Lahar
first eruption itself killed six people, but the lahar killed
▪ A term that describes a hot or cold mixture of water
and rock fragments that flows down the slopes of a
volcano and typically enters a river valley.
▪ Small seasonal events are sometimes referred to as
"debris flows“
▪ Lahars generally occur on or near stratovolcanoes.
▪ A moving lahar looks like a rolling slurry of wet concrete,
and as it rushes downstream, the size, speed, and
amount of material carried can constantly change. The
initial flow may be relatively small, but a lahar may grow
in volume as it entrains and incorporates anything in its
path – rocks, soil, vegetation, and even buildings and
bridges. The flowing slurry may consume additional
water through melting of snow and ice or by engulfing
river or lake water. Voluminous lahars commonly grow
to more than 10 times their initial size as they move
downslope.
▪ In steep areas, lahars can exceed speeds of 200 km/hr
(120 mi/hr), but as they move farther away from a
volcano and decelerate in lowland areas, they eventually
begin to deposit some of the load and decrease in size.
Why do Lahars occur?
With Volcanic Activity
▪ Snow and glaciers can be melted by lava or pyroclastic
surges during an eruption.
▪ Lava can erupt from open vents and mix with wet soil,
mud or snow on the slope of the volcano making a very
viscous, high energy lahar. The higher up the slope of
the volcano, the more gravitational potential energy the
flows will have.
▪ A flood caused by a glacier, lake breakout, or heavy
rainfalls can generate lahars, also called glacier run.
▪ Water from a crater lake, combined with volcanic
material in an eruption.
▪ Heavy rainfall on unconsolidated pyroclastic deposits.
▪ Volcanic landslides mixed with water.
Without Volcanic Activity
 In particular, although lahars are typically associated
with the effects of volcanic activity, lahars can occur
even without any current volcanic activity, as long as the
conditions are right to cause the collapse and movement
of mud originating from existing volcanic ash deposits.
 Rainfall can cause the still-hanging slabs of solidified
mud to come rushing down the slopes at a speed of
more than 30 kilometers per hour (20 mph), causing
devastating results.
PLACES AT RISK
What are the locations affected?
Lahars are extremely dangerous especially to those living in
valley areas near a volcano. Lahars can undercut banks and cause
houses on those banks to be destroyed. Lahars can bury and
destroy manmade structures including roads and bridges.
HISTORICAL EVENTS
Mt. Pinatubo Eruption (1991)
▪ The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo caused lahars: the
more than 1500. The eye of Typhoon Yunya passed over
the volcano during its eruption on June 15, 1991. The
rain from the typhoon triggered the flow of volcanic ash,
boulders, and water down the rivers surrounding the
volcano. In Pampanga, Angeles City and neighbouring
cities and towns were damaged by the volcano's lahar
when Sapang Balen Creek and the Abacan River became
the channels for the mudflows and carried it to the
heart of the city and surrounding areas. Over 6 metres
(20 ft) of mud inundated and damaged the towns of
Castillejos, San Marcelino and Botolan in Zambales,
Porac and Mabalacat City in Pampanga, Tarlac City,
Capas, Concepcion and Bamban in Tarlac.
▪ The lahar in the Sacobia-Bamban River scoured all
structures in its path, including the bridges and dikes by
the Parua River in Concepcion. The Tarlac River in Tarlac
City was inundated by over 6 metres (20 ft) of lahar,
causing the river to lose the ability to hold water. On the
morning of October 1, 1995, pyroclastic material which
clung to the slopes of Pinatubo and surrounding
mountains rushed down because of heavy rain, and
turned into an 8-metre (25 ft) lahar. This mudflow killed
hundreds of people in Barangay Cabalantian in Bacolor.
Mayon Volcano (2006, November 30)
▪ On 29–30 November 2006, heavy rains from
Supertyphoon Durian remobilized volcanic debris on the
southern and eastern slopes of Mount Mayon,
generating major lahars that caused severe loss of life
and property in downstream communities. The nearby
Legaspi City weather station recorded 495.8 mm of
rainfall over 1.5 days at rates as high as 47.5 mm/h, far
exceeding the initiation threshold for Mayon lahars. For
about 18 h, floods and lahars from the intense and
prolonged rainfall overtopped river bends, breaching six
dikes through which they created new paths, buried
downstream communities in thick, widespread deposits,
and caused most of the 1,266 fatalities. In order to
mitigate damage from future lahars, the deposits were
described and analyzed for clues to their generation and
impact on structures and people
▪ Post-disaster maps were generated from raw ASTER and
SPOT images, using automated density slicing to
characterize lahar deposits, flooded areas, croplands,
and urbanized areas. Fieldwork was undertaken to
check the accuracy of the maps, especially at the edges
of the lahar deposits, and to measure the deposit
thicknesses. The Durian event was exceptional in terms
of rainfall intensity, but the dikes eventually failed
because they were designed and built according to flood
specifications, not to withstand major lahars.
Nevado del Ruiz (1985)
▪ The lahar from the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz
that wiped out the town of Armero in Colombia. In
1985, the volcano Nevado del Ruizerupted in central
Colombia. As pyroclastic flows erupted from the
volcano's crater, they melted the mountain's glaciers,
sending four enormous lahars down its slopes at 60
kilometers per hour (37 miles per hour). The lahars
picked up speed in gullies and coursed into the six major
rivers at the base of the volcano; they engulfed the town
of Armero, killing more than 20,000 of its almost 29,000
inhabitants.[15] Casualties in other towns, particularly
 Chinchiná, brought the overall death toll to 23,000.
Footage and photographs of Omayra Sánchez, a young
victim of the tragedy, were published around the world.
Other photographs of the lahars and the impact of the
disaster captured attention worldwide and led to
controversy over the degree to which the Colombian
government was responsible for the disaster.
Mount St. Helens (1980)
▪ Mount St. Helens at Skamania County, Washington, U.S.,
is susceptible to lahars because the vent, and site of
recent lava-dome building, is surrounded by Crater
Glacier. Furthermore, the crater floor and flanks of the
volcano are made up of large amounts of loose volcanic
material and are covered with a thick snowpack for
much of the year. Lahars generated by rapid snowmelt
are likely to accompany any eruptive activity, but they
may also be generated without an eruption by intense
storm runoff over erodible sediment or by landslides.
Past lahars at Mount St. Helens have traveled from 50 to
100 km (30 to 60 mi) from source, often reaching the
Columbia River via the Toutle-Cowlitz, Kalama, or Lewis
Rivers. During the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St.
Helens, approximately 2.3 billion cubic meters (3 billion
cubic yards) of material was deposited in the upper 27
km (17 mi) of the North Fork Toutle River valley
resulting in massive lahars.
Mount Ruapehu (1945)
▪ At the southern end of the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New
Zealand, the 1945 eruption emptied Crater Lake and
dammed the outlet with tephra. The crater slowly
refilled with water, until on 24 December 1953 the
tephra dam collapsed causing a lahar in the Whangaehu
River. The lahar caused the Tangiwai disaster, with the
loss of 151 lives, when the Tangiwai railway bridge
across the Whangaehu River collapsed while the lahar
was in full flood, just before an express train crossed it.
It was already known that the river had partially
undermined one of the bridge piers and the lahar
finished the job, causing the bridge to collapse. Although
warned of the collapsed bridge, the train driver was
unable to stop the train in time and six of the carriages
fell into the river.
Preparedness measures
Before
 If your home is located within a few kilometers from the
volcano or within the danger zone, evacuate at once.
You can take your belongings with you or just leave
them. Life is more important.
 Earthquakes are natural occurrences when an active
volcano is about to erupt so do not panic.
 Instead, stay calm and proceed to taking precautionary
measures.
 Sudden rains especially at the crater of the volcano
would lead to an abrupt mudflow or lahar. The mud is
not ordinary mud. It contains pre-volcanic eruption
debris and could be hot that is enough to hard boil an
egg. Furthermore, when this mudflow settles, anything
buried underneath will be hard to unearth. You should
beware or you may suffer from burns coming from the
mudflow.
During
▪ During eruption, volcanoes may throw volcanic debris
up in the air. Be prepared to see falling rocks and small
stones coming from the crater. Thus, go to a stable and
safe shelter during an eruption.
▪ Volcanic eruption can also release sulfur. Therefore,
prepare gas masks to avoid inhaling the foul odor
coming from the release of sulfur. Suffocation may
happen and you may not be able to breathe normally
during a volcanic eruption without a gas mask.
▪ Lava flow is the centerpiece of any eruption. It is also
the most destructive material the volcano can produce
during an eruption. It is composed of very hot mud or
molten rocks that can instantly burn down any material
on contact. At all cost, avoid getting in contact with the
lava or do not attempt getting near it.
After
▪ After the eruption, always wait for volcanologists’ or
your local authority’s advice on when you can safely go
back to your homes.
Description of Ashfall
 Ashfall is the most widespread and frequent volcanic
hazard.
Ashfall Or Tephra Fall - The ash that falls as a deposit from the
eruption of a volcano
Ashfall
▪ Gravitational setting of volcanic ash and fragments from
the umbrella clouds of tall eruption columns and ash
clouds of pyroclastic flows
▪ Dispersal depends on prevalent wind directions, column
heights
Volcanic Ash - A mixture of rock, mineral, and glass particles
expelled from a volcano
during a volcanic eruption
Volcanic ash
▪ Small jagged pieces of rocks, minerals, and volcanic glass
the size of sand and silt (less than 1/12 inch or 2
millimeters in diameter) erupted by a volcano
▪ Hard, does not dissolve in water, extremely abrasive and
mildly corrosive, and conducts electricity when wet
Cause of Ashfall
Tephra (fragmented volcanic particles) or ash (fragmented
volcanic particles less than 2 mm in diameter) propelled through
the atmosphere in an eruption plume or an eruption column
eventually fall or gravitationally settle over areas downwind of an
erupting volcano, forming blankets of tephra fall or ashfall.
Ashfall can also be rained out from the ash clouds of PDCs. Large
particle tephra called volcanic bombs that are too heavy to
transport in eruption columns are ejected straight out of the
volcanic vent as ballistic projectiles that fall near the vent. Tephra
or ashfall can accumulate as thick blankets of material, causing
infrastructural damages, roof collapse, contamination of water
resources and burial. Ashfall is a health hazard and a danger to
aircraft and other industrial machinery, such as those for
transportation and power generation.
Volcanic ash is formed during:
▪ Explosive volcanic eruptions
 ▪ Phreatomagmatic eruptions
▪ Transport in pyroclastic density currents
Explosive
Explosive eruptions occur when magma decompresses as it rises,
allowing dissolved volatiles (dominantly water and carbon
dioxide) to exsolve into gas bubbles. As more bubbles nucleate a
foam is produced, which decreases the density of the magma,
accelerating it up the conduit.
Fragmentation is a very efficient process of ash formation and is
capable of generating very fine ash even without the addition of
water.
Phreatomagmatic
During these eruptions fragmentation occurs when magma
comes into contact with bodies of water (such as the sea, lakes
and marshes) groundwater, snow or ice. As the magma, which is
significantly hotter than the boiling point of water, comes into
contact with water an insulating vapor film forms (Leidenfrost
effect). Eventually this vapor film will collapse leading to direct
coupling of the cold water and hot magma.
Pyroclastic density currents
These are typically produced by lava dome collapse or collapse
of the eruption column. Within pyroclastic density currents
particle abrasion occurs as particles interact with each other
resulting in a reduction in grain size and production of fine
grained ash particles. In addition, ash can be produced during
secondary fragmentation of pumice fragments, due to the
conservation of heat within the flow.
Impacts of Ashfall
Less than 1 mm ash thickness
▪ Will act as an irritant to lungs and eyes.
▪ Airports will close due to the potential damage to
aircraft.
▪ Possible minor damage to vehicles, houses and
equipment caused by fine abrasive ash.
▪ Possible contamination of water supplies, particularly
roof-fed tank supplies.
▪ Dust (or mud) affects road visibility and traction for an
extended period.
1-5 mm ash thickness
▪ Possible crop damage.
▪ Some livestock may be affected. Most will not be unduly
stressed but may suffer from lack of feed, wear on
teeth, and possible contamination of water supplies.
▪ Minor damage to houses will occur if fine ash enters
buildings, soiling interiors, blocking air-conditioning
filters, etc.
▪ Electricity may be cut; ash shorting occurs at substations
if the ash is wet and therefore conductive. Low voltage
systems more vulnerable than high.
1-5 mm ash thickness
▪ Water supplies may be cut or limited due to failure of
electricity to pumps.
▪ Contamination of water supplies by chemical leachates
may occur.
▪ High water-usage will result from ash clean-up
operations
▪ Roads may need to be cleared to reduce the dust
nuisance and prevent storm-water systems from
becoming blocked.
▪ Sewage systems may be blocked by ash, or disrupted by
loss of electrical supplies.
▪ Damage to electrical equipment and machinery may
occur.
5-100 mm ash thickness
▪ Burial of pasture and low plants. Foliage may be
stripped off some trees but most trees will survive.
▪ Most pastures will be killed by over 50 mm of ash.
▪ Major ash removal operations in urban areas.
▪ Most buildings will support the ash load but weaker roof
structures may collapse at 100 mm ash thickness,
particularly if the ash is wet.
▪ Road transport may be halted due to the build up of ash
on roads. Cars still working may soon stop due to
clogging of air-filters.
▪ Rail transport may be forced to stop due to signal failure
bought on by short circuiting if ash becomes wet.
100-300 mm ash thickness
▪ Buildings that are not cleared of ash will run the risk of
roof collapse, especially large flat roofed structures and
if ash becomes wet.
▪ Severe damage to trees, stripping of foliage and
breaking of branches.
▪ Loss of electrical reticulation due to falling tree branches
and shorting of power lines.
> 300 mm ash thickness
▪ Heavy kill of vegetation.
▪ Complete burial of soil horizon.
▪ Livestock and other animals killed or heavily distressed.
▪ Kill of aquatic life in lakes and rivers.
▪ Major collapse of roofs due to ash loading.
▪ Loading and possible breakage of power and telephone
lines.
▪ Roads unusable until cleared.
Place at risk During ashfall
▪ Communities near volcanoes are at the greatest risk for
ashfall although it can be problem hundreds of miles
from a volcano after a major eruption.
Historical Events of ashfall
2020 Taal Volcano eruption
An eruption of Taal Volcano in the Philippines began on January
12, 2020. The  Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS) subsequently issued an Alert Level 4, indicating that
"a hazardous explosive eruption is possible within hours to days.
It was a phreatic eruption from the main crater that spewed
ashes to CALABARZON, Metro Manila, some parts of Central
Luzon, and Pangasinan in Ilocos Region, resulting in the
suspension of classes, work schedules, and flights.
2008 eruption of Chaitén volcano, Chile 
After more than 9,000 years of silence, Chaitén Volcano in
southern Chile erupted on May 2, 2008. The plume of ash and
steam rose 10.7 to 16.8 kilometers (35,000 to 55,000 feet) into
the atmosphere, reported the Smithsonian’s Global Volcanism
Program. According to news reports issued by the AFP news
service, ash blanketed the town of Chaitén, 10 kilometers away,
forcing the town’s 4,000 people to evacuate by boat.
2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull volcano, Iceland
Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull Volcano burst into life on March 20,
2010. Thick ash poured from Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull Volcano
when the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS) on NASA’s Aqua satellite acquired this image on April
17, 2010. The ash in this image is at two different altitudes. A
concentrated plume rises over a more diffuse cloud of ash,
casting a dark shadow on the ash below. The volcano had been
emitting ash in puffs that reached between 16,000 and 24,000
feet, according to the Icelandic Met Office. The higher plume
seen here is likely from a more explosive event.
1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
A huge cloud of volcanic ash and gas rises above Mount
Pinatubo, Philippines, on June 12, 1991. Three days later, the
volcano exploded in the second-largest volcanic eruption on
Earth in this century. Timely forecasts of this eruption by
scientists from the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology and the U.S. Geological Survey enabled people living
near the volcano to evacuate to safer distances, saving at least
5,000 lives.
When even more highly gas charged magma reached Pinatubo's
surface on June 15, the volcano exploded in a cataclysmic
eruption that ejected more than 1 cubic mile (5 cubic kilometers)
of material. The ash cloud from this climactic eruption rose 22
miles (35 kilometers) into the air. At lower altitudes, the ash was
blown in all directions by the intense cyclonic winds of a
coincidentally occurring typhoon, and winds at higher altitudes
blew the ash southwestward. A blanket of volcanic ash (sand-
and silt-size grains of volcanic minerals and glass) and larger
pumice lapilli (frothy pebbles) blanketed the countryside. Fine
ash fell as far away as the Indian Ocean, and satellites tracked the
ash cloud several times around the globe.
1990 eruption of Mount Redoubt
The last eruption of the 20th century began in December 1989
with a short period of intense seismicity and vent-clearing
explosions that continued for more than five months. Activity
included 23 ash-rich eruptions, pyroclastic and debris flows that
entrained glacial ice and caused flooding up to 35 km
downstream. The debris flows reached Cook Inlet and
temporarily shut down the Drift River Oil Terminal. Lava flows in
the crater built several lava domes which were later destroyed by
explosions. One final dome grew before the eruption finally
ceased in June 1990.
Preparedness measures (before, during, after)
BEFORE
 Listen to the radio for updates from authority when
there is an impending eruption that may cause ashfall.
 Prepare emergency supply kit and place in an accessible
area.
 Prepare dust masks or clean cloth for covering the nose
and goggles for eye protection.
 Prepare cleaning supplies such as broom, vacuum
cleaner with spare bags and filters, and a shovel.
 Have food and water provision for pets, poultry, and
livestock.
 Know the location of evacuation area.
DURING
 Stay calm. Stay indoors. Cover your nose and mouth
with damp, clean cloth or dust mask.
 Close all windows and doors of your house and your car.
 Place damp towels or cloth at door openings and other
open sources.
 Wash all fruits and vegetables thoroughly before eating.
 Listen to the radio for updates/developments regarding
the volcanic eruption.
 Keep your pet/s in their shelter to avoid inhaling ash.
 If outside, look for a shelter and wear glasses to protect
your eyes. Avoid using contact lenses.
 Cover water containers and food to avoid contamination
from ash.
AFTER
 As soon as the ashfall diminishes, scrape off the ash that
has accumulated on the rooftops to prevent collapse.
 After removing the ash, clean the roof and gutter with
water to prevent corrosion.
 Remove ash from windows and doors of the house and
car. Use water before washing them with soap and
lukewarm water.
 Collect the ashes and put them in an area far from water
drainage to avoid clogging..
 Boil water before drinking.
 Use powder detergent in washing clothes covered in
ash.
 Cover your nose and mouth while cleaning.
Pyroclastic flows
 The word pyroclast is derived from the Greek pyr,
meaning “fire”, and klastos, meaning “broken in pieces.”
A pyroclastic flow’s “broken pieces” consist of volcanic
glass, crystals, and rocks such as pumice or scoria. These
solids have been heated and fragmented by an explosive
eruption. Heavier fragments roll downward along the
ground, while smaller fragments float in a stream of hot
gases.
 is a dense, fast-moving flow of solidified lava pieces,
volcanic ash, and hot gases.
 it occurs as part of certain volcanic eruptions. A
pyroclastic flow is extremely hot, burning anything in its
path.
 it may move at speeds as high as 200 m/s
  It is considered as the most deadly of all volcano
hazards.
CAUSES
Pyroclastic flows form in various ways:
 When the column of lava, ash, and gases expelled from
a volcano during an eruption loses its upward
momentum and falls back to the ground.
 When volcanic material expelled during an eruption
immediately begins moving down the sides of the
volcano.
 When a lava dome or lava flow becomes too steep and
collapses.
 Fountain collapse of an eruption column from a Plinian
eruption. In such an eruption, the material forcefully
ejected from the vent heats the surrounding air and the
turbulent mixture rises, through convection, for many
kilometers. If the erupted jet is unable to heat the
surrounding air sufficiently, convection currents will not
be strong enough to carry the plume upwards and it
falls, flowing down the flanks of the volcano.
 Fountain collapse of an eruption column associated with
a Vulcanian eruption. The gas and projectiles create a
cloud that is denser than the surrounding air and
becomes a pyroclastic flow.
 The directional blast or jet when part of a volcano
collapses or explodes. As distance from the volcano
increases, this rapidly transforms into a gravity-driven
current.
PLACES AT RISK
 Pyroclastic flows often occur in two parts. Along the
ground, lava and pieces of rock flow downhill. Above
this, a thick cloud of ash forms over the fast-moving
flow. Such a flow can transform the landscape drastically
in a short period of time. Not only does it destroy living
material in its path, it often leaves behind a deep layer
of solidified lava and thick ash.
 Also places near the volcano are at risk of pyroclastic
flows
 So if you are near the volcano and it erupts evacuate
immediately because pyroclastic flow is the deadliest of
all volcanic hazards because it is a mixture of hot gas
and ash, and they travel very quickly down the slopes of
volcanoes. They are so hot and choking that if you are
caught in one it will kill you. They are also so fast (100-
200 km/hour) that you cannot out-run them.
HISTORICAL EVENTS
Eruption of Mount Pelée
One notorious example of a pyroclastic flow happening
elsewhere was the eruption of Mount Pelée on the island of
Martinique on May 8, 1902. Pyroclastic flows destroyed the town
of Saint-Pierre and killed an estimated 30,000 people. Only a
handful survived, one of whom was a prisoner in a jail cell. This
was the largest loss of life from a pyroclastic flows in the past two
centuries. The destruction was caused by a nuee ardente, a type
of pyroclastic flow that consists of hot incandescent solid
particles.
Eruption of Mount Vesuvius
One of the most famous historical examples of the devastation
and loss of life caused by pyroclastic flows is what happened at
Pompeii and Herculaneum when Vesuvius erupted in 79AD. An
important lesson from this eruption is the fickleness of human
memory. Because Vesuvius had been dormant for at least 700
years, it wasn’t recognised as a potential threat.
The eruption of Vesuvius produced a number of pyroclastic flows
which led to the deaths of at least 1,400 people, and the burial of
the settlements by volcanic material. Recent excavations
revealed evidence of a new type of death from this eruption – a
person being struck by a large block, possibly carried by one of
the pyroclastic flows.
Eruption of Volcan de Fuego
Dozens of people have been killed, and with many more missing,
after Volcán de Fuego (Fuego) in Guatemala erupted on June 3,
2018.
In recent years, Fuego has regularly ejected small gas and ash
eruptions, which hold little risk to surrounding populations. But
Fuego also has a reputation for producing larger explosive
eruptions. These larger eruptions have two main primary hazards
– falling ash and bombs (collectively known as tephra), and
pyroclastic flows. Of these two, pyroclastic flows are the big
killers, and are responsible for the deaths from the latest
eruption.
Eruption of Sta. Maria Volacano
The Santa Maria eruption in 1902 was one of the largest
eruptions of the 20th century. The violent explosion in
Guatemala came after the volcano had remained silent for
roughly 500 years, and left a large crater, nearly a mile (1.5 km)
across, on the mountain's southwest flank.
The symmetrical, tree-covered volcano is part of a chain of
stratovolcanoes that rises along Guatemala's Pacific coastal plain.
It has experienced continuous activity since its last blast, a VEI 3,
which occurred in 1922. In 1929, Santa Maria spewed forth a a
pyroclastic flow (a fast-moving wall of scalding gas and pulverized
rock), which claimed hundreds of lives and may have killed as
many as 5,000 people.
Eruption of Mayon Volcano
Pyroclastic flows descend the south-eastern flank of Mayon
Volcano, Philippines. Maximum height of the eruption column
was 15 km above sea level, and volcanic ash fell within about 50
km toward the west. There were no casualties from the 1984
eruption because more than 73,000 people evacuated the
danger zones as recommended by scientists of the Philippine
Institute of Volcanology and Seismology.
PREPAREDNESS MEASURES
What to do before an eruption?
Unlike earthquakes, volcanoes rouse from sleep with some
notice—shaking the ground, bulging their flanks, or shifting the
gases wafting from their craters and vents. And for many
volcanoes near populations, scientists closely watch their every
move, which allows them to better understand when they might
burst to life.
So if you live near a volcano, or plan to visit one, familiarize
yourself with the local monitoring agencies. Understand where
you can safely tromp and where you need to steer clear, regions
known as exclusion zones. It’s also important to look up
evacuation routes and hazards specific to your location.
Some places offer regular updates of volcanic activity. For
example, the U.S. Geological Survey’s Volcano Notification
Service emails information about monitored volcanoes in the
United States, which boasts more than 10 percent of the planet’s
active or potentially active volcanoes.
Another vital preparation step is assembling an emergency kit
that includes supplies like food, water, respiratory protection,
eye protection, and a battery-powered radio. When preparing
your kit, consider each member of your family and their needs—
and don’t forget your pets. The Department of Homeland
Security has a detailed guide about putting together a kit for
many different contingencies.
Even if you are just visiting a volcano for a day, make sure you are
traveling with appropriate footwear, first aid supplies, and plenty
of water.
What to do during an eruption?
During a disaster, be wary of misinformation and try to stick to
official sources, many of which communicate dangers through
social media. For example, Krippner has assembled a handy list of
official volcano agency Twitter accounts. Follow instructions from
authorities during an eruption, and evacuate if you are within
areas told to do so.
If you are instructed to remain in your home, close all windows,
doors, and other points of entry for ash. Bring pets inside and
move livestock to shelters, when at all possible. Avoid running air
conditioning systems, fans, and heaters during or immediately
after an eruption, since they can pull in volcanic gasses and ash.
Also, fill large containers, sinks, and bathtubs with clean water
since eruptions can cause disruptions or contamination of water
supplies.
If an evacuation seems on the horizon, the Centers for Disease
Control recommends gathering additional supplies to keep in
your vehicle, which should include flares, maps, basic tools,
sleeping bags, and a fire extinguisher. When packing personal
items, take only the essentials. And don’t forget including at least
a week’s supply of any required prescription medications. If you
don’t own a vehicle, contact neighbors or others nearby who
might be able to provide a ride in case you and your family need
to leave.
If you must be outside, try to use a mask whenever possible. The
CDC recommends the use of N-95 respirators, which can be
purchased in a hardware store. While a dusk mask can be used as
a last resort, the CDC cautions that they only should be used
outdoors for short periods of time when ash is falling. Other ash
protection includes long-sleeved shirts and long pants as well as
goggles. Be aware of your surroundings, and be extra cautious if
you are in low-lying regions or near river valleys as those
commonly funnel debris flows.
What to do after an eruption?
Heed authorities’ instructions for when it’s safe to go back
outside or return to your home. Alert family and friends of your
status via text message or using the Red Cross’ Safe and Well
website. Avoid making phone calls unless it is an emergency as
telecommunications are commonly very busy during and after
disasters.
When it is safe to return home, check the structure and utilities
for damage. The Red Cross has helpful guides that detail what to
look for when returning after disaster. Also, document any
damage in photos for insurance purposes.
Don respiratory protection when cleaning up ash indoors or out.
The Red Cross suggests removing ash from your roof as soon as
possible since it is heavy and cause structural collapse—a
problem only made worse with rainfall. However, be extra
careful with ash removal if you have breathing problems. Also, if
you must climb on your roof, watch out, since ash can also be
slippery and cause falls.
Such powerful displays of Earth’s fearsome force can be
frightening, but with some preparation and close following of
official instructions, you can reduce the risk of being blindsided
by a blast.
LAVA FLOW
Definition
 A lava flow is a product of the quiet effusion of molten
rock or magma from beneath a volcano.
 When a lava flow comes out hot lava flow of a volcanic
vent, its temperature ranges from 700 to 1200 degrees
Celsius.
 It travels very slowly, thus it seldom cause deaths
directly.
 Lava flows are harmful to property and the
environment.
Magma Generation
▪ The heat that forms molten rocks and comes from the
heat still trapped inside the earth which is left over from
the Earth’s formation 4.6 billion years ago. Some of the
heat comes from the sinking of the materials that make
up the core.
▪ Most of the magma and the lava are formed at plate
boundaries. The heat in the mantle forms convection
cells that drive the motion of tectonic plates. This
motion that basaltic kava comes out of divergent plate
margins or mid-oceanic ridges.
▪ Some volcanoes and its magma are formed along
convergent boundaries and transform faults.
Lava Effusion and Explosive Eruptions
 Some molten materials come out to the surface almost
unnoticed while others come out with a bang. As
magma rises to the surface where the pressure is less,
gases dissolved in the magma expand. The volume of
gas expands as pressure is reduced. Too much gas gives
magmas their explosive character because of the
sudden and tremendous expansion of gas volume.
While explosive eruptions that produce fragments are
called tephra, quiet eruptions create lavas.
 The amount of gas involved is dependent on the
viscosity of magmas, which in turn depends on the
composition and temperature of the magma. Magmas
with higher silica content (andesitic to rhyolitic) have
higher viscosity than magmas with lower silica content
(basaltic to andesitic). Viscosity increases with
decreasing magma temperatures.
Types of Lava Flows
Basaltic Lava
▪ Fastest flowing lava because of its relatively low
viscosity.
▪ The most abundant lava on earth and is the lava most
commonly depicted in pictures and media.
▪ Usually associated with the broad landforms of shield
volcanoes.
Andesitic Lava
▪ These viscous lavas have relatively high aspect ratios
(thickness/area), generally > 1/100, and some are thick
enough to form as lava domes.
 ▪ These flows are called block lava flows as the surface
fragments are loosely termed blocks.
▪ Andesitic flows are slow by lava flow standards (travels 5
meters/day).
Sheet Lava
▪ Thicker than pahoehoe and have surface textures
ranging from ropy to striated.
▪ Usually collapse as a result of the emptying of lava
below the hardened surface.
Pillow Lavas
▪ Pillow-shaped rocks formed by the sudden cooling of
lava that is deposited underwater.
▪ Undersea volcanoes are the usual sources of lavas that
form pillows.
Rhyolitic Lava
▪ Flows have relatively higher viscosity that is why these
are slower than andesitic and basaltic flows.
▪ Associated with violent eruptions involving pyroclastic
flows and with very steep landforms such as lava domes
and lava spines.
▪ Flow out of a volcano after the pyroclastic event
Lava Flow Hazard Zoning: Factors Affecting Volcanic Landforms
and Lava Flow Extent
There are few important things that geologists bear in mind
when drawing a lava flow hazard zones. Aside from considering
the viscosity discussed in earlier sections, the morphology
(including how wide it is) and how far the lava flow travels
depends also on extrusion rate and and slope of the land.
▪ At low effusion rates (10m/sec) small basalt lava flows
merely pile up near the vent.
▪ At discharged rate of tens of cubic meters per second:
basalt lava flow cover tens of square kilometers.
▪ At effusion rate 5000m/sec: basalt lava flows cover
more that 500km.
▪ At discharge rate of 1000000m/sec: flood basalt flows
cover tens of thousands of square kilometers.
Places at Risk
Lava flows occur frequently at Hawaii. That is why United States
Geological Survey (USGS) created Lava Flow Hazard Zones.
First prepared in 1974 by Donal Mullineaux and Donald Peterson
of the USGS and revised in 1992, the maps outline the qualitative
hazard posed by lava flows based on the past history of lava flow
activity on each of the 5 volcanoes that form the Island of
Hawaiʻi. Zone 1 represents the areas that are most hazardous
and Zone 9 the least hazardous.
Zone 1 - Includes summits and rift zones of Kilauea and Mauna
Loa volcanoes, where vents have been repeatedly active in
historical time.
Historical Events
Mauna Ulu Eruption (1969-1974)
The eruption that formed Mauna Ulu began on May 24, 1969 and
continued until July 22, 1974. At the time, this was the longest-
lasting and most voluminous eruption on Kīlauea's flank in at
least 2,200 years, lasting 1,774 days and producing 350 million
cubic meters of lava. Lava flowed down the sides of the feature
and large lava fountains (Including one 539.5 meter high
fountain) were witnessed.
The flows formed during this time period cover 44 sq. km and
some lava deposits are reported to be 7.6 meters deep. The
flows destroyed parts of the Chain of Craters Road, but the
damage has since been repaired and the dormant cone can be
now be visited.
1669 Mount Etna Eruption
The 1669 eruption of Mount Etna is the largest-recorded
historical eruption of the volcano. After several weeks of
increasing seismic activity that damaged the town of Nicolosi and
other settlements, an eruption fissure opened on the
southeastern flank of Etna during the night of 10-11 March.
Several more fissures became active during 11 March,
erupting pyroclastics and tephra that fell over Sicily and
accumulated to form the Monti Rossi scoria cone.
Lava disgorged from the eruption fissures flowed southwards
away from the vent, burying a number of towns and farmland
during March and April, eventually covering 37–40 square
kilometres (14–15 sq mi). The inhabitants of the towns fled to the
city of Catania and sought refuge there; religious ceremonies
were held in the city to implore the end of the eruption. 
There are no known fatalities of the 1669 eruption but many
towns, parts of Catania and farmland were destroyed by the lava
flow and the earthquakes that accompanied the eruption. 
1814 Mayon Volcano Eruption
Its most destructive recorded eruption occurred on February 1,
1814. Lava flowed but less than the 1766 eruption. The volcano
belched dark ash and eventually bombarded the town
of Cagsawa with tephra that buried it. Trees burned, and rivers
were certainly damaged. Proximate areas were also devastated
by the eruption, with ash accumulating to in depth. 
In Cagsawa town, about 1,200 locals perished in what is
considered to be the most lethal eruption in Mayon's history
according to PHIVOLCS. The eruption is believed to have
contributed to the accumulation of atmospheric ash together
with the catastrophic 1815 eruption of other volcanoes like
Indonesia's Mount Tambora, leading to the Year Without a
Summer in 1816.
2018 Lower Puna Eruption
The 2018 lower Puna eruption was a volcanic event on the island
of Hawaiʻi, on Kīlauea volcano's East Rift Zone that began on May
3, 2018. It is related to the larger eruption of Kīlauea that began
on January 3, 1983, though some volcanologists and USGS
scientists have discussed whether to classify it as a new
eruption. Outbreaks of lava fountains up to 300 feet (90 m) high,
lava flows, and volcanic gas in the Leilani Estates subdivision
were preceded by earthquakes and ground deformation that
created cracks in the roads.
▪ 24 persons were injured from lava fountains and lava
flows
▪ At least $800 million (2018 USD) in property damage
▪ Volcanic gas and earthquakes forced the evacuation of
populated areas and destroyed houses, roads, and
utilities.
2002 Mount Nyiragongo
Another major eruption of the volcano began on January 17,
2002, after several months of
increased seismic and fumarolic activity. A 13 km fissure opened
in the south flank of the volcano, spreading in a few hours from
2800 m to 1550 m elevation and reaching the outskirts of the city
of Goma, the provincial capital on the northern shore of Lake
Kivu.
Ballistics are associated with all forms of explosive eruptions but
are considered major hazards of hydrothermal, phreatic,
phreatomagmatic, Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions,
especially those which have little to no precursory signals of
volcanic unrest.

Lava streamed from three spatter cones at the end of the fissure Places at Risk
and flowed in a stream 200 to 1000 m wide and up to 2 m deep
These blocks and bombs travel like cannonballs and usually land
through Goma. Warnings had been given and 400,000 people
within 2km of the vent (but can travel as far as 5km, or even
were evacuated from the city across the Rwandan border into
further, if the eruption is very explosive.)
neighbouring Gisenyi during the eruption. 
Ballistic projectiles are a risk to life on active volcanoes and can
About 245 people died in the eruption
cause substantial damage to exposed infrastructure and the
from asphyxiation by carbon dioxide and buildings collapsing due
environment due to their high kinetic energy, mass, and often
to the lava and earthquakes. [9] At least 15% of Goma comprising
high temperatures. Volcanic ballistic projectiles are amongst the
4,500 buildings were destroyed, leaving about
most frequent causes of fatal incidents on volcanoes, with at
120,000 people homeless.
least 76 recorded deaths at six volcanoes (Galeras, Yasur,
Immediately after the eruption stopped, a large number of Popocatepetl, Pacaya, Raoul Island and Ontake) since 1993.
earthquakes were felt around Goma and Gisenyi. This swarm
Many more people have been injured as a result of ballistic
activity continued for about three months and caused the
impacts, frequently suffering from blunt force trauma (broken
collapse of more buildings.
bones), lacerations, burns, abrasions and bruising Additionally,
Precautionary Measures damage to buildings, infrastructure, property and the
surrounding environment are also common occurrences from
Take it with you…
ballistics during explosive eruptions.
▪ Essential medicines, toilet items and baby needs
Historical Events
▪ Important documents e.g. identification, insurance,
photos 2014 Mt. Ontake Eruption
▪ Transistor radio and torch
Recently, more than 50 people were killed by the 2014 Mt.
▪ Extra clothing
Ontake eruption and most of the fatalities were caused by
Before Leaving… ballistic projectiles. Another fatality occurred at Mt. Kusatsu in
January 2018 despite the growing awareness (among the public)
▪ Consider your pets and animals
of the dangers posed by ballistic projectiles, following the Ontake
▪ Turn off water, electricity, gas and heating oil at the
eruption.
mains.
▪ Secure premises Mt. Vesuvius 79 A.D.

When you reach safety… On 24 August, Vesuvius erupted ash, mud and toxic gases,
completely burying the nearby cities of Pompeii and
▪ Listen to your radio for further instructions, including
Herculaneum. The eruption killed 16,000 people. It took until
registration requirements.
1595 for the cities to be excavated and rediscovered. If the same
After an Eruption… eruption occurred today it would cost in the billions.

▪ If you have been evacuated, return home only if you Laki, Iceland, June 8, 1783
have been advised by government that it is safe.
The devastation of the Laki eruption was felt globally for years
▪ Seek medical help or counselling if needed.
after the event. The Laki eruption lasted for 8 months, emitting
▪ Write a list of all damage as soon as possible.
about 14.7km3 of lava. Toxic gases poisoned crops and killed 60
▪ It takes a long time to recover from an emergency - so
per cent of Iceland’s grazing livestock. The eruption resulted in a
tell the local government of your on-going needs.
famine that killed over 10,000 Icelandic people, roughly a quarter
of the country’s population at the time.
Ballistic Projectile
Krakatoa, Indonesia (August 1883)
Description
On the morning of 27 August, a series of massive eruptions tore
Ballistic projectiles are rocks that an erupting volcano may hurl
the volcano’s walls apart. Krakatoa’s final eruption was four
into the air. Ballistic projectiles are one potentially lethal and
times more powerful than the largest bomb that humans have
damaging hazard produced in volcanic eruptions. Ballistics are
detonated. It produced a series of tsunamis that devastated the
fragments of lava (bombs) or rock (blocks) ejected in explosive
region, killing around 36,000 people and destroying whole
eruptions. Ballistic Projectiles are volcanic materials which are
villages. Some have estimated the cost of the eruption to be as
directly ejected from the volcano's vent with force and
high as $1.5 billion
trajectory. These object may endanger life and property due to
the force of impact of falling fragments, this only occurs only Preparedness Measures
close to an eruption vent.
A hazard map is a primary tool used to present hazard and risk
Causes information. Zonation is generally used as a means to distinguish
areas of hazard, exposure, vulnerability and risk. Ballistic hazard
Ballistic Projectiles are volcanic materials which are directly
map zones may be classified by maximum travel distance of
ejected from the volcano's vent with force and trajectory. These
particles, number of ballistic impacts per unit area, probability of
objects endanger life and property due to the force of impact of
falling fragments, but this occurs only close to an eruption vent.
a specific size of ballistics reaching a given area, or probability of
a specific consequence occurring e.g. death, injury, damage.

Effective communication is an essential component of this. Once

these steps are complete, we then suggest that a ballistic risk
assessment is undertaken to help underpin effective
management and communication of ballistic hazard and risk.
Best-practice ballistic risk assessment generally consists of: (1)
reviewing the volcano’s eruptive history to establish eruption
frequency and eruption magnitude; (2) determining the nature
and extent of past ballistic distributions; (3) exploring possible
future ballistic distributions; (4) identifying assets exposed in the
area; and (5) estimating the asset’s vulnerability.