Definition and characteristics

Volcanic eruptions happen when lava and gas are discharged from a volcanic vent. The
most common consequences of this are population movements as large numbers of
people are often forced to flee the moving lava flow. Volcanic eruptions often cause
temporary food shortages and volcanic ash landslides called Lahar.

The most dangerous type of volcanic eruption is referred to as a 'glowing avalanche'.

This is when freshly erupted magma forms hot pyroclastic flow which have
temperatures of up to 1,200 degrees. The pyroclastic flow is formed from rock
fragments following a volcanic explosion , the flow surges down the flanks of the
volcano at speeds of up to several hundred kilometres per hour, to distances often up to
10km and occasionally as far as 40 km from the original disaster site.

The International Federation response adjusts to meet the needs of each specific
circumstance. As population movement is often a consequence, the provision of safe
areas, shelter, water, food and health supplies are primordial. In general response
prioritizes temporary shelter materials; safe water and basic sanitation; food supplies;
and the short term provision of basic health services and supplies.

Find out more

Related useful links:

 Volcano World
 HIGP Hawaii - Global Spaceborn Thermal Monitoring
 Volcano World - Current Volcanic activity
 MTU - Michigan Technological University Volcanoes
 MTU - Earth's Active Volcanos Map
 American Red Cross fact sheet - Volcano eruption
Volcanic Eruptions
The most common type of volcanic eruption occurs when magma (the term for lava when it is
below the Earth's surface) is released from a volcanic vent. Eruptions can be effusive, where lava
flows like a thick, sticky liquid, or explosive, where fragmented lava explodes out of a vent. In
explosive eruptions, the fragmented rock may be accompanied by ashand gases; in effusive
eruptions, degassing is common but ash is usually not.

Volcanologists classify eruptions into several different types. Some are named for
particular volcanoeswhere the type of eruption is common; others concern the resulting shape of
the eruptive products or the place where the eruptions occur. Here are some of the most common
types of eruptions:

Hawaiian Eruption
In a Hawaiian eruption, fluid basaltic lava is thrown into the air in jets from a vent or line of
vents (a fissure) at the summit or on the flank of a volcano. The jets can last for hours or even
days, a phenomenon known as fire fountaining. The spatter created by bits of hot lava falling out
of the fountain can melt together and form lava flows, or build hills called spatter cones. Lava
flows may also come from vents at the same time as fountaining occurs, or during periods where
fountaining has paused. Because these flows are very fluid, they can travel miles from their
source before they cool and harden.

Hawaiian eruptions get their names from the Kilauea Volcano on the Big Island of Hawaii,
which is famous for producing spectacular fire fountains. Two excellent examples of these are
the 1969-1974 Mauna Ulu eruption on the volcano's flank, and the 1959 eruption of the Kilauea
Iki Crater at the summit of Kilauea. In both of these eruptions, lava fountains reached heights of
well over a thousand feet.

Strombolian eruption. Short bursts of glowing lava, created from the bursting of large gas bubbles at the
summit vent of a volcano typify a Strombolian eruption. This photo, taken from the summit of Stromboli, a
volcano in the Aeolian Islands, Italy, shows a classic example of this activity. Photo copyright iStockphoto /
Andrew Hague.

What Determines Eruption Type

The crystal and gas content and temperature of a magma help determine a volcano's eruption
style.

-- Crystals in magma make it more viscous, so magma with a high crystal content is more
likely to explode than flow.
 -- Gases create explosions if they cannot easily escape from viscous magma, but they can also
be released without explosions (or with only minor ones) from fluid magma.

-- High-temperature magmas usually erupt effusively, while low-temperature magmas cannot

flow easily and are more likely to erupt explosively.

Strombolian Eruption
Strombolian eruptions are distinct bursts of fluid lava (usually basalt or basaltic andesite) from
the mouth of a magma-filled summit conduit. The explosions usually occur every few minutes at
regular or irregular intervals. The explosions of lava, which can reach heights of hundreds of
meters, are caused by the bursting of large bubbles of gas, which travel upward in the magma-
filled conduit until they reach the open air.

This kind of eruption can create a variety of forms of eruptive products: spatter, or hardened
globs of glassy lava; scoria, which are hardened chunks of bubbly lava; lava bombs, or chunks
of lava a few cm to a few m in size; ash; and small lava flows (which form when hot spatter
melts together and flows downslope). Products of an explosive eruption are often collectively
called tephra.

Strombolian eruptions are often associated with small lava lakes, which can build up in the
conduits of volcanoes. They are one of the least violent of the explosive eruptions, although they
can still be very dangerous if bombs or lava flows reach inhabited areas. Strombolian eruptions
are named for the volcano that makes up the Italian island of Stromboli, which has several
erupting summit vents. These eruptions are particularly spectacular at night, when the lava glows
brightly.

Vulcanian eruption. Relatively small but violent explosions of viscous lava create columns of ash and gas and
occasional pyroclastic flows, as seen at this eruption of the Santiaguito volcanic dome complex in Guatemala.
Photo by Jessica Ball, March 15, 2009.

Vulcanian Eruption
A Vulcanian eruption is a short, violent, relatively small explosion of viscous magma (usually
andesite, dacite, or rhyolite). This type of eruption results from the fragmentation and explosion
of a plug of lava in a volcanic conduit, or from the rupture of a lava dome (viscous lava that piles
up over a vent). Vulcanian eruptions create powerful explosions in which material can travel
faster than 350 meters per second (800 mph) and rise several kilometers into the air. They
produce tephra, ash clouds, and pyroclastic density currents (clouds of hot ash, gas and rock that
flow almost like fluids).
Vulcanian eruptions may be repetitive and go on for days, months, or years, or they may precede
even larger explosive eruptions. They are named for the Italian island of Vulcano, where a small
volcano that experienced this type of explosive eruption was thought to be the vent above the
forge of the Roman smith god Vulcan.

Plinain eruption. The largest and most violent of all explosive eruptions, Plinian eruptions send columns of
pulverized rock, ash, and gases that rise miles into the atmosphere in a matter of minutes. Mount St. Helens in
Washington State experienced a Plinian eruption following a major flank collapse in 1980. Photo by Austin
Post, USGS, May 18, 1980. Enlarge Image

Plinian Eruption
The largest and most violent of all the types of volcanic eruptions are Plinian eruptions. They are
caused by the fragmentation of gassy magma, and are usually associated with very viscous
magmas (dacite and rhyolite). They release enormous amounts of energy and create eruption
columns of gas and ash that can rise up to 50 km (35 miles) high at speeds of hundreds of meters
per second. Ash from an eruption column can drift or be blown hundreds or thousands of miles
away from the volcano. The eruption columns are usually shaped like a mushroom (similar to a
nuclear explosion) or an Italian pine tree; Pliny the Younger, a Roman historian, made the
comparison while viewing the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and Plinian eruptions are
named for him.

Plinian eruptions are extremely destructive, and can even obliterate the entire top of a mountain,
as occurred at Mount St. Helens in 1980. They can produce falls of ash, scoria and lava bombs
miles from the volcano, and pyroclastic density currents that raze forests, strip soil from bedrock
and obliterate anything in their paths. These eruptions are often climactic, and a volcano with a
magma chamber emptied by a large Plinian eruption may subsequently enter a period of
inactivity.

Lava dome. Lava domes, such as this example in the crater of Mount St. Helens, are piles of viscous lava that
are too cool and sticky to flow far. Domes grow and collapse in cycles, and often form at volcanoes that also
experience Plinian eruptions. Photo by Lyn Topinka, USGS, August 12, 1985. Enlarge Image

Lava Domes
Lava domes form when very viscous, rubbly lava (usually andesite, dacite or rhyolite) is
squeezed out of a vent without exploding. The lava piles up into a dome, which may grow by
inflating from the inside or by squeezing out lobes of lava (something like toothpaste coming out
of a tube). These lava lobes can be short and blobby, long and thin, or even form spikes that rise
tens of meters into the air before they fall over. Lava domes may be rounded, pancake-shaped, or
irregular piles of rock, depending on the type of lava they form from.
Lava domes are not just passive piles of rock; they can sometimes collapse and form pyroclastic
density currents, extrude lava flows, or experience small and large explosive eruptions (which
may even destroy the domes!) A dome-building eruption may go on for months or years, but
they are usually repetitive (meaning that a volcano will build and destroy several domes before
the eruption ceases). Redoubt volcano in Alaska and Chaiten in Chile are currently active
examples of this type of eruption, and Mount St. Helens in the state of Washington spent several
years building several lava domes.

Surtseyan eruption. Lava erupting through water creates the dramatic plumes of scoria and billowing ash-and-
gas clouds of a Surtseyan eruption. The type example of this eruption occurred at Surtsey, a volcanic island off
the coast of Iceland. NOAA image of the 1963 eruption. Enlarge Image

Surtseyan Eruption
Surtseyan eruptions are a kind of hydromagmatic eruption, where magma or lava interacts
explosively with water. In most cases, Surtseyan eruptions occur when an undersea volcano has
finally grown large enough to break the water's surface; because water expands when it turns to
steam, water that comes into contact with hot lava explodes and creates plumes of ash, steam and
scoria. Lavas created by a Surtseyan eruption tend to be basalt, since most oceanic volcanoes are
basaltic.

The classic example of a Surtseyan eruption was the volcanic island of Surtsey, which erupted
off the south coast of Iceland between 1963 and 1965. Hydromagmatic activity built up several
square kilometers of tephra over the first several months of the eruption; eventually, seawater
could no longer reach the vent, and the eruption transitioned to Hawaiian and Strombolian styles.
More recently, in March 2009, several vents of the volcanic island of Hunga Ha'apai near Tonga
began to erupt. The onshore and offshore explosions created plumes of ash and steam that rose to
more than 8 km (5 miles) altitude, and threw plumes of tephra hundreds of meters from the
vents.
What is an earthquake?

An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past
one another. The surface where they slip is called the fault or fault plane. The
location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called
the hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is
called the epicenter.

Sometimes an earthquake has foreshocks. These are smaller earthquakes that

happen in the same place as the larger earthquake that follows. Scientists can’t
tell that an earthquake is a foreshock until the larger earthquake happens. The
largest, main earthquake is called the mainshock. Mainshocks always
have aftershocks that follow. These are smaller earthquakes that occur
afterwards in the same place as the mainshock. Depending on the size of the
mainshock, aftershocks can continue for weeks, months, and even years after
the mainshock!

Earthquake
An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of stored energy in the Earth's
crust that creates seismic waves.
Earthquakes are accordingly measured with a seismometer, commonly known as a seismograph.
The magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported using the Richter scale or a related
Moment scale (with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being hard to notice and magnitude 7 causing
serious damage over large areas).
At the Earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest themselves by a shaking or displacement of the
ground.
Sometimes, they cause tsunamis, which may lead to loss of life and destruction of property.
An earthquake is caused by tectonic plates getting stuck and putting a strain on the ground.
The strain becomes so great that rocks give way by breaking and sliding along fault planes.
Earthquakes may occur naturally or as a result of human activities.
Smaller earthquakes can also be caused by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear
experiments.
In its most generic sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event—whether a
natural phenomenon or an event caused by humans—that generates seismic waves.
Most naturally occurring earthquakes are related to the tectonic nature of the Earth.
Such earthquakes are called tectonic earthquakes.
The Earth's lithosphere is a patchwork of plates in slow but constant motion caused by the release to
space of the heat in the Earth's mantle and core.
The heat causes the rock in the Earth to become flow on geological timescales, so that the plates
move slowly but surely.
Plate boundaries lock as the plates move past each other, creating frictional stress.
When the frictional stress exceeds a critical value, called local strength, a sudden failure occurs.
The boundary of tectonic plates along which failure occurs is called the fault plane.
When the failure at the fault plane results in a violent displacement of the Earth's crust, the elastic
strain energy is released and seismic waves are radiated, thus causing an earthquake.
This process of strain, stress, and failure is referred to as the Elastic-rebound theory.
It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic
energy.
Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth and is converted
into heat, or is released to friction.
The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at depths not exceeding tens of kilometers.
In subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate,
Deep focus earthquakes may occur at much greater depths (up to seven hundred kilometers).
These are earthquakes that occur at a depth at which the subducted lithosphere should no longer be
brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure.
A possible mechanism for the generation of deep focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine
undergoing a phase transition into a spinel structure.
Earthquakes may also occur in volcanic regions and are caused there both by tectonic faults and by
the movement of magma in volcanoes.
Such earthquakes can be an early warning of volcanic eruptions.
A recently proposed theory suggests that some earthquakes may occur in a sort of earthquake
storm, where one earthquake will trigger a series of earthquakes each triggered by the previous
shifts on the fault lines, similar to aftershocks, but occurring years later, and with some of the later
earthquakes as damaging as the early ones.
Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck the North
Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th century, the half dozen large earthquakes in New Madrid in
1811-1812, and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle
East and in the Mojave Desert.
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves that sends surges of water,
sometimes reaching heights of over 100 feet (30.5 meters), onto land.
These walls of water can cause widespread destruction when they crash
ashore.

Tsunamis
A tsunami can kill or injure people and damage or destroy buildings and infrastructure as
waves come in and go out. A tsunami is a series of enormous ocean waves caused by
earthquakes, underwater landslides, volcanic eruptions, or asteroids. Tsunamis can:

 Travel 20-30 miles per hour with waves 10-100 feet high.
 Cause flooding and disrupt transportation, power, communications, and the water
supply.
 Happen anywhere along U.S. coasts. Coasts that border the Pacific Ocean or
Caribbean have the greatest risk.

IF YOU ARE UNDER A TSUNAMI WARNING:

 First, protect yourself from an Earthquake. Drop, Cover, then Hold On.
 Get to high ground as far inland as possible.
 Be alert to signs of a tsunami, such as a sudden rise or draining of ocean waters.
 Listen to emergency information and alerts.
 Evacuate: DO NOT wait! Leave as soon as you see any natural signs of a tsunami
or receive an official tsunami warning.
 If you are in a boat, go out to sea.

HOW TO STAY SAFE WHEN A TSUNAMI THREATENS

Prepare NOW
  If you live near, or regularly visit a coastal area, learn about the risk of tsunami in the
area. Some at-risk communities have maps with evacuation zones and routes. If you
are a visitor, ask about community plans.
 Learn the signs of a potential tsunami, such as an earthquake, a loud roar from the
ocean, or unusual ocean behavior, such as a sudden rise or wall of water or sudden
draining of water showing the ocean floor.
 Know and practice community evacuation plans and map out your routes from
home, work, and play. Pick shelters 100 feet or more above sea level, or at least one
mile inland.
 Create a family emergency communication plan that has an out-of-state contact.
Plan where to meet if you get separated.
 Sign up for your community’s warning system. The Emergency Alert System (EAS)
and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Weather Radio also
provide emergency alerts.
 Consider earthquake insurance and a flood insurance policy through the National
Flood Insurance Program (NFIP). Standard homeowner’s insurance does not cover
flood or earthquake damage.

Survive DURING
 If you are in a tsunami area and there is an earthquake, then first protect yourself
from the earthquake. Drop, Cover, and Hold On. Drop to your hands and knees.
Cover your head and neck with your arms. Hold on to any sturdy furniture until the
shaking stops. Crawl only if you can reach better cover, but do not go through an
area with more debris.
 When the shaking stops, if there are natural signs or official warnings of a tsunami,
then move immediately to a safe place as high and as far inland as possible. Listen
to the authorities, but do not wait for tsunami warnings and evacuation orders.
  If you are outside of the tsunami hazard zone and receive a warning, then stay
where you are unless officials tell you otherwise.
 Leave immediately if you are told to do so. Evacuation routes are often marked by a
wave with an arrow in the direction of higher ground.
 If you are in the water, then grab onto something that floats, such as a raft, tree
trunk, or door.
 If you are in a boat, then face the direction of the waves and head out to sea. If you
are in a harbor, then go inland.

Be Safe AFTER
 Listen to local alerts and authorities for information on areas to avoid and shelter
locations.
 Avoid wading in floodwater, which can contain dangerous debris. Water may be
deeper than it appears.
 Be aware of the risk of electrocution. Underground or downed power lines can
electrically charge water. Do not touch electrical equipment if it is wet or if you are
standing in water.
 Stay away from damaged buildings, roads, and bridges.
 Document property damage with photographs. Conduct an inventory and contact
your insurance company for assistance.
 Save phone calls for emergencies. Phone systems are often down or busy after a
disaster. Use text messages or social media to communicate with family and friends.
 Safety Tips

• As much as possible, stay away from active volcanoes.

• If you live near an active volcano, keep goggles and a mask in an

emergency kit, along with a flashlight and a working, battery-operated
radio.

• Know your evacuation route. Keep gas in your car.

If a Volcano Erupts in Your Area

• Evacuate only as recommended by authorities to stay clear of lava,

mud flows, and flying rocks and debris.

• Avoid river areas and low-lying regions.

• Before you leave the house, change into long-sleeved shirts and long
pants and use goggles or eyeglasses, not contacts. Wear an emergency
mask or hold a damp cloth over your face.

• If you are not evacuating, close windows and doors and block
chimneys and other vents, to prevent ash from coming into the house.

• Be aware that ash may put excess weight on your roof and need to be
swept away. Wear protection during cleanups.

• Ash can damage engines and metal parts, so avoid driving. If you must
drive, stay below 35 miles (56 kilometers) an hour.
Safety Tips

• Consult a professional to learn how to make your home sturdier, such

as bolting bookcases to wall studs, installing strong latches on
cupboards, and strapping the water heater to wall studs.

• Locate a place in each room of the house that you can go to in case of
an earthquake. It should be a spot where nothing is likely to fall on you,
like a doorframe.

• Keep a supply of canned food, an up-to-date first aid kit, 3 gallons

(11.4 liters) of water per person, dust masks and goggles, and a working
battery-operated radio and flashlights in an accessible place.

• Know how to turn off your gas and water mains.

If Shaking Begins

• Drop down; take cover under a desk or table and hold on.

• Stay indoors until the shaking stops and you're sure it's safe to exit.

• Stay away from bookcases or furniture that can fall on you.

• Stay away from windows. In a high-rise building, expect the fire

alarms and sprinklers to go off during a quake.

• If you are in bed, hold on and stay there, protecting your head with a
pillow.

• If you are outdoors, find a clear spot away from buildings, trees, and
power lines. Drop to the ground.
• If you are in a car, slow down and drive to a clear place. Stay in the car
until the shaking stops.

What Should I Do Before, During, And After

An Earthquake?

What to Do Before an Earthquake

 Make sure you have a fire extinguisher, first aid kit, a battery-powered
radio, a flashlight, and extra batteries at home.
 Learn first aid.
 Learn how to turn off the gas, water, and electricity.
 Make up a plan of where to meet your family after an earthquake.
 Don't leave heavy objects on shelves (they'll fall during a quake).
 Anchor heavy furniture, cupboards, and appliances to the walls or floor.
 Learn the earthquake plan at your school or workplace.

What to Do During an Earthquake

 Stay calm! If you're indoors, stay inside. If you're outside, stay outside.
 If you're indoors, stand against a wall near the center of the building, stand
in a doorway, or crawl under heavy furniture (a desk or table). Stay away
from windows and outside doors.
 If you're outdoors, stay in the open away from power lines or anything
that might fall. Stay away from buildings (stuff might fall off the building
or the building could fall on you).
 Don't use matches, candles, or any flame. Broken gas lines and fire don't
mix.
 If you're in a car, stop the car and stay inside the car until the earthquake
stops.
 Don't use elevators (they'll probably get stuck anyway).

What to Do After an Earthquake

 Check yourself and others for injuries. Provide first aid for anyone who
needs it.
 Check water, gas, and electric lines for damage. If any are damaged, shut
off the valves. Check for the smell of gas. If you smell it, open all the
windows and doors, leave immediately, and report it to the authorities
(use someone else's phone).
 Turn on the radio. Don't use the phone unless it's an emergency.
 Stay out of damaged buildings.
 Be careful around broken glass and debris. Wear boots or sturdy shoes to
keep from cutting your feet.
 Be careful of chimneys (they may fall on you).
 Stay away from beaches. Tsunamis and seiches sometimes hit after the
ground has stopped shaking.
 Stay away from damaged areas.
 If you're at school or work, follow the emergency plan or the instructions
of the person in charge.
 Expect aftershocks.