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Assignment on Temperature Sensors.

Technical Report · February 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16747.23844

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Assignment on Temperature Sensors

1. Introduction:

Temperature changes as a function of the average energy of molecular movement. As heat is

added to a system, molecular motion increases and the system experiences an increase in
temperature. It is difficult, however, to directly measure the energy of molecular movement, so
temperature sensors are generally designed to measure a property which changes in response to
temperature. The devices are then calibrated to traditional temperature scales using a standard
(i.e. the boiling point of water at known pressure) [1].

One well-known thermal sensor is a mercury or alcohol thermometer. It uses the volume of
mercury or dyed ethanol, which expands when temperature increases, to measure temperature in
a tube with a temperature scale. Though very well known, mercury and alcohol thermometers are
not well suited to measure temperature in many small and large machine. Other kinds of thermal
sensors that can be suited for many other applications include thermocouples, resistance
thermometers, silicon sensors and radiation thermometers. The following sections discuss the
various principles of measuring temperature [2].

2. Principle of various temperature sensor

2.1 Thermocouple:

Thermocouples are thermoelectric sensors that basically consists of two junctions of dissimilar
metals, such as copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together. One junction is kept
at a constant temperature called the reference (Cold) junction, while the other the measuring
(Hot) junction. When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is developed
across the junction which is used to measure the temperature sensor as shown in figure below.

Figure 2.1.1: Thermocouple construction [3].

The operating principal of a thermocouple is very simple and basic. When fused together the
junction of the two dissimilar metals such as copper and constantan produce a “thermo-electric”
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effect which gives a constant potential difference of only a few millivolts (mV) between them.
The voltage difference between the two junctions is called the “Seebeck effect” as a temperature
gradient is generated along the conducting wires producing an emf. Then the output voltage from
a thermocouple is a function of the temperature changes.

If both the junctions are at the same temperature the potential difference across the two junctions
is zero in other words, no voltage output as V1 = V2. However, when the junctions are connected
within a circuit and are both at different temperatures a voltage output will be detected relative to
the difference in temperature between the two junctions, V1 – V2. This difference in voltage will
increase with temperature until the junction’s peak voltage level is reached and this is determined
by the characteristics of the two dissimilar metals used.

2.2 Resistor temperature detectors (RTD):

A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector is a device which used to

determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of pure electrical wire. This wire is
referred to as a temperature sensor. The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of
the temperature is given as,

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 [1 + (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) + 𝛽(𝑡 − 𝑡0 )2 + ⋯ … … … … . ]

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at to C and t0o C temperatures. α and β are the
constants depends on the metals. This expression is for huge range of temperature. For small
range of temperature, the expression can be,

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 [1 + (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )]

Figure 2.2.1: Temperature variation of different material. [4]

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In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely used metals. These three metals are
having different resistance variations with respective to the temperature variations. That is called
resistance-temperature characteristics. Platinum has the temperature range of 650oC, and then the
Copper and Nickel have 120oC and 300oC respectively. The figure-2.2.1 shows the resistance-
temperature characteristics curve of the three different metals.

An RTD takes a measurement when a small DC current is supplied to the sensor. The current
experiences the impedance of the resistor, and a voltage drop is experienced over the resistor.
Depending on the nominal resistance of the RTD, different supply currents can be used. To
reduce self-heating on the sensor the supply current should be kept low. In general, around 1mA
or less of current is used.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2.2: (a) 2 wire configuration and (b) 3 wire configuration of RTD. [5]

An RTD can be connected in a two, three, or four-wire configuration. Two and three wire
configurations of RTD is shown in figure 2.2.2. The two-wire configuration is the simplest and
the most error prone. In this setup, the RTD is connected by two wires to a Wheatstone bridge
circuit and the output voltage is measured. The disadvantage of this circuit is that the two
connecting lead wire resistances add directly two the RTD’s resistance and an error is incurred.

2.3 Thermistors

A thermistor is a specific type of resistance thermometer. Thermistors are made of metal wires
connected to a ceramic base made of several sintered, oxide semiconductors. Like other
resistance thermometers, the change in temperature can be calculated from the change in
resistance. But unlike traditional resistance thermometers, the relationship is not very linear.
Thus, the temperature range in which thermistors can be used is small compared to traditional
resistance thermometers.

2.4 Infrared sensors

Infrared thermometers work based on black body radiation, according to which any material with
a temperature above absolute zero has molecules moving within it. The higher the temperature,
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the faster the molecules move. The molecules emit infrared radiation as they move, and emit
more radiation, including visible light, as they get hotter. Therefore, a heated metal emits a red or
white glow. Infrared thermometers detect and measure this radiation.

The basic function of these devices is to capture the infrared ray’s energy, emitted by anybody
having the temperature value above absolute zero (0 kelvin). This is because everybody is made
up of atoms and molecules. The higher the temperature of the body, the more will be the
vibrations in the molecules of the body and the radiation emission. The above phenomenon is
scientifically known as Stefan-Boltzmann law, which states that "total radiation energy emitted
by a body is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature".

E α T4

where,

E is the total radiation energy.

T is the absolute temperature.

Wien's displacement law is also applied in the working of such devices. This law states that, "the
wavelength carrying the maximum energy is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature
of a black body"[6].

λmax x T = b

where,
λmax is the maximum wavelength.
T is the temperature of the black body in Kelvins.
b is 2.8977685 ± 51 × 10-3 meters.Kelvins
2.5 Semiconductors

Semiconductor temperature sensors make use of the temperature dependent relationship between
a bipolar junction transistor's (BJT) base-emitter voltage and its collector current:

𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝐶
𝑉𝐵𝐸 = ln ( )
𝑞 𝑙𝑆

where, k is Boltzmann's constant, T is the absolute temperature, q is the charge of an electron,

and IS is a current related to the geometry and the temperature of the transistor.

Because of the non-linear temperature dependency of IS, many sensor designs use proportional-
toabsolute-temperature (PTAT) circuits to eliminate the temperature impact of IC and IS all
together. Figure 2.5.1 shows the simplified principle. Here the difference between the base-
emitter voltage of a single transistor and the base-emitter voltage of n in parallel connected
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transistors is used as a linear, temperature dependent output. This principle is applied in the so-
called Brokaw cell that can be either used to create a temperature independent bandgap voltage,
or a PTAT sensor circuit (see Figure 2.5.2).

Figure 2.5.1: Principle of Eliminating IC and IS

Figure 2.5.2: VPTAT Temperature Sensor [7].

The voltage, ΔVBE = VBE - VN, appears across resistor R2. Therefore, the emitter current in Q2 is
ΔVBE/R2. The op amp's servo loop and the resistors, R, force the same current to flow through Q1.
The Q1 and Q2 currents are equal and are summed and flow into resistor R1. The corresponding
voltage developed across R1 is proportional to absolute temperature (PTAT). The bandgap cell
reference voltage, VBandgap, appears at the base of Q1 and is the sum of VBE(Q1) and VPTAT.
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VBE(Q1) is complementary to absolute temperature (CTAT), and summing it with VPTAT causes
VBandgap to be constant over temperature. This circuit is the basic band-gap temperature sensor,
which has been widely used in semiconductor temperature sensors.

3. Comparison of various temperature sensor

3.1 Thermocouple

Advantages: Very wide temperature range (1.2 K to 2300 deg C), fast response time, available
in small sheath sizes, low initial cost and durable.

Disadvantages: Decreased accuracy comparing to RTD, more susceptible to RFI/EMI,

recalibration is difficult, requires expensive TC wire from sensor to recording device, difficult to
verify and not as stable as RTD.

3.2 Resistor temperature detectors (RTD):

Advantages: Linear over wide operating range, wide temperature operating range, high
temperature operating range, interchangeability over wide range and good stability at high
temperature.

Disadvantages: Low sensitivity, higher cost than thermocouples, no point sensing, affected by
shock and vibration and requires three or four-wire operation.

3.3 Thermistors

Advantages: large resistance change with temperature, rapid response time, good stability, high
resistance eliminates difficulties caused by lead resistance, low cost and interchangeable.

Disadvantages: Non-linear, limited operating temperature range, may be subjected to inaccuracy

due to overheating, current source required.

3.4 Infrared sensors

Advantages: Measurements can be taken from a distance for hot surfaces and objects or for food
service purposes where items should not be touched or contaminated. They are excellent for
surface measurements, measurements can also be taken of moving parts, infrared thermometers
operate well for a variety of applications, memory and advanced measurement functionality is
available and they are compact, lightweight, and easy to use.

Disadvantages: Infrared thermometers cannot take measurements of gas or liquids, the

environment needs to be clean, without dust, high humidity, or similar, depending on the model,
the accuracy can be marginal and specialty meters can be very expensive.
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3.5 Semiconductors

Advantages: They are very linear with accuracies of ±1°C or better, their electronics can be
integrated onto the same die as the sensor giving high sensitivity, they can be easily interfaced
with control systems, making different digital output configurations possible, they have a good
thermal time constant which varies from 1 to 5 s, semiconductor devices are rugged with good
longevity and they are inexpensive.

Disadvantages: Internal dissipation can cause up to 0.5°C offset resulting in errors in

temperature measurement, limited range of operation and limited range of operation.

4. References:
[1] Temperature Sensors, http://www.idconline.com/technical_references/pdfs/instrumentation/
Temperature_Sensors.pdf (Accessed on 28 October 2017).
[2] T. Huynh, Chapter 2: Fundamentals of Thermal Sensors, Springer Science and Business Media
New York 2015 C.M. Jha (ed.), Thermal Sensors, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4939-2581-0_2.
[3] Temperature Sensors, http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_3.html (Accessed on 28 October
2017).
[4] https://www.electrical4u.com/resistance-temperature-detector-or-rtd-construction-and-working-
principle. (Accessed on 28 October 2017).
[5] https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=5573. (Accessed on 28 October 2017).
[6] https://www.buzzle.com/articles/working-of-an-infrared-thermometer.html. (Accessed on 28
October 2017).
[7] T. Kuglestadt, Semiconductor Temperature Sensors Challenge Precision RTDs and Thermistors
in Building Automation, Application Report, SNAA267–April 2015,

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