Volcano

A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that

allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below
the surface.

Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid tectonic
plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle.Therefore, on Earth,
volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging,
and most are found underwater.
 Explain values volcanoes related hazard?
Volcanoes represent complex geological systems capable of generating many
dangerous phenomena. To evaluate and manage volcanic risk, we need first to
assess volcanic hazard (i.e., identify past volcanic system behavior to infer future
behavior. This requires acquisition of all relevant geological and geophysical
information, such as stratigraphic studies, geological mapping, sedimentological
studies, petrologic studies, and structural studies. All this information is then used
to elaborate eruption scenarios and hazard maps. Stratigraphic studies represent
the main tool for the reconstruction of past activity of volcanoes over time
periods exceeding their historical record. This review presents a systematic
approach to volcanic hazard assessment, paying special attention to
reconstruction of past eruptive history. It reviews concepts and methods most
commonly used in long- and short-term hazard assessment and analyzes how they
help address the various serious consequences derived from the occurrence (and
nonoccurrence in some crisis alerts) of volcanic eruptions and related
phenomena.
  Differentiate among different volcano's hazard?

List of different Volcanic Hazards

 Pyroclastic Density Currents (pyroclastic flows and surges)

 Lahars
 Structural Collapse: Debris flow-Avalanches
 Dome Collapse and the formation of pyroclastic flows and surges
 Lava flows
 Tephra fall and ballistic projectiles
 Volcanic gas
 Tsunamis
 Volcanic Lightning
  Pyroclastic Density Currents

Pyroclastic density currents are are gravity-driven, rapidly moving, ground-

hugging mixtures of rock fragments and hot gases. This mixture forms a dense
fluid that moves along the ground with an upper part that is less dense as
particles fall toward the ground. The behavior of the fluid depends upon the
solids concentration relative to the amount of hot gases (i.e., solids-gas ratio).
High concentration density flows are called "pyroclastic flows" and are
essentially nonturbulent and confined to valleys. Low concentration density
flows are called "pyroclastic surges" which can expand over hill and valley like
hurricanes. Temperatures may be as hot as 900 degrees Celsius, or as cold as
steam ( see "base surges" in section on Hydroclastic Processes).

Pyroclastic flows and surges are potentially highly destructive owing to their
mass, high temperature, high velocity and great mobility. Deadly effects include
asphyxiation, burial, incineration and crushing from impacts. Many people and
the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed in 79 AD from an erupion
of Mount Vesuvius; 29,000 people were destroyed by pyroclastic surges at St.
Pierre, Martinique in 1902; >2000 died at Chichónal Volcano in southern Mexico
in 1982 from pyroclastic surges. The only effective method of risk mitigation is
evacuation prior to such eruptions from areas likely to be affected by pyroclastic
density currents.
  Lahars

Lahars are part of the family of debris flows that are fluids composed of
mixtures of water and particles of all sizes from clay-size to gigantic boulders.
The abundance of solid matter carries the water, unlike watery floods where
water carries the fragments. Debris flows have the viscous consistency of wet
concrete, and there is a complete transition to watery floods. Lahars are
composed of volcanic particles and originate directly or indirectly from volcanic
action. Lahars can form by hot pyroclastic surges or flows entering watershed
systems or flowing over snow and ice, by eruptions through crater lakes, by
heavy rains on loose volcanic debris -- that is, any process by which volcanic
particles can become saturated by water and move downslopes. They can move
with velocities as low as 1.3 m/s to as great as 40 m/s on steep slopes (1 m/s =
2.55 miles per hour). They are known to have travelled as far as 300 km (1 km =
0.63 miles). Lahars have destroyed many villages and lives living on Indonesian
volcanoes because most people live in valleys where lahars flow. The 21,000
lives lost at Armero, Colombia, was from a lahar that formed during the eruption
of Nevado del Ruiz in 1985. It was generated by meltwater from the interaction
of pyroclastic surges with snow and ice, from a very small eruption. Lahars can
transform into regular floods as they become increasingly diluted with water
downstream. This phenomenon was first discovered at Mount St. Helens where
hot pyroclastic surges transformed to lahars, which further transformed to
hyperconcentrated streamflow and then to normal stream-flow turbulence
(floods).
  flow Avalanches Debris-

The eruption of Mount St. Helens on May 18, 1980 started with a relatively
small volcanic earthquake that caused collapse of the north side of the volcano
because it was oversteepened and therefore unstable. When the landslide
occurred, it decreased the pressure on the pressurized interior of the volcano
which expanded explosively to form a lateral blast that devastated the
countryside north of the volcano. Most of the debris flow avalanche was
diverted down the North Fork Toutle River, but some moved directly northward
over a 300 meter ridge and down into the next valley. Since the 1980 Mount St.
Helens eruption, dozens of volcanoes that have given rise to avalanches have
been discovered. For example, 40 avalanches exceeding 1 Km3 in volume, and
22 with a volume of less than 1 km3, are now known from the Quaternary
alone, and 17 historic volcanic avalanches have been identified. The hilly
topography north of Mount Shasta in northern California is now known to be
the result of a have debris-flow avalanche. Some are known to extend up to 85
km from their sources and to cover tens to more than 1000 km2 in area.

 Lava flows
Lava flows rarely threaten human life because lava usually moves slowly -- a few
centimeters per hour for silicic flows to several km/hour for basaltic flows. An
exceptionally fast flow (extremely rare) at Mt. Nyiragongo, Zaire (30-100
km/hour), overwhelmed about 300 people. Major hazards of lava flows --
burying, crushing, covering, burning everything in their path. Sometimes lava
melts ice and snow to cause floods and lahars. Lava flows can dam rivers to form
lakes that might overflow and break their dams causing floods. Methods for
controlling paths of lava flows: (1) construct barriers and diversion channels, (2)
cool advancing front with water, (3) disruption of source or advancing front of
lava flow by explosives.
  Tephra falls and Ballistic Projectiles formed on Land
Tephra consists of pyroclastic fragments of any size and origin. It is a synonym
for "pyroclastic material." Tephra ranges in size from ash (<2 mm) to lapilli (2-64
mm) to blocks and bombs (>64 mm). Densities vary greatly, from that of pumice
(<0.5)) to solid pieces of lava with density about 3.0. Blocks from basement
material may exceed 3.0. Material may be juvenile (formed of magma involved
in the eruption ) or accidental (derived from pre-existing rock).

Tephra fall and ballistic projectiles endanger life and property by (1) the force of
impact of falling fragments, but this occurs only close to an eruption, (2) loss of
agricultural lands if burial is greater than 10 cm depth, (3) producing
suspensions of fine-grained particles in air and water which clogs filters and
vents of motors, human lungs, industrial machines, and nuclear power plants,
and (4) carrying of noxious gases, acids, salts, and, close to the vent, heat. Burial
by tephra can collapse roofs of buildings, break power and communication lines
and damage or kill vegetation. Even thin (<2 cm) falls of ash can damage such
critical facilities as hospitals, electic-generating plants, pumping stations, storm
sewers and surface-drainage systems and sewage treatment plants, and short
circuit electric-transmission facilities, telephone lines, radio and television
transmitters. When dispersed widely over a drainage basin, tephra can change
rainfall/runoff relationships. Low permeability of fine ash deposits leads to
increased runoff, accelerated erosion, stream-channel changes and hazardous
floods. In contrast, thick, coarse-grained deposits closed to the source can
increase infiltration capacity and essentially eliminate surface runoff.Many of
the hazards of tephra falls can be mitigated with proper planning and
preparation. This includes clearing tephra from roofs as it accumulates,
designing roofs with steep slopes, strengthening roofs and walls, designing
filters for machinery, wearing respirators or wet clothes over the mouth and
nose because tephra can contain harmful gases adsorbed on the particles as acid
aerosols and salt particles.
  Volcanic Gas

Magma is molten rock containing dissolved gases that are released to the
atmosphere during an eruption and while the magma lies close to the surface
from hydrothermal systems. The most abundant volcanic gas is water vapor;
other important gases are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides,
hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, and fluorine. The gases are transported away from
vents as acid aerosols, as compounds adsorbed on tephra and as microscopic
salt particles. Sulfur compounds, chlorine and fluorine react with water to form
poisonous acids damaging to the eyes, skin and repiratory systems of animals
even in very small concentrations. The acids can destroy vegetation, fabrics and
metals. Atmospheric veils of dust or acid aerosols caused by large-volume
explosive eruptions can effect regional or global climate.

Most volcanic gases are noxious and smell bad, but they can cause mass
fatalities. An rare case of mass deaths by volcanic gases in 1986 at Lake Nyos, in
Cameroon, West Africa. Tons of carbon dioxide spilled out of Lake Nyos, and
flowed silently down a canyon and through 3 village occupied by 1700 people.
They and 3000 cattle died instantly from lack of oxygen.

 Tsunami
A tsunami is a long-period sea wave or wave train generated by a sudden
displacement of water. Tsunamis travel at very high speeds through deep water
as low broad waves and build to great heights as they approach the shallow
bottom of shores. Most are caused by fault displacements on the sea floor, but
many have been caused by volcanic action. The eruption of Krakatau in 1883
produced tsunamis that killed 36,000 people. The pyroclastic flow generated by
this eruption displaced the water that initiated the tsunamis.
 Recognize sign and impending volcano eruption?
Warning sign of eruption

Interpret different hazard maps

Volcanic hazard maps are visual, geospatial depictions of the areas that could be
impacted by various volcanic phenomena during or subsequent to an eruption.
They are developed to communicate a complex array of hazard information to
for managing those at risk, or those responsible those at risk.Oct

Example of a hazard map

A hazard map is a map that highlights areas that are affected by or are
vulnerable to a particular hazard. They are typically created for natural hazards,
such as earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, flooding and tsunamis. Hazard maps
help prevent serious damage and deaths.[1]

Uses of Hazard Maps

Hazard maps are created and used in conjunction with several natural disasters.
[1] Different hazard maps have different uses. For instance, the hazard map
created by the Rizal Geological Survey is used by Rizalian insurance agencies in
order to properly adjust insurance for people living in hazardous areas.Hazard
maps created for flooding are also used in insurance rate adjustments.Hazard
maps can also be useful in determining the risks of living in a certain
area.Hazard maps can help people become aware of the dangers they might face
from natural disasters in a specific area.

 Intervention before, during and after volcanic eruption

Apply appreciate?

What will you do before volcanic eruption?

Before a Volcanic Eruption: The following are things you can do to protect
yourself, your family and your property in the event of a volcanic eruption. Build
a Disaster Survival Kit, which includes items like non-perishable food, water, a
battery-powered or hand-crank radio, extra flashlights and batteries

What will you do during volcanic eruption?

During a Volcanic Eruption: Follow the evacuation order issued by authorities
and evacuate immediately from the volcano area to avoid flying debris, hot
gases, lateral blast and lava flow. Be aware of mudflows. ... Look upstream
before crossing a bridge and do not cross the bridge if a mudflow is approaching.
 
o Close all windows, doors, and fireplace or woodstove dampers.
o Turn off all fans and heating and air conditioning systems.
o Bring pets and livestock into closed shelters.
o Keep necessities on hand.
o Listen for emergency alerts and do what they say.
 VStay inside until you hear that it's safe to come out.

What to do after a volcanic eruption

 Listen to your local radio stations for civil defence advice and follow instructions.
 Stay indoors and away from volcanic ashfall areas as much as possible.
 When it is safe to go outside, keep your gutters and roof clear of ash as heavy ash deposits
can collapse your roof.
 If there is a lot of ash in the water supply, do not use your dishwasher or washing machine.
 Avoid driving in heavy ashfall as it stirs up ash that can clog engines and cause serious
abrasion damage to your vehicle.
 Keep animals indoors where possible, wash away ash on their paws or skin to keep them
from ingesting the ash, and provide clean drinking water.
 Use a mask or a damp cloth and eye protection when cleaning up. Moisten the ash with a
sprinkler before cleaning.
 Look for and report broken utility lines to appropriate authorities.
 If your property is damaged, take notes and photographs for insurance purposes. If you rent
your property, contact your landlord and your contents insurance company as soon as
possible