Electromagnetic-Field 2 C3

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Chapter 3
Radiation in free space
The fundamental problem in electromagnetics is computing the fields created by a specified set of
sources in a given region of space. This means that the functions ε(r), µ(r) are assigned, as well
as the form of the region boundary and the material of which it consists. Then the sources are
specified in terms of electric and magnetic current densities J(r), M(r).
In order to understand the basic mechanism of radiation, it is convenient to consider first a
highly idealized problem, wherein the sources radiate in an infinite homogeneous medium. Later
we will see how to apply the results of this chapter to the real antenna problem.
3.1
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Green’s functions
The radiation problem is mathematically formulated as
(
∇ × E = −jωµ0 H − M
(3.1)
∇×H = jωε0 E + J
in an infinite homogeneous domain that we assume to be free space. These equations are linear with
constant coefficients and the independent variable is r. We can interpret them as the equations of
a Linear Space Invariant system (LSI), where the source currents play the role of input and the
radiated fields that of output, see Fig. 3.1. The box represents a system with two inputs and two
outputs.
G EJ
J(r) E(r)
G HJ G EM
M(r) H(r)
G HM
Figure 3.1. Linear system view of the radiation phenomenon
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LSI systems are clearly a multidimensional generalization of Linear Time Invariant (LTI) sys-
tems. Let us review briefly the properties of the latter. LTI systems, as shown in Fig. 3.2 are
completely characterized in time domain by their impulse response h(t), that is the output that is
obtained when the input is a Dirac delta function δ(t). An arbitrary (continuous) input x(t) can
be represented as a linear combination of pulses thanks to the sifting property of the delta function
Z ∞
x(t) = x(t0 )δ(t − t0 )dt0
−∞
Because of linearity, the response y(t) to x(t) can be found by convolution

Z ∞
y(t) = h(t) ∗ x(t) = h(t − t0 )x(t0 )dt0
−∞
Alternatively, an LTI system can be characterized by its transfer function: when the input is x(t) =
exp(jωt), the output is proportional to it and the constant of proportionality is, by definition, H(ω),
so that y(t) = H(ω) exp(jωt). It can be proved that the impulse response and the transfer function
of a system are related by a Fourier transform
Z ∞
H(ω) = h(t) exp(−jωt)dt
−∞
x(t ) h(t ) y (t ) X (ω ) H (ω ) Y (ω )
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Figure 3.2. Time domain and frequency domain description of an LTI system
As a preparation for (3.1), let us consider the simpler case of an infinite, uniform transmission
line excited by a distribution of voltage and current generators, vs (z) and is (z), as shown in Fig. 3.3.
Since these generators are distributed continuously, vs (z) and is (z) are densities per unit length
of generators described, as usual, in terms of their open circuit voltage (V/m) and short circuit
current (A/m), respectively. The differential equations of the system are

 dV
− = jωLI + vs
dz (3.2)
 − dI = jωCV + i

s
dz
vs ( z )
+ + + +
is ( z )
Figure 3.3. Infinite uniform transmission line with distributed voltage and current generators.
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GVis
is ( z ) V ( z)
GIis GVvs
vs ( z ) I ( z)
GIvs
Figure 3.4. Linear system view of the transmission line with distributed generators.
Generally, transmission lines are excited at one end by a generator that acts as a transmitter.
The model shown in Fig. 3.3 refers to a situation of electromagnetic compatibility, where a line
is excited by an electromagnetic wave that couples to the line along a certain segment of it. It
is easy to recognize that this is the one dimensional analogue of Maxwell’s equations (3.1). The
problem is again LSI and can be schematized as in Fig. 3.4. Hence, as suggested by this picture,
the solution can be expressed as
Z ∞ Z ∞
0 0 0
V (z) = Z∞ GV is (z − z )is (z )dz + GV vs (z − z 0 )vs (z 0 )dz 0
−∞ −∞
Z ∞ Z ∞
0 0 0
I(z) = GIis (z − z )is (z )dz + Y∞ GIvs (z − z 0 )vs (z 0 )dz 0
−∞ −∞
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The system here has two inputs and two outputs: each output depends on both inputs, so that
in practice there are four Green’s functions, each one a pure number. They can be obtained
by applying the spatial Fourier transform to the system equations (3.2). However, by the very
definition of Green’s function
• GV is (z) is the voltage wave V (z)/Z∞ created by a unit amplitude current generator located
in z = 0
• GV vs (z) is the voltage wave V (z) created by a unit amplitude voltage generator located in
z=0
• GIis (z) is the current wave I(z) created by a unit amplitude current generator located in
z=0
• GIvs (z) is the current wave I(z)Y∞ created by a unit amplitude voltage generator located in
z=0
so that they can be found by simple circuit theory, just recalling that the input impedance of an
infinitely long line is Z∞ . The resulting expressions are
1
GV is (z) = GIvs (z) = − e−jk|z|
2
1
GV vs (z) = GIis (z) = − sgn(z)e−jk|z|
2
where sgn(z) is the sign function
½
1 if z > 0
sgn(z) =
−1 if z < 0
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As another preparatory example before tackling (3.1), let us consider the case of sound waves.
It can be shown that the excess pressure p(r) with respect to the background pressure satisfies the
scalar Helmholtz equation µ ¶
2 ω2
∇ + 2 p(r) = −S(r) (3.3)
Vs
where Vs is the sound velocity and S(r) is a source term. This equation corresponds to the picture
of Fig. 3.5, where S(r) is the input and p(r) the output. In this case the system has only one
input and one output but it is multidimensional, since both depend on the three independent
variables x, y, z. In perfect analogy with LTI systems, LSI systems are completely characterized
in space domain by their “impulse response” G(r), which is traditionally called Green’s function.
This is the output of the system when the input is a point source located at the origin of the
coordinate system, which can be represented mathematically by a three-dimensional Dirac delta
function S(r) = δ(r) = δ(x)δ(y)δ(z). The fundamental property of this multidimensional Dirac δ
function is Z Z ∞Z ∞Z ∞
δ(r)dr = δ(x)δ(y)δ(z)dx dy dz = 1
−∞ −∞ −∞
When the input is an arbitrary function, the output is found by (three-dimensional) convolution
Z
p(r) = G(r − r0 )S(r0 )dr0
Alternatively, an LSI system can be characterized in the spectral domain. When the input is a
harmonic function of x, y, z, that is S(r) = exp(−j(kx x + ky y + kz z)) = exp(−jk · r), the output
is proportional to it and the coefficient of proportionality is, by definition, the transfer function
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H(k). Again, transfer function and Green’s function of the same system are related by a Fourier
transform: however, in this case, it is triple, since it operates on the three variables x, y, z. The
couple of inverse and direct 3-D Fourier transform is given by
Z
1
G(r) = H(k) exp(−jk · r)dk
(2π)3
Z (3.4)
H(k) = G(r) exp(jk · r)dr
where dk = dkx dky dkz . It can be shown that in the case of free space, the transfer function is
1
H(k) = (3.5)
k2 − ω 2 /Vs2
and the corresponding Green’s function is
exp(−jk0 r)
G(r) = (3.6)
4πr
S (r ) G (r ) p (r ) S (k ) H (k ) p(k )
Figure 3.5. Space domain and spatial frequency domain description of the sound radiation phenomenon
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with k0 = ω/Vs denoting the wavenumber. This expression describes a diverging spherical wave.
Indeed, the constant phase surfaces are obviously r = const, a series of concentric spheres with
center in the origin. Moreover, assuming that the source is harmonic with frequency ω0 , the
expression of the Green’s function in time domain is
½ ¾
exp(−jk0 r) cos(ω0 t − k0 r)
g(r,t) = R exp(jω0 t) =
4πr 4πr
from which it is evident that the phase velocity is
Vph = ω0 /k0 = Vs > 0
As another well known example of LSI system, let the frequency ω go to zero in (3.3), so that
the Helmholtz equation becomes Poisson equation. This, for example, relates the electric potential
V (r) to a charge distribution ρ(r), which acts as its source:
ρ(r)
∇2 V (r) = −
ε
The transfer function associated to this equation is (from (3.5))
1
H(k) =
εk 2
and the corresponding Green’s function (from (3.6))
1
G(r) =
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4πεr
We recognize immediately this expression as the potential generated by a point charge q = 1 C in
a dielectric with permittivity ε.
We are ready now for Maxwell’s equations (3.1), which are still more complicated because in
addition to being multidimensional and multiple input/output, they are vector equations: this
means that the output is a vector that is not necessarily parallel to the input. This implies that
each of the four Green’s function is not a scalar but a linear operator (a tensor ), which, in a basis,
is represented by a 3 × 3 matrix. This means that, differently from the case of sound waves, the
Green’s function is not directly the field radiated by a point source. The source is really a point
but is also a vector, which can have all possible orientations. From a certain point of view, we can
say that the Green’s tensor yields the field radiated in a given point by a point source in the origin
with all possible orientations. This concept will be better clarified in Section 3.2.
In coordinate-free language
Z Z
E(r) = −jωµ0 GEJ (r − r ) · J(r )dr − GEM (r − r0 ) · M(r0 )dr0
0 0 0
Z Z (3.7)
H(r) = GHJ (r − r0 ) · J(r0 )dr0 − jωε0 GHM (r − r0 ) · M(r0 )dr0
To check the dimensions of the various Green’s functions, it is useful to note that
ωµ0 = k0 Z0 ωε0 = k0 Y0 = k0 /Z0
Hence we recognize that GEJ and GHM are measured in m−1 , GEM and GHJ in m−2 . The
explicit expressions of the various dyadic Green’s functions can be obtained by applying the Fourier
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transform technique to (3.1). The most appropriate coordinate system that can be used to show
the result is the spherical one, because the source is a point. It can be shown that the matrices
representing the Green’s functions are:
 
A 0 0
exp(−jk0 r)
GEJ (r,ϑ,ϕ) = GHM (r,ϑ,ϕ) ↔  0 B 0 
4πr
0 0 B
  (3.8)
0 0 0
exp(−jk 0 r)
GEM (r,ϑ,ϕ) = GHJ (r,ϑ,ϕ) ↔ −jk0  0 0 −C 
4πr
0 C 0
√
where the wavenumber is k0 = ω ε0 µ0 . Note that the row and column indices are r̂, ϑ̂, ϕ̂,
respectively. In dyadic form
h i exp(−jk r)
0
GEJ (r,ϑ,ϕ) = GHM (r,ϑ,ϕ) = Ar̂r̂ + B ϑ̂ϑ̂ + B ϕ̂ϕ̂
4πr
h i exp(−jk r)
0
GEM (r,ϑ,ϕ) = GHJ (r,ϑ,ϕ) = −jk0 C ϕ̂ϑ̂ − ϑ̂ϕ̂
4πr
where
µ ¶
1 1
A=2 j +
k0 r (k0 r)2
1 1 1
B =1− A=1−j −
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2 k0 r (k0 r)2
1
C =1−j
k0 r
Consistently with the fact that the source is a point, the Green’s function does not depend on the
angular variables.
The behavior of the three coefficients at large distance from the source, k0 r → ∞ (i.e. r À λ)
is
µ ¶
1
A=O
k0 r
B→1
C→1
In this region, usually called far field region, the expressions of the Green’s functions simplify and
become
exp(−jk0 r)
GEJ (r,ϑ,ϕ) = GHM (r,ϑ,ϕ) ∼ Itr
4πr (3.9)
exp(−jk0 r)
GEM (r,ϑ,ϕ) = GHJ (r,ϑ,ϕ) ∼ −jk0 r̂ × Itr
4πr
where Itr is the transverse to r identity dyadic, see Appendix. This operator, when applied to an
arbitrary vector, produces as a result the projection of the vector on the plane perpendicular to r.
The operator r̂ × Itr adds a further 90◦ counterclockwise turn around r.
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Conversely, in the near field region, k0 r → 0 (i.e. r ¿ λ), the coefficients become
2
A∼
(k0 r)2
1
B∼−
(k0 r)2
1
C ∼ −j
k0 r
3.2 Elementary dipoles

As discussed previously, the Green’s function is the basic tool for the computation of the field
radiated by any source by means of eq. (3.7). However, it is convenient to start with the simplest
one, i.e. a point source, and this will help in understanding the properties of the Green’s functions.
Consider first an elementary source of electric type located at the origin of the coordinate system,
modeled by the current distribution
J(r) = Me δ(r)
The vector Me is called the electric dipole moment of the current distribution and is measured
in Am (recall that the dimensions of the three dimensional δ function are m−3 ). An arbitrary
current distribution can be characterized by its moments. This concept is used also in the theory
of probability: if ξ is a random variable with density function Wξ (x), moments of all orders can
be defined by Z ∞
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mn = E{ξ n } = xn Wξ (x)dx
−∞
where E{ } denotes the expectation value. In the case of the current distribution, the role of
Wξ (x) is played by J(r), but the situation is more complicated because its vector nature implies
that the moments beyond the first are tensors. The first moment (dipole moment) is a vector,
defined by Z
Me = J(r)dr (3.10)
In the case of the point source introduced above, thanks to the properties of the delta function, the
previous equation becomes an identity and we understand the reason for the name of the coefficient.
From a practical point of view, we can imagine to obtain this source by a limiting process, starting
from a rectilinear current I, whose length l is progressively reduced without changing the aspect
ratio (diameter/length of the wire), while, at the same time, the current is increased, so that the
value of the integral (the dipole moment Il) remains constant.
Introducing the dipole current into (3.7), we find that the radiated fields are given by
Z
E(r) = −jωµ0 GEJ (r − r0 ) · Me δ(r0 )dr0 = −jωµ0 GEJ (r) · Me
Z (3.11)
H(r) = GHJ (r − r0 ) · Me δ(r0 )dr0 = GHJ (r) · Me
Since we know the expressions of the matrices representing the Green’s functions in the spherical
basis, it is necessary to express the vector Me in the same basis. Let us assume that the polar
axis of the coordinate system is in the direction of Me , i.e. assume Me = Me ẑ. Note that
this step is allowed because the Green’s function does not depend on the angular variables, as a
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consequence of the isotropy of free space. It is to be remarked, as a general rule, that the Green’s
function depends only on the structure and, hence, shares its symmetries. This choice guarantees
the simplest description of the radiated field. Since the radiated field must have the direction of
Me as a symmetry axis, orienting the polar axis of the coordinate system in this direction allows
the expressions to be independent on ϕ.
Me = (Me · r̂)r̂ + (Me · ϑ̂)ϑ̂ + (Me · ϕ̂)ϕ̂

= Me (ẑ · r̂)r̂ + Me (ẑ · ϑ̂)ϑ̂ + Me (ẑ · ϕ̂)ϕ̂ (3.12)
= Me cos ϑr̂ − Me sin ϑϑ̂
where we have exploited (A.12). Now recalling the expression of the Green’s function (3.8), we
obtain
  
A 0 0 cos ϑ
exp(−jk0 r) 
E(r) = −jωµ0 0 B 0   − sin ϑ  Me
4πr
0 0 B 0 (3.13)
Z0 Me exp(−jk0 r) ³ ´
= −j A cos ϑr̂ − B sin ϑϑ̂
2rλ
where use has been made of
2π
ωµ0 = k0 Z0 =Z0
λ
and Z0 is the wave impedance. Concerning the meaning of (3.12), it is to be remarked that the
matrix (3.8) represents the Green’s function in the spherical basis consisting of the unit vectors
r̂, ϑ̂, ϕ̂ defined in the observation point r. Hence, even if the source is located in the origin, its
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components are evaluated in the basis associated to the point r.
We can proceed similarly for the magnetic field:
  
0 0 0 cos ϑ
exp(−jk0 r) 
H(r) = −jk0 0 0 −C   − sin ϑ 
4πr
0 C 0 0 (3.14)
Me exp(−jk0 r)
=j C sin ϑϕ̂
2rλ
In conclusion, the electromagnetic field radiated by an electric dipole has the following expression
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
Z0 Me exp(−jk0 r) 1 1 1 1
E(r) = −j 2 j + cos ϑr̂ − 1 − j − sin ϑϑ̂
2rλ k0 r (k0 r)2 k0 r (k0 r)2
(3.15)
µ ¶
Me exp(−jk0 r) 1
H(r) = j 1−j sin ϑϕ̂
2rλ k0 r
This wave has two components of electric field and only one of magnetic field. Imagine a geo-
graphical system of coordinates such that the direction of the dipole moment defines the direction
of the earth axis. The angle ϑ is the colatitude (= 90◦ −latitude), the angle ϕ is the longitude.
Then the electric field is contained in the meridian planes and the magnetic field is tangent to the
parallels. This type of wave is called TM (Transverse Magnetic) since the magnetic field has no
radial component. We recognize also that the radial component of the electric field is dominant
close to the source, but negligible with respect to the others at large distance. Here the wave is
essentially TEM, since neither field has a (significant) radial component.
36
Let us compute the energy budget by means of the Poynting theorem. The Poynting vector is
Z0 Me2 h 2
i
S = E × H∗ = BC ∗
sin ϑr̂ + AC ∗
sin ϑ cos ϑϑ̂
4r2 λ2
Compute the components
· ¸· ¸
∗ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
BC = 1 − j − 1+j =1−j − +j + −j
k0 r (k0 r)2 k0 r k0 r (k0 r)2 k0 r (k0 r)2 (k0 r)3
1
=1−j
(k0 r)3
· ¸· ¸
2 2 1 2 2 2 2
AC ∗ = j + 1 + j =j + − +j
k0 r (k0 r)2 k0 r k0 r (k0 r)2 (k0 r)2 (k0 r)3
· ¸
2 2
=j +
k0 r (k0 r)3
Substituting in the previous equation we get
·µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
Z0 Me2 1 2 2 2
S= 2 2 1−j sin ϑr̂ + j + sin ϑ cos ϑϑ̂
4r λ (k0 r)3 k0 r (k0 r)3
According to Poynting theorem, the surface density of active power flow is
dP 1
= R{S · ν̂} (3.16)
dΣ 2
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where ν̂ is the normal to the surface element. In order to compute the total radiated active power,
we have to evaluate the flux of the Poynting vector across a closed surface surrounding the source.
For maximum simplicity we choose a sphere of radius r:
Z Z Z
1 1 2π π Z0 Me2
Prad = R S · ν̂ dΣ = 2 2
sin2 ϑ r2 sin ϑ dθdϕ
2 2 0 0 4r λ
Z π
1 Z0 Me2 (3.17)
= 2π sin3 ϑ dθ
2 4λ2 0
1 Z0 Me2 2π
=
2 3λ2
Here we have used the following facts
• the normal to the spherical surface is ν̂ = r̂

• the area element in spherical coordinates is dΣ = r2 sin ϑ dθdϕ
• the integrand does not depend on ϕ, so the ϕ integration yields the 2π factor
• the ϑ integration yields Z π
4
sin3 ϑ dθ =
0 3
The factor 1/2 has been left explicit to make it clear that Me is a peak value, that is the time
domain dipole moment is Me (t) = Me cos(ω0 t). If, on the contrary Me is an effective value, the
factor 1/2 has to be dropped.
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We notice that the total radiated power does not depend on the radius of the sphere chosen
to compute it. Algebraically this is the result of the cancellation between the r2 factor in the
denominator of the Poynting vector and the one in the area element dΣ. To get a more physical
explanation, consider the fluxes through two concentric spheres of different radii: if they were
different, power would be lost or generated in the shell, which is impossible by conservation of
energy in a lossless medium.
In (3.17) we took the real part of the integral. The imaginary part is the reactive power
Z Z Z
1 1 2π π Z0 Me2 1
Q = I S · ν̂ dΣ = − 2 2 3
sin2 ϑ r2 sin ϑ dθdϕ
2 2 0 0 4r λ (k0 r)
Z π
1 Z0 Me2 1
=− 2π sin3 ϑ dθ
2 4r2 λ2 (k0 r)3 0
1 Z0 Me2 2π 1
=−
2 3λ2 (k0 r)3
It is reasonable that Q depends on r: the reactive power is the energy that twice per period is
exchanged between generator and load, hence crosses the spherical surface of radius r. Moreover,
it may be remarked that in the ϑ direction, the structure is closed as a (virtual) cavity. This
explains why the ϑ component of the Poynting vector is pure imaginary. Indeed, a real part of Sϑ
would imply a steady energy flow in that direction; however, this is impossible, since the angular
domain is finite (0 ≤ ϑ ≤ π/2) and the dielectric is lossless.
It is useful to explicitly indicate the dominant components close to the source and far from it.
In the far field region, r À λ
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Z0 Me exp(−jk0 r)
E(r) ∼ j sin ϑϑ̂
2rλ
(3.18)
Me exp(−jk0 r)
H(r) ∼ j sin ϑϕ̂
2rλ
We see that the fields tend to be linearly polarized, orthogonal and proportional to each other and
also orthogonal to the radial direction. These properties are summarized in the impedance relation
1
H(r) ∼ r̂ × E(r)
Z0
E(r) ∼ Z0 H(r) × r̂
The radiated field is a spherical wave (because of the factor exp(−jk0 r)), diverging from the origin
√
with phase velocity c = ω/k0 = 1/ ε0 µ0 . Indeed, the time varying electric field is given by
E(r,t) = R{E(r)ejωt }
Z0 Me
∼− sin ϑ sin(ω0 t − k0 r)ϑ̂
2rλ
Note that there is no contradiction between the statement that the radiated field is a spherical
wave and the fact that this field has the sin ϑ dependence: the former refers to the constant phase
surfaces, the latter to a magnitude factor.
The field amplitudes decay as 1/r. This behavior is strictly connected with the principle of
conservation of energy. Indeed, it is easy to see that the total radiated active power computed in
38
(3.17) is due only to these 1/r components.

The active power density per unit surface dP/dΣ, at any distance, (dΣ orthogonal to r̂) is given,
according to (3.16), by
dP 1 Z0 Me2
= sin2 ϑ (3.19)
dΣ 2 4r2 λ2
Thus, in the far field,
dP 1 |E|2
∼
dΣ 2 Z0
exactly as in the case of a plane wave, see (2.13). This fact should not be surprising, since a spherical
wave can be locally approximated by a plane wave with direction of propagation coincident with
the radial direction. In the near field region r ¿ λ
· ¸
Z0 Me 2 1
E(r) ∼ −j cos ϑr̂ + sin ϑϑ̂
2rλ (k0 r)2 (k0 r)2
(3.20)
Me 1
H(r) ∼ sin ϑϕ̂
2rλ k0 r
which may be reduced to
Z0 Me λ h i
E(r) ∼ −j 2 3
2 cos ϑr̂ + sin ϑϑ̂
8π r
(3.21)
Me
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H(r) ∼ sin ϑϕ̂
4πr2
We notice that the exponential has been dropped, since its value, for r ¿ λ is essentially 1. Clearly,
very close to the source, the propagation delay is negligible. We can recognize that the electric
field coincides with that of a static dipole, whose moment, however, is a sinusoidal function of
time. Likewise, the magnetic field coincides with that created, in accordance with the Biot-Savart
law, by an infinitesimal current element, where the current is a sinusoidal function of time. This
regime is called quasi-static.
Fig. 3.6 shows a sketch of the electric field lines in a plane ϕ = const; close to the source the
field line behavior is similar to that of a static dipole, further away, entering in the radiation region,
they are completely different. Note that they are closed: we are accustomed to magnetic field line
being closed because ∇ · B = 0, i.e. B is solenoidal. Actually in this case also the electric field is
(almost) everywhere solenoidal. Recall the divergence equation
ρ
∇·E= =0 for r 6= 0
ε
because the source is point like and located in the origin.
Note that the image shown in the figure refers to a specific time; as time passes the contours move
outward radially. Fig. 3.7 shows the traditional way to plot the ϑ component of the electric field in
the far field region, in a plane ϕ =const. It is a polar plot and the curves have equation ρ = sin ϑ
(with ρ denoting the length of OP ), hence they are circles.
The other elementary source that we describe now is the dual of the electric dipole, i.e. a
magnetic dipole. We consider then formally a point source of magnetic current,
M(r) = Mm δ(r)
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Figure 3.6. Dipole electric field lines
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z
ϑ P
O x
1
Figure 3.7. Dipole far field. Normalized polar plot of Eϑ and Hϕ at large distance. The maximum
field value is reached on the equator ϑ = π/2 and is normalized to 1. For any ϑ the length of the
segment OP is proportional to the value of Eϑ
The vector Mm is called the magnetic dipole moment of the current distribution and is defined as
Z
Mm = M(r)dr
Its units are Vm. It is well known that magnetic currents do not exist, as flow of magnetic charges,
but can be introduced formally to describe electric currents circulating in closed loops. Indeed,
this elementary source can be imagined to be obtained with a limiting procedure from a loop,
enclosing an area S, on which the current I is circulating. The “equivalent” magnetic current has
a direction perpendicular the plane of the loop as indicated by the thumb of the right hand when
the fingers are aligned along the electric current flow. The point source is obtained by shrinking
the loop and increasing the current so that the magnetic dipole moment remains constant. It can
40
be shown that the magnetic dipole moment of a small loop is
Mm = jωµSI
Notice that since ωµ = k0 Z0 , this quantity is measured in Ω/m and Mm turns out with the right
dimensions. In order to compute the fields radiated by such a source, we substitute its expression
in (3.7) and obtain
Z
E(r) = − GEM (r − r0 ) · Mm δ(r0 )dr0 = −GEM (r) · Mm
Z (3.22)
0 0 0
H(r) = −jω²0 GHM (r − r ) · Mm δ(r )dr = GHM (r) · Mm
As in the case of the electric dipole, we choose a spherical coordinate system with the polar axis
aligned along Mm , which then takes the form Mm = Mm ẑ. Recalling (3.8), (3.12) and computing
the scalar products we obtain
µ ¶
Mm exp(−jk0 r) 1
E(r) = −j 1−j sin ϑϕ̂
2rλ k0 r
(3.23)
· µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
Y0 Mm exp(−jk0 r) 1 1 1 1
H(r) = −j 2 j + cos ϑr̂ − 1 − j − sin ϑϑ̂
2rλ k0 r (k0 r)2 k0 r (k0 r)2
If we compare these expressions with those of the fields radiated by an electric dipole (3.15), we see
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that they (obviously!) satisfy the principle of duality, in the sense that the expressions of electric
and magnetic fields are exchanged in the two cases. This wave is of T E type since the electric field
has no radial component and tends to become T EM in the far field region.
The Poynting vector associated to these fields is
2 h i
Y0 Mm 2
S = E × H∗ = B ∗
C sin ϑr̂ + A ∗
C sin ϑ cos ϑϑ̂
4r2 λ2
which is just the complex conjugate of the corresponding expression for the electric dipole. Hence
the result is written down by inspection
2
·µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
Y0 Mm 1 2 2 2
S= 1 + j sin ϑr̂ − j + sin ϑ cos ϑϑ̂
4r2 λ2 (k0 r)3 k0 r (k0 r)3
The total radiated active power is given by the real part of the flux of S through a sphere concentric
with the source and is Z 2
1 1 Y0 Mm 2π
Prad = R S · ν̂ dΣ = (3.24)
2 2 3λ2
For completeness we report the expression of the reactive power
Z 2
1 1 Y0 Mm 2π 1
Q = I S · ν̂ dΣ = 2
2 2 3λ (k0 r)3
which has the opposite sign with respect to the case of the electric dipole, since this is a magnetic
source. This must not be surprising: also in circuit theory the reactive power in inductors and
capacitors has opposite signs.
41
It is useful to explicitly indicate the dominant components close to the source and far from it.
In the far field region, r À λ
Mm exp(−jk0 r)
E(r) ∼ −j sin ϑϕ̂
2rλ
(3.25)
Y0 Mm exp(−jk0 r)
H(r) ∼ j sin ϑϑ̂
2rλ
The impedance relation is the same as the one for the electric dipole fields:
1
H(r) ∼ r̂ × E(r)
Z0
E(r) ∼ Z0 H(r) × r̂
In the near field region r ¿ λ
Mm 1
E(r) ∼ − sin ϑϕ̂
2rλ k0 r
(3.26)
· ¸
Y0 Mm 2 1
H(r) ∼ −j cos ϑr̂ + sin ϑϑ̂
2rλ (k0 r)2 (k0 r)2
which may be reduced to
smartworlD.asia E(r) ∼ −
Mm
4πr2
sin ϑϕ̂
(3.27)
Y0 Mm λ h i
H(r) ∼ −j 2 cos ϑr̂ + sin ϑϑ̂
8π 2 r3
Obviously, Figs. 3.6 and Fig. 3.7 can be used also for magnetic dipoles.
3.3 Radiation of generic sources
After the analysis of the two elementary sources, we can discuss the radiation properties of arbitrary
distributions of electric and magnetic currents. Actually, the solution of this problem has already
been given in (3.7): the integrals are generally to be evaluated by numerical techniques and the
task is absolutely non trivial, since the integrands are highly oscillatory due to the presence of
the exponential exp(−jk0 r). However, when the point where the field is to be computed is far
from the source, it is possible to carry out a number of approximations that lead to a closed form
evaluation of the radiation integrals in a number of interesting cases. In this section we discuss
this approximation and find its domain of validity, obtaining a generalization of the concept of far
field region already introduced in the previous section.
Let us make reference to Fig. 3.8, which shows the geometry of the problem. The field radiated
in the observation point P (often called field point) is given by (3.7) that we repeat here for ease
42
d
P
r'
r
O
J, M
Figure 3.8. Radiation of an arbitrary source. Geometry for the approximate evaluation of the
radiation integral. P is the field point, r0 denotes a generic point of the current distribution and
the vector there represents the elementary dipole J(r0 )dV
of reference
Z Z
E(r) = −jωµ0 GEJ (r − r ) · J(r )dr − GEM (r − r0 ) · M(r0 )dr0
0 0 0
Z Z
(3.28)
H(r) = GHJ (r − r0 ) · J(r0 )dr0 − jωε0 GHM (r − r0 ) · M(r0 )dr0
The meaning of these equations is very clear: the given source distribution is described as a
collection of elementary electric (J(r0 )dV ) and magnetic (M(r0 )dV ) dipoles located in the source
point r0 , the field radiated by each of them is computed, as in the previous section, and the partial
results are summed. In other words, it is just an application of the superposition principle implied
by the linearity of Maxwell’s equations. The position of P is specified by its spherical coordinates
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r, ϑ, ϕ with respect to a (global) coordinate system with origin in O. Let us introduce the relative
position of P with respect to the source point r0
d = r − r0
and assume that k0 d À 1, so that the asymptotic expressions of the Green’s functions (3.9) can
be used:
exp(−jk0 d)
GEJ (d,ϑd ,ϕd ) = GHM (d,ϑd ,ϕd ) ∼ Itd
4πd (3.29)
exp(−jk0 d)
GEM (d,ϑd ,ϕd ) = GHJ (d,ϑd ,ϕd ) ∼ −jk0 d̂ × Itd
4πd
where d, ϑd , ϕd denote the spherical coordinates of P with respect to the source point r0 . Now
suppose, as it is usual in a telecommunication application, that the field point is so far away
that the angle subtended by the source, when observed from the field point, is negligible. This
means that the vectors d and r can be considered to be parallel, so that the various local spherical
coordinate systems can be collapsed in the global one with origin in O, so that ϑd ≈ ϑ and ϕd ≈ ϕ.
Of course d is different from r and can be approximated as follows.
s µ 0 ¶2
√ p p r r̂ · r0
d = d · d = (r − r0 ) · (r − r0 ) = r2 − 2r · r0 + r02 = r 1 + −2
r r
The observation point P is assumed to be at large distance, so r0 /r ¿ 1 and the square root can
be expanded in Taylor series (binomial theorem)
√ 1 1
1 + x = 1 + x − x2 + . . .
2 8
43
By letting
µ 0 ¶2
r r̂ · r0
x= −2
r r
we obtain, by keeping only the terms up to the second degree in r0 /r
" µ ¶2 µ 0 ¶2 #
r̂ · r0 1 r0 1 r
d=r 1− + + (r̂ · r̂0 ) + . . .]
r 2 r 2 r
where the last term is the lowest degree one coming from the term (1/8)x2 . Factoring common
terms yields
r02 h i
d = r − r̂ · r0 + 1 − (r̂ · r̂0 )2 + . . . (3.30)
2r
This infinite expansion can be truncated at any point: more terms retained means more accurate
results but also greater difficulty in the evaluation of the radiation integral. The relative distance
d appears in two places in the Green’s function, in the denominator and in the phase exponential.
To appreciate that the accuracy required in the two cases is different, let D be the diameter of the
smallest sphere containing the source. Then, as the source point sweeps the source volume
¯ ¯
D ¯d ¯ D
|d − r| ≤ , i.e. ¯ − 1¯¯ ≤ (3.31)
2 ¯ r 2r
Then substituting d with r (i.e. truncating the Taylor expansion at the first term) in the denom-
inator produces an error that can be made as small as one wishes by assuming r large enough.
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Concerning the exponential, (3.31) implies that
D
d=r+ξ with |ξ| ≤ 1
2
but then
D
exp[−jk0 d] = exp[−jk0 r] exp[−jk0 ξ ]
2
and approximating d with r would imply an error that does not depend on r but only on the
electrical size of the source, so that it could not be made small by increasing r. In conclusion, the
phase term requires that in (3.30) at least the first two terms are used. The denominator is not
critical and we can take d ≈ r there. In conclusion, we use:
d ≈ r − r̂ · r0 in the exponential
d≈r in the denominator
In this case we say that the radiation integral is computed in the Fraunhofer approximation. If
also the quadratic term in (3.30) is used in the exponential, we have the Fresnel approximation ,
which clearly is more accurate or it has a wider domain of applicability.
Consider first the Fraunhofer approximation of which we establish the domain of applicability.
A sufficient condition for the validity of the approximation is that the phase error produced by
neglecting the quadratic term in (3.30) is small. In the worst case ( r̂ · r0 = 0) the phase error is
r02
∆ϕ = k0
2r
44
and reaches the maximum value

D2 D2
∆ϕmax = k0 =π
8r 4rλ
for r0 = rmax
0
= D/2. A this point one could imagine that the requirement ∆ϕ ¿ 1 is enforced.
However, the distance rmin that would result would be very large and traditionally the condition
π
∆ϕmax ≤
8
is assumed instead. This condition yields for the domain of applicability of the Fraunhofer approx-
imation
D2
r ≥ rmin = 2
λ
The procedure seems to be a bit strange, but one must remember that the integrand is an oscillatory
function so that the sufficient condition ∆ϕ ¿ 1 is not necessary. The distance rmin is called far
field distance or Fresnel distance: indeed it is the boundary between the far field region (also called
Fraunhofer region or radiation region) and the Fresnel region, which is closer to the source even if
not adjacent to it.
Assuming the field point P is in the far field region of the source, the expressions of the Green’s
functions (3.29) become
exp(−jk0 r)
GEJ (d,ϑ,ϕ) = GHM (d,ϑ,ϕ) ∼ Itr exp(jk0 r0 · r̂)
4πr (3.32)
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exp(−jk0 r)
GEM (d,ϑ,ϕ) = GHJ (d,ϑ,ϕ) ∼ −jk0 r̂ × Itr exp(jk0 r0 · r̂)
4πr
Remember that here two approximations have been performed: first r À λ and then r ≥ 2D2 /λ
and, clearly, both must be satisfied. If these expressions are substituted in (3.28) we obtain the
far field expressions to be used for an arbitrary source:
Z
exp(−jk0 r)
E(r) ∼ −jωµ0 Itr · J(r0 ) exp(jk0 r0 · r̂)dr0 +
4πr
Z
exp(−jk0 r)
+ jk0 r̂ × Itr · M(r0 ) exp(jk0 r0 · r̂)dr0
4πr
Z
exp(−jk0 r)
H(r) ∼ −jk0 r̂ × Itr · J(r0 ) exp(jk0 r0 · r̂)dr0 +
4πr
Z
exp(−jk0 r)
− jωε0 Itr · M(r0 ) exp(jk0 r0 · r̂)dr0
4πr
These bulky expressions can be rewritten in a simpler form, very similar to the one in (3.18)
pertaining to an elementary dipole:
Z0 exp(−jk0 r)
E(r) ∼ −j Pe (r̂)
2rλ
(3.33)
exp(−jk0 r)
H(r) ∼ −j r̂ × Pe (r̂)
2rλ
45
where the generalized electric dipole moment Pe (r̂) is defined by

Z Z
Pe (r̂) = Itr · J(r ) exp(jk0 r · r̂)dr − Y0 r̂ × Itr · M(r0 ) exp(jk0 r0 · r̂)dr0
0 0 0
(3.34)
The units of Pe (r̂) are Am and, on comparing this expression with (3.10), we realize that the
generalization consists in the fact that
• it depends on integrals of both electric and magnetic currents

• the integrals contain also the exponential factor, so that the generalized electric dipole mo-
ment depends on r̂. Moreover, due to the transverse identity Itr , Pe (r̂) · r̂ = 0, i.e. the
generalized dipole moment is always orthogonal to r̂.
In the case of an electric dipole

J(r) = Me ẑδ(r)
we find (from (3.18) more easily than from the definition) that
Pe (r̂) = −Me sin ϑϑ̂
and in the case of a magnetic dipole
M(r) = Mm ẑδ(r)
(from (3.25) rather than from the definition)
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Pe (r̂) = Y0 Mm sin ϑϕ̂
It is interesting to note that, on recalling the definition of the triple Fourier transform of a
function of three space variables (3.4), the definition of the generalized electric dipole moment
(3.34) can be rewritten as
Pe (r̂) = Itr · F3 {J(r)}|k=k0 r̂ − Y0 r̂ × Itr · F3 {M(r)}|k=k0 r̂ (3.35)
from which we see that the radiated field is related to the Fourier transform of the source distri-
bution. In particular, the spectral component that contributes in a given observation direction r̂
is
2π
k= r̂
λ
This observation is important because it allows to derive some general properties of the radiated
field by basic theorems of the Fourier transform: for instance, a consequence of the uncertainty
principle of Fourier transforms is that a directive antenna must be large in terms of wavelengths.
From (3.33) we can derive some general properties of the field radiated by an arbitrary source
in the far field region:
• whatever the source, the radiated field is a spherical wave, as indicated by the presence of
the exponential exp(−jk0 r). It can be shown that close to the source the wavefronts have a
shape that more or less matches that of the source, but the propagation phenomenon modifies
them so that they transform smoothly into spheres.
• the magnitude of electric and magnetic field decays as 1/r
46
Peϕ (ϑ , ϕ )
ϑ
Peϑ (ϑ , ϕ )
. smartworlD.asia
Figure 3.9. Polar plot of Pe (r̂) for a fairly directive antenna. For the particular direction shown,
the spherical components of Pe are shown. Obviously Per ≡ 0
• Pe (r̂) for any source with a finite size in terms of wavelength is a function of ϑ, ϕ, which is
more rapidly varying than the sin ϑ typical of a point dipole. Indeed, the transform of the
Dirac delta function is a constant and the sin ϑ originates from the dot product Itr ·ẑ. Fig. 3.9
shows a polar plot of Pe (r̂) for a fairly directive antenna. The plot is a surface constructed
as follows. For each direction specified by spherical angles ϑ, ϕ, as the one shown, a point
of the surface is identified: its distance r from the origin is proportional to the magnitude
of Pe (ϑ,ϕ). For the particular direction shown, also the spherical components Peϑ , Peϕ are
shown. Obviously the radial component is identically zero. It must be clear that the two
vectors shown are not tangent to the surface shown.
The plot shows that the magnitude of Pe (r̂) (and then also of the radiated electric field) is
maximum in the direction of the z axis, which appears to be a symmetry axis of the antenna:
|Pe | does not depend on ϕ. One of the most striking characteristics of the plot is that it
shows that there are many directions for which |Pe | vanishes, so that the antenna does not
radiate any field in those directions. The explanation is simple. As (3.34) shows, Pe (r̂) is
given by an integral, that is by a sum of many infinitesimal contributions (J(r0 )dV ), each
one weighted by a phase factor (exp(jk0 r0 ·r̂)) that depends on the the observation direction.
For some directions (as ẑ in the figure) the various contribution sum in phase and the result
is large (constructive interference). For other directions (ϑ = const. in the figure), the
contributions are out of phase and the end result is zero because of destructive interference.
47
In other words, the zeros arise always because of cancellation. It is to be borne in mind
that this characteristic behavior is possible only because we assume that the source is time
harmonic, with a well defined frequency. In the case of a thermal source of light, i.e. a lamp
or a flame, the source is absolutely not time harmonic, but can be better described as a white
noise source: hence no constructive or destructive interference is possible and the plot is in
the form of a kind of sphere. Indeed, consider a certain direction: even if for one frequency
the various contributions give rise to cancellation, for other frequencies they do not and the
total field is never zero. This is the reason why two lamps on a table produce a uniform
brighter illumination of it. If the two lamps were ideally single frequency, characteristic dark
fringes (interference fringes) would appear
• the Poynting vector has the following expression
Z0
S(r) = E(r) × H∗ (r) ∼ Pe (r̂) × (r̂ × P∗e (r̂))
4r2 λ2
Z0 © ª
= |Pe (r̂)|2 r̂ − (r̂ · Pe (r̂)) P∗e (r̂) (3.36)
4r2 λ2
Z0
∼ 2 2 |Pe (r̂)|2 r̂
4r λ
because the generalized dipole moment is transverse to r̂. Since S is real and its field lines
are radial, active power flows in the radial direction. If we want to compute the total
radiated power, we have to compute the flux of the Poynting vector across any closed surface
surrounding the source. It is obviously convenient to choose a sphere with large enough
radius r, so that the previous expression can be used
smartworlD.asia
Z Z 2π Z π
1 1 Z0
Prad = R S · r̂ dΣ = dϕ |Pe (ϑ, ϕ)|2 sin ϑdϑ (3.37)
2 2 4λ2 0 0
where we have used dΣ = r2 sin ϑdϑdϕ. As in the case of an elementary dipole, the total power
leaving the sphere must be independent of its radius, so that we can simply talk about the
total power radiated by the source. Recalling the definition of solid angle dΩ = sin ϑdϑdϕ, we
can introduce the concept of power density per unit solid angle (W/steradiant) or radiation
intensity
dPrad 1 Z0
= |Pe (ϑ, ϕ)|2 (3.38)
dΩ 2 4λ2
Alternatively, we can introduce the power density per unit surface (oriented as the tangent
plane to the sphere of radius r through the observation point) by
dPrad 1 Z0
= |Pe (ϑ, ϕ)|2 (3.39)
dΣ 2 4λ2 r2
If we compare this expression with (3.33), we realize that
dPrad 1 |E|2
= (3.40)
dΣ 2 Z0
which is the same expression as (2.13) for plane waves, as we pointed out in the case of the
dipole fields. Then Pe (r̂) contains the information about the radiation pattern, i.e. the way
in which radiated power is distributed according to the direction. Moreover, it determines
48
also the polarization. Indeed, it can be expressed in the spherical basis relative to any
observation direction as:
Pe (ϑ, ϕ) = Peϑ (ϑ, ϕ)ϑ̂ + Peϕ (ϑ, ϕ)ϕ̂
as shown in Fig. 3.9

– If Peϑ and Peϕ have the same phase, the polarization is linear.
– If Peϑ and Peϕ have the same magnitude and are in phase quadrature, the polarization
is circular.
– In all other cases, the polarization is elliptical
It is finally to be remarked that any source that is significantly smaller than the wavelength
behaves as an elementary dipole, independently of the details of its actual shape. Indeed, in these
conditions, for all the points of the source the exponential in (3.34) is essentially equal to one and
Pe (r̂) = Itr · Me = −Me sin ϑϑ̂
as for an elementary dipole. As a consequence, we cannot deduce the shape of a small antenna
from measurements of the radiated field carried out in the far field region. Alternatively, small
details of a large source cannot be inferred from measurements of the radiated field. This property
explains why no microscope can show details of an object that are smaller than a wavelength.
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Electromagnetic-Field 2 C3

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Smartworld.asia Specworld.

Radiation in free space

Figure 3.1. Linear system view of the radiation phenomenon

Because of linearity, the response y(t) to x(t) can be found by convolution

and the corresponding Green’s function is

Vph = ω0 /k0 = Vs > 0

ωµ0 = k0 Z0 ωε0 = k0 Y0 = k0 /Z0

3.2 Elementary dipoles

Me = (Me · r̂)r̂ + (Me · ϑ̂)ϑ̂ + (Me · ϕ̂)ϕ̂

• the normal to the spherical surface is ν̂ = r̂

(3.17) is due only to these 1/r components.

Figure 3.6. Dipole electric field lines

be shown that the magnetic dipole moment of a small loop is

In the near field region r ¿ λ

which may be reduced to

3.3 Radiation of generic sources

and reaches the maximum value

where the generalized electric dipole moment Pe (r̂) is defined by

• it depends on integrals of both electric and magnetic currents

In the case of an electric dipole

Pe (r̂) = −Me sin ϑϑ̂

and in the case of a magnetic dipole

(from (3.25) rather than from the definition)

Pe (r̂) = Itr · F3 {J(r)}|k=k0 r̂ − Y0 r̂ × Itr · F3 {M(r)}|k=k0 r̂ (3.35)

• the Poynting vector has the following expression

Pe (ϑ, ϕ) = Peϑ (ϑ, ϕ)ϑ̂ + Peϕ (ϑ, ϕ)ϕ̂

as shown in Fig. 3.9

Pe (r̂) = Itr · Me = −Me sin ϑϑ̂

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