1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW:
Electricity is a major contributor to a nation’s economic development. It is the wheel
that drives most aspects of everyday life in society. A nation is a compendium of
activities and people whose progress is driven by the infrastructural components.
Electricity is the source of source of fuel for so many sectors of an economy. We all live
by electricity, our hospitals need electricity for the safe delivery of children and for
surgery and other purposes. Our airports need electricity for them to work and ensure
the safety of our aviation industry. Every nation lives by the activities of her workforce
and electricity are the number one amenity that is the lifeblood of many activities in the
country. It is essential for our industries; they all need electricity for them to power their
engines. The foreign missions in our countries and their businesses need electricity for
them to have a comfortable life in the country. The welding and other artistry fields in
our country need electricity to be able to work and all aspects of life in today's world
are reflecting around electricity.

Electricity is so important to the economic development of every nation because

it brings investment opportunities for the country. In a country with a fair share of
electricity, investors come in because the cost of production in such a country is minimal
compared to where there is no electricity. The electricity is cheaper compared to running
on generators. Electricity helps to reduce mortality rate in the country because the
hospitals will be efficiently powered and such is a key factor in service delivery at
hospitals. In countries with better electricity, good production and preservation are
higher. In such environments, agricultural productivity is high because, the electricity
can help in powering irrigation, food preservation, and seed preservations. They enable
the country to have fewer damages to agricultural products because they can be kept in
storage facilities to avoid wasting them.

Electricity improves the standard of living of the people in the country. This is
very important for the economic advancement of a country. If the people live in better
conditions, it has ripple effects on every aspect of the country. It reduces unwarranted
expenditures for the government. It improves the security of the county and helps to
create job opportunities for the entire country because the indirect sectors use the

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electricity to power their businesses. The development comes when the keys drivers of
the economy are unhindered by lack of infrastructural components of the country. Power
is one of the most critical components of infrastructure crucial for the economic growth
and welfare of nations. The existence and development of adequate infrastructure is
essential for sustained growth of the Indian economy.

India’s power sector is one of the most diversified in the world. Sources of power
generation range from conventional sources such as coal, lignite, natural gas, oil, hydro
and nuclear power to viable non-conventional sources such as wind, solar, and
agricultural and domestic waste. Electricity demand in the country has increased rapidly
and is expected to rise further in the years to come. In order to meet the increasing
demand for electricity in the country, massive addition to the installed generating
capacity is required. In May 2018, India ranked 4th in the Asia Pacific region out of 25
nations on an index that measures their overall power. Indian power sector is undergoing
a significant change that has redefined the industry outlook. Sustained economic growth
continues to drive electricity demand in India. The Government of India’s focus on
attaining ‘Power for all’ has accelerated capacity addition in the country. At the same
time, the competitive intensity is increasing at both the market and supply sides (fuel,
logistics, finances, and manpower).

Total installed capacity of power stations in India stood at 350.16 Gigawatt

(GW) as of February 2019. The Government of India has released its roadmap to achieve
175 GW capacity in renewable energy by 2022, which includes 100 GW of solar power
and 60 GW of wind power. The Union Government of India is preparing a 'rent a roof'
policy for supporting its target of generating 40 gigawatts (GW) of power through solar
rooftop projects by 2022. All the states and union territories of India are on board to
fulfill the Government of India's vision of ensuring 24x7 affordable and quality power
for all by March 2020, as per the Ministry of Power and New & Renewable Energy,
Government of India.

Coal-based power generation capacity in India, which currently stands at 191.09 GW

is expected to reach 330-441 GW by 2040. There are many advantages of thermal power
over other energy sources. Coal is the resource or fuel to produce electricity; it is easily
available fossil fuel. It means that the advantage of thermal power plant is that it uses
coal as a fuel which is easily available in nature. It produces more electricity in

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comparison to the wind and solar power plant. The size of the thermal power plant is up
to 1000 MW. And most of the power producers are dealing with sizes 660 MW or
higher, basically they are dealing with supercritical boilers.

While the size of solar and wind power plant is always less than 100 MW. Since
it produces enough electricity, so it plays a major role in the development of the country.
Because of this now villagers are also uplifting their living standards. Like nuclear
power plant, thermal power plant has no danger in passing the harmful radiations. In
comparison to all other types of power plant, the electricity produced by the thermal
power plant is cheapest.

Figure 1. Thermal power in India

Thermal power plant requires lesser area in comparison to the other power plant.
Nowadays because of the development, all compacted boiler and turbines are available
which further reduces the area of the thermal power plant. By the help of the chimney
and ESP design, it fulfills the environmental pollution department requirements.

The following considerations have to be examined in detail before selection of site for
a plant: -

1. Availability of fuel such as coal.

2. Ash disposal facilities.

3. Space requirements.

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 4. Nature of land.

5. Most important availability of water.

6. Availability of labor.

7. Transport facilities.

8. Public Society problems such as pollution.

9. Development of backward area

We can interpret that thermal power is a key component to the growth of the energy
sector in our country. Hence it is a major field for research and analysis for an electrical
engineer.

1.2 ABOUT THE ORGANIZATION:

Ever widening gap between the power demand and its availability in the state of Punjab
was one of the basic reasons for envisaging a thermal plant at ‘Lehra Mohabbat” Dist.
Bathinda. The other factors favoring the installation of this thermal were low initial cost
and less generation period as compared to hydro-electric generating station, its good
railway connection for fast proximity to load center. The foundation of the plant was
laid in 1995 and it was named “Guru Hargobind Thermal Plant”. “Guru Hargobind
Thermal Plant” has two units of stage I each of capacity 210MW and two units of stage
II each of capacity 250MW. The 220KVswitch yard and boiler was inaugurated on 2nd
May 1997 by Sukhdev Singh Handsaw, Minister of Punjab. The maximum power of the
plant is used in agriculture industry load and rural electrification.

Stage I

The first unit was commissioned on 29/12/1997

The second unit was commissioned on 16/10/1998

Stage II

The third unit was commissioned on 16/10/2008

The fourth unit was commissioned on 31/01/2009

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The power availability from the plant now meets 20-25% of the total power requirement
in Punjab. It has gone a long way in ushering prosperity in the state by emerging a large
number of agricultural pumping sets, more industrial connections, 100% rural
electrification, increased employment potential reliability and improvement in
continuity of supply and system voltage and removal of power cuts to a great extent. It
has also led to fast development to about 3000 persons. The main companies whose
technology pawed the way of this plant are “TATA Honeywell” & “BHEL” in turbine
and boiler control.

Coal at GHTP is received from Centre Coal Ltd and Eastern Coal Field Ltd of Coal
India besides important coal from China occasionally. On receiving coal, it is weighed
on the electronic “in motion Way Bridge”.

The total cooling water requirement for running two number units (210 MW
each) at Guru Hargobind Thermal Plant , Lehra Mohabat is supplied by the intake pump
house. The raw water is taken from the Sir hind canal distributor running just nearby
the plant area and stored in the storage pond. The pond act as water reservoir during the
period the canal is under shut down for maintenance purpose or otherwise. Normally,
turbidity of raw water is between 150-200 rpm, which increases to 400 – 500 ppm during
rainy season. In order to destroy algae and bacteria in the raw water, chlorination at the
intake pump house is done as per requirement. The water from pond is taken to the
clarifier with the pumps installed in the intake pump house.

Four cooling towers are used. The condensate (water) formed in the condenser
after condensation is initially at high temperature. This hot water is passed to cooling
towers. It is a tower- or building-like device in which atmospheric air (the heat receiver)
circulates in direct or indirect contact with warmer water (the heat source) and the water
is thereby cooled. A cooling tower may serve as the heat sink in a conventional
thermodynamic process, such as refrigeration or steam power generation, and when it
is convenient or desirable to make final heat rejection to atmospheric air. Water, acting
as the heat-transfer fluid, gives up heat to atmospheric air, and thus cooled, is re
circulated through the system, affording economical operation of the process. The
length of cooling tower is maximum 350 meter to 450 meter.In GHTP the Counter flow
type cooling tower are placed. In this type of cooling tower the air flow is directly
opposite to the water flow. In GHTP Lehra Mohabbat only one DM Plant is used for
raw water convert the DM Water and this dm water is used in boiler because the dm

5
water is very pure and this water PH quality is very suitable for steam. The dm water is
heated up in less time and boiler compute is free from corrosion. At GHTP Bowl Mills
have been installed for pulverizing the raw coal. Coal of maximum size of 25mm is
received in Raw Coal Bunkers from Coal Handling Plant. From the Bunker, this coal is
fed into the mill through Raw Coal Feeder. The feed to the coal mill can be controlled
by regulating the speed of the Feeder. In plant total 24 Bowl mills are used each unit
used only 4 Bowl mills and 2 Bowl Mills are stand by position.

1.3 ASSIGNMENTS & RESPONSIBILITIES:

GHTP Lehra Mohabbat has been assigned the task of generating electricity with its total
installed capacity of 920 MW, to be distributed to the consumers of Punjab state through
Distribution wing of PSPCL. Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has fixed generation
target of 3000 MU for this plant during 2018-19.GHTP Lehra Mohabbat has contributed
a lot to reduce the gap between demand & supply of power in Punjab since its
commissioning. Its Units have generated 84128 Million units up to Dec. 2018. This
plant has shown excellent performance and huge savings have been made in terms of
earning incentives by performing better than targets set by Punjab State Electricity
Regulatory Commission as well as Central Electricity Authority, through meticulous
planning with long vision.

Figure 2. GHTP Plant

GHTP has broken its own records of the highest generation year after year and has been
operating at the lowest cost of generation amongst all PSPCL power plants in spite of
its higher interest and depreciation

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Its operating parameters for the last 5 years are given in the following table:

Year

Sr.
Operating 2018-
No Unit
Parameters 2014- 2016- 19(Upt
. 2015-16 2017-18
15 17 o Dec -
2018)

4507.8 3134.82 2736.3 2944.45

1 Actual Gen. MU 2407.55
4 8 0 4

PlantAvail.
2 % 92.30 91.68 99.17 98.17 94.50
Factor

Plant
3 Utilization % 60.60 42.31 34.24 37.22 41.96
factor

Plant load
4 % 55.93 38.79 33.95 36.54 39.65
factor

Deemed
5 % 92.17 91.49 98.87 97.99 94.14
PLF

Auxiliary
6 Consumptio % 8.66 8.98 8.87 8.78 9.35
n

Sp. Coal
7 Consumptio Kg/KWh 0607 0.608 0.599 0.617 0.656
n

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 Sp. Oil
8 Consumptio ml/KWh 0.709 1.076 1.106 1.038 1.197
n

Kcal/KW
9 Heat Rate 2422 2512 2438 2493 2644
H

Thermal
10 % 35.51 34.23 35.27 34.50 32.53
Efficiency

Table 1. General data

1.4 SCHEMES UNDER IMPLEMENTATION:

1 Installation of Flue Gas Desulphurization Plant for Units of Stage-1 & 2.

2 Upgradation of Max DNA based DCS system at Stage-2.

Complete upgradation of Hathway make SER & annunciation system of

3
Unit No. 1.

4 Siemens-make Air circuit breakers for 415V switchgear of Stage-1

Replacement of static/electromechanical relays with numerical relays at 220

5
KV substation.

Replacement of electronic controllers installed in electrostatic precipitators

6 (ESPs) of Unit no. 1 & 2 with latest, energy efficient & emission reducing
controllers/ equipment.

7 Shifting of railway operation cabin at L-Xing (i.e. Crossing No. 3C)

Table 2. Schemes

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 1.5 ACHIEVEMENTS:

RECORDS SET BY GHTP:

Parameter Unit Performance of the Station

Max. Daily Generation LU 233.77 on 22.10.12

Max. Monthly Generation MU 706.469 in March-‘10

Max. Yearly Generation MU 7621.262 in 2011-12

Max. Daily PLF % 105.87% on 22.10.12

Max. Monthly PLF % 103.21 in March 10

Max. Yearly PLF % 96.44% in 2009-10

Continuous running Days 64.17 (04.02.10 to 09.04.10)

Lowest yearly Oil Cons. ml/kwh 0.367 in 2009-10

Lowest monthly aux cons % 7.35% in Feb-12

Lowest yearly aux cons % 7.87% in 2011-12

Lowest monthly DM water % 0.54% in APR-13

Lowest yearly DM water % 0.57% in 2012-13

Lowest yearly Heat rate kcal/kwh 2324 in 2012-13

No. of trippings in a year 34 in 2009-10

Deemed Gen. Monthly MU 712.515 in Oct-12

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Deemed PLF Monthly % 104.10 % in Oct-12

Deemed Gen. Yearly MU 8006.40 in 2011-12

Deemed PLF Yearly % 99.07% in 2011-12

Plant Utilis. Factor Monthly % 104.30% in Oct-11

Hrs 615.78 in 2011-12

Lowest yearly Planned Mtc.
% 1.09% in 2013-14

Max. Qtr Generation MU 2050.534 in Oct to Dec-11

Quarter PLF % 100.94% in Oct to Dec-11

Hrs 120.51 in 2003-04

Lowest yearly Forced Outage
% 0.69% in 2003-04

Table 3. Achievements

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2. ELECTRICAL MAINTAINANCE CELL:

2.1 SIGNIFICANCE:

Advances in the design and quality of electrical components have made it possible for
electrical systems to run for years without noticeable problems. With an increased
reliance on both data collection and machinery run by computer software, electrical
maintenance is more vital than ever. The failure of a single component in the electrical
system can cause extensive downtime or data loss. For this reason, among others,
electrical maintenance is an important part of commercial building operations.

Electrical maintenance covers all aspects of testing, monitoring, fixing, and replacing
elements of an electrical system. Usually performed by licensed professionals with
complete knowledge of the National Electric Code and local regulations, electrical
maintenance covers areas as diverse as:

 Substations
 Electrical machines
 Generators
 Hydraulics
 Lighting systems
 Pneumatics
 Surge protection
 Transformers.
 Digital communication

Early identification of problems is a key aspect of electrical maintenance. For instance,

should a back-up generator sit idle until needed, it may not start due to a number of
factors. Old fuel clogging a fuel filter, uncharged starting batteries, or start switches left
in the wrong mode can all prevent a smooth transition to backup power. These are basic
problems, easily identified and addressed through preventative maintenance.

One of the major challenges to electrical maintenance is the nature of electrical

wiring. It can be difficult to pinpoint the location of specific problems as the system is
built into the building. Thermal imaging has become increasingly important in the
industry for its ability to identify issues with both electrical connection points and

11
equipment operation. By catching such problems early, electrical maintenance helps
reduce unexpected power outages and protects equipment from damage. Electrical
maintenance is an aspect of building operations no commercial facility should be
without. While large scale operations may have their own on-staff electricians, smaller
facilities may find it more financially viable to contract with a licensed professional for
scheduled electrical maintenance and servicing.

2.2 LAYOUT:

Electrical Maintenance Cell at GHTP Lehra Mohabbat has further four departments:

1. 220 kV Switchyard cell

2 Protection cell

3. Switchgear and maintenance cell

4. Motor cell

The Operation & Maintenance practices provided by these above mentioned utilities at
thermal power stations have significance not only in terms of achieving high levels of
performance parameters but also for ensuring the good health of the equipment at the
power stations. Over the years, the power stations show deterioration in their
performance due to ageing factor. The conditions of such power plants get further
deteriorated if proper practices are not followed in their operation. Improved practices
are also needed to sustain performance of rehabilitated power plants. Improving
Operation & Maintenance performance through interventions is the quick and least cost
alternative for augmenting the availability of power. This requires multiple
interventions across various aspects including people, technology, process and
infrastructure etc.

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3. 220 kV SWITCHARD CELL:

It is divided into two parts:

1. 220 KV switchyard, 66 KV switchyard, transformer yard

2. Lighting cell

3.1. INTRODUCTION:

Electrical energy management system ensures supply of energy to every consumer at

all times at rated voltage, frequency and specified waveform, at lowest cost and
minimum environmental degradation. The switchgear, protection and network
automation are integral parts of the modern energy management system and
national economy. Modern 3phase 50 Hz AC interconnected system has several
conventional and non-conventional power plants EHV AC and HVDC transmission
system, back to back HVDC coupling stations, HV transmission network, substations,
MV and LV distribution systems and connected electrical loads. To fulfil these
requirements, state of art, scientifically and technologically advanced substation is
required.

The substation at GHTP has one 220 KV switchyard. There are four input units,
two having a capacity 210MW and two others have capacity of 250 MW. The generated
voltage is limited to 15.75kV and 16.5 KV which is stepped up to 220 KV via generating
transformer manufactured by BHEL. A part of 15.75/16.5KV supply is fed to unit
auxiliary transformer, which is used to run the auxiliaries of the plant. After step up, the
220 KV output from the generator transformer is fed to either of the two bus bars
through relays and circuit breakers and these are connected to various feeders through
various equipment.

3.2 OVERVIEW OF SUBSTATION:

Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or perform any of
several other important functions. Between the generating station and consumer, electric
power may flow through several substations at different voltage levels. A substation
may include transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages
and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission
voltages. Substations may be owned and operated by an electrical utility, or may be

13
owned by a large industrial or commercial customer. Generally, substations are
unattended, relying on SCADA for remote supervision and control.

The word substation comes from the days before the distribution system became
a grid. As central generation stations became larger, smaller generating plants were
converted to distribution stations, receiving their energy supply from a larger plant
instead of using their own generators. The first substations were connected to only
one power station, where the generators were housed, and were subsidiaries of that
power station.

At present, the demand for electrical power is growing rapidly, and this can be
fulfilled by the power generating substations. There are different types of power
generating substations like thermal, atomic, and hydro-electric. Based on the
availability of different resources, substations are building at different locations, but
these locations may not be closer to load centers. The actual power utilization can be
done by the load center. So it is essential to transmit the power from the substation to
load center locations. So, high and long transmission networks are required for this
function.

Figure 3 Substation

Power is generated fairly in the level of low voltage level; however, it is inexpensive to
supply the power at a high-voltage level. For preserving high and low voltage levels a
number of switching as well as transformation stations have to be produced among the
generating place & customer ends. Generally, these two stations are named as electrical
substations. A substation is an electrical system with high-voltage capacity and can be
used to control the apparatus, generators, electrical circuits, etc. The Substations are
mainly used to convert AC (alternating current) to DC (direct current). Some types of

14
substations are tiny in size with an inbuilt transformer as well as related switches. Other
types of substations are very huge with different types of transformers, equipment,
circuit breakers, and switches.

3.3 TYPES OF SUBSTATIONS:

Substations may be described by their voltage class, their applications within the power
system, the method used to insulate most connections, and by the style and materials of
the structures used. These categories are not disjointed; for example, to solve a particular
problem, a transmission substation may include significant distribution functions.

Figure 4. 35/10kV Substation

 Transmission substation

A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest case
is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases, substation contains
high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or isolated for fault clearance or
maintenance. A transmission station may have transformers to convert between two
transmission voltages, voltage control/power factor correction devices such as
capacitors, reactors, static VAR compensators and equipment such as phase shifting
transformers to control power flow between two adjacent power systems. A substation
is an electrical system with high-voltage capacity and can be used to control the
apparatus, generators, electrical circuits, etc. The Substations are mainly used to convert
AC (alternating current) to DC (direct current).

Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching

station" may be little more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest
transmission substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with multiple

15
voltage levels, many circuit breakers, and a large amount of protection and control
equipment (voltage and current transformers, relays and SCADA systems). Modern
substations may be implemented using international standards such as IEC Standard
61850.

Figure 5. HV Substation in Germany

 Distribution substation

A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the

distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity
consumers to the main transmission network, unless they use large amounts of power,
so the distribution station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local distribution.

Figure 6. Distribution substation

The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or sub-
transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is common
in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are typically
medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV, depending on the size of the area served
and the practices of the local utility. The feeders run along streets overhead (or

16
underground, in some cases) and power the distribution transformers at or near the
customer premises. In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also
isolate faults in either the transmission or distribution systems. Distribution substations
are typically the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits (of
several miles/kilometers), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed along the
line.

The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated distribution substations, with
high-voltage switching, and switching and backup systems on the low-voltage side.
More typical distribution substations have a switch, one transformer, and minimal
facilities on the low-voltage side.

 Collector substation

In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm or Photovoltaic power station, a

collector substation may be required. It resembles a distribution substation although
power flow is in the opposite direction, from many wind turbines or inverters up into
transmission grid.

Figure 7. Collector substation of windmill farm

Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35 kV,
although some collector systems are 12 KV, and the collector substation steps up
voltage to a transmission voltage for the grid. The collector substation can also
provide power factor correction if it is needed, metering, and control of the wind farm.
In some special cases a collector substation can also contain an HVDC converter station.
Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power plants of
comparable output power are in proximity. If no transformers are required for increasing
the voltage to transmission level, the substation is a switching station.

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  Converter substations:

Figure 8. Convertor Substation

Converter substations may be associated with HVDC converter plants, traction current,
or interconnected non-synchronous networks. These stations contain power electronic
devices to change the frequency of current, or else convert from alternating to direct
current or the reverse. Formerly rotary converters changed frequency to interconnect
two systems; nowadays such substations are rare.

 Switching station:

A switching station is a substation without transformers and operating only at a single

voltage level. Switching stations are sometimes used as collector and distribution
stations. Sometimes they are used for switching the current to back-up lines or for
parallelizing circuits in case of failure. An example is the switching stations for
the HVDC Inga–Shaba transmission line. To maintain reliability of supply, companies
aim at keeping the system up and running while performing maintenance. All work to
be performed, from routine testing to adding entirely new substations, should be done
while keeping the whole system running. A switching station may also be known as a
switchyard, and these are commonly located directly adjacent to or nearby a power
station. In this case the generators from the power station supply their power into the
yard onto the Generator Bus on one side of the yard, and the transmission lines take
their power from a Feeder Bus on the other side of the yard. An important function
performed by a substation is switching, which is the connecting and disconnecting of
transmission lines or other components to and from the system. Switching events may

18
be planned or unplanned. A transmission line or other component may need to be de-
energized for maintenance or for new construction, for example, adding or removing a
transmission line or a transformer.

Figure 9. Switching substation

To maintain reliability of supply, companies aim at keeping the system up and running
while performing maintenance. All work to be performed, from routine testing to adding
entirely new substations, should be done while keeping the whole system running.

 Mobile substation:

A mobile substation is a substation on wheels, containing a transformer, breakers and

bus work mounted on a self-contained semi-trailer, meant to be pulled by a truck.

Figure 10. A Mobile Substation

They are designed to be compact for travel on public roads, and are used for temporary
backup in times of natural disaster or war.

Mobile substations are usually rated much lower than permanent installations, and
may be built in several units to meet road travel limitations.

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 Outgoing lines of substation:

 220 KV line

1. Barnala 1

2. Barnala 2

3. Himmatpura 1

4. Himmatpura 2

5. Bajakhana 1

6. Bajakhana 2

7. Bhatinda 1

8. Bhatinda 2

9. Mansa 1

10. Mansa 2

 66 KV line

1. Vikram Cement factory

2. Phool

3. Bhucho mandi

4. Rampura

5. Lehra Mohhabat

3.4 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF ALL EQUIPMENT:

Bus Bars

Bus bar is a term used for main bar of conductor carrying an electric current to which
many connections can be made. These are mainly convenient means of connecting
switches and other equipment into various arrangements. At GHTP there are two 220
KV bus bars and two 66 KV bus bars which are made of aluminum. All incoming and
outgoing supplies are connected through the bus bars.

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Specification:

Minimum short circuit current in bus bars 40 KV

Minimum phase to phase clearance 2.5m

Number of horizontal levels of tubular bus bar/flexible bus bars 2.0m

Height of tubular bus-bar of first level above ground 6m

Height of tubular bus-bar of second level above ground 4m

Tubular aluminum bus bar AL ASTMB2414"IPS (International pipe standard)

Figure 11.Bus bar arrangement

Lighting Arrestors
These are equipment designed to protect insulators of power lines and electrical
installations from lightning surges by diverting the surge to earth. High Voltage Power
System experiences over voltages that arise due to natural lightning or the inevitable
switching operations. Under these overvoltage conditions, the insulation of the power
system equipment is subjected to electrical stress which may lead to catastrophic failure.
Broadly, three types of overvoltage occur in power systems:

(i) temporary over-voltages,

(ii) switching over voltages and

(iii) lightning overvoltage.

The duration of these over voltages vary in the ranges of microseconds to seconds
depending upon the type and nature of overvoltage. Hence, the power system calls
for overvoltage protective devices to ensure the reliability.

Conventionally, the overvoltage protection is obtained by the use of lightning/surge

arresters. Under normal operating voltages, the impedance of lightning arrester, placed

21
in parallel to the equipment to be protected, is very high and allow the equipment to
perform its respective function. Whenever the overvoltage appears across the terminals,
the impedance of the arrester collapses in such a way that the power system equipment
would not experience the overvoltage. As soon as the overvoltage disappears, the
arrester recovers its impedance back. Thus the arrester protects the equipment from
overvoltage. The technology of lightning arresters has undergone major transitions
during this century. In the early part of the century, spark gaps were used to suppress
this overvoltage. The silicon carbide gapped arresters replaced the spark gaps in 1930
and reigned supreme till 1970.

Figure 12. Lightning Arrestor

During the mid-1970 zinc oxide gapless arresters, possessing superior protection
characteristics, replaced the silicon carbide gapped arresters. Usage of Zinc Oxide
arresters have increased the reliability of power systems many fold.

Current Transformer

In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric

currents. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential
transformers (PT)), are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is
too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a
reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be
conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer
also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the
monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective
relays in the electrical power industry.

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 Figure 13. Current Transformers

Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring the
operation of the power grid. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from
primary to secondary. Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses. For
example, protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs to provide
isolation between metering and protection circuits, and allows current transformers with
different characteristics (accuracy, overload performance) to be used for the devices.
Care must be taken that the secondary of a current transformer is not disconnected from
its load while current is flowing in the primary, as the transformer secondary will
attempt to continue driving current across the effectively infinite impedance. This will
produce a high voltage across the open secondary (into the range of several kilovolts in
some cases), which may cause arcing. The high voltage produced will compromise
operator and equipment safety and permanently affect the accuracy of the transformer.

Potential Transformer

These are used to step do the voltage to a level that the potential coils of indicating and
monitoring instruments can read. These are also used to feed the potential coils of relays.
The primary winding is connected to the voltage being measured and the secondary
winding to a voltmeter. The PT steps down the voltage to the level of the voltmeter. The
primary winding consists of a large number of turns which is connected across the high
voltage side or the line in which measurements have to be taken or to be protected. The
secondary winding has lesser number of turns which is connected to the voltmeters, or
potential coils of wattmeter and energy meters, relays and other control devices. These

23
can be single phase or three phase potential transformers. Irrespective of the primary
voltage rating, these are designed to have the secondary output voltage of 110 V.

Figure 14. Potential Transformer

Since the voltmeters and potential coils of other meters have high impedance, a small
current flows through the secondary of PT. Therefore, PT behaves as an ordinary two
winding transformer operating on no load. Due to this low load (or burden) on the PT,
the VA ratings of PTs are low and in the range of 50 to 200 VA. On the secondary side,
one end is connected to the ground for safety reasons as shown in figure.

Power Transformer

These are used to step up down the voltage from one ac voltage to another ac voltage
level at the same frequency. In GHTP there are 2 power transformer located in
substation which converts 220 KV to 66 KV of power 100 MVA each. Losses in the
transformer are of the order of 1% of its full load kW rating. These losses get converted
in the heat thereby the temperature of the windings, core, oil and the tank rises. The heat
is dissipated from the transformer tank and the radiator in to the atmosphere.
Transformer cooling helps in maintaining the temperature rise of various parts within
permissible limits. In case of Transformer, Cooling is provided by the circulation of the
oil. Transformer Oil acts as both insulating material and also cooling medium in the
transformer. For small rating transformers heat is removed from the transformer by
natural thermal convection. For large rating transformers this type of cooling is not
sufficient, for such applications forced cooling is used. As size and rating of the
transformer increases, the losses increase at a faster rate. So oil is circulated in the
transformer by means of oil pumps. Within the tank the oil is made to flow through the
space between the coils of the windings. Several different combinations of natural,
forced, air, oil transformer cooling methods are available. The choice of picking the

24
right type of transformer cooling method for particular application depends on the
factors such as rating, size, and location.

Figure 15. Power transformer

Wave trap:

Wave trap is used to create high impedance to the carrier wave high frequency
communication entering in to unwanted destinations typically substation. Carrier wave
communication uses up to 150kHz to 800kHz frequency to send the all the
communication. These high frequency damages the power system components which
are designed to operate 50 or 60 Hz. Wave traps are also called as line traps. It consists
of an inductor coil which is connected in series with the high voltage power system.
Main Coil is nothing but an outer part of the wave trap circuits and which is made
from stranded aluminum cable. If the application of more than one layer is necessary,
separation between layers is required to provide a cooling duct between them to avoid
overheating. The cooling duct is created with spacer bars made out of epoxy resin and
fiberglass. The coil carries rated continuous power frequency currents, therefore this is
the power inductor in this system. It provides a low impedance path for the electricity
flow. The total current carrying capacity of the transmission system will be calculated,
and the trap coil are designed according to that. That’s why the coil become bigger size
as you can see in High voltage transmission.

25
 Figure 16.Wave trap

Circuit breaker

Circuit breakers are mechanical devices designed to close and open contactor electrical
circuit under normal or abnormal conditions. CB is equipped with a strip coil directly
attached to relay or other means to operate in abnormal conditions such as over power
etc. In GHTP 3 types of circuit breakers are used. Air Blast C.B.is used to control 220
KV in switchyard. Vacuum C.B. is used to control l6.6KV in switchgear and Air blast
C.B. are used to control 415V in switchgear. A circuit breaker is an automatically-
operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused
by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by
interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse, which
operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually
or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying
sizes, from small devices that protect an individual household appliance up to
large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits feeding an entire city.

Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the
circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or
compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although
some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself.

Small circuit breakers may be manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the
mechanism, and electric motors to restore energy to the springs. The circuit breaker
contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must also withstand
the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. Contacts are made of copper
or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other materials.

26
 Figure 17. Circuit breaker

When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled,
and extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again
withstand the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating
gas or oil as the medium in which the arc forms.

Capacitor Voltage transformer (CVT)

In high and extra high voltage transmission systems, capacitor voltage transformers
(CVTs) are used to provide potential outputs to metering instruments and protective
relays. In addition, when equipped with carrier accessories, CVTs can be used
for power line carrier (PLC)coupling. A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) is
a transformer used in power systems to step-down extra high voltage signals and
provide low voltage signals either for measurement or to operate a protective relay.

In its most basic form the device consists of three parts: two capacitors across which the
voltage signal is split, an inductive element used to tune the device to the supply
frequency and a transformer used to isolate and further step-down the voltage for the
instrumentation or protective relay. The device has at least four terminals, a high-
voltage terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal and at least
one set of secondary terminals for connection to the instrumentation or protective relay.

CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one
hundred kilovolts where the use of voltage transformers would be uneconomical.
In practice the first capacitor, C1, is often replaced by a stack of capacitors connected
in series.

27
 Figure 18. CVT

This results in a large voltage drop across the stack of capacitors that replaced the first
capacitor and a comparatively small voltage drop across the second capacitor C2 and
hence the secondary terminals.

Isolator:

A dis-connecter or isolator switch is used to make sure that an electrical circuit can be
completely de-energized for service or maintenance. Such switches are often found in
electrical distribution and industrial applications where machinery must have its source
of driving power removed for adjustment or repair.

Figure 19. Isolator

High-voltage isolation switches are used in electrical substations to allow isolation of

apparatus such as circuit breakers and transformers, and transmission lines,
for maintenance. In the substation following type isolators are used for the protection:

Horizontal break center rotating double break isolator:

This type of construction has three insulator stacks per pole. The two one each side is
fixed and the center is rotating type. The fixed contacts are provided on the top of each

28
of the insulator stacks on the side. The contact bar is fixed horizontally on the central
insulator stack. In closed position, the contact shaft connects the two fixed contacts. The
isolators are mounted on a galvanized rolled steel frame. The three poles are interlocked
by means of steel shaft. A common operating mechanism is provided for all the three
poles. One pole of a triple pole isolator is closed position.

Pantograph isolator:

Illustrates the construction of a typical pantograph isolator. While closing, the linkages
of pantograph are brought nearer by rotating the insulator column. In closed position
the upper two arms of the pantograph close on the overhead station bus bar giving a
grip. The current is carried by the upper bus bar to the lower bus bar through the
conducting arms of the pantograph. While opening, the rotating insulator column is
rotated about its axis. Thereby the pantograph blades collapse in vertical plane and
vertical isolation is obtained. Each pole can be located at a suitable point and the three
poles need not be in one line, can be located in a line at desired angle with the bus axis.

Isolator with earth switches (ES):

The instrument current transformer (CT) steps down the current of a circuit to a lower
value and is used in the same types of equipment as a potential transformer. This is done
by constructing the secondary coil consisting of many turns of wire, around the primary
coil, which contains only a few turns of wire. In this manner, measurements of high
values of current can be obtained. A current transformer should always be short-
circuited when not connected to an external load. Because the magnetic circuit of
a current transformer is designed for low magnetizing current when under load, this
large increase in magnetizing current will build up a large flux in the magnetic circuit
and cause the transformer to act as a step-up transformer, inducing an excessively high
voltage in the secondary when under no load. The main use of using the earth switch
(E/S) is to ground the extra voltage which may be dangerous for any of the instrument
in the substation.

Capacitor bank:

A capacitor bank is a grouping of several identical capacitors interconnected in parallel

or in series with one another. These groups of capacitors are typically used to correct or
counteract undesirable characteristics, such as power factor lag or phase shifts inherent

29
in alternating current (AC)electrical power supplies. Capacitor banks may also be used
in direct current (DC) power supplies to increase stored energy and improve the ripple
current capacity of the power supply.

3.5 TRANSFORMER YARD:

Generator Transformers:
The generator transformer is the first essential component for energy transmission,
allowing energy supplied by the generator to be transferred to the network at the
required voltage. To transmit power to various stations, we have to step down current
because there are I2R losses in transmission line. To do this, generator transformer is
used. Power from each generator is stepped up to 220 KV by 250/315 MVA 50 Hz 3-
phase 15.75/220 or 16.5/220 KV generator transformer with off load tap charger. There
is one Generator transformer for each unit.

Figure 20. Generator T/f

Station Transformer

In general station transformer is used for supplying power to auxiliary equipment in the
power plant when the plant is not generating any power.

Station Transformer takes power from grid at 220 KV and steps it down to
6.6KV. Rated KVA corresponds to the load of common auxiliaries of the station.

This corresponds to the 10% to 15% of the rating of the generating power. These
transformers are Outdoor type.

30
 Figure 21. Station transformer

Unit Auxiliary Transformer

Figure 22.Unit auxiliary T/f

The Purpose of Unit Auxiliary Transformer is to feed power to generator auxiliaries of

that unit. These transformers are connected to generators and are used as stepping
down transformers. The HV side transformer voltage corresponds to the voltage of the
generating unit and the LV side voltage is stepped down to 6.6KV. Rated KVA of Unit
Auxiliary Transformers is approximately 15% of the generating rating. Usually these
transformers are outdoor transformers. One Unit auxiliary transformer is present for
every generating unit.

3.6 FUNCTIONS OF EM-1:

Maintenance work includes periodical maintenance, breakdown maintenance,

shutdown maintenance and attending all types of faults round the clock which occurs
during running of equipment or otherwise for preventive maintenance including repair

31
replacement of any individual component or sub assembly or complete assembly for the
equipment at

220 KV and 66 KV switchyard and transformer yard including bus bars,

insulators, CTs and PTs, insulators,66KV capacitor bank, Super structures, marshalling
boxes and other associated equipment, generator transformer, power transformer, power
and control cables, service transformer, HV rectifier transformer, cable strays and
trenches, electrical wiring of local panels of above equipment, including operation and
maintenance.

However physical/visual inspection and recording of readings on day to day

basis will have to be done.

3.7 LIGHTNING CELL

Periodical/Preventive maintenance, breakdown maintenance, shutdown maintenance

and repair of plant lighting system and street lighting system and security lighting
system in plant area (except coal handling plant) of GHTP Lehra Mohabbat. Including
220 KV switchyard, 220 KV Transformer yard, 66 KV switchyard, 220 KV control
room building, TG 0 m to 15.5 m floor, P.R.D.S. 21 floor, boiler 0 m to 52 m
floors, service building, DG set house, DM plant, switchgears.

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4. PROTECTION AND MAINTENANCE CELL:

Protection and Maintenance cell protects power systems from faults through the
disconnection of faulted parts from the rest of the electrical network. The objective of a
protection scheme is to keep the power system stable by isolating only the components
that are under fault, whilst leaving as much of the network as possible still in operation.
Thus, protection schemes must apply a very pragmatic and pessimistic approach to
clearing system faults. The devices that are used to protect the power systems from
faults are called protection devices.

Primary function of the protective system is to detect and isolate all failed or
faulted components as quickly as possible, thereby minimizing the disruption to the
remainder of the electric system. Accordingly, the protection system should be
dependable (operate when required), secure (not operate unnecessarily), selective (only
the minimum number of devices should operate) and as fast as required. Without this
primary requirement protection system would be largely ineffective and may even
become liability.

Reliability of Protection Factors affecting reliability are as follows:

i) Quality of relays

ii) Component and circuits involved in fault clearance e.g. circuit breaker trips and
control circuits, instrument transformers

iii) Maintenance of protection equipment

iv) Quality of maintenance operating staff

Failure records indicate the following order of likelihood of relays failure, breaker,
wiring, current transformers, voltage transformers and D C. battery. Accordingly, local
and remote back up arrangement are required to be provided. Additionally, the accurate
protection may be required to obey with organization principles for some products.
Designers must take time to know the different protection devices for circuits.
Protection devices used to protect circuits from extreme voltages or currents. There are
many protection devices available in the market which offers you a total range of
protection devices for circuits such as a fuse, circuit breakers, gas discharge
tubes, thyristors, and more.

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 4.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTECTION SYSTEM:

 Selectivity:

It is required to prevent unnecessary loss of plant and circuits. Protection should be

provided in overlapping zones so that no part of the power system remains unprotected
and faulty zone is disconnected and isolated.

 Speed:

Factors affecting fault clearance time and speed of relay is as follows:

i) Economic consideration

ii) Selectivity

iii) System stability

iv) Equipment damage

 Sensitivity:

Protection must be sufficiently sensitive to operate reliably under minimum fault

conditions for a fault within its own zone while remaining stable under maximum load
or through fault condition.

 Protection Zones:

Overlapping zones of protection are provided so that no part of power system remains
unprotected. The point of connection of the protection with the power system normally
defines the zone boundary and generally corresponds to the position of the current
transformers. If they are provided on one side blind spots. Fault between CT and the
circuit breaker will not trip the feeder CB and fault current will continue to flow until
cleared by back up protection.

 Primary and back up Protection:

The design of a protective system should include backup protection to allow for failures
and for periodic maintenance of the interrupting devices, sensing devices, and protective
relays. Backup protection may be either remote or local or it may be a combination of
both schemes.

34
 Remote backup protection consists of relays that are set to respond to faults in the
next zone of protection. This type of protection is relatively slow as it should allow time
for the primary relaying in that zone to operate. It also may cause interruption to large
portions of the electric supply system. In some cases, local backup protection is
justified. Local backup consists of two sets of independent primary protection and
breaker-failure relaying. Ideally, this should include two independent sets of current
transformers, voltage transformers, protective relays, and breaker trip coils, but only
one breaker-failure relaying system is required. Each protective relay system should be
isolated so that a failure in one will not affect the other.

Among other things, this requires that the control power for each system be
supplied from separate low-voltage circuit breakers or fuses. Two forms of back up
protection are provided. These are protection failure or circuit breaker failure. Best form
of back up protection for any system is one in which both ac and dc supplies are
completely separate from main protection. Economic consideration determines the
extent to which back up protection is provided.

 Fault Data:

Protective relay systems measure the current, voltage, or a combination of current and
voltage during fault conditions. Fault current magnitude, and the associated change in
voltage, varies with the type of fault and with the location of the fault with respect to
the sensing devices. Therefore, a study of the types of faults that can occur is important
to ensure that the selected protection system can detect and isolate all faulted portions
of the electric system. The types of faults that should be considered are three-phase,
phase-to-phase, double-phase-to-ground, and single-phase-to-ground.

4.2 CIRCUIT INTERRUPTING DEVICES:

Fuses are single phase protective devices that combine sensing and interrupting
functions into a single unit. Fuse operation is based on the magnitude and duration of
current flowing in each phase of the circuit. The primary application considerations
include maximum load, minimum and maximum fault current available, interrupting
rating, operating time of the fuse relative to the operating time of protective devices on
both the consumer and utility systems, and the effects of single-phase supply due to the
operation of one fuse. Miniature circuit breakers are replacing fuses.

35
 A circuit breaker is an interrupting device designed for normal switching
functions as well as for fault interruption. Circuit breakers offer considerable flexibility
and are available in variety of voltage, current, and fault current interrupting ratings.
High-voltage circuit breakers are equipped with separate electrically operated close and
trip coils that can be controlled by any required protection and control package. Low-
voltage circuit breakers can be equipped with shunt trip devices but are usually self-
contained with integral thermal magnetic or solid-state trip units.

A station battery is considered the most reliable source of dc control power,

because battery output voltage is not affected by the ac voltage drop that can occur
during short-circuit conditions. A capacitive trip device will store energy for a short
period of time that is sufficient to trip a breaker. This device may be used under
circumstances when it is not practical to use a battery. When capacitive trip is used, the
power to both the trip and close circuits is AC. The location of the ac source must be on
the utility side of the main beaker to ensure power is available to close the main breaker.

4.3 CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated automatically or

manually for protecting and controlling of electrical power system. In the modern power
system, the design of the circuit breaker has changed depending upon the huge currents
and to prevent from arc while operating. Electricity which is coming to the houses or
offices or schools or industries or to any other places from the power distribution grids
forms a large circuit. Those lines which are connected to the power plant forming at one
end is called the hot wire and the other lines connecting to ground forming other end.
Whenever the electrical charge flows between these two lines it develops potential
between them. For the complete circuit the connection of loads (appliances) offers
resistance to the flow of charge and the whole electrical system inside the house or
industries will work smoothly.

They work smoothly as long as the appliances have sufficiently resistant and do
not cause any over current or voltage. The reasons for heating up the wires are too much
charge flowing through the circuit or short circuiting or sudden connection of the hot
end wire to the ground wire would heat up the wires, causing fire. The circuit breaker
will prevent such situations which simply cut off the remaining circuit. Overcurrent and
overvoltage faults in power systems can inflict severe damage upon electrical equipment

36
unless the fault can be isolated quickly. In the general case of faults of the overcurrent
type, over-heating of equipment or damage due to electrodynamic forces may occur. In
order to achieve the above aim in protecting electrical equipment it is necessary to have
some device or material which is capable of changing its electrical conductivity from
that of a good conductor to that of a good insulator in a very short time interval. It is
perhaps somewhat ironic that the electric arc, which appeared simply as a considerable
obstacle to circuit breaking in early power systems, is the one medium which can best
perform the duties outlined above, over the range of voltages and currents needed for
system protection. To quote Joseph Slepian, a pioneer of circuit-interrupter
development: "closer scrutiny of the fundamentals involved shows that .... far from
being all nuisance, the arc plays a very necessary and useful role in circuit interruption
and if the arc did not occur spontaneously it would have been necessary to invent it or
some more expensive and equivalent device to take over its useful functions.

Instead of being malicious, nature has really been most kind and beneficent in
thrusting upon us the electric arc for use in interrupting high powered circuits".
Although the arc plays a necessary role, the problem is that it will also have some
potentially deleterious effects on the further operation of the breaker. For example, the
arc will cause substantial heating at the contact surfaces and this may have some
negative impact on the contact resistance when they re-close after operation. Any
damage to the surface will increase contact resistance and lead to increased contact
heating. Thus the damage must be monitored somehow.

Further, the mechanical operation of the CB needs to be as fast as possible to

limit arcing duration and overall circuit interruption time. The overall circuit
interruption time is composed of a circuit breaker unlatching time, spring activation
time, contact separation time and arcing time. During all of this over interruption period
the circuit is carrying full current and even before the arc in the CB is generated,
considerable damage due to electrodynamic forces and thermal effects may occur in
parts of the systems simply carrying through-fault current.

Thus the mechanical operation must be as rapid as possible. If there is some

impediment to movement this can have severe ramifications. Thus, contact movement
and velocity need to be monitored. In sealed units such as GIS (SF6 gas insulated
systems) or in other types of SF6 circuit breakers or in vacuum circuit breakers, there
must be some detection of gas leaks (loss of SF6 to the ambient or ingress of air into the

37
vacuum bottle). Loss of (or increase of) pressure may cause loss of interrupting capacity
and this can cause severe problems with meltdown due to sustained arcing. There is thus
need for thorough condition monitoring of switchgear and associated items of
equipment. To understand the type of monitoring needed we must first look at arc
properties. In essence, the circuit interruption process involves the establishment of an
arc discharge followed by controlled extinguishing of the arc, resulting in the formation
of a region of high dielectric strength between the terminals of the interrupter. Thus we
should consider in turn the way in which an arc can be produced, the properties of the
arc generated and, finally, ways in which the arc can be extinguished.

This is the method used in circuit breakers (and in all electromechanical

switches) and is a simple mechanical separation of the electrical contact between two
conductors carrying a current.

When separation occurs an arc forms as the result of complex processes

occurring during and just after the parting of the contacts. When the contacts are closed
during normal CB operation, a mechanical force is applied to the contacts to keep the
contact resistance as low as possible and then, during the CB opening process, the force
is removed and there is a consequent increase in contact resistance and then springs act
to open the contacts quickly. As a result, before the contacts move, ohmic heating
increases; then as the moving contact starts to move, but before actual separation, the
resistance increases further as contact area decreases until at the instant just before
actual separation the area of electrical contact is so small and resistance so high that the
contact material melts because of ohmic heating.

The high temperature generated at the contact by contact heating and the voltage
across the gap after final separation are then able to generate enough electron emission
from the contact metal to ionize the medium between the contacts, thus allowing current
to continue via the establishment of a self-sustaining arc between the contacts. The
nature of the arc and its properties are dependent on the medium between the opened
contacts; the arc may be in air, sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), vacuum etc., depending on
the type of circuit breaker. The effect of arcing on the contacts can be quite severe and
the need to ensure low contact resistance when reclosing occurs after arcing means that
considerable attention has to be paid to the contact material and design. The wear of the
arcing contacts is a particularly important parameter to measure as part of CB
monitoring systems.

38
 Similarly, the opening and closing actions and their reliability are important,
particularly in low voltage (less than 1000 volts) current-limiting circuit breakers. To
describe the operation of circuit interrupters it is necessary to understand some of the
processes and properties of the arc and the way in which the arc can be manipulated in
circuit interruption. The electric arc is a particular type of electrical discharge and is
manifest only in gaseous media.

When a gas is sufficiently hot (about 6000 K for air) ionization due to thermal
agitation and collisional processes occurs, thus providing free electrons and ions which
may then allow the conduction of current if an electric field is applied. Once current
starts flowing the electrons and ions gain energy from the electric field and can maintain
ionization if the current is high enough: the arc is then a self-sustaining discharge
capable of carrying current. Thus air, for example, which is a good insulator at room
temperature will become a good conductor when sufficiently hot.

If the heat source is removed, recombination of ions and electrons takes place as
the temperature falls without the heat input and the non-conducting state is again
attained with no significant damage to the medium. At this stage it should be explained
that oil circuit breakers, which have contacts opening under oil are actually a form of
gas circuit breaker in that, when the contacts part, the high temperature generated by the
heating causes the oil to decompose into hydrocarbon gas (mainly hydrogen) and the
arc thus burns in a gaseous bubble of hydrogen, surrounded by oil. From the above
discussion it can be seen that the heat dissipation processes from the arc are of
paramount importance in circuit interruption.

Further, as arc interruption depends on the competing processes of arc heating

and heat dissipation from the arc, then the best time for circuit interruption would be at
the natural current zeros in A.C. arcs when the power input is zero. This is the case for
high voltage CBs, but as will be seen it is possible to make current limiting CBs at low
voltage, which drive the current to an artificial zero by virtue of the very high impedance
of the arc generated in such a current limiting CB.

This is a similar result to that that occurs in HRC fuses, which are also current
limiting. The generation of the high arc impedance in fuses and LV circuit breakers is
by different means, but achieves the same result.

39
Different Types of Circuit Breakers

The different types of high voltage circuit breakers which includes the following:

1.Air Circuit Breaker-

This circuit breaker will operate in the air; the quenching medium is an Arc at
atmospheric pressure. In many of the countries air circuit breaker is replaced by oil
circuit breaker. About oil circuit breaker we will discuss later in the article. Thus the
importance of ACB is still preferable choice to use an Air circuit breaker up to 15KV.
Air Circuit breakers generally have two pairs of contacts. The main pair of contacts (1)
carries the current at normal load and these contacts are made of copper metal. The
second pair is the arcing contact (2) and is made of carbon. When the circuit breaker is
being opened, the main contacts open first. When the main contacts opened the arcing
contacts are still in touch with each other.

As the current gets a parallel low resistive path through the arcing contact.
During the opening of main contacts, there will not be any arcing in the main contact.
The arcing is only initiated when finally the arcing contacts are separated. The each of
the arc contacts is fitted with an arc runner which helps. The arc discharge to move
upward due to both thermal and electromagnetic effects as shown in the figure. As the
arc is driven upward it enters in the arc chute, consisting of splatters.

The arc in the chute will become colder, lengthen and split hence arc voltage
becomes much larger than the system voltage at the time of operation of air circuit
breaker, and therefore the arc is extinguished finally during the current zero.

2. Axial Blast Breaker

In the axial blaster breaker, the moving contact of the axial blast breaker will be in
contact. The nozzle orifice is a fixed to the contact of a breaker at a normal closed
condition. A fault occurs when high pressure is introduced into the chamber. Voltage is
sufficient to sustain high-pressure air when flowed through nozzle orifice.

The air-blast circuit breaker requires an auxiliary compressed air system which supplies
air to the breaker air receiver. When opening is required, compressed air is admitted to
the arc extinction chamber. It pushes away the moving contacts. In doing so the contacts
are separated and the air blast takes away the ionized gases along with it and assists arc
extinction.

40
Air blast extinguishes the arc within one or two cycles and the arc chamber is filled with
high pressure air, which prevents restrike. In some low capacity circuit breakers the
isolator is an integral part of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker opens and
immediately after that isolator opens to provide additional gap. In EHV switchyards,
isolators are generally independently mounted.

3. SF6 Circuit Breaker

In the SF6 circuit breaker the current carrying contacts operate in sulphur hexafluoride
gas is known as an SF6 circuit breaker. It is an excellent insulating property and high
electro-negativity. It can be understood that, high affinity of absorbing free electron.
The negative ion is formed when a free electron collides with the SF6 gas molecule; it
is absorbed by that gas molecule. The working of SF6 CB of first generation was quite
simple and it is some extent similar to air blast circuit breaker.

Here SF6 gas was compressed and stored in a high-pressure reservoir. During
operation of SF6 circuit breaker, this highly compressed gas is released through the arc
in the breaker and collected to a relatively low-pressure reservoir and then it is pumped
back to the high-pressure reservoir for reutilizing.

The working of SF6 circuit breaker is a little bit different in modern time. The
innovation of puffer type design makes the operation of SF6 CB much easier. In buffer
type design, the arc energy is utilized to develop pressure in the arcing chamber for arc
quenching. Here the breaker is filled with SF6 gas at rated pressure. There are two fixed
contacts fitted with a specific contact gap. A sliding cylinder bridges these to fixed
contacts. The cylinder can axially slide upward and downward along the contacts. There
is one stationary piston inside the cylinder which is fixed with other stationary parts of
the SF6 circuit breaker, in such a way that it cannot change its position during the
movement of the cylinder. As the piston is fixed and the cylinder is movable or sliding,
the internal volume of the cylinder changes when the cylinder slides.

During the opening of the breaker the cylinder moves downwards against the position
of the fixed piston hence the volume inside the cylinder is reduced which produces
compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder. The cylinder has numbers of side vents which
were blocked by upper fixed contact body during closed position. As the cylinder move
further downwards, these vent openings cross the upper fixed contact, and become
unblocked and then compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder will come out through this

41
vents in high speed towards the arc and passes through the axial hole of the both fixed
contacts. The arc is quenched during this flow of SF6 gas.

During closing of the circuit breaker, the sliding cylinder moves upwards and
as the position of piston remains at a fixed height, the volume of the cylinder increases
which introduces low pressure inside the cylinder compared to the surrounding. Due to
this pressure difference, SF6 gas from surrounding will try to enter in the cylinder. The
higher pressure gas will come through the axial hole of both fixed contact and enters
into the cylinder via vent and during this flow; the gas will quench the arc.

4.Vacuum Circuit Breaker

A Vacuum circuit breaker is a circuit which vacuum is used to extinct the arc. It has
dielectric recovery character, excellent interruption and can interrupt the high frequency
current which results from arc instability, superimposed on the line frequency current.
In the principle of operation of VCB will have two contacts called electrodes will remain
closed under normal operating conditions. Suppose when a fault occurs in any part of
the system, then the trip coil of the circuit breaker gets energized and finally contact gets
separated.

A circuit breaker is a device that, interrupts an electric circuit to prevent

unwarranted current, caused by a short circuit, typically resulting from an overload. Its
basic functionality is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected. A vacuum circuit
breaker is a kind of circuit breaker where the arc quenching takes place in vacuum
medium. The operation of switching on and closing of current carrying contacts and
interrelated arc interruption takes place in a vacuum chamber in the breaker which is
called vacuum interrupter. The sectional view of vacuum circuit breaker is shown in the
figure below when the contacts are separated due to some abnormal conditions, an arc
is struck between the contacts, the arc is produced due to ionization of metal ions and
depends very much on the material of contacts.

The arc interruption in vacuum interrupters is different from other types of circuit
breakers. The separation of contacts causes the release of vapor which is filled in the
contact space. It consists positive ions liberated from contact material. The vapor
density depends on the current in the arc. When the current decreases, the rate of vapor
release decreases and after current zero, the medium regain its dielectric strength if the
vapor density is reduced.

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When current to be interrupted is very small in a vacuum, the arc has several parallel
paths. The total current is divided into many parallel arcs which repel each other and
spread over the contact surface. This is called diffused arc which can be interrupted
easily.At high values of current, the arc gets concentrated in a small region. It causes
rapid vaporization of the contact surface. The interruption of the arc is possible if arc
remains in diffused state. If it is quickly removed from the contact surface, the arc will
be re-strike.

Arc extinction in vacuum breakers is greatly influenced by material and shape

of the contacts and the technique of considering metal vapor. The path of the arc is kept
moving so that temperature at any one point will not be high.After the final arc
interruption, there is rapidly building up of dielectric strength which is peculiar of the
vacuum breaker. They are suitable for capacitor switching as it will give a re-strick free
performance. The small current is interrupted before natural current zero, which may
cause chopping whose level depends on the material of contact.

5. Oil Circuit Breaker

In this type of circuit breaker oil is used, but mineral oil is preferable. It acts better
insulating property than air. The moving contact and fixed contact are immerged inside
the insulating oil. When the separation of current takes place, then carrier contacts in
the oil, the arc in circuit breaker is initialized at the moment of separation of contacts,
and because of this arc in the oil is vaporized and decomposed in hydrogen gas and
finally creates a hydrogen bubble around the arc.

Oil circuit breaker is very easy in construction. It consists of current carrying

contacts enclosed in a strong, weather-tight earth metal tank and the tank is filled with
transformer oil. The oil is both acts as an arc extinguishing medium and as an insulator
between the live part and earth.

At the top of the oil, air is filled in the tank which acts as a cushion to control
the displaced oil on the formation of gas around the arc and also to absorb the
mechanical shock of the upward movement of oil. The breaker tank is securely bolted
for carrying out the vibration caused on interrupting very high current. Oil circuit
breaker consists gas outlet which is fitted in the tank cover for the removal of the gases.

43
During the normal operating conditions, the contact of the oil circuit breaker is closed
and carry the current. When the fault occurs in the system, the contacts of the breaker
are moving apart, and an arc is struck between the contacts. Due to this arc, a large
amount of heat is liberated, and a very high temperature is reached which vaporises the
surrounding oil into gas. The gas, thus liberated surrounds the arc and its explosive
growth around it displace the oil violently. The arc is extinguished when the distance
between the fixed and moving contact reaches a certain critical value, depends on the
arc current and recovery voltage.

The oil circuit breaker is very reliable in operation, and it is very cheap. The
most important feature of oil circuit breaker is that no special devices are used for
controlling the arc caused.

4.4 RELAYS:

The relay is the device that open or closes the contacts to cause the operation of the
other electric control. It detects the intolerable or undesirable condition with an assigned
area and gives the commands to the circuit breaker to disconnect the affected area. Thus
protects the system from damage. It works on the principle of an electromagnetic
attraction. When the circuit of the relay senses the fault current, it energises the
electromagnetic field which produces the temporary magnetic field. This magnetic field
moves the relay armature for opening or closing the connections. The small power relay
has only one contacts, and the high power relay has two contacts for opening the switch.
The inner section of the relay is shown in the figure below. It has an iron core which is
wound by a control coil.

The power supply is given to the coil through the contacts of the load and the
control switch. The current flows through the coil produces the magnetic field around
it. Due to this magnetic field, the upper arm of the magnet attracts the lower arm. Hence
close the circuit, which makes the current flow through the load. If the contact is already
closed, then it moves oppositely and hence open the contacts.

Protective relay must be isolated from the high-voltage system but require current and
voltage quantities proportional to those on the electric supply system. The standard
ratings for protective relays are normally 5 A and 110 V, 50 Hz.

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 Figure 23. Relay

Depending on the operating principle and structural features relays are of different types
such as electromagnetic relays, thermal relays, power varied relays, multi-dimensional
relays, and so on, with varied ratings, sizes and applications.

1. Electromagnetic Relays

These relays are constructed with electrical, mechanical and magnetic components, and
have operating coil and mechanical contacts. Therefore, when the coil gets activated by
a supply system, these mechanical contacts gets opened or closed. The type of supply
can be AC or DC. These relays can work with both AC and DC supply and attract a
metal bar or a piece of metal when power is supplied to the coil. This can be a plunger
being drawn towards the solenoid or an armature being attracted towards the poles of
an electromagnet, as shown in the figure. These relays don’t have any time delays, so
these are used for instantaneous operation.

2. Shaded pole relay

It consists of aluminum disc, which is pivoted such that it freely rotates in the air gap of
an electromagnet. Shaded ring or copper ring is surrounded on one half of each pole.
The induced currents in this shaded ring produce another flux called as shaded flux,
which lags behind the flux produced by the unshaded pole by some angle. The phase
difference between these two fluxes produces necessary torque to rotate the disc. The
Watt-hour structure type relay works as an electromagnetic induction type of watthour
– a meter so named, after it. It consists of two magnets: upper and lower electromagnets
and aluminium disc, which is pivoted such that it rotates freely between the two

45
electromagnets. In this relay, the upper magnet consists of two windings: primary and
secondary windings, wherein the primary winding carries the relay current and the
secondary winding is connected to the lower magnet. This primary current induces EMF
in the secondary winding, so it produces a flux that lags behind the main flux by some
angle.

3. Latching Relays

These relays are used in applications where there is a need to limit power dissipation
and consumption. These latching relays consist of 1 or 2 coils and have no default
position, but when current stops flowing remain in their last position. Once these relays
are actuated they didn’t require any power to maintain their position, but their reset
position is based on the control circuitry. The direction of current flow in one coil relay
determines the position of the relay, whereas particular coil current flow determines the
position of armature in 2–coil latching relay.

4. High Voltage Relays

These relays are quite similar in function to that of low voltage relays, but the major
difference is the contacts which are designed to operate at high voltages. Therefore, a
high insulation is provided between the contacts, between the contacts and the earth,
and between the activator and contacts. This relay contacts are typically placed in a
different medium enclosed by ceramic or glass to prevent arcing at the time of
switching. Generally, two kinds of mediums: vacuum and high-pressure gas are used in
these relays as contacts medium.

i. Vacuum Filled High Voltage Relays:

As the characteristics like high-voltage breakdown, fast-recovery rate and an absolutely

non-reactive and inert environment, vacuum is the ideal dielectric that contains a very
few gas molecules. The dielectric strength of vacuum is 10000V per 0.1mm in vacuum
and also due to no air, the contacts become oxidation free. These relays have stable and
low contact resistance, so these are widely employed in Radio Frequency (RF)
applications.

ii. Gas Filled High Voltage Relays:

These relays also provide high dielectric strength and avoids the oxidation. Therefore,
these are ideal for high inrush make and capacitive discharge loads such as cable test

46
equipment, ESD test equipment, heart defibrillators, etc. In these relays, a mixture of
SF6, sulfur hexa fluoride and nitrogen is used as gas medium. But arc is formed in this
relay when the contacts get opened and sustained for longer durations, compared to the
vacuum relays.

5. Time Delay Relays

The time-delay relays are used for performing time delayed switching operations such
as starting, protecting and controlling circuits applications. This relay consists of a relay
mechanism with a control circuit wherein the control circuit is made with solid state
components and timing circuits so that a control operation with a predefined-timing
range is performed. This time-delay function includes on delay, off delay, repeat cycle,
one shot, re-triggerable one shot, pulse generator, on or off delays, etc. A special type
of such relay is a star-delta wherein within a certain time period it changes the terminal
connection. These are of different types like:

 Electromagnetic Time Relays

 Capacitor Time Relays Electronic Relays
 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Relays
 Microprocessor-based Time Relays
 Accelerated Time Relays

6. Thermal Relay

These relays are based on the effects of heat, which means – the rise in the ambient
temperature from the limit, directs the contacts to switch from one position to another.
These are mainly used in protecting motor and other inductive loads against single
phasing, overload and unbalanced voltages. This relay consists of bimetallic elements
like temperature sensors as well as control elements. Thermal overload relays are the
best examples of these relays. These are of different types like:

 Bimetallic Thermal Relays

 Solid State Thermal Relays
 Melting Alloy Relays
 Temperature Controlled Thermal Relay

7. Solid State Relay

47
It uses solid state components to perform the switching operation without moving any
parts. Since the control energy required is much lower compared with the output power
to be controlled by this relay that results the power gain higher when compared to the
electromagnetic relays. These are of different types: reed relay coupled SSR,
transformer coupled SSR, photo-coupled SSR, and so on.

8. Hybrid Relay

These relays are composed of electromagnetic relays and electronic components.

Usually, the input part contains the electronic circuitry that performs rectification and
the other control functions, and the output part include electromagnetic relay. Family of
fast, hybrid relays SHR is designed for use in all types of circuits DC and AC.It
combines the best features of electromechanical relays – minimal contacts resistance
and modern semiconductors components high speed. Additional feature of switching
off high currents in circuits which include inductive components predisposes them for
professional use.

With serial connection, operating voltage and maximal switching power

increases with number of serial connected contacts. Parallel connection provides n-
times current and switched power increase if serial resistors are used. Every hybrid
contact is made up of a solid state contact and a normally open contact of
electromechanical relay. Hybrid contacts have reliability twice as high as traditional
relays, reed contacts semiconductor contacts. In addition, hybrid contacts are provided
with an individual optical indication of activation and continuity of external circuits

9. Thermal Relay

These relays are based on the effects of heat, which means – the rise in the ambient
temperature from the limit, directs the contacts to switch from one position to other.
These are mainly used in motor protection and consist of bimetallic elements
like temperature sensors as well as control elements. The thermal relay works on the
principle of the thermal effect of electrical energy. The bimetallic strips, heating coils
and the current transformers are the important parts of the thermal relay. The current
transformer supplies the current to the coils of the heater. The thermal energy of the
heater coils heated the bimetallic strips. The bimetallic strips are made of the alloy of
nickel and steel. The alloy of the nickel and steel has high steel resistivity, and also they
are free from thermal ageing.

48
The insulated liver arm is connected to the trip coil along with the spring and the
bimetallic strips. The tension of the spring is varied by the help of the sector-shaped
plate. When the system is in normal operating condition, the spring remains straight.
When the fault occurs on the system, the bimetallic spring is heated and getting bent.
The tension of the spring becomes releases which trip the relay contacts. The contact of
the relay energizes the trip circuit because of which the contacts of the circuit breaker
close. Thus, the system remains safe.

The thermal relay is mainly used in the low voltage Squirrel Cage induction
motor and in low output rating DC motor. The thermal relay has
low overloading capability. It is designed to operate under 6 to 7 times more than the
full load current.

10. Overcurrent Relay

The overcurrent relay is defined as the relay, which operates only when the value of the
current is greater than the relay setting time. It protects the equipment of the power
system from the fault current. Depending on the time of operation the overcurrent relay
is categorized into following types.

 Instantaneous Overcurrent relay

 Inverse time Overcurrent Relay

 Definite Time Overcurrent Relay

 Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay

 Very Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay

 Extremely Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay

Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

The relay has no intentional time delay for operation. The contacts of the relay are closed
instantly when the current inside the relay rises beyond the operational value. The time
interval between the instant pick-up value and the closing contacts of the relay is very
less. The most significant advantage of the instantaneous relay is that it has low
operating time. It starts operating instantly when the value of current is more than the
relay setting. This relay operates only when the impedance between the source and the
relay is less than that provided in the section.

49
The most important feature of the relay is their speed of operation. The relay protects
the system from earth fault and also used for protecting the system from circulating
current. The instantaneous overcurrent relay is placed in the outgoing feeder.

Inverse-Time Overcurrent Relay

The relay operates only when the magnitude of their operating current is inversely
proportional to the magnitude of the energize quantities. The operating time of relay
decreases with the increases in the current. The operation of the relay depends on the
magnitude of the current

The characteristic curve for the relay is shown in the figure below. The relay will not
operate when the value of current is less than the pick value. The relay is used for the
protection of the distribution lines. The inverse time relay is of three types.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay

The relay whose operating time is approximately proportional to the fault current is
known as the IDMT relay. The operating time of the relay is maintained by adjusting
the time delay setting. The IDMT relay uses the electromagnetic core because it can
easily saturate for the current having larger magnitude than pick up current. The relay
is used for the protection of the distribution line.

Very Inverse Relay

The inverse characteristic of the relay is more than the IDMT. Such type of relay is used
in the feeder and on long transmission lines.

The relay is used in the places where there the magnitude of the short-circuit current fall
rapidly because of the large distance from the source. It is used for sensing the fault
current which is free from the fault location.

Extremely Inverse Relay

The characteristic time of the relay is extremely large as compared to the IDMT and the
Very inverse relay. This relay is used for protecting the cable, transformer, etc. The
relay can operate instantly when the pickup value of the current is more than the relay
setting time. The relay provides faster operation even under the fault current. It is used
for sensing the overheating of the machines.

50
The inverse time relay is used in the distribution networks and the power plants. The
relay gives the fast operation in the fault conditions because of their fault time
characteristic.

4.5 GENERAL PROTECTION SYSTEMS:

 Failure of Prime Mover:

The effect of prime mover failure is to cause the machine to ‘motor’ by taking power
from the system. The seriousness of this condition depends on the type of drive used for
the generator. Hydro sets do not normally require electrical protection against motoring,
since mechanical protections usually take action to disconnect the generator from the
system should the water flow drop to a level insufficient to maintain the electrical
output. As there is a power reversal when the machine motors a power relay with a
directional characteristic would detect this condition over the full p. f. range.

This type of relay would also operate for power swing conditions and when the
machine is being synchronized or during power swings caused by system disturbances.
Therefore, to prevent unwanted operations, it is usual in this application to introduce a
time delay. About 30 second time delay to prevent operation during power swings
caused by system disturbances or when synchronizing is normal.

This is arranged by utilizing a separate timing relay, or by an inverse time

reverse power relay, which combines the time and power direction characteristics
delivered with the additional facility that heavy motoring loads are cleared promptly.

 Over Voltage Protection:

Load rejection in hydro generators may cause voltage rise due to speed rise. In units
connected to EHV lines a further proportional rise in voltage may occur if receiving end
breaker of long interconnecting transmission line is tripped.

The uncompensated capacitance of the line will further increase the voltage.
Protection for generator overvoltage is provided by frequency insensitive overvoltage
relay. It has both instantaneous and time delay units with inverse time characteristics.
Instantaneous inverse time set up to about 150% while inverse time is set to pick up
110% of normal voltages. The protection is set to trip main generator breaker and field
breaker.

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  Back up Over Current Protection:

Back-up over current protection may be provided to generator either

(i) as standby protection against faults in the network or

(ii) as a safeguard against failure of the generator unit protection.

In connection with the first case, the question of setting must be carefully considered
and the rapid decrement of fault current fed by the generator must be taken into account.
It is important that the generator is not tripped as a result of system faults even through
the generator is operating under its maximum excitation condition and the relay setting
must be chosen to discriminate with the outgoing circuit protection. The main aim is to
provide a back-up protection and the over current relays are set, not so much with the
intension of tripping under through faults but rather to guard against fault currents fed
back from the system upon the occurrence of an in zone fault. So it is most usually
provided with a voltage restraint and inverse time delay features so that tripping occurs
only in case there is a fall in the generator voltage.

Over current voltage restraint relay serves as a very useful standby system of
protection for such periods as for example when the differential protection is being
tested at which time the over current settings can be varied at discretion to suit the
temporary condition. With the advent of modern static quick response type automatic
voltage regulators controlling large reserves of excitation power, the generator circuit
decrement in fault condition is delayed so that over-current/times settings can be chosen
so as to give back up cover against through fault conditions as well. In general, the
question whether or not back up over current protection is to be provided and what time
and current settings should be used must be considered separately for such installation
in the light of discussion as above. IEEE std. C37.102 – 19925 also recommends
alternately distance type of back up relay when over current relay is used for line
protection.

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53
5. SWITCHGEAR & MAINTENANCE CELL:

In an electric power system, switchgear is composed of electrical disconnect

switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical
equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done
and to clear faults downstream. This type of equipment is directly linked to the
reliability of the electricity supply.

The earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted on
insulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly escalated,
making opening manually operated switches too dangerous for anything other
than isolation of a de-energized circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed arc energy to be
contained and safely controlled. By the early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would
be a metal-enclosed structure with electrically operated switching elements, using oil
circuit breakers. Today, oil-filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast,
vacuum, or SF6 equipment, allowing large currents and power levels to be safely
controlled by automatic equipment.

High-voltage switchgear was invented at the end of the 19th century for
operating motors and other electric machines. The technology has been improved over
time and can now be used with voltages up to 1,100 kV. Typically, switchgear
in substations are located on both the high- and low-voltage sides of large
power transformers. The switchgear on the low-voltage side of the transformers may be
located in a building, with medium-voltage circuit breakers for distribution circuits,
along with metering, control, and protection equipment. For industrial applications,
a transformer and switchgear line-up may be combined in one housing, called a
unitized substation (USS).

The apparatus used for controlling, regulating and switching on or off the
electrical circuit in the electrical power system is known as switchgear.The switches,
fuses, circuit breaker, isolator, relays, current and potential transformer, indicating
instrument, lightning arresters and control panels are examples of the switchgear
devices.

54
The switchgear system is directly linked to the supply system. It is placed in both the
high and low voltage side of the power transformer. It is used for de-energizing the
equipment for testing and maintenance and for clearing the fault.

Figure 24. Switchgear

When the fault occurs in the power system, heavy current flow through equipment due
to which the equipment get damaged, and the service also get interrupted. So to protect
the lines, generators, transformers and other electrical equipment from damage
automatic protective devices or switchgear devices are required.

The automatic protective switchgear mainly consists of the relay and circuit
breaker. When the fault occurs in any section of the system, the relay of that section
comes into operation and close the trip circuit of the breaker which disconnects the
faulty section. The healthy section continues supplying loads as usual, and thus there is
no damage to equipment and no complete interruption of supply.

5.1 IMPORTANCE OF SWITCHGEAR

The purpose of an Electric Power System is to generate and supply electrical energy to
consumers. The power system should be designed and managed to deliver this energy
to the utilization points with both reliability and economically The capital investment
involved in power system for the generation, transmission and distribution is so great
that the proper precautions must be taken to ensure that the equipment not only operates
as nearly as possible to peak efficiency, but also must be protected from accidents The
normal path of the electric current is from the power source through copper (or
aluminium) conductors in generators, transformers and transmission lines to the load

55
and it is confined to this path by insulation. The insulation, however, may break down,
either by the effect of temperature and age or by a physical accident, so that the current
then follows an abnormal path generally known as Short Circuit or Fault The switchgear
is mainly classified into two types, the outdoors type and the indoor type. For voltage
above 66kV, the output switchgear is used. Because for the high voltage, the building
work will unnecessarily increase the installation cost owing to large spacing between
the conductor and large size of insulators.

Below the 66kv there is no difficulty in providing the building work for the
switchgear at a reasonable cost. The indoor type switchgear is of metal clad type and is
compact. Because of the compactness, the safety clearance for operation is also reduced
and thus reduced the area required.

5.2 TYPES OF SWITCHGEAR:

Most of these switchgear equipment have already been discussed above. Some other
switchgear equipment are:

 Numerical relays:
Numerical relays are made up from modules with well defined functions.

56
 Figure 25. Numerical relay

The use of algorithm of fault diagnosis, with the help of numerical relays can be
understood clearly from the following development steps.

1. State the relaying problem.

2. Model the relaying problem mathematically

3. Write the algorithm.

4. Convert the algorithm to a high level language.

5. Test with a simulated data and modify the algorithm if required.

6. Generate the machine language code for the Micro- processor/ Digital controller

7. Download it for the numerical relay

8. Test with a relay test bench. If found o.k. install it in parallel with the existing relay.
Otherwise go back to step 3 to modify the algorithm and repeat the process.

9. Evaluate with various testing for longer period and launch it commercially if found
O.K. in its operation after operation of 2 years independently.

 Digital Relays

The digital relay does not record the analog signal, but only samples of the signal, which
are spread in time, the mathematics of discrete signal processing is used. The relay is
programmed to apply various forms of digital signal processing algorithms to the

57
observed samples and based on the results of these computations, the decision to trip is
made.

Different components of a digital relay

i) Isolation transformer and surge protection circuit

ii) Multiplexor and S/H circuits

iii) Anti -Aliasing Filters

iv) Digital Input and Output systems.

v) Central Processing unit

vi) Event Storage system

vii)Signal conditioning circuit.

viii) Communication Peripherals

ix) Power Supply Block

x) Sampling Clock

5.3 SURGE PROTECTION:

It is well known that surge voltage in a power system is caused due to 2 reasons:

1. Internal overvoltage: Stationary overvoltage may occur due to prolonged single phase
to ground fault, with the neutral is either grounded through a arc suppression coil. It
may also happen due to current chopping.

2. External Overvoltage: Due to atmospheric discharge through static charge or

lightening strokes this type of overvoltage may occur. To protect the switch gear and
protection system from this condition, some special precaution may be taken. Before
discussing about the schemes of protection, it is important to understand the concept of
surge first.

The Concept of Surge:

When a lightening surge or internal overvoltage condition strikes the end point of a
transmission line it releases charge on the line and depending upon the inductance of
the transmission line a voltage wave that is proportional to the charge density and a

58
current wave travel over the line. Depending upon the L and C values of the line, the
shape of the wave front of the voltage wave will be decided. So, more the L value, a
steeper wave front will be available. The value of C of the line to ground impedance of
the line, several bushings, insulators etc., decide the shape of the wave front. Moreover,
when such an wave front strikes an open ended line, then the reflective wave front shall
double up depending upon the amount of charge in the surge impedance.

To protect such surges, two stages of defense is provided. They are discussed below:

a) Earthing Screens: This is the first line of defense provided, and they are like ground
wires, sheets, provided over transmission line, substation buses, and other switchgears
particularly those located outdoors. They can be copper conductors connected to
ground. b) Surge Diverters or Arrestors: The surge diverters better known as arrestors
basically safe guards the insulation of the terminal apparatus and it ceases to carry
current after a discharge.

c) Surge Modifiers: Surge capacitors and air cooled surge reactors modify the steepness
of the wave front.

d) Surge Absorbers: Inductor metal shields absorb low energy surges. This device is
appropriate for short duration surges as it can reduce only the steepness of the wave
front. Such devices are not cost effective for higher transient surges. Of the different
protective equipments Lightening Arresters (LA) are more widely used. They are of
different types as follows:

a) Rod Gap Arrester: This type of arrester is for lower voltage application. When the
surge exceeds the designed value of the gap an arc is initiated. The distance between the
rod and the insulator should not be less than the gap length so that the arc could reach
the insulator and damage it. When the surge voltage reaches the design value of the gap
an arc appears in the gap providing an ionized path between it and ground.

b) Horn Gap Arrestor: It consists of horn shape metal rods separated by a small air gap.
The horns are so constructed that the gap between them gradually increases towards the
top. The horns are mounted on insulators. One of the horns is connected to the line
through a resistance R and a choke coil L. The other end of the horn is solidly grounded.
The resistance helps in limiting the current flow to a small value. The choke coil is so

59
designed that it offers small reactance to the power frequency but a high reactance
during transient frequency.

c) Multi gap arrestor: In this type of arrester, metallic cylinders of metal alloys of zinc,
insulated from each other and separated by small multiple intervals of air gaps are
connected in series. During, a transient overvoltage condition the first two series gaps
break down first. Out of the two gaps between the three cylinders, the second gap is
there for extra safety.

d)Expulsion type arrestor: This type of arrestor is also known as the protector tube,
which is commonly used on systems operating at voltages upto 33 KV. One of them is
a normal rod gap and the other one is enclosed within a fiber tube. The second gap has
two electrodes inside the fibre tube. The upper electrode is connected to the rod gap and
the lower electrode to the earth.

e) Valve Type arrester: This type of arrestor has a non-linear resistor in series with the
spark gap. In traditional arresters, the characteristic of the gap spark over voltage versus
the surge front time does not match well with the strength versus front characteristics of
most of the insulators. Thus it is difficult to coordinate the protective device with the
system voltage for which it is used.

f) Silicon Carbide Lightening Arrester: A non-linear Silicon Carbide material is

connected in series with the spark gaps. The spark gaps provide high impedance during
normal condition, whereas the SiC disks restricts the flow of current through the spark
gap. The nonlinear resistor of SiC is made by mixing the same by binding material and
forming a molded disk. The disk diameter depends on its energy rating and thickness
on the operating voltage rating. The V-I characteristics of a SiC has a hysteresis type
loop, the resistance being high during the rising part of the impulse wave and it has a
lower value during the tail of the wave front. These type of arresters are used upto a
voltage level of 220 KV.

5.4 TESTING OF SWITCHGEAR:

1. General Visual and Mechanical Inspection of Switchgear:

i. Inspect the physical, electrical, and mechanical condition of switchgear or

switchboard, including its anchorage, alignment, grounding and required

60
 clearances. When performing acceptance testing, verify that the
equipment nameplate data matches project drawings and specifications.
ii. The unit should be clean and all shipping braces, loose parts, and
documentation shipped inside the cubicles removed. Keep all documentation in
a safe location for maintenance personnel in the future while loose parts and
switchgear tools should be safely stored outside of the enclosure for easy access.
iii. For initial acceptance, verify that fuse and/or circuit breaker sizes, types,
and protective settings match the project drawings and coordination study.
Circuit breaker's equipped with microprocessor-communication packages
should be programmed with the proper digital address. All instrument
transformer current and voltage ratios should also correspond to project
drawings.

2. Moisture and Corona Inspections for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. If corona occurs in switchgear assemblies, it is usually localized in thin air gaps

that exist between a high-voltage bus bar and its adjacent insulation or between
two adjacent insulating members. Corona might also form around bolt heads or
other sharp projections that are not properly insulated or shielded. Corona in
low-voltage switchgear is practically nonexistent.
ii. Inspect for evidence of moisture or corona when performing maintenance
inspections. On outdoor assemblies, roof or wall seams should be checked for
evidence of leakage, and any leaking seams should be sealed with weatherproof
caulk.
iii. All interior and exterior lighting should be checked for proper operation. It is
essential for personnel safety that the area be well lit at all times in case of
emergency response and other security reasons.

3. Wiring and Bolted Connection Checks for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Bolted electrical connections should be inspected for high resistance, either by

use of a low-resistance ohmmeter, calibrated torque-wrench, or infrared scan.
ii. Loose bolted electrical connections can lead to higher energy consumption and
eventual equipment failure if not properly addressed.

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4. General Wiring Checks for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Loose control wires can lead to catastrophic failure if they are part of a critical
protective circuit, such as a protective relay for a circuit breaker. Other critical
functions like electrical charging and re-closing of circuit breakers can be
inhibited if poor connections overheat and lose integrity.
ii. Check that all wiring connections are tight and that wiring is secure to prevent
damage during routine operation of moving parts, especially when
removing draw-out circuit breakers or opening and closing cubicle doors.
iii. Infrared scans are also very effective for finding loose wires in control circuits.

5. Moving Parts and Interlock Checks for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Confirm the correct operation and sequencing of electrical and

mechanical interlock systems. Attempt closure on locked-open devices and
attempt to open locked-closed devices.
ii. Test key interlock systems by making key exchanges with all devices included
in the interlock scheme as applicable. All of these systems are essential for
safety of both the operator and the equipment.

6. Lubrication of Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Check appropriate lubrication on moving currentcarrying

parts and moving/sliding surfaces to keep everything operating smoothly.
ii. This includes hinges, locks, and latches when performing maintenance tests.
Lubricate as necessary using industry accepted lubrications and techniques.

7. Insulators and Barrier Checks for Switchgear and Switchboards

i. Tracking is an electrical discharge phenomenon caused by electrical stress on

insulation. This stress can occur phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground.
ii. Although tracking can occur internally in certain insulating materials, these
materials as a rule are not used in medium- or high-voltage switchgear
insulation.
iii. Tracking, when it occurs in switchgear assemblies, normally is found on
insulation surfaces.
iv. Electrical insulators should be inspected for evidence of physical
damage or contaminated surfaces.

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 v. Damage caused by electrical distress is normally evident on the surface of
insulating members in the form of corona erosion or markings or tracking paths.
vi. Inspect barrier and shutter assemblies for proper installation and operation.
vii. All active components should be exercised; mechanical indicating devices
should be inspected for correct operation.

8. Bolted Connection Electrical Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Perform resistance measurements through bolted electrical connections with a

low-resistance ohmmeter. Measure line/load bus resistance end-to-end and
to each distribution section.
ii. Verify dual-source switchgear bussing is correct at the tie breaker.
iii. Compare resistance values to values of similar connections and investigate
values that deviate by more than 50 percent of the lowest value.

9. Insulation Electrical Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Insulation–resistance tests should be performed with a mega-ohmmeter for one

minute on each bus section, phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground.
ii. The used is dependent on the rating of the equipment and should be applied in
accordance with manufacturer's published data. ANSI/NETA Table 100.1 can
be used as a guideline if manufacturer's data cannot be found.
iii. Insulation-resistance values of bus insulation depends on voltage class and
should be in accordance with manufacturer's published data or ANSI/NETA
Table 100.1.
iv. Values of insulation resistance less than Table 100.1 or manufacturer's
recommendations should be investigated.

10. Dielectric Withstand Test for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Perform a dielectric withstand voltage test on each bus section, each phase-to-
ground with phases not under test grounded, using a test voltage in accordance
with manufacturer's published data.
ii. If no manufacturer recommendation for this test exists, reference ANSI/NETA
Table 100.2.
iii. Apply test voltage for one minute.

63
 iv. If no evidence of distress or insulation failure is observed by the end of the total
time of voltage application, the test specimen is considered to have passed the
test.

11. Control Wiring Electrical Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Perform insulation-resistance tests on control wiring with respect to ground.

Apply 500 volts’ dc for 300-volt rated cable and 1000 volts dc for 600-
volt rated cable for one minute each.
ii. Minimum insulation-resistance values of control wiring should be comparable
to previously obtained results but not less than two meg-ohms.
iii. This test is optional for both maintenance and initial acceptance.

12. Instrument Transformer Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards:

The procedure for inspecting and testing instrument transformers is beyond the scope
of this guide as each type has its own procedure. Instrument transformers generally
include current transformers, voltage transformers, and control power transformers.
Conduct electrical tests on instrument transformers in accordance with standards.

Where applicable, testing of instrument transformers generally include:

i. Visual/Mechanical Inspection

ii. Insulation Resistance Test

iii. Dielectric Withstand

iv. Turns Ratio Tests

v. Excitation Tests

vi. Burden Test

vii. Power/Dissipation Factor

viii. Secondary Wiring Integrity

Results of electrical tests on instrument transformers should be in accordance

with standards.

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13. Circuit Breaker and Switch Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards:
The procedure for the inspection/testing of circuit breakers and switches is beyond the
scope of this guide as each type and voltage class has its own procedure. Conduct
electrical tests on circuit breakers in accordance with standards. Where applicable,
testing of circuit breakers generally include:

i. Visual/Mechanical Inspection

ii. Insulation Resistance

iii. Dielectric Withstand

iv. Contact/Pole Resistance

v. Electrical Operations

vi. Vacuum Integrity

vii. Power/Dissipation Factor

viii. Protective Devices and Instrument Transformers

ix. Results of electrical tests on circuit breakers and switches should be in

accordance with standards.

14. Control Power Transfer Scheme Test for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Switchgear and switchboard assemblies equipped with multiple control power

sources should be checked for proper function of the control transfer scheme by
connecting a rated secondary voltage to each source.
ii. Transfer relays should perform as designed when the primary source is lost.

15. Ground Resistance Electrical Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Perform resistance measurements through bolted ground connections with a

low-resistance ohmmeter, if applicable.
ii. Compare bolted connection resistance values to values of similar connections
and investigate values which deviate from those of similar bolted connections
by more than 50 percent of the lowest value.
iii. Determine the resistance between the main grounding system and all major
electrical equipment frames, system neutral, and derived neutral points by
means of point-to-point testing using a low-resistance ohmmeter.

65
 iv. Values which exceed 0.5 ohm should be investigated.
v. Perform fall-of-potential or alternative ground resistance test in accordance
with ANSI/IEEE 81 on the main grounding electrode or system.
vi. The resistance between the main grounding electrode and ground should be no
greater than 5 ohms for large commercial or industrial systems
vii. 1 ohm or less for generating or transmission station grounds, unless otherwise
specified by the owner.

16. Metering Electrical Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Metering devices are verified using secondary voltage and current levels.
ii. Generally, metering devices are verified using secondary voltage and current
levels supplied by a relay test set or other secondary source.
iii. Determine accuracy of all meters and calibrate watthour meters in accordance
with standards.

17. Current Injection Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Perform current-injection tests on the entire current circuit in each section of

switchgear by secondary injection with magnitudes that produce a minimum
current of 1.0 ampere flows in the secondary circuit.
ii. Verify correct magnitude of current at each device in the circuit.

18. Cubicle Heater Tests for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. Moisture accumulation is prevented by heat and air circulation.

ii. It's important, therefore, to make sure the heating and ventilating systems are
functioning properly to reduce internal condensation.
iii. The operation of switchgear/switchboard heaters should be verified along with
their controller. Heaters should be operational.

19. Dual-Source Phasing Check for Switchgear and Switchboards:

i. During initial acceptance, perform phasing checks on double-ended or dual-

source switchgear to insure correct bus phasing from each source.
ii. Phasing checks should prove the switchgear or switchboard phasing is correct
and in accordance with the system design.

66
6. MOTOR CELL:
The motor or an electrical motor is a device that has brought about one of the biggest
advancements in the fields of engineering and technology ever since the invention of
electricity. A motor is nothing but an electro-mechanical device that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. In simple words, we can say a device that produces
rotational force is a motor. The very basic principle of functioning of an electrical motor
lies on the fact that force is experienced in the direction perpendicular to magnetic field
and the current, when field and current are made to interact with each other.

Ever since the invention of motors, a lot of advancements has taken place in this
field of engineering and it has become a subject of extreme importance for modern
engineers. This particular webpage takes into consideration, the fact as mentioned above
and provides a detailed description of all major electrical motors and motoring parts
being used in the present era.

6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF MOTOR:

Motors can be broadly classified on following parameters:

I.

II. Different motors with the same nominal horsepower may have different start
current, torque curves, speeds and other variables. When selection a particular
motor for an intended task all engineering parameters must be taken into
account. The four NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association)

67
 designs have unique speed-torque-slip relationships - making them suited for
different type of applications.

NEMA design A

 maximum 5% slip

 high to medium starting current

 normal locked rotor torque

 normal breakdown torque

 suited for a broad variety of applications - like fans and pumps

NEMA design B

 maximum 5% slip

 low starting current

 high locked rotor torque

 normal breakdown torque

 suited for a broad variety of applications with normal starting torques - common
in HVAC application with fans, blowers and pumps

NEMA design C

 maximum 5% slip

 low starting current

 high locked rotor torque

 normal breakdown torque

 suited for equipment with high inertia and high starting torques at start -
like positive displacement pumps, conveyors

NEMA design D

 maximum 5-13% slip

 low starting current

68
  very high locked rotor torque

 suited for equipment with very high inertia starts - like cranes, hoists etc.

III. Depending upon voltage supply motors are classified as:

i. Low tension motors
ii. High tension motors

As per Indian practice HT & LT motor are classified as follows:

LT Motor- which works on 230V, 415V & 690 V.

HT Motor-which works on 3.3 kV, 6.6kV, 11kV

6.2 MOTORS USED AT GHTP:

 PRIMARY AIR FAN MOTOR:

Primary air (PA) is supplied by one 100 % capacity centrifugal fan. Primary air is draft
from inside or outside of boiler house through venturi flow measurement. After fan air
is heated by steam coil air heater and flue gas air pre heater, after that air flow is led to
a two compartmented wind box under the grid of the combustion chamber. It is used as
the source of fluidizing air for the circulating bed of fuel and sorbent in the combustion
chamber and supplies most (~55 %) of the combustion air for the process.

PA is used for force air for fuel feeding chutes and as spoon air at the hot end of
fuel feed screws. After flue gas air preheater PA flow is divided to four ducts, two to
fuel feedings and two to wind box. Before wind box both PA ducts have flow
measurement and own control valves, following branch for duct burner booster fan and
duct burner. Duct burners are used to heat PA during boiler startup phase to make it
shorter. More about duct burners in “System description of duct burner system” There
is a minimum flow of primary air required to fluidize the bed and prevent back flow of
the material through the nozzles. So at low loads the primary air flow remains constant
and does not vary with load. Primary air fans supply high volumes of pre-heated,
primary combustion air to move pulverized coal into the boiler and drive off excess
moisture. Like many industrial fans, primary air fans endure extreme heat and excessive
vibration, making them prone to lubrication problems, imbalance and high maintenance
costs.

69
 Figure 26.Primary air fan motor

Specifications:

Rating-1250KW

RPM-1490

Make-BHEL,1996

 INDUCED DRAFT FAN MOTOR:

Induced Draft Fan or ID fan is used to create a vacuum or negative pressure in a system
like Steam boiler or Thermal Oil Heater. Induced draft Fan is also used to identify the
combustion process used in large boilers. When mechanical ventilation is supplied to
these boilers, the heat transfer rate increases Induced draft fan or ID fan is always
located between dust collector and chimney.

ID fan takes the hot flue gases from furnace via dust collector (dust separation
system or Fume Extraction system) and will deliver to chimney. ID fan produce the
pressure lower than the atmospheric pressure in the system or we may say that ID fan
produces the negative pressure in the furnace to remove the flue gases from furnace via
Multi Cyclone and to push the flue gases to chimney.

Higher volume and low pressure demands can be met by lowering speed,
increasing the diameter of impeller and opting to go for double suction radial fans, are
best preferred. This automatically takes of erosion, life of fan components and also

70
lesser dynamic loads and vibrations apart from lesser noise levels. If axial fans are
chosen, then material selection for blades shall be carefully done and hence ferrous
materials are best compared to normal Aluminum materials.

Figure 27. ID fan

To take care erosion and extended life, ID fans of radial types, are designed with
variable speed methods like Hydraulic couplings, Variable Frequency Drives, etc. If we
go for Axial flow type fans for ID applications, speed variation is not feasible. Fans
selected for maximum speed operation so as to meet the maximum parameters called
Design Point/ Test Block at Best Efficient Point. If mechanical flow controls like butter
fly damper/ Inlet damper control/ Inlet Guide Vane controls are selected, then fan
efficiency will be far low compared to Best Efficient Point (BEP).

Specifications:

Rating-1300

RPM-993

Make-BHEL,1996

 FORCED DRAUGHT FAN MOTOR:

Forced Draft Fan is a type of a fan supplying pressurized air to a system. In the case of
a Steam Boiler Assembly, this fan is of a great importance. As we know, for a Steam
Boiler to generate steam, combustion must occur, be it any fuel (wood/coal/rice husk/pet

71
coke/LDO/Furnace oil) and for combustion to exist one of its three main requirements,
is the air. And this requirement is compensated by a Forced Draft Fan.
FD fan supplies air to the Air-preheater, where it captures the heat from the flue
gases coming from the Boiler Outlet. Nowadays, fluidized bed combustion is one of the
promising ways of collecting more energy through combustion for solid fuels. But this
wouldn’t have even been so famous if there wasn’t any Forced Draft Fan.

Figure 28. FD Fan

The pressurized air supplied by the Fan helps in providing enough draft equalizing the
weight of the bed and the quantity to be supplied, hence creating fluidization of the sand
in the furnace. Not only the pressure head but also the quantity of air supplied for
combustion needs to be calculated. Forced Draft in a fan occurs when the fluid handled
by the fan (generally air), is retained beyond the atmospheric pressure. Every fan
designer must never underestimate the importance of the properties and composition of
the fuel to be combusted and the bed height in the furnace.

 BOWLMILL:

Raw coal coming from feeder gets ground between the grinding rolls and bull ring
segments installed on the revolving Bowl. Bowl is made to rotate at medium speed for
proper pulverization of coal. Springs exert necessary pressure on rolls for grinding.

Hot air through the mill besides removing coal moisture, picks up the lighter
particles and takes them through the classifier and drop down the higher size particles
for further grinding. Fine coal air mixture leaves the mill and enters the fuel piping

72
system. Tramp iron pieces which are not required to grind, leave the Bowl due to
centrifugal force and are removed through the reject removal system.

Figure 29. Bowl mill

Specifications:
Rating-425KW
RPM-586
Make-BHEL,2006

 BOILER FEED PUMP MOTOR:

A boiler feed water pump is a specific type of pump used to pump feed water into
a steam boiler. The water may be freshly supplied or returning condensate produced as
a result of the condensation of the steam produced by the boiler. These pumps are
normally high pressure units that take suction from a condensate return system and can
be of the centrifugal pump type or positive displacement type.

Feed water pumps range in size up to many horsepower’s and the electric motor is
usually separated from the pump body by some form of mechanical coupling. Large
industrial condensate pumps may also serve as the feed water pump. In either case, to
force the water into the boiler, the pump must generate sufficient pressure to overcome
the steam pressure developed by the boiler. This is usually accomplished through the
use of a centrifugal pump. Another common form of feed water pumps run constantly
and are provided with a minimum flow device to stop over pressuring the pump on low
flows. The minimum flow usually returns to the tank or deaerator.

73
 Figure 30.BFP Motor

Specifications:

Rating-4000-4600KW

RPM-1485

Make-BHEL,1996

 CONDENSATE EXTRACTION PUMP:

The condensate pump is a single stage or two stage end suction overhang centrifugal
pump with an inducer, there are main constructions of the pump consist of pump casing,
pump cover, impeller, shaft, shaft sleeve and supporting part. Gland packing with a
replaceable shaft sleeve. Bearing bracket with two deep groove ball bearings which
sustain the residual balancing force, oil lubrication felts inserted on the bearing covers
to prevent oil leak out pump. Motor connected by flexible coupling.

Figure 31.CEP Motor

74
Specification:
Rating-650 KW
RPM-1485
Make-BHEL,2006

6.3 MOTOR TESTING:

Preventative and predictive maintenance programs for motors are effective practices in
manufacturing plants. These maintenance procedures involve a sequence of steps plant
personnel use to prolong motor life or foresee a motor failure. The technicians use a
series of diagnostics such as motor temperature and motor vibration as key pieces of
information in learning about the motors. This paper outlines and discusses such
diagnostics and describes some common pieces of hardware used to obtain the data.
One way a technician can use these diagnostics is to compare the vibration signature
found in the motor with the failure mode to determine the cause of the failure.

Often failures occur well before the expected design life span of the motor and
studies have shown that mechanical failures are the prime cause of premature electrical
failures. This paper looks into the various mechanical problems which lead to those
electrical failures and ways to avoid them. Preventative maintenance takes steps to
improve motor performance and to extend its life. Common preventative tasks include
routine lubrication, allowing adequate ventilation, and ensuring the motor is not
undergoing any type of unbalanced voltage situation. This paper provides greater detail
on preventative procedures which improve overall plant efficiency.

 Insulation Resistance Test:

An extremely useful test to determine the time of motor repair or replacement is the
insulation resistance test. This test should be conducted at regular intervals as with any
predictive test. "Trending" the data is the most useful way to obtain information from
the investigation. The technique used in the insulation resistance test is to attach a mega-
ohmmeter to a motor whose windings are at ambient temperature. The mega-ohmmeter
measures insulation resistance between the windings and the frame of the motor. A
SOO-volt mega-ohmmeter should be used for motors with voltage ratings of 2,400 volts
or less and a 1000-volt mega-ohmmeter should be used ifthe rated voltage is over 2,400
volts. Once the readings are tabulated and charted, a pattern will develop to identify any

75
trends in the data If the data remains constant time after time, the insulation system is
in prime condition. When resistance drops after two or three successive tests, remove
the motor from service17. Conditions like high humidity may cause a motor's insulation
resistance to fall so a low resistance on one test compared to the rest of the data set does
not always mean troubling news.

 Polarization Index Test The polarization index (P-I):

It is a method used to determine if any substance has contaminated the motor enough
to cause serious damage to the windings which would shorten the motor's life. In testing
the P-I, usually a 500-volt mega-ohmmeter provides a constant dc voltage between the
motor's windings and frame for 10 minutes. The insulation resistance is measured after
the first minute and after the tenth minute. A ratio is taken to compare the resistance at
the tenth minute to the resistance at the first minute. As long as this ratio is greater than
2, the windings are operating properly. If the ratio is below 2, the Electrical Apparatus
and Service Association (EASA) recommends to have the motor's windings cleaned,
baked, and retested. If the reading still falls below 2, the motor may need to be rewound.

 Surge Test:

The insulation resistance test and P-I test are widely used in maintenance programs.
These tests really only detect the final stages of an insulation wear-out so another means
to determine the initial stages of deteriorating insulation was developed. This test is
known as the surge test examines the tum-ta-tum and phase-to phase insulations. Phase-
ta-phase insulation is the protection found between the winding and ground while
insulation is a thin fl1m. applied to the surface of the copper wire. The surge test
generates a voltage through the tum-ta-tum and phase-to-phase insulations by
discharging a capacitor into a winding to rapidly pulse the voltage to a specified level.

 DC High-Potential Test:

Another test which better detects insulation weaknesses is the dc high-potential test.
This test measures the insulation resistance compared to ground, but incorporates the
dielectric strength of the insulation. This data is used to detect any weaknesses that could
lead to a fault from voltage surges. The test applies a dc voltage in step increments up
to an accepted voltage (usually twice the nameplate voltage plus 1,000 V-according to
IEEE Std.95) and measuring and plotting the leakage current.

76
  Motor Vibration:

All rotating machinery, including motors, have a certain vibration level which should
remain stable even after years of service. At some point, the motor could exhibit
excessive vibration frequencies which increase wear on the machine and result in
equipment failure. A vibration maintenance procedure is a simple task to ail to an
existing maintenance program and can prove useful in determining imminent failure of
machines. Some common causes of vibration are imbalance, mechanical looseness,
misalignment, and a bent sb. By observing the amplitude and frequency of the vibration
with respect to the motor's speed, the cause of the problem can be determined. For
example, if the frequency of the vibration corresponds to the motor's speed, then the
cause of the problem is imbalance.

Imbalance is the most common of all vibration problems and can be corrected
using a method of dynamic balancing (adding or subtracting weights to the perimeter of
rotating machinery). Another example to determine if misalignment is the cause is
whenever the amplitude of axial vibration is greater than 50% of the highest radial
(horizontal or vertical) measurement, then suspect misalignment. describes in detail
ways to determine the cause of other vibration frequencies and amplitudes.

A wide array of tools exists to measure vibration. "Classical" vibration tools

include the amplitude meter and the vibration analyzer and dynamic balancer. The
amplitude meter is a portable hand-held unit that measures vibration in mils (l mil =
0.001 inches) through a hand-held probe and a sensing cable.

The vibration analyzer and dynamic balancer is also portable, but automatically
locates the spot and the quantity of excess weight which causes motor imbalance.

There are now "modem" instruments available to measure vibration which range
from stand-alone instruments to full computerized monitoring systems which can be
integrated with temperature measurements and other parameters to predict equipment
life and also aid in scheduling plant maintenance.

 Motor Temperature:
Motor temperature is a prime indicator of how wen Ii motor is operating. A hot motor
greatly reduces the life of the unit. A WOC (20"F) increase from the design motor
temperature can reduce the life of the motor's insulation in half. There are many ways

77
to measure the temperature of a motor. Thermocouples, pyrometers (an electrical
thermometer used to measure high temperatures), and infrared scanners are the types of
devices used to measure the temperature of a motor. The stator core is sometimes
difficult to measure, but there are ways to determine if there are problems in the core. If
the laminations are in good condition, the surface temperatures of the motor will remain
constant and heat up 10° to 200 P in approximately 30 minutes. A damaged core can be
determined by observing "hot spots" which tend to heat up much more rapidly than the
rest of the surface. If these spots are detected the test should be terminated to prevent
any further damage and the motor should be sent out for repair.

 Motor Ventilation:

Restricting ventilation to a motor can cause the motor to operate at higher than desired
temperatures. These high temperatures can damage a motor's insulation and cause it to
fail.

As a maintenance procedure, in harsh environments where dirt, dust, and other

debris constantly clog ventilating passages, blowout the dirt with dry air as often as
needed6. One consideration when installing open drip proof motors or totally enclosed
fan cooled motors, although they are protected, is to place the motors in an area where
their airflow will not be restricted or where high ambient temperatures will be
encountered.

The premise with adequate ventilation is that the cooler a motor operates, the more
its efficiency is improved and its lifetime extended. Some plants will paint their motors
to give the appearance of a clean operating environment with lots of new equipment
According to manufacturers and plant personnel, motor casings are not designed to be
painted since any extra layers of paint act as insulation. This procedure will overheat
the motor which usually ends in premature failure.

 Alignment:
One step of a successful motor maintenance program is to align the motor with the load.
Poor alignment can lead to mechanical vibration. Two types of problems are the cause
for misalignment in direct coupling drives: angular misalignment and parallel
misalignment. Angular misalignment is the amount by which the faces of the two
coupling halves are out of parallel and parallel misalignment is the offset between the
centerlines of the two shafts.

78
The misalignments can be detected using a dial-indicator, laser, or computer
instrumentation. The results should not show more than 0.002" for either misalignments.
When checking the alignment, be sure that the system is checked at actual operating
conditions since operating temperatures could affect the outcome. Misalignments of
several thousandths of an inch will result even with a small differential between motor
temperature and driven equipment temperature. Even though the motor and drive are
aligned following installation, the alignment can be altered after many hours of service
resulting from vibration, shifting, and settling of the foundation. Alignment checks
should become part of routine preventative maintenance tasks.

 Lubrication:

Peak operation of motors begins with proper lubrication techniques. Lubrication

reduces wear on metal parts which rub against one another. However, there are two
concerns associated with lubrication practices: under lubrication and over Iubrication.
Under lubrication usually occurs when either an insufficient amount of lubricant is
applied to the motor bearings or maintenance has not been performed on the motor in
quite some time. Since the friction of the bearings increases, the motor has to work
harder to overcome the increased resistance which means its energy use increases and
the motor runs hot. When the motor runs hot, the efficiency decreases which leads to a
reduction of the lubricating properties.

 Electrical Considerations:

A motor is designed electrically to last as long as 30 years or more. A large percentage

of motors fail within 5 to 10 years of first initial use and seem to be caused by shorts in
the windings and other electrical mishaps. Further investigation would show that a
mechanical failure (e.g., misalignment, bearing failure) led to that electrical failure.
Regardless of this statement, an overview of the plant's electrical system should be
performed to check for problems that might actually cause an electrical failure in a
motor. This includes monitoring voltage imbalances and observing the motor nameplate
voltage rating. As a routine maintenance check, personnel should record the voltage at
the terminals of the motor to identify potential problems.

Voltage imbalance is an area of concern and efforts should be made to optimize the
electrical distribution system in a plant. A voltage imbalance occurs when the voltages
to the lines of a polyphase induction motor are not equal. Imbalances in excess of five

79
percent should be corrected as soon as possible. A voltage imbalance causes the line
currents to be unequal as well which cause problems such as torque pulsations,
vibrations, and overheating one or more of the phase windings. This situation increases
motor losses and heat generation which decrease the motor's efficiency and shortens its
life.

6.4 GENERAL MAINTENANCE:

Manufacturing industries count on reliable equipment and personnel to keep a plant

operating. Routine maintenance is essential to reducing plant downtime which is costly
in any manufacturing facility. When a plant is not producing saleable product, the
company loses money. Electric motors play an important role in most manufacturing
operations and when a motor fails, especially unexpectedly, this means unwanted
extended downtime. Preventative and predictive maintenance programs for motors
should be common entities in any manufacturing process where failure management
represents the largest financial benefit. Motors should be on a maintenance schedule
where the units are maintained and tested every 6 months.

Performing routine preventative and predictive tasks can extend a motor's life
and improve its efficiency. Some companies outline their maintenance procedures so
each maintenance crew follows the same methodology. Motors are extremely energy
efficient devices. In fact, the equipment they drive carry losses on the order of five times
more than the motor itself (in terms of thermal energy losses). Although motors are
highly efficient pieces of hardware, motors, like any other equipment, still fail. After
the failure occurs, the unit is either sent out to be rewound or a new motor is to replace
the failed one. When a motor returns from being rewound, the efficiency can drop more
than 2%. This happens when the motor repair shop burns the old windings off the motor,
affecting the insulation of the stator. When the insulation properties drop, a motor's
losses increase which result in the decrease in efficiency. New technologies are
available which help reduce the losses in a rewound motor; rare cases have shown that
a motor's efficiency increased after being rewound. The method used in the rewinding
procedure directly affects the outcome of the rewind.

One common practice when a motor fails is to replace the failed motor with
anew, energy efficient model. Appropriate times to purchase energy efficient motors
include for all new installations, when replacing oversized motors, and when rewinding

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is not financially feasible. Many facilities will purchase energy efficient motors
regardless of when a motor fails. Motor Master+ is software that supports motor
management functions at industrial facilities. The software supports motor systems
improvement planning through identifying the most efficient motor(s) for a given repair
or motor purchase decision. Motor Master+ can be used to identify inefficient or
oversized inventory motors and compute the energy and demand savings associated
with selection of a replacement energy-efficient model.

Technical data is included that can help optimize a drive system, such as motor
part-load efficiency and power factor, full-load speed, torque, and voltage. Purchase
information including list price~ warranty, catalog number, and manufacturer's
addresses are also part of the package. Analysis features calculate the energy savings,
dollar savings, simple payback, cash flows, and after-tax rate of return-on-investment
from using a particular energy-efficient motor in a new purchase or retrofit application.
Variables such as motor efficiency, purchase price, energy costs, hours of operation,
load factor, and utility rebates are taken into account.

The goal of any motor maintenance program is to reduce unplanned downtime which is
costly for any manufacturer. There are other benefits to incorporating a maintenance
program like the ones described in this paper. Preventative tasks can improve motor
efficiency which will result in improved plant efficiency. Predictive maintenance can
facilitate the purchase of energy efficient motors by determining when motors need to
be replaced. When this time is determined, the maintenance personnel in the plant can
have the energy efficient motors ready to be installed in the production line. This
procedure will result in reduced energy consumption by the plant and again improve
plant efficiency.

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7. CONCLUSION
Electricity is a key element of infrastructure and is vital to a country's economic
development and growth. It is an essential input in various sectors of the economy such
as industry, agriculture as well as commercial and domestic sectors. During the past two
decades, the power industry, usually a public monopoly, has been subject to wide-scale
structural, institutional, and regulatory reforms in many developed and developing
economies.

In most of these countries, there is a growing disenchantment with the state's

ability to supply electricity efficiently either due to paucity of resources or for want of
accountability and incentives in management of resources. The reforms have focused
largely on the 'unbundling' of power generation, transmission, and distribution systems
to allow private firm participation in the power industry. In India, development of the
power sector (a public monopoly until 1990) has received special emphasis in the
planned economic development of the country over the past four decades.

The great relevance of power sector is further highlighted by the fact that the
demand for electricity has been increasing more rapidly (more than 9%) in India than
elsewhere in the world, although India's per capita power consumption is low (374 KWh
in 2000-01, according to TERI, 2002). In spite of the power sector's growth, chronic
peak deficits and energy shortages characterize the power supply situation in the
country. The government has formulated an energy policy to ensure adequate power
supply at minimum cost, while achieving self-sufficiency and protecting the
environment. Since the onset of widespread economic reforms in the country in 1991,
the government has undertaken various steps to reduce power shortages such as
renovation and modernization of old plants, creation of new generation capacity, and
allowing private sector participation to increase power generation.

Thermal (coal-based) power plants are the largest suppliers of electricity in

India, followed by hydro, nuclear, gas, and diesel-based generating plants. Thermal
power plants hold the highest share of installed power generation capacity in the
country. The share of thermal plants in total power generated in the country is even
higher than their share of generation capacity. However, the performance of thermal
power plants is far from satisfactory, partly due to factors such as poor quality of coal,
lack of coal-processing facilities, non-availability of trained manpower, inadequate

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control equipment, and aging of many power plants (TERI, 2001). Nevertheless, given
the relative dominance of thermal power plants and adequate coal reserves in the
country, the government plans to increase thermal power capacity even further.4 Thus,
the dominance of thermal power industry as a supplier of electricity is likely to continue.
Therefore, the task of assessing the performance and efficiency of Indian thermal power
plants is of vital importance.

A power plant is technically inefficient (TE) if available inputs or resources are

misutilized, so that the plant's actual output is less than its potential output (maximum
possible output given the existing resources). If plant output is low due to inefficiency,
it indicates that plant performance is poor. An improvement in TE of a power plant
reflects increased production using current resources and hence better plant perfor-
mance. Since (1991) has analysed the technical efficiency of thermal power plants in
India, using cross-section data for 1986-87. However, no study has yet been conducted
to analyse the efficiency of thermal power stations in India during the post-1990 reform
period.

Improving the efficiency of existing coal plants could potentially result in large
reductions of CO2 emissions per unit of electricity produced. Since GHG emissions
from electricity generation are essentially composed of CO2 emissions, improvements
in efficiency are a direct means of reducing GHG emissions. The performance of a
power plant can be expressed by a number of measures, including heat rate (i.e., the
efficiency of conversion from fuel energy input to electrical energy output), and thermal
efficiency.

A percentage improvement in heat rate is nearly equivalent to an equal

percentage improvement in the emissions rate in terms of the change in CO2 emissions.
The difference stems from the small variation in carbon per Btu across coal varieties.
The heterogeneity in heat rates across coal-fired generation units can partly be explained
by technical characteristics determined at the time of plant construction that cannot be
changed without a major overhaul. This category includes size, age, firing type, and the
technology employed. Higher efficiency is generally associated with plants that are used
more heavily because efficient units are less costly to operate.

A second factor is how the boiler is used. The relationship between the heat rate
and utilization is nonlinear, as efficiency tends to be lower at very low and very high

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levels of utilization . Units with lower utilization may be ramped up and down more
frequently, which requires additional fuel input as temperature in the boiler fluctuates.
The result could involve efficiency losses at least partly outside the control of plant
decision makers. Plant managers control several other factors that affect heat rates.

Techniques, management, or technology may improve the efficiency of the plant

by targeting the major components of the coal combustion process: oxygen,
temperature, and pressure. Excessive deviations in any of these areas may decrease
efficiency through waste or shortfalls.

Maintenance and performance testing are also critical for identifying and
preventing losses. Combining the use of biomass with coal can be beneficial,
particularly from an environmental standpoint although any such process may have its
limitations or drawbacks. Each coal type and biomass feedstock has different
characteristics although by combining the two, it may be possible to capitalize on the
advantages of each, and minimize their individual disadvantages.

Thus, various hybrid energy concepts, some based on coal/biomass

[gasification], have been proposed or are in the process of being developed or trialed.
Some propose to add yet another element of renewable energy to the system, generally
by incorporating electricity generated by intermittent renewables such as wind or solar
power. A number also aim to incorporate some form of carbon capture and storage.As
biomass is generally considered carbon neutral, co-firing coal with biomass can provide
advantages for electric power generation.

The efficiency of coal-fired power plants decreases over time as components

and systems degrade with age and use. Good O&M practices can slow down the loss of
efficiency, but older power plants will not be as efficient as newer plants with more
technologically advanced and newer systems. But simply replacing old power plants
with newer plants is rarely cost effective as the relative increase in power output seldom
justifies the cost. Power plants that are more efficient emit less CO2 per unit of
electricity produced because they use less coal. Making improvements to increase the
efficiency (while producing the same electrical output) could result in a significant
reduction in CO2 emissions.

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