STAMFORD UNIVERSITY BANGLADESH

Department of Civil Engineering

CEN 203: Engineering Geology and Geomorphology

Lecture Sheet 1 : Layers of Earth and its Core

Lecture Prepared by : Rafid Shams Huq, Senior Lecturer

Learning Points:

1. Difference between Geology & Geomorphology

2. Various layers of Earth and its core
3. Volcanic Eruption and the materials released
4. List the most common volcanic hazards and the threats they pose
Text Books:
Geology for Engineers- D. S. Arora

Reference Books:
Principles of Geomorphology-William D. Thornbury
Difference between Geomorphology and Geology

Geomorphology is the study of the physical features of the Earth’s crust The word “geomorphology” is
as related to its geological features. Morphology means outer study. It originated from three Greek
deals just with the study of the earth’s outer surface or the crust. On words:
the other hand, geology is a branch of science that deals with all the
 Ge (γη ): Earth
physical features of earth including the minerals that are found in the
earth and their characteristics. Hence, geomorphology is a subset of
 Morfé (μορφή): Form
geology.  Logos (λόγος): Knowledge
“Geomorphology” is the study of landforms of the
earth, including their origin and evolution, and the
processes that shape them. It is concerned with the
internal geologic processes of the earth's crust, such as
tectonic activity and volcanism that constructs new
landforms, as well as externally driven forces of wind,
water, waves, and glacial ice that modify such
landforms.

Geomorphologists seek to understand landform

history and dynamics, and predict future changes
through a combination of field observation, physical
experiment, and numerical modelling.
THE EARTH
Principal Zones of Earth:
Atmosphere:

It is the gaseous envelop

encircling the earth. Distribution
of heat, pressure, and water
vapor content within this
envelop gives rise to the global
weather and climate.

Biosphere:

This is the life zone of earth. This

is the zone of influence upon the
geomorphic processes. It
includes every living being from
small planktons to men.
Hydrosphere:

This is the water envelope on solid earth. Elements of this zone are river, lake,
ocean, etc.
Geosphere:

Radius: 6400 km. It has 3 distinct divisions:

Crust: Thin outer shell:

Thickness: 16 – 40 km
Mantle: The inner zone: Thickness: 2900 km
Core: Divided into 2 distinct parts:
 Liquid outer core of nickel iron:
Thickness: 2200 km
 Solid zone called core: Radius: 1300 km
 Magma and Lava
The differences between magma and lava can be both subtle and complex, but
to put it simply, we call it magma when it is beneath the ground (hasn’t erupted),
and lava after it erupts
What is magma

Magma is a complex mixture of molten

rock (or part molten). Aside for the
minerals, magma can also contain
suspended crystals, water, carbon
monoxide or other gas bubbles.

Magma forms tens of kilometers

beneath the surface, in the mantle or
deep in the surface, where the
temperature and pressure are high
enough to power its formation. Magma
is commonly formed in subduction
zones, continental rift areas, mid-ocean
ridges and hotspots.
Magma develops and
accumulates in areas called
magma chambers, and can
migrate towards the surface
when it is less dense than the
surrounding rocks. However, if it
starts to rise, it encounters lower
and lower temperatures, where it
may start to solidify – and it often
does, even before it reaches the
surface.

However, if it does reach the

surface, then it can accumulate
in a chamber closer to the
surface, create a volcano, and
erupt towards the surface, where
it becomes – you’ve guessed it –
lava.
What is lava

It’s not like something fundamental

changes when the magma reaches
the surface – it’s more a naming thing
than a physics. What is different
however is that magma generally sits
in hot chambers, and when it reaches
the surface and becomes lava, it
quickly solidifies due to the much
lower temperatures.

Technically, lava is any molten

rock expelled by a volcano in any way.
But the rocks formed immediately
through cooling is also called lava,
which can be a little bit confusing. To
make things even worse, a moving,
outpouring of lava is called a lava flow
– but that’s often shortened to lava as
well. Most often though, we refer to
lava as a singular flow or eruption.
There are several types of lava, depending on the chemical composition,
temperature, and other particularities, but describing them goes beyond the
purpose of this lecture. Just like magma, it is made up of crystals, volcanic glass,
and bubbles (volcanic gasses).

However, when it cools down, it starts to solidify and crystals start to form. The
slower it cools down (the slower it migrates towards the surface), the bigger the
crystals. If it erupts fast and violently, no crystals can form because there’s not
enough time for the matter to crystallize in an ordered fashion.
 Geological Hazard of Volcanoes
Different volcanic eruptions can produce
different hazards. These are some of the
more important hazards:

 Tephra
 Pyroclastic Flows
 Lahars (Mudflow and Debris Flow)
 Lava Flows
 Volcanic Gases
Tephra
Tephra is a general term for fragments
of volcanic rock and lava regardless of
size blasted into the air by explosions
of hot gases in eruption columns or
lava fountains. Tephra includes large
dense blocks and bombs, and small
light rock debris such as scoria,
pumice, and ash. The larger-sized
tephra falls close to the volcano, while
the wind blows the smaller fragments
away from the volcano
Potential effects of volcanic ash fall include:

 Health issues: eye/skin irritation and breathing difficulty

 Daylight turns into darkness and the typical diurnal temperature
cycle is reduced (cooler in daytime and warmer at night)
 Roofs may collapse from added weight
 Machinery and vehicles will be abraded
 Deterioration in engine performance and engine failure
 Farmland will be covered
 Roads will be slippery, or blocked
 Power systems may shut down
 Waste-water systems may clog
Pyroclastic Flow
A pyroclastic flow is a ground-hugging
avalanche of hot ash, pumice, rock
fragments, and volcanic gas that rushes
down the side of a volcano at speeds in
excess of 60 m/hr (100 km/hr). The
temperature within a pyroclastic flow
may be greater than 900° F (500° C),
sufficient to burn and carbonize wood. A
pyroclastic flow can destroy nearly
everything in its path. It buries sites with
hot rock debris, melts snow and ice to
form lahars, and burns forests, crops and
buildings

Pyroclastic flows are a common and

devastating result of certain explosive
eruptions; they normally touch the
ground and hurtle downhill, or spread
laterally under gravity. Their speed
depends upon the density of the current,
the volcanic output rate, and the gradient
of the slope.
Lahar
It is an Indonesian word for a rapidly flowing mixture of rock debris and water
originating on the slopes of a volcano. Lahars are also referred to as volcanic mudflows
or debris flows

They form in a variety of ways:

 Directly through the rapid

melting of snow and ice by
pyroclastic flows, or ejecting
water from a crater lake
 Directly by the breakout of a
lake dammed by volcanic
deposits or as consequence of
debris avalanches
 Indirectly by intense rainfall
during or after an eruption
Mud Flow

A fluid or hardened stream or

avalanche of mud.
A mudflow or mud flow is a
form of mass wasting involving
"very rapid to extremely rapid
surging flow" of debris that has
become partially or fully
liquified by the addition of
significant amounts of water to
the source material.

Debris Flow

A debris flow is a moving

mass of loose mud, sand,
soil, rock, water and air that
travels down a slope under
the influence of gravity.
 Lahars can:

 Destroy by direct impact

 Lead to increased deposition of sediment
 Block tributary streams
 Bury valleys and communities with debris
Lava Flow
Lava flows are masses of molten rock that pour onto the Earth's surface during
an effusive eruption. Both moving lava and the resulting solidified deposit are
referred to as lava flows.
Volcanic Gases

Magma contains dissolved gases that are released

into the atmosphere during eruptions. Gases are also
released from magma that either remains below
ground or rises toward the surface. Gases may
escape continuously into the atmosphere from the
soil, volcanic vents, fumaroles, and hydrothermal
systems. The most common gases released are:

• Water Vapor (H2O)

• CO2 (carbon dioxide): when trapped in
depressions can be lethal to people, and animals
• SO2 (sulfur dioxide): causes air pollution, and
affects the Earth’s surface temperature
• H2S (hydrogen sulfide): may cause eye, nose,
throat irritation and breathing difficulty, as well as
headaches and dizziness
• (HCl) hydrogen chloride: may cause acid rain
downwind, and exposure irritates eyes and
respiratory tract