Electromagnetic-Field 2 C5

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Chapter 5
Waveguides
Electromagnetic waves have the natural tendency to propagate in all directions away from the
point where they are generated. The fields created by a dipole in free space are a good example.
For some applications, it is desirable that waves propagate in only one direction, say z, while the
field is appreciable only in a neighborhood of it. This behavior can be obtained by generating the
electromagnetic wave inside a metal tube, called waveguide. The side walls have very high (if not
infinite) conductivity and act as mirrors that prevent propagation in the transverse direction. The
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cross section of the tube is arbitrary, but generally it is rectangular, circular or in the form of a
ridge, as shown in Fig. 5.1. Sometimes the cross section is simply connected, sometimes doubly or
multiply connected: the coaxial cable belongs to this latter class.
Figure 5.1. Various waveguide types. From left to right: rectangular, cylindrical,
coaxial and ridge waveguide
Waveguides are not always in the form of hollow tubes. The microstrip is a different kind
of waveguide, which appears to be open, without sidewalls. the field confinement is due to the
dielectric inhomogeneity of the cross section. Optical fibers are another example of waveguides
without sidewalls. The confinement here is related to the total reflection at the interface between
two different dielectrics.
In these notes we focus on the hollow tube waveguides.
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5.1 Waveguide modes

Fig. 5.2 shows an example of rectangular waveguide containing a source, in the form of a small
dipole, connected to the inner conductor of a coaxial cable through a hole in the wide side of the
waveguide. The problem that we want to solve is to compute the fields radiated by this source
in the waveguide. For simplicity, we assume that the walls are perfect conductors and that the
waveguide is filled with a homogeneous dielectric with permittivity ε and permeability µ. The
mathematical formulation of the problem is the same as (2.1), that we repeat here for convenience
z
y
x
Figure 5.2. Waveguide with rectangular cross section. The field in the waveguide is radiated by a
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kind of small dipole, connected to a coaxial cable through a hole in the wide side of the waveguide

 ∇×E
 = −jωµH − M
∇×H = jωεE + J (5.1)


Etg = 0 on the metal
As we already did in Chapter 2, we solve first the problem without sources, in order to find the
possible fields that can exist in the waveguide. They must satisfy
• Maxwell’s equations
• the boundary conditions
that is 
 ∇×E
 = −jωµH
∇×H = jωεE (5.2)


Etg = 0 on the metal
The problem is homogeneous and its solutions are called modes of propagation. When they are
known, we solve the radiation problem by computing the excitation coefficient of each of them due
to the dipole antenna.
The z axis is a symmetry axis of the system: the system is LSz I, i.e. Linear z-invariant. In
other words the coefficients of the equations do not depend on z, hence we expect the solutions
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to depend on z by means of exponentials that we denote by exp(−jkz z). This means that the
solution of (5.2) can be written as
Et (ρ) = V (z)e(ρ)
Ez (ρ) = I(z)Zt ez (ρ)
(5.3)
Ht (ρ) = I(z)h(ρ)
Hz (ρ) = V (z)Yt hz (ρ)
where ρ denotes the transverse plane coordinates: a generic point P has coordinates (ρ, z). The
functions V (z), I(z) are
V (z) = V0+ e−jkz z + V0− ejkz z

(5.4)
I(z) = Yt V0+ e−jkz z − Yt V0− ejkz z
We recognize that the z dependence of the field is indeed in the form of complex exponentials that
represent traveling waves. Moreover the form of these equations is the same as the ones describing
the electrical state of a transmission line. In this case, however, there is no real transmission line
but only an “equivalent” one: the z dependence of each propagation mode can be studied by means
of a modal transmission line with suitable propagation constant kz and characteristic (or modal)
impedance Zt , where the t subscript stands for transverse (to z). Actually, we notice that the
presence of the z symmetry axis makes it convenient to split the fields into transverse (Et , Ht )
and longitudinal components (Ez , Hz ):
E = Et + Ez ẑ
(5.5)
H = Ht + Hz ẑ
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Both the transverse and the longitudinal fields are written in the form of products of normalized
functions of the transverse coordinates, called modal functions, and of functions of z (modal voltage
and current) that can be considered as coefficients.
It is to be remarked that the transverse components play a major role: indeed the power flow
budget is evaluated, as always, by means of the flux of the Poynting’s vector S. Obviously, power
can flow only in the z direction, so that only the z component of S has to be computed: it is easy
to realize that only the transverse field components yield a contribution
Z
1
P = R (Et × H∗t ) · ẑ dΣ
2 Σ
A mode of propagation is characterized by the set of modal functions {e, ez , h, hz } and a

number kt called transverse wavenumber. The modal functions are not independent, however. For
this type of waveguide (PEC walls and transversally homogeneous dielectric) it turns out that the
modes of propagation belong two sets: T E modes, identified by a vanishing longitudinal electric
field, ez (ρ) ≡ 0 over the complete cross section Σ and T M modes, with identically zero longitudinal
magnetic field hz (ρ) ≡ 0. Each family consists of an infinite number of elements, that we label by
an index i.
In particular, T M modes, denoted by a prime have the following characteristics
0
kti
• h0iz (ρ) ≡ 0, e0iz (ρ) = Φi (ρ)
jkzi
∇t Φi (ρ)
• e0 i (ρ) = − 0
kti
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• h0 i (ρ) = ẑ × e0 i (ρ)
0
• kti
T E modes are denoted by a double prime and have the properties

00
kti
• e00iz (ρ) ≡ 0, h00iz (ρ) = Ψi (ρ)
jkzi
∇t Ψi (ρ)
• h00 i (ρ) = − 00
kti
• e00 i (ρ) = h00 i (ρ) × ẑ
00
• kti
When no prime or double prime is used, it is understood that the statement is applicable to both
T M and T E modes.
0
We see that all the T M mode functions are derived from the couple {Φi (ρ), kti } and all T E
00
ones are derived from the couple {Ψi (ρ), kti }, where the generating functions Φi (ρ), Ψi (ρ) are
proportional to the longitudinal field components. The T M generating functions are solutions of
the two-dimensional Dirichlet problem for the Helmholtz equation:
(∇2t + kti
02
)Φi (ρ) = 0
(5.6)
Φi (ργ ) = 0
eigenvalue −kti .
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We recognize the functions Φi (ρ) to be eigenfunctions of the Dirichlet transverse laplacian with
02
Similarly, the T E generating functions are solutions of the two-dimensional Neumann problem
for the Helmholtz equation:
(∇2t + kti
002
)Ψi (ρ) = 0
¯
∂Ψi (ρ) ¯¯ (5.7)
=0
∂ν ¯ ργ
It is interesting to note that the generating functions Φi (ρ) can be interpreted as the oscillation
modes of a drum, i.e. of an elastic membrane with the rim fixed on rigid ring with the same shape
as the waveguide cross section. Analogously, the generating functions Ψi (ρ) can be interpreted
as the oscillation modes of the surface of a liquid in a box with the same cross section as the
waveguide.
If the waveguide cross section is not simply connected, as in the case of the coaxial cable, it can
be shown that T M modes exist with zero transverse wavenumber. Such TM modes are special,
because beyond having hz (ρ) ≡ 0, they have also ez (ρ) ≡ 0, so that they are called T EM modes.
This means that a coaxial cable has a T EM mode and an infinite number of T M and T E modes.
When one describes a coaxial cable as a “transmission line”, only the T EM mode is studied.
Indeed, it is always stated that “a coax can be modeled as a transmission line up to a certain
maximum frequency that depends on the size of the cross section”. Indeed, for higher frequencies,
higher order modes are no longer cut-off and start propagating (see next section).
0 00
The transverse wavenumbers kti , kti are real and positive and form an unbounded sequence.
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It can be shown that the generating functions are orthogonal to each other. Defining the inner
product of two functions by Z
< f,g >= f (ρ)g ∗ (ρ)dΣ (5.8)
Σ
the orthonormality conditions are
< Φi (ρ),Φj (ρ) >= δij
and
< Ψi (ρ),Ψj (ρ) >= δij
where δij is the Kronecker delta. As a consequence, also the vector modal functions are orthonormal
Z
0 0 0 0
< ei ,ej >=< ei ,hj × ẑ >= e0i × h0∗
j · ẑ dΣ = δij
Σ
Z
< e00i ,e00j >=< e00i ,h00j × ẑ >= e00i × h00∗
j · ẑ dΣ = δij
Σ
Z
< e0i ,e00j >=< e0i ,h00j × ẑ >= e0i × h00∗
j · ẑ dΣ = 0
Σ
A direct consequence of these orthonormality properties is that the total power carried by a number
of modes is the sum of the individual powers carried by each mode:
Z
1
P = R (Et × H∗t ) · ẑ dΣ
2 Σ
Z ÃX !  
X X X
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1
= R Vi0 e0i + Vi00 e00i ×  Ij0∗ h0∗
j + Ij00∗ h00∗
j
 dΣ
2 Σ i i j j
1 X 0 0∗
= R (Vi Ii + Vi00 Ii00∗ )
2 i
Notice that this property is absolutely not trivial and does not depend on the linearity of Maxwell’s
equations, since power depends quadratically on the fields. We can view this relation as a statement
of a Pythagora’s theorem in a Hilbert space with an infinite number of dimensions.
In conclusion, propagation modes in a uniform waveguide are completely independent. If
many of them are simultaneously present in a waveguide, each one has a completely autonomous
evolution, also form the energy point of view. As soon as an obstacle or a discontinuity is introduced
in the waveguide, such as a screw, a post, an iris, or a change of cross section, new boundary
conditions must be satisfied on the obstacle and this causes mode coupling.
5.2 Equivalent transmission lines

In this section we focus on the evolution of modes along the waveguide: in other words, we study
the modal voltages and currents. It was said above that each propagation mode is characterized
0 00
by a number of modal functions and a constant kti , kti called transverse wavenumber. This
wavenumber determines the longitudinal evolution of the mode, since it can be shown that the
longitudinal propagation constant kzi is given by
q
kzi = k 2 − kti2 (5.9)
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for both T M and T E modes, where k 2 = ω 2 εµ is the wave number in the medium that fills the
waveguide. Moreover, the modal impedances can be shown to be
0 kzi
Zti = for T M modes
ωε
00 ωµ
Zti = for T E modes
kzi
Depending on the frequency of operation, the evolution of modes can be totally different. Consider
a specific mode i. It is clear from (5.9) that at very high frequency kzi is real, whereas a very low
frequencies it is imaginary. In particular, we define the critical frequency (or cut-off frequency) of
each mode
kti
fci = √ (5.10)
2π εµ
In terms of it, for both T M and T E modes
• if f ≥ fci the mode is above cut-off : kzi and Zti are real
• if f ≤ fci the mode is below cut-off : kzi and Zti are pure imaginary
0 00
At the cut-off frequency, kzi = 0 and Zti = 0 and Zti → ∞.
The mode with the smallest critical frequency is called fundamental mode.
Let fc0i be the critical frequency of mode i in an empty waveguide. As it is clear from the definition,
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the presence of the dielectric makes the critical frequency smaller:
fc0i
fci = √
εr µr
0 z
ĐŽĂǆ
Figure 5.3. Infinitely long waveguide with a source that excites a mode above cut-off
In order to clearly understand the characteristics of the two regimes, suppose that the waveguide
is infinitely long, as shown in Fig. 5.3, so that only the forward wave is excited by the source:
Vi (z) = Vi0+ e−jkzi z

Ii (z) = Yti Vi0+ e−jkzi z
for z ≥ 0
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1. Suppose f > fci . Let us compute the time evolution of this wave.
vi (z,t) = R{Vi (z)ejωt } = |Vi0+ | cos(ωt − kzi z + arg(Vi0+ ))

ii (z,t) = R{Ii (z)ejωt } = Yti |Vi0+ | cos(ωt − kzi z + arg(Vi0+ ))
Since kzi is real, the mode is propagating with phase velocity

√
ω ω c/ εr µr
vph = = s µ ¶2 = s µ ¶2
kzi kti fci
k 1− 1−
k f
where we have used (5.10) and the fact that

ω ω c
= √ =√ =v
k ω εµ εr µr
Note that this last quantity is the phase velocity v of a plane wave in the medium that fills
the waveguide. Note also that if the waveguide is empty, εr = 1 and the phase velocity of the
mode is greater than the speed of light c. However, the theory of relativity is not violated:
indeed, only geometrical points (wave nodes or wave crests) move at the velocity vph and no
mass or energy or information. See the analogous discussion concerning plane waves (2.12).
The previous formula can also be written in a slightly different for in terms of the critical
frequency of the mode in an empty waveguide:
√
c/ εr µr c
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vph = s µ ¶2 = s µ ¶2
fci fc0i
1− εr µr −
f f
We remark that the mode phase velocity depends on frequency, hence propagation in a
waveguide is dispersive. When the field in the waveguide is not monochromatic, the various
frequency components move at different velocity and the signal suffers distortions. If however
the signal is narrow band, as in the case of an amplitude modulated pulse of much longer
duration than the period of the carrier, the distortion manifests itself in the fact that the
envelope appears to travel at a different velocity than the carrier: the former travels at the
group velocity (vg ), the latter at the phase velocity (vph ). The group velocity can be shown
to be given by
1
vg =
d
R{kzi }
dω
Carrying out the derivative, we find
s µ ¶2 s µ ¶2
c fci c fc0i
vg = √ 1− = 1−
εr µr f εr µr f
Note that since the envelope does not changes shape, the difference in velocities is conven-
tionally not considered a real distortion.
It can also be shown that the energy of the mode travels at the group velocity. We see that
the group velocity is always smaller than c and this is very important for the requirements
of the theory of relativity.
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Finally, it is to be remarked that a simple relationship exists between phase and group
velocity:
c2
vg vph =
εr µr
The wavelength on the equivalent transmission line is called guided wavelength and is defined
as
2π λ
λgi = =s µ ¶2
kzi fci
1−
f
where √
2π c/ εr µr λ0
λ= = =√
k f εr µr
is the plane wave wavelength in the dielectric that fills the waveguide and λ0 the corresponding
one in empty space. Obviously λgi > λ. Also this formula can be written in terms of fc0i :
λ λ0
λgi = s µ ¶2 = s µ ¶2
fci fc0i
1− εr µr −
f f
The modal impedance of T E modes is given by

r
µr
Z0
ωµ ωµ εr Z0 µr
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00
Zti = = s µ ¶ =s µ ¶ =s µ ¶2
kzi kti
2
fci
2
fc0i
k 1− 1− εr µr −
k f f
It is useful to recall that r r
µ µr
Z= = Z0
ε εr
is the plane wave impedance in the dielectric that fills the waveguide.
The modal impedance of T M modes is given by
s µ ¶2
kti s s
k 1− r µ ¶2 µ ¶2
0 kzi k µr fci Z 0 fc0i
Zti = = = Z0 1− = εr µr −
ωε ωε εr f εr f
Since the characteristic impedance Zti is real, the wave is characterized by the power flow
1 |Vi0+ |2
P =
2 Zti
2. Suppose f < fci . In this case kzi = −j|kzi | is imaginary. The negative sign of the propagation
constant is related, as always, to our time convention exp(jω0 t) for phasors. The time
evolution of the modal voltage and current wave is
vi (z,t) = R{Vi (z)ejωt } = |Vi0+ |e−|kzi z | cos(ωt + arg(Vi0+ ))

ii (z,t) = R{Ii (z)ejωt } = |Yti ||Vi0+ ||e−|kzi z | cos(ωt + arg(Vi0+ ) ± 90◦ )
84
0 z
ĐŽĂǆ
Figure 5.4. Infinitely long waveguide with a source that excites a mode below cut-off
Also the modal admittance is imaginary, but its sign depends on the polarization: negative
for T E modes and positive for T M . Fig. 5.4 shows clearly that the voltage and current
waves are evanescent. Since the phase of the wave does not depend on z, phase velocity,
group velocity and guided wavelength are not defined. The decay constant, i.e. the length
necessary for the amplitude to reach the level 1/e of the starting value, is
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
1/e
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
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Li
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Figure 5.5. Decay constant of a mode below cut-off
1
Li =
|kzi |
and is shown in Fig. 5.5. We see also that voltage and current are in phase quadrature,
hence no active power flow is associated to a purely forward evanescent wave. The situation
is different when both forward and backward wave are present in the same region, as we will
explain later. Nevertheless, an evanescent wave plays an important role in the energy budget,
since it stores energy. Since the wave does not move, but remains attached to the source, it
does not give rise to any power flow. The wave oscillates in time and exchanges its energy
with the source twice per period.
If we look at the equations derived above, we see that the various modal parameters have two
different frequency behaviors. In particular
s µ ¶2
0
kzi vg Zti fci
= = = 1−
k v Z f
and
λg vph Z 00 1
= = ti = s µ ¶2
λ v Z fci
1−
f
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The symbols λ, v, Z, denote the values of wavelength, phase velocity and wave impedance in the
dielectric that fills the waveguide. The two behaviors are plotted in Fig. 5.6 It is evident that the
1.5
λg/λ=vph/v=Z’’t/Z
kz/k=vg/v=Z’t/Z
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
f/fc
Figure 5.6. Dispersion curves of various parameters of a mode above cut-off. The two vertical dash–
dotted lines indicate the standard operating band of a rectangular waveguide in the fundamental
mode. Note that the first higher order mode goes above cut-off at f /fc = 2.
waveguide is very dispersive close to cut-off. However, it is not possible to use it in the frequency
band where the curves are almost flat, since the guide is not single mode there. Actually, assuming
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that the curves refer to the fundamental mode of a rectangular waveguide, the vertical lines are
the limits of the standard operating range. Indeed, the first higher order mode goes above cut-off
at f /fc = 2.
In general a source excites all the modes of a waveguide, the amount of excitation depending
on the geometry of the source. At a given frequency, a finite number of excited modes are above
cut-off and, by carrying energy away from the source, is responsible for the radiation phenomenon.
The value of the radiation resistance of the dipole is related to them. At the same time, an infinite
number of excited modes are below cut-off: their effect is important only in the neighborhood of
the source, where they describe the reactive field. Moreover, evanescent modes are responsible for
the imaginary part of the input impedance of the dipole.
A waveguide is said to be single mode if at the operation frequency only the fundamental mode
is above cut-off. At microwave frequency, waveguides are essentially always single mode, in order
to avoid interference effects between the various modes above cut-off.
The sources present in the waveguide can be represented in circuit terms by means of voltage
and current generators to be inserted on the modal equivalent lines, as shown in Fig. 5.7. If
the source is described by the distributions J(r), M(r), it can be shown that the corresponding
generators are
vi (z) =< Mt ,hi > + < Jz ,Zti ezi >

(5.11)
ii (z) =< Jt ,ei > + < Mz ,Yti hzi >
The inner products, defined in (5.8), are integrals over the waveguide cross section, hence, the
generators are distributed on the line since their strength is a function of z.
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5.3 Rectangular waveguide

The simplest waveguide to analyze is the one with rectangular cross section, see Fig. 5.8 The cross
section is simply connected, hence the modes of this waveguide are T M and T E but not T EM . As
for T M modes, the solution of (5.6), obtained by the classical method of separation of variables, is
2 ³ mπ ´ ³ nπ ´
Φmn (x,y) = √ sin sin m, n = 1,2,3, . . .
ab a b
r³ ´ ³ ´ (5.12)
0 mπ 2 nπ 2
ktmn = +
a b
This is the generating function of T M modes and is proportional to the longitudinal component of
the electric field ez . We see that the index i used in the previous section to label the mode functions
is actually a double index i ↔ (m, n). Fig. 5.9 and Fig. 5.10 show the plots of two generating
functions that help in understanding the meaning of the integer labels: m is the number of hills
and valleys along the x direction, whereas n refers to the y direction. The contour lines plotted
on the bottom plane serve two purposes: first, they are constant height lines and help in the
comprehension of the 3D plot, second they are the field lines of the transverse magnetic field hmn .
Indeed, according to the equations of Section 5.1, e0 i (ρ) is proportional to the transverse gradient
of Φ(ρ), hence it is orthogonal to the contours. However, h0 i (ρ) is orthogonal to e0 i (ρ), hence it
is tangent to the contour lines. Note that the mode is T M , hence h0zi (ρ) ≡ 0 and h0 i (ρ) is the
total magnetic field. It is no surprise that the contour lines are closed: this is a consequence of the
fact that the magnetic field is solenoidal. The field lines of e0 i (ρ) are not drawn, but can be easily
imagined as the orthogonal trajectories to the contour lines shown. See, however, Fig. 5.13.
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Concerning T E modes, the solution of (5.7) is
r ³ mπ ´ ³ nπ ´
²m ²n
Ψmn (x,y) = cos cos m, n = 0,1,2, . . . but not m = n = 0
ab a b
r³ (5.13)
00 mπ ´2 ³ nπ ´2
ktmn = +
a b
where ²m is the Neumann symbol :
²0 = 1
²m = 2 for m 6= 0
Fig. 5.11 and Fig. 5.12 show the plots of the generating functions of two T E modes. Again, we
see clearly that the indices m, n count the hills and valleys in the x and y directions, respectively.
vi ( z )
н k zi
ii ( z ) Z
ti
Figure 5.7. Distributed generators on the modal transmission line corresponding to mode i,
characterized by propagation constant kzi and characteristic impedance Zti .
87
b
a x
z
Figure 5.8. Rectangular waveguide with sides a, b, a ≥ b.
0.5
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−0.5
3
−1 2
1 x
1
0.5
y 0 0
Figure 5.9. Rectangular waveguide (a = 3, b = 1): generating function Φ11 (x,y) of mode T M11
When one of the labels is zero, the function is constant in the corresponding direction, as in the
case of Fig. 5.11, referring to the fundamental mode. The contour lines are the field lines of e00 i (ρ).
Indeed, h00 i (ρ) is proportional to the gradient of Ψ(ρ) and is then orthogonal to the level lines.
Moreover, e00 i (ρ) is orthogonal to h00 i (ρ), hence tangent to the contour lines. The contours are
closed curves because the transverse electric field (that coincides with the total one, since the mode
is T E) is solenoidal: indeed no charges are present since modes are solutions in absence of sources.
The field lines of h00 i (ρ) are not shown here, but it is easy to imagine them, orthogonal to the level
lines, see also Fig. 5.14.
The mode functions ei (ρ) and hi (ρ) can be obtained by computing the derivatives of the
generating functions, according to the general formulas of the previous section. We limit ourselves
here to write the mode functions of the fundamental mode T E10 :
88
0.5
−0.5
−1
3
−1.5 2
1y x
0.5 1
0 0
Figure 5.10. Rectangular waveguide (a = 3, b = 1): generating function Φ32 (x,y) of mode T M32
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1
0.5
−0.5
3
−1
1 2
x
y 0.5 1
0 0
Figure 5.11. Rectangular waveguide (a = 3, b = 1): generating function Ψ10 (x,y) of mode T E10
r ³ πx ´
00 2
e 10 (x,y)
=− sin ŷ
ab a
r ³ πx ´
2
h00 10 (x,y) = sin x̂ (5.14)
ab a
r ³ πx ´
−j π 2
hz10 (x,y) = cos
kz10 a ab a
89
0.5
−0.5
−1
3
−1.5 2
x
1
y0.5 1
0 0
Figure 5.12. Rectangular waveguide (a = 3, b = 1): generating function Ψ32 (x,y) of mode T E32
Notice that neither the mode functions nor the transverse wavenumbers depend on the dielectric
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that fills the waveguide(provided the dielectric is homogeneous). Fig. 5.13 shows the field lines of
the first T M modes. Note that the in the cross section the electric field lines are orthogonal to
the magnetic ones. Moreover, on the lateral surface, the magnetic field lines are orthogonal to the
field lines of the induced current, according to (1.19). Fig. 5.14 shows, in a similar manner, plots
of the field lines of the first T E modes.
Concerning the transverse wavenumbers, we see that they are given by the same equation for
T M and T E modes: the difference is just in the allowed values of the indices. There is a useful
geometrical representation of transverse wavenumbers that allows to determine graphically the
modes that are below or above cut-off. Looking at the defining equations, one has the idea to
arrange the points representing modes in a regular lattice as shown in Fig. 5.15, which is based
on the use of Pythagora’s theorem. The distance of the representative point of a given mode
from the origin is just its transverse wavenumber. The plane in which the points are drawn is
a spectral plane of spatial frequencies, i.e. wavenumbers, ξ conjugate to x and η conjugate to
y. Now, suppose that we want to find which modes are above cut-off at a given frequency. It is
√
enough to draw a circle with center in the origin and radius equal to k = ω εµ: the modes whose
representative points are inside the circle have real kzi and then are above cutoff.
As explained in the previous section, below cut-off modes are characterized by evanescent fields
that remain attached to their sources and do not provide active power transfer (excluding tunnel
effects to be discussed later). Their importance is lower and lower as the magnitude of their
imaginary propagation constant kzi increases. Then it is useful to arrange modes in order of
increasing kti . Fig. 5.15 shows clearly that the points closest to the origin are those corresponding
to
• T E10 , T E20 , T E01 if b < a/2
90
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Figure 5.13. Field lines of the first T M mode functions. The symbol Emn is equivalent to T Mmn .
1. is the cross-sectional view, 2. the longitudinal view and 3. the (opened) surface view. The
critical wavelengths are also indicated
• T E10 , T E01 , T E20 if b > a/2
Only T E modes need be considered since T M points are not on the coordinate axes. The first mode
91
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Figure 5.14. Field lines of the first T E mode functions. The symbol Hmn is equivalent to T Emn .
1. is the cross-sectional view, 2. the longitudinal view and 3. the (opened) surface view. The
critical wavelengths are also indicated
is T E10 that is then the fundamental mode of the rectangular waveguide. Different waveguides have
different fundamental mode: T E11 for the circular waveguide and T EM for the coaxial cable.
The first higher order mode is different according to the aspect ratio of the cross section. The
92
critical frequencies of these modes in an empty waveguide, computed by (5.10) are

c c c
• fc10 = , fc20 = , fc01 =
2a a 2b
It is clear that the bandwidth over which the guide is single mode is maximum if the mode sequence
is T E10 , T E20 , T E01 ; in this case it equals an octave. If b > a/2 the single mode bandwidth reduces,
down to zero in the case of square waveguides: in this extreme case, the T E10 and T E01 modes
are degenerate, i.e. they have the same critical frequency. Mode degeneracy is a very common
phenomenon in rectangular waveguides, due to their high degree of symmetry.
It was said before that waveguides for microwave applications are almost invariably single mode.
If, on the contrary, the sides are very large with respect to λ, counting the modes above cut-off
can be not straightforward. However, it is not difficult to estimate this number Nabove . Indeed,
the area of the quarter of circle with radius k is πk 2 /4; the density of points is 2 (T E and T M )
for each rectangle with sides π/a × π/b, ignoring that T M modes have labels different from zero.
Then
πk 2 π 2 πk 2 ab (ka)(kb) ab
Nabove = 2 / =2 2
= = 2π
4 ab 4 π 2π λλ
5.3.1 Design of a single mode rectangular waveguide

A typical design problem is that of finding the dimensions of a rectangular waveguide so that it
is single mode over the bandwidth [fmin ,fmax ], with fmax ≤ 2fmin , of course. The specifications
are generally completed by asking that the first higher order mode has an attenuation greater
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than a minimum value αlim over the complete operative band and that the waveguide can carry a
maximum power Plim without dielectric breakdown.
The operating conditions are indicated in Fig. 5.16:
2π η
b × ×• ×• ×• ×•
π
b × ×• ×• ×• ×•
( 3,1)
kt 31
k
(1,0 )× × × ×
ξ
π 2π 3π 4π
a a a a
Figure 5.15. Mode scheme of the rectangular waveguide. The transverse wavenumber
of modes T M32 and T E32 is displayed. At the indicate frequency, only the T E10 mode
(fundamental mode) is above cut-off
93
f
0 f min f max
f c10 f c 20
Figure 5.16. Operating conditions for a single mode waveguide. The grey region between fmin
and fmax is the required single-mode band of operation. The square parentheses denote the
available single-mode band of the waveguide. If a is modified, the position of the parentheses
changes, with the constant ratio fc20 = 2fc10
c
fmin ≥ fc10 =
2a
c
fmax ≤ fc20 =
a
from which we find the range of values of a that satisfy the specification
c c
≤a≤ (5.15)
2fmin fmax
If a is chosen close to amin , the single-mode band of the waveguide, denoted by the square paren-
theses in the figure, shifts to the right. In these conditions, the mode T E20 has the maximum
attenuation over [fmin ,fmax ], but in the first part of this band the propagation is highly disper-
sive, as Fig. 5.6 clearly indicates.
If, on the contrary, a is chosen close to amax , the single-mode band of the waveguide shifts to the
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left. In these conditions, the dispersion effects are minimized, but the attenuation of mode T E20 is
insufficient, in particular for frequencies close to fmax . Actually, there is a specification concerning
this point. Compute the attenuation of mode T E20 :
sµ ¶2
q
2 2
fc20
α20 = kt20 − k = k −1
f
It is minimum at fmax sµ ¶2
2πfmax fc20
α20min = −1
c fmax
By requiring α20min ≥ αlim , we find a constraint on a (contained in fc20 )
c
a≤ sµ ¶2 (5.16)
cαlim
fmax +1
2πfmax
The third specification, that dispersion effects are minimized, forces the ≤ sign to be substituted
by an equal in the previous equation. Assuming that the problem proposed has a solution, i.e.
that this value lies in the range (5.15), the width of the waveguide has been found.
The fourth specification, concerning the power at the breakdown limit, affects only the height b.
The active power flow on the T E10 modal line is
1 |V + |2 1 |Vmax |2 1
P = =
2 Zt10 2 Zt10 S
94
assuming that the modal line is mismatched, the VSWR has the value S, and Vmax is the maximum
voltage along the line.
By recalling (5.14), the maximum value of the electric field is reached at x = a/2, so that
r
2
Emax = Vmax
ab
Substituting in the previous expression, we get
2
1 ab Emax 1
P = (5.17)
2 2 Zt10 S
This is the power in the waveguide for a given value of Emax . Obviously, S = 1 if the line is
matched. If we solve the previous equation with respect to Emax for a given power Plim , we see
that the maximum field is proportional to the modal impedance. Hence, recalling the plot of
Fig. 5.6, we conclude that the condition Emax ≤ R (R denoting the dielectric rigidity) has to be
enforced at f = fmin , where the impedance is maximum. The value of a to be used in the previous
equation is that found by (5.16). Moreover, it is to be remarked that the condition on the power
at the breakdown limit must be consistent with b ≤ a/2, on which the determination of a is based.
Alternatively, we can compute the power at the discharge limit Pdisch by substituting in (5.17)
Emax with the dielectric rigidity of air R = 20 kV/cm. Then Pdisch must be enforced to be greater
than the desired power Plim . Pdisch depends on frequency through Zt10 : the minimum value of
Pdisch is that at f = fmin , where Zt10 is maximum. Hence the condition to be guaranteed is
Pdisch (fmin ) ≥ Plim
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In order to make an example with numerical values, we can consider the WR90 standard rectangular
waveguide for X band, whose data are
• a = 0.9 inches=2.286 cm; b = 0.4 inches=1.016 cm
• fmin = 8.0 GHz, fmax = 12.4 GHz
• αlim = 7.8 dB/cm
• Plim = 201.6 kW, in matched conditions, S = 1.
We can add that the attenuation of the T E20 mode is α = 18.9 dB/cm at f = fmin .
5.3.2 Tunneling effects

It was shown in section 5.2 that the modes below cut-off do not carry active power. Actually,
this is not true if in a waveguide region both a forward and a backward below cut-off mode exist.
This phenomenon is called tunneling because of the analogy with the tunnel effect in quantum
mechanics.
Let us consider a rectangular waveguide filled completely with dielectric apart from the region
√
AB, as shown in Fig.5.17(a). Let fc0 and fcd = fc0 / εr be the critical frequencies of the T E10
95
(a) εr
εr TE10
−
z
A+ −
B+
( b) Z ∞d k zd Z∞0
kz 0
Z ∞d k zd
−
A+ −
B+
Figure 5.17. Tunnel effect in an inhomogeneously filled rectangular waveguide. The mode T E10 is
above cut-off in the dielectric and below cut-off in the air region. (a) Actual structure. (b) Modal
equivalent transmission line circuit
mode in the empty and in the filled waveguide, respectively. Assume that the the frequency f of
the incident mode is
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fcd < f < fc0
so that the mode is above cut-off in the filled waveguide and below in the empty one. The problem
is to compute the field everywhere. First of all, the point to address what happens at the interface
in A. Two are the alternatives: either the interface gives rise to mode coupling or not. The
conditions to be enforced, according to (1.17), are the continuity of the tangential components of
electric and magnetic field across the interface. Since the interface is a plane perpendicular to ẑ,
the tangential components coincide with the transverse ones. Hence, the condition that must hold
is
Et (ρ,zA− ) = Et (ρ,zA+ )
Ht (ρ,zA− ) = Ht (ρ,zA+ )
The field in a waveguide is a superposition of modes of propagation of the type (5.3), then
X X
Vi (zA− )ei (ρ) = Vi (zA+ )ei (ρ)
i i
X X
Ii (zA− )hi (ρ) = Ii (zA+ )hi (ρ)
i i
Eqs.(5.12), (5.13) show that the mode functions do not depend on the material that possibly fills
the waveguide, then the previous equations lead to
Vi (zA− ) = Vi (zA+ )
Ii (zA− ) = Ii (zA+ ) ∀i
96
This equation shows clearly that the dielectric interface does not produce mode coupling: each
mode can be analyzed independently from the others. Notice that if the interface is not planar
or not orthogonal ẑ, it produces mode coupling. This means that even if only the T E10 mode is
incident on it, all the other modes (in general) are excited, with the right amplitudes, so that the
appropriate continuity conditions are satisfied. In this case, since only the T E10 mode is incident,
no other mode is generated and the modal equivalent circuit is the one shown in the lower part of
Fig. 5.17.
The parameters of the modal lines are
s µ ¶2 s µ ¶2
fc0 fc0
kz0 = k0 1 − kzd = k0 εr −
f f
Z0 Z0
Z∞0 = s µ ¶2 Z∞d = s µ ¶2
fc0 fc0
1− εr −
f f
Notice that the mode is below cut-off in the empty waveguide, hence
kz0 = −jα Z∞0 = jX∞0
with α ≥ 0, as required by the usual convention, and X∞0 ≥ 0 because Zt00 = ωµ/kz . If the
incident electric field is known, we can compute the incident voltage in A, VA+− . Next we compute
the reflection coefficient in A− . Start with
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ZB + Z∞d
zB − = = −j
Z∞0 X∞0
z − −1
ΓB − = B with |ΓB − | = 1
zB − + 1
Γ A+ = ΓB − exp(−2jkz0 LAB ) = ΓB − exp(−2αLAB )
The trajectory on the Smith chart of the reflection coefficient when the observation point moves on
a transmission line with imaginary propagation constant is a radial line instead of a circumference.
Hence ΓA+ < 1. Next
1 + Γ A+
zA+ = = rA+ − jxA+
1 − ΓA+
with rA+ > 0 and xA+ > 0 strictly. Compute zA−
Z∞0 X∞0 X∞0 X∞0

zA− = zA+ = (rA+ − jxA+ )j = xA+ + jrA+
Z∞d Z∞d Z∞d Z∞d
Note that the real part of zA− (as well as the imaginary part) is strictly positive, hence the point
ΓA− is strictly inside the unit circle, ΓA− < 1. As a consequence, the active power flowing beyond
the point A is
1 |VA+− |2 ¡ ¢
PA− = 1 − |ΓA− |2 > 0
2 Z∞d
Now, this means that there is an active power flow through the part AB of the waveguide, although
the T E10 mode is below cut-off. The paradox is easily solved if one takes into account that in the
part AB both the forward and the backward waves exist (because of the discontinuity in B). The
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formula to be used for the computation of the active power on a line with imaginary characteristic
impedance Z∞0 = jX∞0 can be shown to be
1 1
P (z) = R{V (z)I ∗ (z)} = Im{V + (z)V −∗ (z)} (5.18)
2 X∞0
We see that although a single evanescent wave does not give rise to any active power flow, the
presence of a forward and a backward one does: one can say that the two evanescent waves
“cooperate” in order to produce the power flow.
It is interesting to examine what happens when the thickness LAB → ∞, so that the structure
contains only the interface in A. From the previous equations we see easily that, in this limit, it
is ΓA+ = 0, so that rA+ = 1, xA+ = 0 and rA− = 0 with the consequence that |ΓA− | = 1 and
PA− = 0. This agrees with (5.18): if the interface in B is absent, the backward wave is identically
zero.
We can see numerical data about this phenomenon in Fig. 5.18, which shows an explanation
of the tunnel effect in terms of phasor diagrams. The waveguide is the standard WR90 guide,
0.4
V+
0.3
V
0.2
0.1
I−
0
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−0.1
V−
−0.2
−0.3
−0.4
−0.5 I+ I
−0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 5.18. Phasor diagram illustration of tunnel effect at the frequency f = 5 GHz.
The vectors represent, in the complex plane, the phasors of voltage and current in a point
halfway between A and B. Note that the phase difference between V and I is less than
π/2, implying an active power flow.
with a = 0.9 in = 2.286 cm and b = 0.4 in = 1.016 cm. The dielectric has a relative permittivity
εr = 4, the thickness of the empty guide is LAB = 2 cm. The critical frequencies of the T E10 mode
are fc0 = 6.56 GHz and fcd = 3.28 GHz and the frequency of the incident wave is f = 5 GHz,
so that the mode is below cut-off in the empty guide. Voltages and currents are evaluated in
a point M halfway between A and B. We see that the forward voltage is in phase quadrature
with the forward current, consistently with the fact that the characteristic impedance is positive
imaginary: indeed, the voltage is leading. Also, the backward voltage is in phase quadrature with
the backward current, but the current leads now. As a result, the total voltage and current are
not in phase quadrature, implying an active power flow. Since the phase difference between V and
I is less than π/2, the power flow is positive. Obviously, this phase difference is the phase of the
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0.2
0.15
V+
0.1
0.05
I−
0
−0.05
−0.1 V
−0.15
−0.2
−0.25
I+ I
V−
−0.3
−0.1 −0.05 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Figure 5.19. Phasor diagram illustration of tunnel effect at the frequency f = 5 GHz.
The vectors represent, in the complex plane, the phasors of voltage and current in B − .
Note that VB − and IB − are in phase.
− +
local impedance in M and the phase difference between VM and VM is the phase of the reflection
coefficient ΓM .
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Fig. 5.19 is a similar plot that refers to the point B − . We notice in this case that the total V and
S11
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2 fcd 4 6 fc0 8 10 12 14 16
frequency (GHz)
Figure 5.20. Tunnel effect in an inhomogeneously filled rectangular waveguide. The vertical dashed
lines denote the critical frequencies in the empty and in the filled waveguide. Plot of the magnitude
of the scattering parameter S11 (f ) vs. frequency
I are even in phase. The reason is that they coincide with VB + and IB + , which are certainly in
99
S21
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
2 fcd 4 6 fc0 8 10 12 14 16
frequency (GHz)
lines denote the critical frequencies in the empty and in the filled waveguide. Plot of the magnitude
of the scattering parameter S21 (f ) vs. frequency
phase because the wave there is purely forward and above cut-off. See also Fig. 5.22 and Fig. 5.23.
The frequency response of the structure is illustrated in Fig. 5.20, and Fig. 5.21, which show
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plots of the scattering parameters S11 and S21 versus frequency at the reference planes A− and
B + . We note first of all that the two curves are complementary: since the structure is lossless, the
scattering matrix is unitary, so that
|S11 (f )|2 + |S21 (f )|2 = 1
As long as fcd < f < fc0 , the T E10 mode is below cut-off in the region AB and the reflection
coefficient is large but not of unit magnitude. Correspondingly, the transmission coefficient S21
is not zero, indicating that a power flow across the region AB exists. Next, as the frequency
is increased, the T E10 mode is everywhere above cut-off. The transmission coefficient increases
steadily up to unit magnitude at a frequency of about 10 GHz, while the reflection coefficient is
zero at the same frequency. We can check that at this frequency the thickness LAB is exactly half
of the guided wavelength. This means that ΓA+ = ΓB − , a complete turn on the Smith chart, and
ZA− = ZB + . The consequence is obviously a zero reflection coefficient.
When the frequency is still increased, the reflection coefficient increases, again reaching a maximum
at the frequency for which LAB = (3/4)λg0 . This behavior continues forever, with S11 = 0 at the
frequencies for which LAB = nλg0 /2 for any integer n and local maxima at the frequencies for
which LAB = (2n + 1)λg0 /4. The local maxima are different but tend to have the same height for
large frequency. This is due to the fact that the modal impedances are functions of frequency but
for large frequency, f À fc10
Z0
Z∞0 → Z0 Z∞0 → √
εr
It is useful to examine the plots of the T E10 modal voltage and current. Fig. 5.22 and Fig. 5.23
refer to a frequency f = 5 GHz, at which the mode is below cut-off in the empty waveguide.
100
Both voltage and current are evanescent between A and B: even if it is not so evident, note that
the curve is a combination of a decaying (the forward wave) and a growing (the backward wave)
exponential. The VSWR to the left of A is very large, because of the high reflection coefficient.
This causes the small minima. The plot is flat to the right of B because the transmission line is
matched and only the forward wave exists there.
If the frequency increases beyond fc0 , the T E10 mode goes above cut-off also in the empty region.
Fig. 5.24 and Fig. 5.25 show the voltage and current plots for f = 9 GHz. The reduction in the
value of S11 shows up in the reduction of the VSWR to the left of A and in the increase of the
transmitted wave to the right of B. It is also evident that the mode is above cut-off in the AB
region since the curve is oscillatory there.
Fig. 5.26 and Fig. 5.27 show the voltage and current plots for f = fr = 9.965 GHz, the frequency
for which the length AB is exactly half of the guided wavelength λg0 . The reflection coefficient in
A is zero, so that the VSWR is zero to the left of A and the plot is flat. Moreover, the magnitude
of the transmission coefficient is one. The empty waveguide behaves as a resonator with resonance
frequency fr , i.e. as band-pass filter, as it is evident from the |S21 | plot in Fig.5.21
The phenomenon that we have described is called tunnel effect because it is similar (and is
described by the same mathematics) to the one of quantum mechanics concerning the transmission
of electrons through potential barriers.
|V(z)|
2
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1.5
0.5
0
−0.04 −0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
A z (m) B
lines denote the interfaces in A and B between the empty and the filled waveguide. Plot of the
magnitude of the T E10 modal voltage vs. z at the frequency f = 5 GHz.
5.3.3 Irises and waveguide discontinuities
Modes in a perfect, uniform waveguide are independent: each of them can exist alone in the
waveguide since it satisfies Maxwell’s equations and all boundary conditions. If an obstacle is
introduced, or a change in the cross section, new boundary conditions arise, which were not taken
into account in the definition of the modes. In general then, all waveguide modes are excited
101
Z∞ d|I(z)|
2
1.5
0.5
0
−0.04 −0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
A z (m) B
magnitude of the T E10 modal current vs. z at the frequency f = 5 GHz. The current is multiplied
by the modal impedance for viewing convenience
|V(z)|
2.5
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2
1.5
0.5
0
−0.02 −0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
A z (m) B
magnitude of the T E10 modal voltage vs. z at the frequency f = 9 GHz
by the discontinuity with suitable coefficients, such that the total electric and magnetic field,
consisting of incident and scattered waves for all the modes, satisfy the new boundary conditions.
As a example, consider an iris in a rectangular waveguide, as shown in Fig. 5.28. Irises are metal
windows, perpendicular to the guide axis. The thickness of irises is often small and can be neglected
102
Z∞ d|I(z)|
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
−0.02 −0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
A z (m) B
magnitude of the T E10 modal current vs. z at the frequency f = 9 GHz. The current is multiplied
by the modal impedance for viewing convenience
|V(z)|
3
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2.5
1.5
0.5
0
−0.02 −0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
A z (m) B
magnitude of the T E10 modal voltage vs. z at the frequency for which S11 = 0.
as a first approximation. Suppose that the fundamental mode T E10 is incident from the left. The
boundary conditions to be satisfied on the iris are that the tangential electric field is zero on the
metal parts of the iris and different from zero on the aperture. In this case the tangential field
is the transverse field. If we recall the electric field distribution of T E10 , shown in Fig. 5.14, we
103
Z∞ d|I(z)|
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
−0.02 −0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
A z (m) B
magnitude of the T E10 modal current vs. z at the frequency for which S11 = 0. The current is
multiplied by the modal impedance for viewing convenience
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z
x
kz 0 , Z∞ 0 jB TE10 ŵŽĚĂůůŝŶĞ
A
Figure 5.28. Example of an iris in a rectangular waveguide. Upper left: longitu-

dinal view. Upper right: cross section view. Lower left: equivalent circuit for the
fundamental mode (B > 0, capacitive iris).
realize that it is impossible to satisfy these boundary conditions with just the incident reflected
and transmitted waves of this mode. Indeed, if the total Ey field must be zero on the the metal,
certainly Eyr = −Eyi , that is the reflection coefficient must be Γ = −1. But the modal fields do not
depend on y (the second subscript is n = 0), hence the total Ey field is zero also on the aperture
and the transmitted field should be zero. This would imply that the iris behaves as a short circuit
plate and this is contrary to experimental evidence: indeed, although the reflection coefficient can
be high when the aperture is small, power is always transmitted through the hole. In conclusion,
the behavior is more complicated and an infinite number of higher order modes are excited in order
to satisfy the boundary conditions. In this way the reflected wave of T E10 need not be opposite
to the incident wave and the reflection coefficient is smaller than one.
104
If the iris thickness is negligible, its fundamental mode equivalent circuit is an admittance con-
nected in parallel on the T E10 modal line. Indeed, the transverse electric field must be continuous
on the complete cross section: equal to zero on the metal and different from zero (but continuous)
on the aperture. Hence the modal voltage is continuous, V (A− ) = V (A+ ), and the equivalent cir-
cuit is a load in parallel. Note that this load takes into account only the effect the iris has on higher
order modes. Indeed, this load is connected on the T E10 modal line and the iris effects on the
propagation of this mode are taken into account directly by transmission line theory. Generally the
waveguide is operated in single mode conditions, so that all higher order modes are below cut-off.
As well known, they do not contribute active power propagation but store electromagnetic energy.
The admittance that represents the iris on the T E10 modal line must describe this behavior, hence
it is a pure susceptance jB.
As an example of this procedure, we compute the scattering matrix of the iris for the fundamental
mode, assuming that the susceptance B is known. Assume that the reference planes are in A−
and in A+ and the reference impedances at both ports coincide with the modal impedance. Let
b = BZ∞0 be the normalized susceptance (not to be confused with the small side of the waveg-
uide!!). To compute S11 and S21 , close port 2 on the reference impedance and compute reflection
and transmission coefficients. They are
YA− = jB + Y∞0
yA− = jb + 1
yA− − 1 −jb
S11 = ΓA− = − =
yA− + 1 2 + jb
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−jb 2
S21 = 1 + ΓA− = 1 + =
2 + jb 2 + jb
Then S12 = S21 because of reciprocity and S22 = S11 because of the symmetry of the structure.
The problem is the determination of the susceptance, which is a difficult one and requires the solu-
tion of an integral equation. Fig. 5.29 shows plots of the normalized susceptance of a symmetrical
iris. It can be shown that when the edges are perpendicular to the electric field lines, B > 0 and
the iris is said to be capacitive. Two sets of curves are shown for better reading accuracy: the
right set uses the vertical axis on the left and is to be used for large apertures (d/b ' 1), the left
one uses the axis on the right that measures essentially the inverse of the normalized susceptance.
Note that when the aperture is small, it resembles a short circuit, so the susceptance is large. If
the edges of the iris are parallel to the electric field lines, the iris is said to be inductive, because
its susceptance is negative, B < 0. Fig. 5.30 shows the normalized reactance of a symmetrical
inductive iris. Again, if the aperture is small, the reactance is small, i.e. the susceptance is large
as that of a short circuit.
It is interesting to compare the susceptance values of a capacitive and an inductive iris with the
same aperture: the former is much smaller than the latter. As a numerical example, consider a
WR90 (a = 2.286 cm, b = 1.016 cm) waveguide at f = 12 GHz. An inductive iris with an aperture
of d = 0.3 cm has a normalized susceptance B/Y∞ ' −32, whereas a capacitive iris with the same
aperture has a susceptance B/Y∞ ' 1.16.
Alternatively, consider a capacitive iris with a very small aperture, d = 0.5 mm, which has a suscep-
tance B/Y∞ = 4.3. An inductive iris with B/Y∞ = −4.3 has a much wider aperture, d = 0.68 cm.
Such a susceptance produces
|S11 | = 0.9067 |S21 | = 0.4217
105
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Figure 5.29. Normalized susceptance of a symmetrical capacitive iris. λg is the guided

wavelength and Y0 is the modal admittance.
A possible explanation of this phenomenon is related to the induced currents on the iris plates,
which are parallel to the electric field since they are perpendicular to H (see (1.19)), which in
turn is perpendicular to E. These induced currents radiate the scattered field but are disturbed
106
smartworlD.asia Ě Ă
Figure 5.30. Normalized reactance of a symmetrical inductive iris. λg is the guided wave-
length and Z0 is the modal impedance. The curves are parametrized by a/λ where λ = c/f
is the free space wavelength.
(interrupted) by the aperture in the case of capacitive iris so that their effect is small. In the case
of inductive iris they are not interrupted and are then very efficient.
107
Irises are reactive circuit elements and can be used to build matching devices: in practice, they
substitute stubs in waveguide technology. Moreover they can be used to build filters. A simple
example consists of two irises separated by a distance of about λg /2. They form a cavity, coupled
to the waveguide by means of the apertures: For the center frequency the structure is transparent,
otherwise it is highly reflecting, so that it behaves as a bandpass filter. Cavities are the equivalent
of LC resonators in waveguide technology.
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Appendix A
Mathematical Basics
A.1 Coordinate systems and algebra of vector fields

The position of a point in space is specified by means of a coordinate system, that is a one to
one correspondence between points in space and triples of real numbers. The most common are
cartesian, cylindrical and spherical ones. It is to be remarked that all coordinate systems are
equivalent: a specific one is chosen according to the geometry of the problem at hand. If the
domain has a symmetry, it is convenient that the coordinate system has the same symmetry. For
example, to describe the position of points on the surface of the Earth, a spherical system is more
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convenient than a cartesian one. To describe the magnetic field created by a straight wire carrying
an electric current, a cylindrical system is better suited than a cartesian one. To describe the
position of objects in a room, a cartesian system is more appropriate than a spherical one. Fig.
A.1 shows the main characteristics of the cylindrical reference system. Fig. A.2 describes the
spherical reference system.
The relationship between cylindrical (ρ, ϕ, z) and cartesian coordinates is
x = ρ cos ϕ
(A.1)
y = ρ sin ϕ
and that between spherical (r, ϑ, ϕ) and cartesian coordinates is
x = r sin ϑ cos ϕ
y = r sin ϑ sin ϕ (A.2)
z = r cos ϑ
Every coordinate system has a set of three fundamental unit vectors, that will be denoted by
carets. The expressions of the cylindrical unit vectors in the cartesian basis are
ρ̂ = cos ϕx̂ + sin ϕŷ

(A.3)
ϕ̂ = − sin ϕx̂ + cos ϕŷ
Clearly the unit vectors are different in each point. The origin is a singular point of the system
of coordinates, since the unit vectors are not defined there. The corresponding expressions for the
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Figure A.1. Cylindrical coordinate reference system. (a) The three mutually perpendicular sur-
faces defining the position of a point. (b) The three unit vectors in the point P ; in the text ρ̂, ϕ̂, ẑ
are used in place of aρ , aφ , az . (c) The elementary volume dV at P : the sides are dρ, ρdφ, dz.
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Figure A.2. Spherical coordinate reference system. (a) Definition of the spherical coordinates.
(b) The three mutually perpendicular surfaces defining the position of a point. (c) The three unit
vectors in the point P ; in the text r̂, ϑ̂, ϕ̂ are used in place of ar , aθ , aφ . (d ) The elementary
volume dV at P : the sides are dr, rdϑ, r sin ϑdϕ.
spherical system are

r̂ = sin ϑ cos ϕx̂ + sin ϑ sin ϕŷ + cos ϑẑ
ϑ̂ = cos ϑ cos ϕx̂ + cos ϑ sin ϕŷ − sin ϑẑ (A.4)
ϕ̂ = − sin ϕx̂ + cos ϕŷ
and again in each point the basis of the unit vectors is different. As in the previous case, the
origin is a singular point. The cartesian system is different in this respect: indeed, the basis of
unit vectors is the same in each point, x̂,ŷ,ẑ. Moreover, no point is singular.
Suppose that a certain vector field E(r) is given in a certain region of space. This means that
in every point r the vector E(r) is defined: we can imagine it as an arrow with the tail in the point
r. This is the abstract picture (coordinate-free). According to the system of coordinates, in the
point r a basis of unit vectors is defined and three numbers are associated to the vector, i.e. its
components:
E(r) = Ex x̂ + Ey ŷ + Ez ẑ = Eρ ρ̂ + Eϕ ϕ̂ + Ez ẑ = Er r̂ + Eϑ ϑ̂ + Eϕ ϕ̂ (A.5)
Components can also be arranged in a 3 × 1 matrix (column vector) so that the previous equations
can also be written as
     
Ex Eρ Er
E(r) ↔  Ey  E(r) ↔  Eϕ  E(r) ↔  Eϑ  (A.6)
Ez Ez Eϕ
Eq.(A.5) can be conveniently written as
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     
¡ ¢ Ex ¡ ¢ Eρ ¡ ¢ Er
E(r) = x̂ ŷ ẑ  Ey  = ρ̂ ϕ̂ ẑ  Eϕ  = r̂ ϑ̂ ϕ̂  Eϑ  (A.7)
Ez Ez Eϕ
Notice that the row vector contains the unit vectors instead of numbers.
Also eq.(A.3) can be written in matrix form
 
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0
ρ̂ ϕ̂ ẑ = x̂ ŷ ẑ  sin ϕ cos ϕ 0  (A.8)
0 0 1
As for the spherical system
 
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ sin ϑ cos ϕ cos ϑ cos ϕ − sin ϕ
r̂ ϑ̂ ϕ̂ = x̂ ŷ ẑ  sin ϑ sin ϕ cos ϑ sin ϕ cos ϕ  (A.9)
cos ϑ − sin ϑ 0
In this way it is a simple matter to find the relationship between cylindrical and cartesian compo-
nents of a vector. From (A.7) and (A.8)
   
¡ ¢ Ex ¡ ¢ Eρ
E(r) = x̂ ŷ ẑ  Ey  = ρ̂ ϕ̂ ẑ  Eϕ 
Ez Ez
   (A.10)
¡ ¢ cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0 Eρ
= x̂ ŷ ẑ  sin ϕ cos ϕ 0   Eϕ 
0 0 1 Ez
from which we get, on comparing the second and the fourth term of this chain of equalities
   
Ex Eρ
 Ey  = P  Eϕ 
CaCy
Ez Ez
where the change of basis matrix is
 
cos ϕ − sin ϕ 0
P CaCy =  sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 
0 0 1
The inverse transformation is    
Eρ Ex
 Eϕ  = P  Ey 
CyCa
Ez Ez
where  
cos ϕ sin ϕ 0
P CyCa = P −1
CaCy
= P TCaCy =  − sin ϕ cos ϕ 0 
0 0 1
Since both the cartesian and the cylindrical basis are orthonormal, the change of basis matrix is
unitary, hence the inverse of it coincides with its transpose.
The transformation of the components of a vector between the spherical and cartesian bases is
obtained analogously. From (A.7) and (A.9)
   
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¡ ¢ Ex ¡ ¢ Er
E(r) = x̂ ŷ ẑ  Ey  = r̂ ϑ̂ ϕ̂  Eϑ 
Ez Eϕ
   (A.11)
¡ ¢ sin ϑ cos ϕ cos ϑ cos ϕ − sin ϕ Er
= x̂ ŷ ẑ  sin ϑ sin ϕ cos ϑ sin ϕ cos ϕ   Eϑ 
cos ϑ − sin ϑ 0 Eϕ
from which we get, on comparing the second and the fourth term of this chain of equalities
   
Ex Er
 Ey  = P  Eϑ 
CaS
Ez Eϕ
where the change of basis matrix is
 
sin ϑ cos ϕ cos ϑ cos ϕ − sin ϕ
P CaS =  sin ϑ sin ϕ cos ϑ sin ϕ cos ϕ 
cos ϑ − sin ϑ 0
The inverse transformation is    
Er Ex
 Eϑ  = P  Ey 
SCa
Eϕ Ez
where  
sin ϑ cos ϕ sin ϑ sin ϕ cos ϑ
P SCa = P −1
CaS
= P TCaS =  cos ϑ cos ϕ cos ϑ sin ϕ − sin ϑ  (A.12)
− sin ϕ cos ϕ 0
Vectors can be multiplied by a scalar, i.e. a number: the result is a vector with the same direction.
Two vectors can be multiplied in two ways. The scalar product of two arbitrary vectors is a scalar,
the vector product is a vector. In the former case
A · B = |A||B| cos α
(A.13)
= Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz = Aρ Bρ + Aϕ Bϕ + Az Bz = Ar Br + Aϑ Bϑ + Aϕ Bϕ
where ϑ is the angle between the two vectors. The scalar product of orthogonal vectors is obviously
zero. The first definition is coordinate-free. The other expressions are so simple because the bases
are orthonormal. In matrix form
 
¡ ¢ Bx
A · B = Ax Ay Az  By 
Bz
Indeed, recalling (A.7)

   
¡ ¢ x̂ ¡ ¢ Bx
A·B= Ax Ay Az  ŷ  · x̂ ŷ ẑ  By 
ẑ Bz
   (A.14)
¡ ¢ x̂ · x̂ x̂ · ŷ x̂ · ẑ Bx
= Ax Ay Az  ŷ · x̂ ŷ · ŷ ŷ · ẑ   By 
ẑ · x̂ ẑ · ŷ ẑ · ẑ Bz
and the central 3 × 3 matrix is the identity matrix since the cartesian basis is orthonormal.
A ∧ B) : smartworlD.asia
Two vectors can also be multiplied so that the result is a vector A × B (or, more appropriately,
|A × B| = |A||B| sin α (A.15)

and the direction is orthogonal to the plane on which the two vectors lie and points in the direction
of the “right-hand-rule”. The vector product of parallel vectors is obviously zero. The magnitude
of the vector product has the geometrical meaning of surface of the parallelogram with sides A and
B. The easiest way to introduce it is by specifying the vector products of unit basis vectors:
     
x̂ ¡ ¢ x̂ × x̂ x̂ × ŷ x̂ × ẑ 0 ẑ −ŷ
 ŷ  × x̂ ŷ ẑ =  ŷ × x̂ ŷ × ŷ ŷ × ẑ  =  −ẑ 0 x̂  (A.16)
ẑ ẑ × x̂ ẑ × ŷ ẑ × ẑ ŷ −x̂ 0
from which we see very clearly that the vector product is anticommutative. Recalling (A.7) again
   
¡ ¢ x̂ ¡ ¢ Bx
A × B = Ax Ay Az  ŷ  × x̂ ŷ ẑ  By 
ẑ Bz
   
¡ ¢ 0 ẑ −ŷ Bx
= Ax Ay Az  −ẑ 0 x̂   By  (A.17)
ŷ −x̂ 0 Bz
 
x̂ ŷ ẑ
= det  Ax Ay Az 
Bz By Bz
The last expression is the traditional one (although only mnemonic!), where the determinant must
be expanded using the elements of the first line.
Similar expressions hold for the cylindrical and spherical coordinates. In particular, for the
cylindrical system
     
ρ̂ ¡ ¢ ρ̂ × ρ̂ ρ̂ × ϕ̂ ρ̂ × ẑ 0 ẑ −ϕ̂
 ϕ̂  × ρ̂ ϕ̂ ẑ =  ϕ̂ × ρ̂ ϕ̂ × ϕ̂ ϕ̂ × ẑ  =  −ẑ 0 ρ̂  (A.18)
ẑ ẑ × ρ̂ ẑ × ϕ̂ ẑ × ẑ ϕ̂ −ρ̂ 0
and for the spherical one
     
r̂ ¡ ¢ r̂ × r̂ r̂ × ϑ̂ r̂ × ϕ̂ 0 ϕ̂ −ϑ̂
 ϑ̂  × r̂ ϑ̂ ϕ̂ =  ϑ̂ × r̂ ϑ̂ × ϑ̂ ϑ̂ × ϕ̂  =  −ϕ̂ 0 r̂  (A.19)
ẑ ϕ̂ × r̂ ϕ̂ × ϑ̂ ϕ̂ × ϕ̂ ϑ̂ −r̂ 0
These definitions can be easily remembered by the method of Fig. A.3 A useful identity to know
Figure A.3. Correct order of unit vectors
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is the one that allows to expand a double vector product
A × (B × C) = (A · C) B − (A · B) C
Vector and scalar product can be combined in the mixed product A · (B × C). This number is
the volume of the (skewed) parallelepiped with edges defined by A, B and C; it is clearly zero if
the three vectors lie in the same plane.
An important concept associated to vector fields is that of field line. A field line is a line such
that its tangent at any point r is parallel to the vector field E(r) in that point. They are useful
tools for visualizing vector fields. If the vector field is regular, for each point only a field line passes.
Sometimes in a region two vector fields are given and there is functional dependence of one
on the other. The simplest relationship that can exist is a linear one, so that the principle of
superposition holds. An example in electromagnetism is the relationship existing between the
electric field and the electric induction in a dielectric. Or the one between an electric current and
the electric and magnetic fields it produces. Referring to the former example, we can write in
abstract form
D = L{E}
However just as in the case of vectors, it is generally useful to introduce a basis to carry out
computations. Using a cartesian basis, the previous equation becomes, because of linearity
D = Dx x̂ + Dy ŷ + Dz ẑ = Ex L{x̂} + Ey L{ŷ} + Ez L{ẑ}
In matrix form    
Dx ¡ ¢ Ex
 Dy  = L{x̂} L{ŷ} L{ẑ}  Ey 
Dz Ez
Now L{x̂} is a (abstract) vector with three components along the three axes that can be collected
in a column vector. The same can be done for the other two elements so that a 3 × 3 matrix arises
and the previous equation can be written, with a more physical notation
    
Dx εxx εxy εxz Ex
 Dy  =  εyx εyy εyz   Ey  (A.20)
Dz εzx εzy εzz Ez
where      
εxx εxy εxz
L{x̂} =  εyx  L{ŷ} =  εyy  L{ẑ} =  εyz 
εzx εzy εzz
The row index denotes the component, the column index the unit vector. The matrix ε represents
the abstract linear operator L in the cartesian basis:
 
εxx εxy εxz
L ↔  εyx εyy εyz  = ε
εzx εzy εzz
and eq.(A.20) can be rephrased as
D = εE
Following in the reverse direction the steps leading from (A.5) to (A.6), this equation can be written
L = εxx x̂x̂ + εxy x̂ŷ + εxz x̂ẑ + εyx ŷx̂ + εyy ŷŷ + εyz ŷẑ + εzx ẑx̂ + εzy ẑŷ + εzz ẑẑ (A.21)
Symbols such as x̂ŷ are called (unit) dyads and play just the role of placeholders to denote a
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specific row and column. However, it is simple to give rules to operate with scalar products on
dyads so as to reproduce the results that could be obtained by the matrix formalism. The rules
are the following
def
E · x̂ŷ = (E · x̂) ŷ = Ex ŷ
(A.22)
def
x̂ŷ · E = x̂ (ŷ · E) = Ey x̂
Eq.(A.21) is called the dyadic form of the linear operator L.
A dyad must not necessarily be formed by two unit vectors. If A, B are arbitrary vectors, we
form the dyad AB with the rule of operation
def
E · AB = (E · A) B
(A.23)
def
AB · E = A (B · E)
If we want to obtain the matrix that represents the abstract operator L = AB in the cartesian
basis, we can use a distributive law of the “side-by-side-placement” of two vectors
L = AB = (Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ) (Bx x̂ + By ŷ + Bz ẑ)
(A.24)
= Ax Bx x̂x̂ + Ax By x̂ŷ + Ax Bz x̂ẑ + Ay Bx ŷx̂ + . . . + Az Bz ẑẑ
The matrix form can be obtained immediately
   
Ax Bx Ax By Ax Bz Ax ¡ ¢
L ↔  Ay Bx Ay By Ay Bz  =  Ay  Bx By Bz
Az Bx Az By Az Bz Az
It is possible to introduce the vector product of dyads and vectors: it is just enough to extend
(A.23):
def
E × AB = (E × A) B
(A.25)
def
AB × E = A (B × E)
Useful linear operators are
• the identity I, such that

I·A=A·I=A
for any vector A. Its dyadic and matrix form in cartesian coordinates are
 
1 0 0
I = x̂x̂ + ŷŷ + ẑẑ ↔  0 1 0 
0 0 1
in cylindrical  
1 0 0
I = ρ̂ρ̂ + ϕ̂ϕ̂ + ẑẑ ↔  0 1 0 
0 0 1
and in spherical  
1 0 0
I = r̂r̂ + ϑ̂ϑ̂ + ϕ̂ϕ̂ ↔  0 1 0 
0 0 1
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• the identity transverse to ẑ, i.e. the projection operator onto the x,y plane, such that
Itz · A = A − Az ẑ
 
1 0 0
Itz = x̂x̂ + ŷŷ ↔  0 1 0 
0 0 0
• the identity transverse to r̂, i.e. the projection operator onto the tangent plane to the sphere
r =const., such that Itr · A = A − Ar r̂
 
0 0 0
Itr = ϑ̂ϑ̂ + ϕ̂ϕ̂ ↔  0 1 0 
0 0 1
Consider again the vector product of two vectors A × B = C. Since the vector C depends linearly
on B, we can say that it is the result of the application of a linear operator on B. This operator
can be found by recalling the second line of (A.17)
  
¡ ¢ 0 ẑ −ŷ Bx
A × B = Ax Ay Az  −ẑ 0 x̂   By 
ŷ −x̂ 0 Bz
  
¡ ¢ 0 −Az Ay Bx
= −Ay ẑ + Az ŷ Ax ẑ − Az x̂ −Ax ŷ + Ay x̂ =  Az 0 −Ax   By 
−Ay Ax 0 Bz
(A.26)
10
First we have carried out the multiplication of the row vector times the (formal) matrix, obtaining
a row vector whose elements are abstract vectors. Their components can be interpreted as columns
of the successive matrix. Alternatively,
A×B=A×I·B
so that the matrix we are looking for is the one representing A × I, i.e.
A × I = (A × x̂) x̂ + (A × ŷ) ŷ + (A × ẑ) ẑ
Then
(A × x̂) = (Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ) × x̂ = −Ay ẑ + Az ŷ
(A × ŷ) = (Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ) × x̂ = Ax ẑ − Az x̂ (A.27)
(A × ẑ) = (Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ) × ẑ = −Ax ŷ + Ay x̂
Substituting in the previous equation we get
A × I = (−Ay ẑ + Az ŷ)x̂ + (Ax ẑ − Az x̂)ŷ + (−Ax ŷ + Ay x̂)ẑ

= −Ay ẑx̂ + Az ŷx̂ + Ax ẑŷ − Az x̂ŷ − Ax ŷẑ + Ay x̂ẑ
In conclusion  
0 −Az Ay
A × I ↔  Az 0 −Ax 
−Ay Ax 0
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As a direct application of this result, we consider another useful operator to be added to the
previous list. It is r̂ × I = r̂ × Itr :
 
0 0 0
r̂ × I ↔  0 0 −1  ↔ ϕ̂ϑ̂ − ϑ̂ϕ̂
0 1 0
where we have used the spherical basis and clearly r̂ ↔ (1 0 0)T in this basis.
A.2 Calculus of vector fields

In this section we review the basic concepts of calculus, i.e. derivatives and integrals, applied to
vector fields. Let us start with a scalar field h(x,y), where h is a smooth function of only two
variables for simplicity. The partial derivatives
∂h ∂h
∂x ∂y
evaluated in the point P ↔ (x0 ,y0 ) have the meaning of local rate of change of h for small
increments of the coordinates dx, dy in the x, y directions around point P , respectively. A quantity
of interest is the directional derivative of h in the direction ŝ, which has the meaning of local rate
of change of h for small displacements in the ŝ direction. According to the chain rule,
∂h ∂h dx ∂h dy
= +
∂s ∂x ds ∂y ds
11
sy ŝ
dy ds α
dx
sx x
Figure A.4. Direction along which the directional derivative is computed
With reference to Fig. A.4, we find
dx dy
= cos α = sx = sin α = sy
ds ds
so that
∂h ∂h ∂h
= sx + sy
∂s ∂x ∂y
This formula can be considered as a scalar product of the vector
∂h ∂h
gradh = ∇h = x̂ + ŷ
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∂x ∂y
called gradient of h, times the unit vector ŝ. The gradient of a scalar function is a vector field.
The magnitude of the gradient is the maximum rate of change of h when the direction ŝ is allowed
to vary. The direction in which his happens is the direction of the gradient. If h is the height
of the ground above the sea level, so that h(x,y) can be interpreted as the local height of a hill,
the direction of the gradient is that of the steepest slope. Note, however, that the gradient is a
vector belonging to the x, y plane and it is not tangent to the surface. When ŝ is orthogonal to the
gradient, the directional derivative is zero: in that direction h is not changing, hence the gradient
is always orthogonal to contour lines (lines on which h= const). Fig. A.5 shows an example of
a scalar field h(x,y). Fig. A.6 shows a contour plot of the same function with the vector field
gradh, computed numerically by finite differences. Note that the gradient is zero in the extrema
of the graph of h, i.e. maxima, minima and saddle points. Also, the arrows are orthogonal to the
contours.
If the scalar field h(x,y,z) depends on the three space coordinates, the gradient gradh is defined
as
∂h ∂h ∂h
gradh = ∇h = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (A.28)
∂x ∂y ∂z
If the scalar field is given in a non cartesian system of coordinates the expression of the gradient
are more complicated, essentially because the unit vectors are not constant. It can be proved that
• in cylindrical coordinates
∂h 1 ∂h ∂h
gradh(ρ,ϕ,z) = ∇h = ρ̂ + ϕ̂ + ẑ (A.29)
∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
12
z=h(x,y)
10
−2
−4
−6
−8 z
3 y x
2
3
1 2
0 1
−1 0
−1
−2 −2
−3 −3
Figure A.5. Scalar field z = h(x,y)
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2
1.5
grad h(x,y) and contours
0.5
0
y
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−2
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x
Figure A.6. Contours of z = h(x,y) and vector field gradh(x,y)
13
Figure A.7. Closed surface Σ for the definition of the flux of a vector field.
• in spherical coordinates
∂h 1 ∂h 1 ∂h
gradh(r,ϑ,ϕ) = ∇h = r̂ + ϑ̂ + ϕ̂ (A.30)
∂r r ∂ϑ r sin ϑ ∂ϕ
We turn now to a vector field A(r) and define its flux across a surface, which may be either open
or closed. Fig. A.7 shows a closed surface Σ enclosing the volume V , with the outward normal
unit vector ν̂. The outward flux of A through Σ is defined by the scalar
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I
ΦΣ (A) = A · ν̂dΣ
Σ
Recalling Gauss Theorem Z I

∇ · AdV = A · ν̂dΣ (A.31)
V Σ
we can interpret this equation as defining an “average divergence”

Z I
1 1
average{∇ · A} = ∇ · AdV = A · ν̂dΣ
V V V Σ
In the limit of the volume reducing to a point we obtain the divergence as flux per unit volume
across a small closed surface surrounding the point. It can be shown that the explicit expressions
for the divergence of a vector field are
• in cartesian coordinates
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
div A = ∇ · A = + + (A.32)
∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ ∂Az
div A = ∇ · A = (ρAρ ) + + (A.33)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ ∂z
14
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Aϕ
div A = ∇ · A = (r Ar ) + (sin ϑAϑ ) + (A.34)
r2 ∂r r sin ϑ ∂ϑ r sin ϑ ∂ϕ
In conclusion, the divergence of a vector field is a particular combination of derivatives of the field
components, whose meaning is clarified by Gauss theorem. Consider a flow of charges across a
closed surface so that A = J = ρv where v is the velocity field and ρ the volume charge density.
The units of J are A/m2 , hence it is a current density. The flux ΦΣ (J) has the units of A and
it yields the amount of charge coming out every second from the total volume V , i.e. the total
current. The source of this outflow is the divergence of J, which tells us how much charge per
unit volume is coming out every second from each point of V . The flux of J provides a global
information, the divergence of J a local one.
Finally it is useful to write Gauss theorem (A.31) for the one dimensional domain [a,b], with
boundary consisting of the points x = a (with outward normal −x̂) and x = b (with outward
normal x̂)
Z b
∂Ax
dx = Ax (b) − Ax (a)
a ∂x
Clearly, this is just the fundamental formula of integral calculus.
Another type of integral that we can form with a vector field is a line integral
Z
A · τ̂ ds
Γ
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where the curve Γ may be either open or closed. Assume it is closed, so that the integral is called
the circulation of A. Stokes theorem states that
Z I
∇ × A · ν̂dΣo = A · τ̂ ds (A.35)
Σo Γ
where Σo is an open surface with Γ as boundary; the orientation of the tangent vector τ̂ is related
Figure A.8. Geometry for the application of Stokes theorem
to that of ν̂ by the right-hand-rule, as shown in Fig. A.8. For the purpose of the definition, it
is convenient to limit the generality of the theorem and consider a planar curve Γ so that Σo can
15
be taken as the part of plane inside Γ, with constant normal vector ν̂. This equation allows us to
define the ν̂ component of an “average curl ”
Z I
1 1
average{∇ × A} · ν̂ = ∇ × A · ν̂dΣo = A · τ̂ ds
Σo Σo Σo Γ
Obviously, by choosing three loops with linearly independent normals we can define completely
the “total amount of rotation” or average curl. By letting the size of the loops go to zero, we can
define the curl in a point as circulation per unit area in the neighborhood of a single point. By
carrying out this prescription in different systems of coordinates, it can be proved that the explicit
expressions of the curl of a vector field are
• in cartesian coordinates
curl A = ∇ × A =
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax ∂Az ∂Ay ∂Ax (A.36)
− x̂ + − ŷ + − ẑ
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
curl A = ∇ × A =
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
1 ∂Az ∂Aϕ ∂Aρ ∂Az 1 ∂ 1 ∂Aρ (A.37)
− ρ̂ + − ϕ̂ + (ρAϕ ) − ẑ
ρ ∂ϕ ∂z ∂z ∂ρ ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂ϕ
curl A = ∇ × A =
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µ ¶ µ ¶
1 ∂ ∂Aϑ 1 1 ∂Ar ∂
(Aϕ sin ϑ) − r̂ + − (rAϕ ) ϑ̂+
r sin ϑ ∂ϑ ∂ϕ r sin ϑ ∂ϕ ∂r (A.38)
µ ¶
1 ∂ ∂Ar
(rAϑ ) − ϕ̂
r ∂r ∂ϑ
If we examine the expressions of gradient, divergence and curl in cartesian coordinates we can
identify a kind of formal vector ∇ defined by
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (A.39)
∂x ∂y ∂z
such that the various differential operators can be imagined to be formed by means of standard
product, scalar product and vector product of ∇ times a scalar field or a vector field. It is to
be remarked that such an interpretation (due to the American physicist W. Gibbs 1839-1903) is
possible only in cartesian coordinates. Hence, for instance in spherical coordinates, even if the
curl of A is written usually as ∇ × A, this expression has to be taken as a single symbol (whose
meaning is given by (A.2)) and not interpreted as the product of two factors.
First order differential operators can combined to form second order operators.
• The gradient of a scalar field is a vector, so that we can compute the curl and divergence of
it. However
∇ × ∇h = 0
identically for any smooth h(r). To remember the property, we can note that the vector
product of two equal vectors is zero.
16
• The divergence of a gradient produces the Laplace operator or laplacian
∇ · ∇h = ∇2 h = 4h
We recall only the expression of the laplacian in cartesian coordinates
∂2h ∂2h ∂2h

∇2 h = + 2 + 2
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
• The divergence of a vector field A(r) is a scalar, hence its gradient can be computed
∇(∇ · A)
• The curl of a vector field A(r) is a vector, hence its divergence and curl can be computed.
However
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0
identically for any smooth A(r). To remember the property, we can note that the triple
mixed product with two equal factors is zero.
• As for the curl of the curl, the following identity is to be noted
∇ × (∇ × A(r)) = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇2 A
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Often multidimensional integrals have to be computed. It is useful to remember from Fig. A.2
that the elementary volume in spherical coordinates is a cube with edges of size dr (along r̂), rdϑ
(along ϑ̂) and r sin ϑdϕ (along ϕ̂), thus
dV = r2 sin ϑdrdϑdϕ
Concerning surface integrals in spherical coordinates, the elementary patch is a square with sides
rdϑ (along ϑ̂) and r sin ϑdϕ (along ϕ̂), thus
dΣ = r2 sin ϑdϑdϕ
Connected with this is the concept of solid angle, displayed in Fig. A.9
The natural measurement unit of a plane angle is radian (rad). A one radian angle is the one
with the vertex at the center of a circle of radius r that subtends an arc whose length is equal to
the radius r. Thus the radian measure of an angle is equal to the ratio between the length of the
subtended arc and the radius: for instance, the measure of a full round angle is 2π radians.
Similarly, the solid angle, Ω, is the two-dimensional angle in three-dimensional space that an
object subtends at a point; it is measured in steradians (sr). A one steradian solid angle is the one
with the vertex at the center of a sphere of radius r that subtends a patch whose area is equal to
r2 . Since the surface of a sphere is 4πr2 , the measure of the total solid angle around a point is 4π
steradians. As another example, the solid angle defined by x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0, z ≥ 0 has a measure of
4π/8 = π/2 steradians. The elementary solid angle subtended by a patch of area dΣ is, in spherical
coordinates
dΣ
dΩ = 2 = sin ϑdϑdϕ
r
17
Figure A.9. Definition of radian for a plane angle and of steradian for a solid angle
A.3
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Multidimensional Dirac delta functions
The one dimensional Dirac δ function is a distribution defined by the property
Z ∞
f (x)δ(x − x0 )dx = f (x0 )
−∞
for any function f (x) continuous in x = x0 . If f (x) ≡ 1 identically, this becomes

Z ∞
δ(x − x0 )dx = 1
−∞
The support of δ(x − x0 ) is the point x = x0 .

Suppose now that f (x,y,z) is a function of three variables and suppose that we want to compute
Z ∞Z ∞Z ∞
I= f (x,y,z)δ(x − x0 )dxdydz
−∞ −∞ −∞
Integrating first with respect to x leads to

Z ∞Z ∞
I= f (x0 ,y,z)dydz
−∞ −∞
The support of δ(x − x0 ) is still x = x0 , which in this case is not a single point but a plane.
Physically, such a δ function can describe a surface charge. The value of the integral has been
18
obtained by evaluating the function f on the support of the δ function and then integrating along
it.
This concept can be generalized if we consider a δ function with support on a smooth surface of
R3 with parametric equation r = rΣ (u,v). Consider the integral
Z
I = f (r)δ(r − rΣ )dr
Again its value is obtained by evaluating f on the support rΣ of the δ function and then integrating
along it Z Z Z ° °
° ∂rΣ ∂rΣ °
I = f (rΣ )dΣ = f (rΣ (u,v)) °
° ∂u × ° dudv
∂v °
where ° °
° ∂rΣ ∂rΣ °
°
dΣ = ° × ° dudv
∂u ∂v °
is the elementary area on the surface Σ. Note that the δ function can be described as one dimen-
sional here and its support is two dimensional.
Consider now a δ function with one dimensional support consisting of the straight line parallel
to the z axis with equation
x = x0 y = y0
Physically, it can describe a line charge. Mathematically, its expression is δ(x − x0 )δ(y − y0 ), hence
it can be defined as two dimensional, because it is the product of two one dimensional δ functions.
We can be interested in computing the integral
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Z ∞Z ∞Z ∞
I= f (x,y,z)δ(x − x0 )δ(y − y0 )dxdydz
−∞ −∞ −∞
Its value is obviously the integral of f along that line

Z ∞
I= f (x0 ,y0 ,z)dz
−∞
A generalization of this result is obtained if the support of the δ function is a smooth curve γ ∈ R3
with parametric equation r = rγ (s). Suppose we must evaluate the integral
Z
I = f (r)δ(r − rγ )dr
Once again, its value is obtained by evaluating f on γ and integrating along it

Z Z ° °
° drγ °
°
I = f (rγ )d` = f (rγ (s)) ° ° ds
ds °
where ° °
° drγ °
°
d` = ° ° ds
ds °
is the line element on γ.
The last example to consider is that of a three-dimensional δ function with support on the
point
x = x0 y = y0 z = z0
19
which can represent a point charge. Next, consider the integral

Z
I = f (r)δ(r − r0 )dr
Its value is
I = f (r0 )
We can say that this result is obtained by evaluating the function f on the support of the δ function
and then integrating along it. However, since this support is zero-dimensional, this last integral
disappears.
In conclusion, all the integrals can be evaluated by the same rule: evaluate the integrand on
the support of the δ function and integrate along it. Notice that the sum of the dimensionality of
the δ function and of its support have constant sum 3, the dimensionality of ambient space.
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Appendix B
Solved Exercises
B.1 Polarization and Phasors

Exercise n. 1
A time harmonic electric field is E(t) = cos ω0 t x̂ + sin ω0 t ŷ. Determine the type of polarization,
draw the polarization curve defined by this vector and write the expression of the phasor E.
Solution Write
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© ª © ª
E(t) = R x̂ ejω0 t + R −jŷ ejω0 t
© ª
= R (x̂ − jŷ) ejω0 t
Hence the phasor is E = x̂ − jŷ. Compute
E0 × E00 = x̂ × (−ŷ) = −ẑ 6= 0
E0 · E00 = x̂ · (−ŷ) = 0 and |E0 | = |E00 |(= 1)

The polarization is circular counterclockwise. The plot of the polarization curve is shown in Fig.
B.1.
Alternatively, the polarization is circular because
Ex = 1 Ey = −j = e−jπ/2
δ = −π/2 |Ex | = |Ey | = 1

¥
Exercise n. 2 √ √
A time harmonic electric field is E(t) = 2 cos(ω0 t + 45◦ ) (x̂ + ŷ) + 2 sin(ω0 t + 45◦ ) (x̂ − ŷ).
Determine the type of polarization, draw the polarization curve defined by this vector and write
the expression of the phasor E.
20
21
y
2
1.5
0.5
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−2
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Figure B.1. Polarization curve defined by E(t) above
Solution Write
n √ ◦
o n √ ◦
o
E(t) = R (x̂ + ŷ) 2ej45 ejω0 t + R −j(x̂ − ŷ) 2ej45 ejω0 t
© ª
= R {(1 + j)(x̂ + ŷ) − j(1 + j)(x̂ − ŷ) ejω0 t }
© ª
= R {(1 + j)(x̂ + ŷ) + (1 − j)(x̂ − ŷ) ejω0 t }
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Hence the phasor is E = 2x̂ + j2ŷ. Compute
E0 × E00 = 2x̂ × (2ŷ) = 4ẑ 6= 0
E0 · E00 = 2x̂ · (2ŷ) = 0 and |E0 | = |E00 |(= 2)

The polarization is circular clockwise. The plot of the polarization curve is shown in Fig. B.2
Alternatively, the polarization is circular because
Ex = 2 Ey = j = ejπ/2
δ = π/2 |Ex | = |Ey | = 2

¥
Exercise n. 3
The phasor of a magnetic field is H = (1 + j)x̂ + 2(1 + j)ŷ. Determine the type of polarization,
write the expression of the time varying field H(t) and draw the polarization curve defined by this
vector.
Solution Find real and imaginary part of the phasor
H0 = x̂ + 2ŷ H00 = x̂ + 2ŷ
22
y
4
x
0
−1
−2
−3
−4
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure B.2. Polarization curve defined by E(t) above
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x
0
−1
−2
−3
−4
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure B.3. Polarization curve defined by H(t) above
Compute
H0 × H00 = (x̂ + 2ŷ) × (x̂ + 2ŷ) = 0
The polarization is linear.
The time varying field is shown in Fig. B.3
H(t) = (x̂ + 2ŷ)(cos ω0 t − sin ω0 t)

√
= (x̂ + 2ŷ) 2 cos(ω0 t + 45◦ )
The plot is shown in Fig. B.3
23
B.2 Plane Waves

Exercise n. 1
Consider a plane wave in a dielectric with εr = 4, µr = 1, at the frequency f = 10GHz. The
electric field in the origin is
E(0) = 2x̂ − jŷ + ẑ V/m
1. Compute the phase velocity vph , the wavelength λ, the wave impedance Z, the wavenumber
k in deg/cm, the power density dP/dΣ.
2. Find the polarization of the electric field E0 . Find the direction of propagation ŝ knowing
that the phase of the wave decreases in the z direction.
√
3. Compute the magnetic field in the point P : (2,2,2)T 5 cm at the time t = T /4
Use the approximate values c = 3 · 108 m/s and Z0 = 377Ω.
Solution
Phase velocity:
1 c c
vph = √ = √ = = 1.5 · 108 m/s
εµ εr µr 2
Wavelength
vph 1.5 · 108
λ= = = 1.5 · 10−2 m
f 1.0 · 1010
Wave impedance: r
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r
µ µr Z0
Z= = Z0 = = 188.5Ω
ε εr 2
Wavenumber:
2π 6.2832
k= = = 4.1888 rad/cm
λ 1.5 · 10−2
360◦
= = 240.0 deg/cm
λ
Power density
dP 1 |E0 |2 1 |E0x |2 + |E0y |2 + |E0z |2 1 (4 + 1 + 1) 2
= = = = 0.01591 W/m
dΣ 2 Z 2 188.5 2 188.5
Polarization:
The real and imaginary part of E(0) are
E00 = 2x̂ + ẑ E000 = −ŷ
They are not parallel, hence the polarization is not linear. Moreover
E00 · E000 = 0 but |E00 | 6= |E000 |
hence the polarization is not circular. In conclusion, it is elliptical.
Direction of propagation:
Since the electric field is perpendicular to ŝ, we have
E00 × E000 (2x̂ + ẑ) × (−ŷ) −2ẑ + x̂
ŝ = ± =± =± √
|E00 × E000 | |(2x̂ + ẑ) × (−ŷ)| 5
24
The phase factor is

exp[−j(kx x + ky y + kz z)]
If the phase is decreasing in the z direction, then kz = ksz > 0, hence
2ẑ − x̂
ŝ = √
5
Phasor of magnetic field in the origin
µ ¶ µ ¶
2ẑ − x̂ 2 5 1
H0 = Y ŝ × E0 = Y √ × (2x̂ − jŷ + ẑ) = Y j √ x̂ + √ ŷ + j √ ẑ
5 5 5 5
Phasor of magnetic field in P :
· ¸ · µ ¶ ¸
2π 2π 2ẑ − x̂ √
H(P ) = H0 exp −j ŝ · rP = H0 exp −j √ · (2x̂ + 2ŷ + 2ẑ) 5 =
λ λ 5
· ¸ · ¸
2π 1 √ 2π · 2 cm
= H0 exp −j √ (2 · 2 − 2) 5 = H0 exp −j = H0 exp [−j 120◦ ]
λ 5 1.5 cm
Magnetic field in P at t = T /4
© ª n ◦ ◦
o
H(rP ,t) = R H(rP )ejω0 t t=T /4 = R H0 ej(90 −120 )
Ã √ !
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5 3 2 1
= H00 cos(−30◦ ) − H000 sin(−30◦ ) = Y √ ŷ + √ x̂ + √ ẑ =
2 5 2 5 2 5
Ã √ !
1 1 15 1
= √ x̂ + ŷ + √ ẑ
188.5 5 2 2 5
Exercise n. 2
Consider a plane wave propagating in the z direction in a dielectric with εr = 4,µr = 1 and
γ = 0.01 S/m at the frequency f = 1.0 GHz and E0 = x̂.
1. Compute the wavenumber k, the phase velocity vph , the wavelength λ

2. Compute the wave impedance Z, the active power density in the origin dP/dΣ, the attenu-
ation αdB in dB/m
Use c = 2.99792458 · 108 m/s, ε0 = 8.854 · 10−12 F/m.
Solution
Wavenumber:
r³ r r
γ´ √ γ γ
k=ω ε0 εr − j µ0 = ω ε0 µ0 εr − j = k0 εr − j
ω ωε0 ωε0
25
The free space wavelength and wavenumber are

c 2π
λ0 = = 0.29979 m k0 = = 20.9585 rad/m
f λ
Then
p
k = 20.9585 4 − j 0.1798 = 20.9585(2.0005 − j 0.0449) = 41.9275 − j 0.9416 m−1
The real and imaginary part are
β = 41.9275 rad/m α = 0.9416 Np/m
Phase velocity:
ω
vph = = 1.4986 · 108 m/s
β
Wavelength
vph
λ= = 0.1499 m
f
Wave impedance:
r r r
µ µ0 µr
Z= = = Z0 (0.4996 + j 0.0112) = 188.2227 + j 4.2270 Ω
ε0 εr − jγ/ω ε0 εr − jγ/(ωε0 )
Wave admittance
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1 1
Y = = = (5.3102 − j 0.1192) · 10−3 S
Z 188.2227 + j 4.2270
Notice that
1 1
R{Y } 6= = = 5.3129 · 10−3 S
R{Z} 188.2227
In this case the difference is small because the phase of Z is small but becomes enormous when
this phase approaches π/2.
Active power density in the origin
dP 1 1 2
= R{Y }|E0 |2 = 5.3102 · 10−3 (|E0x |2 + |E0y |2 + |E0z |2 ) = 2.6551 · 10−3 W/m
dΣ 2 2
Attenuation:
α = Im{k} = 0.9416 Np/m
αdB = α 20 log10 e = α 8.68589 = 8.1785 dB/m
¥
Exercise n. 3
Consider a plane wave propagating in free space at the frequency f = 5 GHz. The electric field in
the points of the plane z = 0 has the value
E(x,y,z)|z=0 = E0 exp[−j(ξx + ηy)] ∀x, y
26
with ξ = k0 /5 and η = k0 /2 and it is known that this wave is a TE field, i.e. E0 has no z-
component and that it carries the power density dP/dΣ > 0 through the plane z = 0.
Compute the direction of propagation ŝ and the spherical angles that define this direction. Compute
also the fields in the origin E0 , H0 .
Solution
The propagation factor of a plane wave is
exp[−jk · r] = exp[−j(kx x + ky y + kz z)]
hence, by inspection, we find kx = ξ and ky = η. From the dispersion relation
kx2 + ky2 + kz2 = ω 2 ε0 µ0 = k02
it follows that
q q r √
1 1 71
kz = k02 − kx2 − ky2 2 2 2
= k0 − ξ − η = k0 1 − − = k0
25 4 10
The sign of the square root is taken to be positive because power is flowing toward the region
z > 0, due to the fact that dP/dΣ > 0 through a dΣ belonging to the plane z = 0. From this
√
k 1 1 71
ŝ = = x̂ + ŷ + ẑ
k0 5 2 10
|ŝ| = 1
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The spherical angles that identify the direction ŝ are found by recalling (A.2) and noting that
sx = sin ϑ cos ϕ
sy = sin ϑ sin ϕ
sz = cos ϑ
From this we find

√
71
ϑ = arccos sz = arccos = 32.5827 deg
³ s ´ 10 ³ s ´
x y
ϕ = arccos = arcsin = 68.1986 deg
sin ϑ sin ϑ
The electric field in the origin, with magnitude
r
dP
E0 = 2Z0
dΣ
must be perpendicular to ŝ because it is a plane wave and perpendicular to ẑ because required in
the text. Then
ŝ × ẑ k × ẑ (ξx̂ + ηŷ + kz ẑ) × ẑ (ηx̂ − ξŷ)
E0 = E 0 = E0 = E0 = E0 p
|ŝ × ẑ| |k × ẑ| |k × ẑ| ξ2 + η2
Thanks to the denominator, the vector multiplying E0 has unit magnitude.
27
The magnetic field is computed by the impedance relation
Y0 Y0 E0 (ηx̂ − ξŷ)
H0 = Y0 ŝ × E0 = k × E0 = (ξx̂ + ηŷ + kz ẑ) × p
k0 k0 ξ 2 + η2
Y E ¡ ¢
= p0 0 kz (ξx̂ + ηŷ) − (ξ 2 + η 2 )ẑ
k0 ξ2 + η2
Exercise n. 4
Consider a plane wave field propagating in free space. The electric field is
E(x,y,z) = E0 x̂ cos kz
Compute the magnetic field.
Solution
The general relation between electric and magnetic fields is the first Maxwell equation:
1
H=− ∇×E
jωµ
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In the case of a plane wave this equation simplifies in the impedance relation
H=
1
ωµ
k × E = Y ŝ × E
The given electric field is not a plane wave, but is the sum of two counter-propagating ones, as it
can be seen by Euler’s formula
E0 −jkz E0 jkz
E(x,y,z) = E0 x̂ cos kz = x̂e + x̂e
2 2
The direction of propagation of the first wave is ŝ = ẑ, that of the second ŝ = −ẑ. Now we apply
the impedance relation to each wave, using the appropriate unit vector ŝ:
E0 E0
H(x,y,z) = Y0 ẑ × x̂e−jkz + Y0 (−ẑ) × x̂ejkz
2 2
E0 −jkz E0 jkz
= Y0 ŷe − Y0 ŷe
2 2
= −jY0 E0 ŷ sin kz
28
B.3 Antennas
Exercise n. 1
Consider a horn antenna whose rectangular aperture has size A = 10 cm, B = 4 cm, operated at
the frequency f =20GHz. Compute
1. the maximum gain G in natural units and in dB.

2. the full width of the main lobe between the zeros in the E and H plane
3. the direction and the level of the first sidelobe in the E and H plane
4. the magnitude of the radiated electric and magnetic field on axis, at the distance R = 5 km,
when the horn has an input power Pin = 10 W.
Solution
1. The geometrical area of the aperture is Ag = AB = 40 cm2 .

2. The aperture efficiency of a rectangular horn is νa = 0.8, hence the effective area is Aeq =
νa Ag = 0.8 · 40 = 32 cm2
3. The wavelength is λ = c/f = 3. · 108 /20 = 1.5 cm
4. The maximum gain is G = (4π/λ2 )Aeq = 179 = 22.5 dB. The directivity is the same:
antennas with size comparable to wavelength have ohmic efficiency very close to one.
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5. Compute the far field distance rf f = 2D2 /λ. The characteristic size D is the diagonal of the
rectangle D = 10.77 cm and rf f = 1.54 m. Since the observation distance is R À rf f the
concept of gain can be used. Hence, we compute the power density per unit surface in the
observation point:
dPrad Pin
=G = 5.6977 · 10−6
dΣ 4πR2
From this we compute the electric field via
r
dPrad
|E| = 2Z0 = 65.5 mV/m
dΣ
and the magnetic field from the impedance relation
|E|
|H| = = 173 µA/m
Z0
Exercise n. 2
Consider a radio link between a paraboloid and a half wavelength dipole antenna. The paraboloid
has a diameter D = 1 m, is operated at the frequency f = 10 GHz, radiates a circularly polarized
field and its input power is Pin = 0.1 W. The receiving dipole has ohmic efficiency η = 1, is located
29
x
x
α x
α
y z
z
y
(b)
(a)
Figure B.4. Radio link scheme.
on axis at the distance R = 20 km and perpendicular to the link direction. However it is not
vertical, but forms the angle α with the vertical, as shown in Fig. B.4. Compute the received
power as a function of the angle α.
Solution
• The geometrical area of the paraboloid aperture is Ag = πD2 /4 = 0.7854 m2 .
• The aperture efficiency of a paraboloid is νa = 0.6, hence the effective area is Aeq = νa Ag =
0.6 · 0.7854 = 0.4712 m2
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• The wavelength is λ = c/f = 3. · 108 /10 = 3.0 cm
• The maximum gain is G = (4π/λ2 )Aeq = 6580 = 38.2 dB. The directivity is the same:
antennas with size comparable to wavelength have ohmic efficiency very close to one.
• Compute the far field distance rf f = 2D2 /λ. The characteristic size D is the diameter of the
aperture and rf f = 66.67 m. Since the observation distance is R À rf f the Friis equation
can be used.
• The maximum gain of the dipole (equal to the directivity since the ohmic efficiency is η = 1)
is G = D = 1.643
• The polarization of the transmitting antenna is circular. The electric field lies in the x, y
plane and the polarization vector can be written
p̂T X = c(x̂ ± jŷ)
The double sign is necessary because the text does not specify whether the polarization is
clockwise or counterclockwise. The constant c has the value that makes p̂T X a unit vector:
|p̂T X |2 = p̂T X · p̂∗T X = c(x̂ ± jŷ) · c∗ (x̂ ∓ jŷ) =

= |c|2 (x̂ · x̂ ∓ jx̂ · ŷ ± jŷ · x̂ + ŷ · ŷ) = |c|2 (1 + 1) = 2|c|2
Alternatively,
|p̂T X |2 = |(p̂T X )x |2 + |(p̂T X )y |2 = |c|2 + |c|2 = 2|c|2
30
√
Hence c = 1/ 2 and
1
p̂T X = √ (x̂ ± jŷ)
2
• The polarization of the receiving antenna is, by definition, the polarization of the E field
radiated in the direction of the paraboloid if the dipole were used as transmitting antenna.
The link direction coincides with the one of maximum radiation and the E field is parallel
to the antenna. Hence
p̂RX = ±(cos αx̂ − sin αŷ)
• Compute the polarization matching factor

¯ ¯2
¯ 1 ¯ 1
p = |p̂T X · p̂RX | = ¯± √ (cos α ∓ j sin α)¯¯ =
2 ¯
2 2
We see that p is independent of α and has the constant value of 1/2: a 3 dB loss, with respect
to the case of polarization matching.
• The available power at the output terminals of the receiving antennas is given by Friis formula
GT X GRX 2 6580 · 1.643 1 −12
Pavail = Pin µ ¶2 |p̂T X · p̂RX | = 0.1 µ ¶2 = 7.7019 · 10 W
4πR 4π · 20 · 103 2
λ 3 · 10−2
Exercise n. 3 smartworlD.asia
Consider a radio link between two identical paraboloids. The paraboloids have clockwise circular
polarization. Compute the polarization matching factor.
Solution
Obviously, the result must be 1, since two identical antennas are polarization matched by definition.
The computation is, however, a little tricky.
Consider the transmitting antenna. Then
1
p̂T X = √ (x̂loc loc
TX + jŷTX )
2
With reference to Fig. B.5, we realize that the previous phasor describes really a clockwise polar-
ization if observed from a point in the far field of the TX antenna. The axes have been identified
with a T X subscript and a loc (as local) superscript because they are to be considered as attached
to the transmitting antenna.
Now take this antenna, together with the reference system, and rotate it 180◦ around the xlocT X axis
in order to make it coincident with the receiving antenna. The reference system now is different
from the original one and is indicated with the RX subscript. Clearly, the field radiated by the re-
ceiving antenna if it were connected to a generator would have still clockwise circular polarization,
as observed by a point in the far field of this RX antenna and its expression would be
1
p̂RX = √ (x̂loc loc
RX + jŷRX )
2
31
loc
xTX xloc
RX
loc
yRX
loc ETX
yTX loc
zTX
Figure B.5. Radio link scheme with two identical antennas.
Note that
x̂loc loc
RX = x̂TX
loc loc
ŷRX = −ŷTX
ẑloc loc
RX = −ẑTX
Then we compute the polarization matching factor

¯ ¯2
¯ 1 1 ¯ 1
2 ¯ loc loc loc loc ¯
p = |p̂T X · p̂RX | = ¯ √ (x̂T X + jŷT X ) · √ (x̂RX + jŷRX )¯ = (1 + j · j · (−1)) = 1
2 2 2
as it should be.
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¥
Exercise n. 4
A Hertzian dipole of length L = 2 m is fed by a transmission line with characteristic impedance
Z∞ = 50 Ω. The dipole has an ohmic efficiency η = 0.8 and an input capacitance C = 30 pF.
Suppose that this dipole is required to radiate a total power Prad = 100 W at the frequency
f = 10 MHz. Compute:
1. the voltage that must be applied at the dipole input

2. the reflection coefficient at the dipole input and the incident power on the line so that
Prad = 100 W. Compute also the maximum and minimum voltage on the line and the
VSWR.
Solution
1. The wavelength is λ = 3 · 108 /107 = 30 m The radiation resistance is

µ ¶2
2π L
Rrad = Z0 = 3.5 Ω
3 λ
The input resistance is
Rrad
Rin = = 4.4 Ω
η
32
The input impedance is

1
Zin = Rin − j = 4.4 − j 530.5 Ω
2πf C
The input current Ia is such that the radiated power is

1
Prad = Prad |Ia |2
2
Hence r r
2Prad 2 · 100
|Ia | = = = 7.55 A
Rrad 3.5
The voltage Va to be applied is
|Va | = |Zin ||Ia | = 4005 V
2. The input reflection coefficient is

Zin − Z∞ ◦
Γa = = 0.9985 e−j10.8
Zin + Z∞
The input power is Prad /η = 125 W. The necessary incident power is
Pin
P+ = = 40.3 kW
1 − |Γa |2
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On the other hand P + =
+ 2
1 |V |
2 Z∞ , hence
|V + | =
p
2Z∞ P + = 2008 V
The maximum voltage is then
Vmax = |V + |(1 + |Γa |) = 4013 V
and the minimum

Vmin = |V + |(1 − |Γa |) = 3.1 V
The VSWR is
1 + |Γa |
V SW R = = 1291
1 − |Γa |
Obviously, using this antenna in these conditions is absolutely ridiculous and a matching
device is to be used.
Exercise n. 5
Find the sizes A, B of a rectangular horn with gain G = 19 dB at the frequency f = 12 GHz and
33
symmetrical main lobe, as measured between the zeros, i.e. with equal beamwidth in the E and
H planes. Compute also the full beamwidth.
Solution
The first zero in the E plane is located at ηy = π, from which
λ
sin ϑE
z1 =
B
Similarly, the first zero in the H plane is located at ηx = 3π/2, from which
3λ
sin ϑH
z1 =
2A
If ϑH E
z1 = ϑz1 , then B = 2A/3.
The geometrical area is
2A2
Ag = AB =
3
The maximum effective area is
2A2
Aeq = νa Ag = νa
3
The maximum gain is
µ ¶2
4π 8πνa A
G= Aeq =
λ2 3 λ
from which we get r
A 3
= G
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λ 8πνa
The required gain is GdB = 19 dB, i.e.
G = 10GdB /10 = 79.43
We find then A = 3.44λ = 8.600 cm, since the wavelength is
c 3 · 108
λ= = = 2.5 · 10−2 m
f 12 · 109
Moreover B = 5.733 cm and
µ ¶
λ
ϑE
z1 = arcsin = arcsin(0.436) = 25.852◦
B
The full beamwidth (between the zeros) is
BW = 2ϑE H
z1 = 2ϑz1 = 51.704
◦
Exercise n. 6
Consider a paraboloid antenna with the following radiation pattern at the frequency f = 5 GHz:
π
g(ϑ,ϕ) = G0 cosα ϑ for ϑ ≤
2
π
=0 for ϑ >
2
34
The full half-power beam-width is FHPBW=10◦ .

Compute G0 and estimate the antenna diameter.
Solution
First find α from the FHPBW. Set ϑ−3dB =FHPBW/2=5◦ :
G0
= G0 cosα ϑ−3dB
2
Take logarithms
−3 = 10 log10 (cosα ϑ−3dB )
Hence
−3
α= = 181.18
10 log10 (cos ϑ−3dB )
Next recall the normalization condition
Z 2π Z π2
1
g(ϑ,ϕ) sin ϑdϑdϕ = 1
4π 0 0
Compute the integral, noting that g(ϑ,ϕ) does not depend on ϕ, so that the ϕ integral equals 2π:
Z 2π Z π Z 2π Z π Z π
1 2 1 2 G0 2π 2
g(ϑ,ϕ) sin ϑdϑdϕ = G0 cosα ϑ sin ϑdϑdϕ = cosα ϑ sin ϑdϑ
4π 0 0 4π 0 0 4π 0
Set u = cos ϑ ¯1
Z 0 Z 1
G0 G0 G0 u(α+1) ¯¯ G0
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uα d(−u) = uα du = =
2 1 2 0 2 α + 1 ¯0 2(α + 1)
In conclusion, the normalization condition yields
G0 = 2(α + 1) = 364.36
that is (G0 )dB = 25.61 dB. To find the diameter of the antenna, compute the maximum effective
area
λ2
Aeq = G0 = 1043.8 cm2
4π
since λ = c/f = 6 cm. The aperture efficiency of paraboloids is νa = 0.6, so
Aeq
Ag = = 1739.7 cm2
νa
and the required antenna diameter is
r
4Ag
D= = 47.06 cm
π
Fig. B.6 shows the radiation pattern in cartesian coordinates, Fig. B.7 shows the same pattern in
polar coordinates.
35
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
−100 −80 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60 80 100
ϑ
Figure B.6. Radiation pattern in cartesian coordinates
smartworlD.asia 90
400
120 60
300
150 200 30
100
180 0
210 330
240 300
270
Figure B.7. Polar radiation pattern
36
B.4 Waveguides
Exercise n. 1
Find the dimensions of a rectangular waveguide with the following specifications: .
1. it is single mode in the band between fmin = 10 GHz and fmax = 15 GHz
2. the attenuation of the first higher order mode must be at least αlim = 8 dB/cm for the whole
band [fmin ,fmax ]
3. dispersion must be minimized
4. the waveguide must carry up to PT = 150 kW without discharge when it is matched
If the waveguide designed above is connected to a load with reflection coefficient |ΓL | = 0.2, what
is the maximum power that the guide can carry without discharge?
Solution
Certainly we choose b < a/2 so that the first higher order mode is T E20 . Next find a.
Enforce
c
fmin ≥ fc10 =
2a
c
fmax ≤ fc20 =
a
from which we find
c c
≤a≤
smartworlD.asia
2fmin fmax
that is
1.5 ≤ a ≤ 2 cm
Compute the attenuation of mode T E20 :
sµ ¶2
q
2 − k2 = k fc20
α20 = kt20 −1
f
It is minimum at fmax sµ ¶2
2πfmax fc20
α20min = −1
c fmax
By requiring α20min ≥ αlim , we find a constraint on a (contained in fc20 )
c
a≤ sµ ¶2 = 1.919 cm
cαlim
fmax +1
2πfmax
Note that the value of αlim given in dB must be converted in Neper, by diving it by 8.6859.
Dispersion is minimized if a = 1.919 cm is chosen. This value is inside the range 1.5 ≤ a ≤ 2 cm,
hence it is acceptable. Then the maximum value for b is bmax = a/2 = 0.960 cm
Now find b on the basis of the power to be transmitted PT . The active power flow on the T E10
modal line is
1 |V + |2
Pwg =
2 Zt10
37
because the modal line is matched.

The maximum value of the electric field is reached at x = a/2, so that
r
2 +
Emax = V
ab
Substituting in the previous expression, we find that the power in the guide for a given value of
Emax is
2
1 ab Emax
Pwg =
2 2 Zt10
Now, setting Emax = R = 20 kV/cm the dielectric rigidity of air, we obtain the power at the onset
of discharge Pdisch :
1 ab R2
Pdisch =
2 2 Zt10
Note that this power is a function of frequency because Zt10 is. At f = fmin the modal impedance is
maximum, so Pdisch is minimum: this is the most critical situation. If the condition Pdisch (fmin ) ≥
PT is satisfied, Pdisch (f ) ≥ PT for all f . Hence enforce
1 ab R2
≥ PT
2 2 Zt10 (fmin )
from which we find

4Zt10 (fmin )PT
b≥ = 0.472 cm
aR2
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In conclusion we find 0.472 ≤ b ≤ 0.960 cm; any value of b in this range is acceptable.
Suppose b = 0.472 cm is chosen. Then the discharge power is exactly Pdisch = PT = 150 kW. If
the guide is mismatched, the discharge power is reduced by the factor 1/S,
1 ab R2 1
Pdisch =
2 2 Zt10 S
with
1 + |ΓL |
S= = 1.5
1 − |ΓL |
so the discharge power is Pdisch = 150/1.5 = 100 kW. In conclusion, the guide previously designed
can carry only a maximum power of 100 kW, in mismatched conditions, if discharge is to be
avoided.
¥
Exercise n. 2
The rectangular waveguide WR90 of Fig. B.8 is connected to a load that has a reflection coefficient
ΓL = 0.4 exp(−j45◦ ) for the fundamental mode T E10 , at the frequency f = 12 GHz. Design a
small piece of dielectric to be inserted at a convenient position in the guide so that matching is
obtained. Then draw the voltage plot |V (z)| with V inc = 1 V.
Solution
Compute first the parameters of the modal lines. The waveguide is WR90, with a = 0.9 in=0.9 ·
38
εr
A B
ΓL
kz 0 , Z ∞ 0 k zd , Z ∞d kz 0 , Z ∞ 0 ΓL
A B C
Figure B.8. Matching of a load by means of a piece of dielectric and equivalent modal
circuit for the T E10 mode
2.54 cm. and fc0 = c/(2a) = 6.56 GHz. Recall
s µ ¶2 s µ ¶2
fc0 fc0
kz0 = k0 1− kzd = k0 εr −
f f
Z0 Z0
Z∞0 = s µ ¶2 Z∞d = s µ ¶2
smartworlD.asia
fc0 fc0
1− εr −
f f
which yield
kz0 = 2.1043 rad/cm λg0 = 2.986 cm

Z∞0 = 450.2789 Ω
The matching device is a λ/4 line. It must be positioned in such a way that ZB is real ZB = RB .
Then the characteristic impedance of the line is computed according to
p
Z∞d = RA RB
where RA = Z∞0 , the desired input impedance. To find RB draw on the Smith chart the circle
through ΓL with center in the origin. The intersections with the real axis are
1 − |ΓL | 1 + |ΓL | 1
rm = and rM = =
1 + |ΓL | 1 − |ΓL | rm
Which one of the two must be selected? Let r be one of the two. Then
√
Z∞d = Z∞0 r
39
From the equations above, Z∞d ≤ Z∞0 , hence r ≤ 1 so the point rm must be chosen. Now we can
compute εr .
√
Z∞d = Z∞0 r
Z0 Z0 √
s µ ¶2 = s µ ¶2 rm
fc0 fc0
εr − 1−
f f
s µ ¶2 s µ ¶2
fc0 1 fc0
εr − =√ 1−
f rm f
Ã µ ¶2 ! µ ¶2
1 fc0 fc0
εr = 1− +
rm f f
We find rm = 0.4286 and εr = 1.9347. The phase of ΓC is −45◦ : on the Smith chart, we read
µ ¶T L
`
= 0.1875
λ C
This is exactly the value of LBC /λg0 , since

µ ¶T L
`
= 0.
λ B+
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Hence
LBC = 0.1875λg0 = 0.5599 cm
Moreover λgd = 1.9548 cm and LAB = λgd /4 = 0.4887 cm. If we choose rM instead of rm , we
obtain εr ≤ 1, which is not realizable.
In order to draw the voltage plot, i.e. the electric field plot in the waveguide, we mark some
points on the Smith chart of Fig. B.9. From ΓL turn clockwise (Toward Generator) up to zB + =
rm = 0.4286. Then
Z∞0
zB − = zB + = 0.6547
Z∞d
Next
1
zA+ = = 1.5275
zB −
and
Z∞d
zA− = zA+ =1
Z∞0
as it should be.
To draw the plot, note that zA− = 1 implies that |V (z)| is flat to the left of A since there is no
backward wave. Moreover in A+ there is a maximum of voltage and in B − a minimum, since the
corresponding points are on the positive and negative part of the real axis, respectively. Then
VA− = 1 V. The VSWR on AB is
1 + |ΓA+ | 1 + |ΓB − |
S= = = 1.5275
1 − |ΓA+ | 1 − |ΓB − |
40
zB− rM
z + =r
B m
zA+
zA−
ΓL
Figure B.9. Smith Chart plot relative to the design of the matching device and to the voltage plot
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This number, of course, coincides with zA+ . Then
Vmax
VB − = Vmin = = 0.6547
S
Of course VB − = VB + . To draw the part relative to BC, note that
VC = VC+ (1 + ΓL ) = VB++ e−jkz0 LBC (1 + ΓL )

1 + ΓB −
VB++ = VB+−
1 + ΓB +
+ + −jkzd LAB
VB − = VA + e = −jVA++
1 + Γ A−
VA++ = VA+−
1 + Γ A+
We find |VC | = 1.4333 V.

Alternatively and more rapidly, we can use the conservation of energy to compute |V (z)|. Since
the structure is lossless, the net power is the same everywhere in the circuit. In general
1 |V inc |2 1
= |V (z)|2 R{Y (z)}
2 Z∞0 2
41
The left hand side is the net power in A− , because the reflected power is zero. In particular
|V inc |2 |V inc |2
|VC |2 = =
Z∞0 R{YL } R{yL }
inc 2
|V | |V inc |2 |V inc |2
|VB |2 = = =
Z∞0 R{YB } R{yB + } Z∞0 Y∞d R{yB − }
The resulting plot is shown in Fig. B.10
|V(z)|
1.5
1.4
C
1.3
1.2
1.1
A
1
0.9
0.8
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0.7
−3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5

z (cm)
0
B
0.5 1 1.5
Figure B.10. Voltage plot
Exercise n. 3
Consider the waveguide structure of Fig. B.11. It consists of a semi-infinite rectangular waveguide,
short circuited on the left and infinite on the right, excited by a dipole antenna in B. The guide is
empty up to C and then it is completely filled with a dielectric with relative permittivity εr = 4.
The guide cross section has dimensions a = 5 cm, b = 2 cm. The frequency of the source is
f = 4 GHz. Moreover LAB = 2.5 cm and LBC = 2 cm. The dipole can be represented on the
fundamental mode equivalent line by a current generator is = 0.01 A.
Compute the power that the source radiates beyond C and select LAB so as to maximize it.
Solution
Compute first the parameters of the modal lines. The waveguide has a = 5 cm, hence the critical
42
frequency of the T E10 mode is fc0 = c/(2a) = 3 GHz. Recall

s µ ¶2 s µ ¶2
fc0 fc0
kz0 = k0 1− kzd = k0 εr −
f f
Z0 Z0
Z∞0 = s µ ¶2 Z∞d = s µ ¶2
fc0 fc0
1− εr −
f f
which yield
kz0 = 55.4125 rad/m λg0 = 0.1134 m

kzd = 155.3245 rad/m λgd = 0.0405 m
Z∞0 = 569.9704 Ω Z∞d = 203.3387 Ω
εr
A B C
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A B
is kz 0 , Z ∞ 0
C
k zd , Z ∞d
Figure B.11. Waveguide structure with a dipole source and modal circuit for the fundamental mode
VB

ZB −
is ZB +
B− B+
Figure B.12. Loads seen by the current generator
Then compute the load seen by the generator. Start with that looking to the right. The line
to the right of C is infinitely long, hence ZC = Z∞d . Compute
Z∞d
zC − = = 0.3568
Z∞0
43
zC − − 1
ΓC − = = −0.4741
zC − + 1
◦
ΓB + = ΓC − e−j2kz0 LBC = 0.4741ej53.0039
1 + ΓB +
zB + = = 1.1850 + j1.1577
1 − ΓB +
and finally
→
−
Z B + = zB + Z∞0 = 675.43 + j659.83 Ω
These values have been obtained by means of a computer, but can be obtained, with less accuracy,
by the Smith chart. Similarly for the load looking to the left.
←
−
Γ A = −1
←
− ←− ◦
Γ B − = Γ A e−j2kz0 LAB = ej21.2549
←−
←− 1 + Γ B−
z B− = ←− = j5.3293
1 − Γ B−
and finally
←
−
Z B− = ←
−
z B − Z∞0 = j3037.6 Ω
The original modal circuit can be lumped into the one of Fig. B.12. The voltage at the generator
terminals is
is
VB − = VB + = − ←− −
→ = −4.3934 − j6.2010 V (B.1)
Y B− + Y B+
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In order to compute the power radiated beyond C we can apply the principle of energy conservation
since the structure is lossless. Then
1 −
→
PC = PB + = |V + |2 R{ Y B + } = 0.0219 W
2 B
→
−
since Y B + = (7.5756 − j7.4007) · 10−4 S.
If we want a more detailed computation, that yields also the phase of voltage and current, we can
proceed step by step across the discontinuities:
VB +
VB++ = = −4.4530 − j3.5127 V
1 + ΓB +
VC+− = VB++ e−jkz0 LBC = −5.1307 + j2.4176 V

1 + ΓC −
VC++ = VC+− = −2.6982 + j1.2714 V
1 + ΓC +
where ΓC + = 0, of course. We can check that
1 |VC++ |
PC = = 0.0219 W
2 Z∞d
exactly as found above by the energy method.
If we compute the power radiated to the left, we should find zero, since the waveguide is shorted
in A. Indeed
←− 1 ←
−
P B − = |VB−− |R{ Y B − } = 0
2
44
←−
because Y B − is pure imaginary.
If we want to maximize the radiated power, it is necessary to maximize the magnitude of VB .
Since the numerator of (B.1) is fixed, we must minimize the magnitude of the denominator. Note
−
→ ←
−
that Y B + is fixed and that Y B − is pure imaginary and its value depends on the length LAB .
Clearly, in these conditions, the denominator has minimum amplitude if it is real. Now, −
→y B+ =
←
−
0.4318 − j0.4218, so that we must enforce y B − = j0.4218, which requires LAB /λg0 = 0.3135 and
LAB = 3.5551 cm.
In ordinary applications, the waveguide is matched when looking to the right of the source, so
that →
−
y B + = 1 and the optimum situation is reached if ←
−
y B − = 0, which implies LAB = λg0 /4.
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Smartworld.asia Specworld.

In these notes we focus on the hollow tube waveguides.

5.1 Waveguide modes

• the boundary conditions

V (z) = V0+ e−jkz z + V0− ejkz z

A mode of propagation is characterized by the set of modal functions {e, ez , h, hz } and a

T E modes are denoted by a double prime and have the properties

5.2 Equivalent transmission lines

Vi (z) = Vi0+ e−jkzi z

vi (z,t) = R{Vi (z)ejωt } = |Vi0+ | cos(ωt − kzi z + arg(Vi0+ ))

Since kzi is real, the mode is propagating with phase velocity

where we have used (5.10) and the fact that

The modal impedance of T E modes is given by

vi (z,t) = R{Vi (z)ejωt } = |Vi0+ |e−|kzi z | cos(ωt + arg(Vi0+ ))

Figure 5.5. Decay constant of a mode below cut-off

vi (z) =< Mt ,hi > + < Jz ,Zti ezi >

5.3 Rectangular waveguide

Figure 5.8. Rectangular waveguide with sides a, b, a ≥ b.

• T E10 , T E20 , T E01 if b < a/2

• T E10 , T E01 , T E20 if b > a/2

critical frequencies of these modes in an empty waveguide, computed by (5.10) are

5.3.1 Design of a single mode rectangular waveguide

Pdisch (fmin ) ≥ Plim

• a = 0.9 inches=2.286 cm; b = 0.4 inches=1.016 cm

• fmin = 8.0 GHz, fmax = 12.4 GHz

• αlim = 7.8 dB/cm

• Plim = 201.6 kW, in matched conditions, S = 1.

5.3.2 Tunneling effects

kz0 = −jα Z∞0 = jX∞0

Z∞0 X∞0 X∞0 X∞0

|S11 (f )|2 + |S21 (f )|2 = 1

5.3.3 Irises and waveguide discontinuities

Figure 5.28. Example of an iris in a rectangular waveguide. Upper left: longitu-

|S11 | = 0.9067 |S21 | = 0.4217

Figure 5.29. Normalized susceptance of a symmetrical capacitive iris. λg is the guided

A.1 Coordinate systems and algebra of vector fields

and that between spherical (r, ϑ, ϕ) and cartesian coordinates is

ρ̂ = cos ϕx̂ + sin ϕŷ

spherical system are

Eq.(A.5) can be conveniently written as

Indeed, recalling (A.7)

|A × B| = |A||B| sin α (A.15)

Figure A.3. Correct order of unit vectors

• the identity I, such that

A × I = (A × x̂) x̂ + (A × ŷ) ŷ + (A × ẑ) ẑ

Substituting in the previous equation we get

A × I = (−Ay ẑ + Az ŷ)x̂ + (Ax ẑ − Az x̂)ŷ + (−Ax ŷ + Ay x̂)ẑ

A.2 Calculus of vector fields

Figure A.4. Direction along which the directional derivative is computed

With reference to Fig. A.4, we find

Figure A.5. Scalar field z = h(x,y)

Figure A.6. Contours of z = h(x,y) and vector field gradh(x,y)

Recalling Gauss Theorem Z I

we can interpret this equation as defining an “average divergence”

Figure A.8. Geometry for the application of Stokes theorem

• The divergence of a gradient produces the Laplace operator or laplacian

We recall only the expression of the laplacian in cartesian coordinates

∂2h ∂2h ∂2h

• As for the curl of the curl, the following identity is to be noted

for any function f (x) continuous in x = x0 . If f (x) ≡ 1 identically, this becomes

The support of δ(x − x0 ) is the point x = x0 .

Integrating first with respect to x leads to

Its value is obviously the integral of f along that line

Once again, its value is obtained by evaluating f on γ and integrating along it