chemical sensing
- Drug delivery
- Molecular separation such as DNA analysis
- Amplification, sequencing or synthesis of nucleic acids
- Environmental monitoring

 Principal advantages:
- Small samples
- Better performance with reduced power consumption
- Can be combined with traditional electronic systems for a lab-on-a-chip
(LOC)
- Produced in batches s.t. disposable (可丟棄的)

 Major components of a microfluidic system:

1. Microsensors: used to measure fluid properties (pressure, temperature, and
flow rate, etc.).
2. Actuators: used to alter the state of fluids (microvalves, micropumps, and
compressors, etc.).
3. Distribution channels: regulate flows in various branches in the system
(capillary networks in Fig. 2.3, microchannels in Fig. 2.37, etc).
4. System integration: integrate 1, 2, 3, and electrical systems that provides
electrohydrodynamic (電之流體動力學) forces, the circuits for transducing
and processing the electronic signals, and control of the microfluid flow in
the system.

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