Various Volcano-Related Hazards
USGS bulletin enumerates a few of the
more common volcanic hazards, and some
of the ways in which they are formed and
behave:
Lahars
an Indonesian word describing a mudflow or
debris flow that originates on the slopes of a
volcano.
- are masses of rock, mud, and water
that travel rapidly downslope and
downstream under the action of
gravity.
Lahars can form in a number of situations,
namely,
1) when small slope collapses gather
water on their way down a volcano,
2) through rapid melting of snow and ice
during an eruption,
3) from heavy rainfall on loose volcanic
debris,
4) when a volcano erupts through a crater
lake, or
5) when a crater lake drains because of
overflow or wall collapse.
Destructive Characteristics of Lahars:
● Lahars moved rapidly down valleys
like rivers of concrete.
● Lahars can occur with or without a
volcanic eruption.
● Lahars pick up material as they travel,
which can cause damage to structures
in their path.
● Lahars and excess sediment cause
serious economic and environmental
damage to river valleys and
floodplains
Ash Falls
Volcanic ash consists of fragments of
pulverized rock, minerals, and volcanic glass
created during volcanic eruptions and
measuring less than 2 mm in diameter.
- The term volcanic ash is also often
loosely used to refer to all explosive
eruption products, referred to as
tephra, including particles larger than
2 mm.
- Volcanic ash is formed during
explosive volcanic eruptions when
dissolved gasses in magma expand
and escape violently into the
atmosphere.
Devastating Effects of Ash Fall:
● Ash fall rarely endangers human lives,
but it can have devastating effects on
the things that people rely upon from
day to day living.
● As a result of its fine-grained abrasive
character and widespread distribution
by wind, ash fall and volcanic ash
clouds are a major hazard to aviation.
● Ash fallout to the ground can pose
significant disruption and damage to
buildings, transportation, water and
wastewater, power supply,
communications equipment,
agriculture, and primary production
leading to potentially substantial
societal impacts and costs, even at
thicknesses of only a few millimeters
or inches.
● Additionally, fine-grained ash, when
ingested, can cause health impacts to
humans and animals.
Pyroclastic Flow
- A pyroclastic flow is a dense,
fast-moving flow of solidified lava
pieces, volcanic ash, and hot gasses.
- A pyroclastic flow is extremely hot,
burning anything in its path. It may
move at speeds as high as 200 m/s.
- Most pyroclastic flows consist of two
parts:
➢ LOWER (basal) flow of
coarse fragments that moves
along the ground
➢ TURBULENT cloud of ash
that rises above the basal
flow.
Different Forms of Pyroclastic Flow:
Collapse of eruption column
- During a highly explosive eruption,
the column ejected upwards into the
atmosphere cools and can become too
cool and dense to maintain upward
momentum.
“Boiling over” from eruptive vent
- During explosive eruption, material is
erupted without forming a high plume
and rapidly moves down slope
Collapse of lava domes or flows
- The fronts of lava flows or domes can
become so steep that they collapse due
to gravitational force.
Volcanic Gasses
The release of volcanic gasses is one of the
most common volcanic activities that occur
before, during, and after eruptions.
Volcanic gasses are composed of different
materials depending on their location:
➔ Water vapor and carbon dioxide
typically make up the bulk
composition of volcanic gasses,
followed by sulfur dioxide.
➔ Other common volcanic gasses
include hydrogen chloride, and
hydrogen fluoride.
Negative Impacts of Volcanic Gas:
Sulfur dioxide
Can form into sulfuric acid which is a
component of acid rain; and direct contact with
sulfur dioxide can irritate the eyes, cause skin
rash, and poison the respiratory system.
Carbon dioxide
High concentrations can cause asphyxiation
without warning because of the gas’ odorless
and colorless nature.
Albedo effect
Volcanic gasses also help in reflecting the heat
outside Earth.
Hydrochloric acid
Helps in the degeneration of the ozone layer.
Lava Flows
Lava flows are streams of molten rock that
pour or ooze from an erupting vent. It is
erupted during either non-explosive activity or
explosive lava fountains.
Factors that affect the speed of which lava
moves across the ground:
1. type of lava erupted and its viscosity;
2. steepness of the ground over which it
travels;
3. whether the lava flows as a broad
sheet, through a confined channel, or
down a lava tube; and
4. rate of lava production at the vent.
Negative Impacts of Lava Flows:
I. Lava flows can crush and bury
structures and livelihoods. They
solidify over time making the areas
buried by the lava useless.
II. Lava flows also burn surroundings
because of its intense heat. Flammable
resources such as wood, plants, and
houses can get caught on fire as lava
flows along their path.
Ballistic Projectiles
Ballistic projectiles are rocks that an erupting
volcano may hurl into the air.
➔ These blocks and bombs travel like
cannonballs and usually land within 2
km of the vent.
➔ These events may occur without
warning and in the absence of a larger
magmatic eruption.
➔ Ballistic projectiles are limited to
within about 5 km of vents.
Devastating Effects of Ballistic Projectiles:
Ballistic projectiles endanger life and property
by:
I. the force of impact of falling
fragments, but this occurs only close
to an eruption;
II. loss of agricultural lands if burial is
greater than 10 cm depth;
III. tephra falls can carry harmful and
poisonous particles and gasses;
IV. producing suspensions of fine-grained
particles in air and water which clogs
filters and vents of motors, human
lungs, industrial machines, and
nuclear power plants; and
V. burial of tephra can collapse roofs of
buildings, break power and
communication lines and damage or
kill vegetation.
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Active Volcanoes in the Philippines
Erupted within historic times (within the
last 600 years), accounts of these eruptions
were documented by man erupted within
the last 10,000 years based on the analyses
of material from young volcanic deposits.
Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruption:
I. Increase in the frequency of volcanic
quakes with rumbling sounds;
occurrence of volcanic tremors.
 a) Volcanic earthquakes serve as an early
warning sign for an impending
eruption, as well as a marker for the
location of a moving magma and
sudden rise of gasses.
b) Volcanic tremor is a long-lasting
rhythmic signal associated with
magma in motion that can last for
minutes or days.
II. Increased steaming activity; change in
color of steam from white to gray due
to entrained ash .
a) Steam occurs mostly on
active volcanoes. Presence of
steam signals that magma is
lying relatively close to the
surface of the volcano.
b) Steam is produced when
groundwater and magma or
any ignited fragment of rock
interacts.
c) Meanwhile, ash is one of the
fragments of magma
produced when magma is
ejected with great force.
d) Presence of ashes signals that
the magma is being ejected
violently
III. Crater glow due to presence of magma
at or near the crater
a) Crater glow can be observed
when the magma finally
reaches the surface, and thus
referred to as lava.
IV. Ground swells (or inflation), ground
tilt and ground fissuring due to magma
intrusion.
a) Moving magma, gasses, and
other volcanic fluids tend to
cause the surface of the earth
to bulge upward (inflate) or
spread apart which can
eventually lead to ground
fissuring or cracking.
V. Localized landslides, rock falls and
landslides from the summit area that
are not attributed to heavy rains
a) Landslide is the movement of
rocks and soil influenced by
the force of gravity, strength
of the material, and steepness
of a volcano. As magma rises
together with volcanic gasses,
rocks are altered and
weakened.
VI. Noticeable increase in drying up of
vegetation around the volcano's upper
slopes
VII. Increase in temperature of hot springs,
wells and crater lake near the volcano
VIII. Noticeable variation in the chemical
content of springs, crater lakes within
the vicinity of the volcano
a) Groundwater deep within the
surface of the volcano
interacts with magma,
volcanic gasses, host rocks,
and even with other water
coming from springs, lakes,
wells.
b) Presence of certain
compounds signals the
presence of magma such as
magmatic carbon dioxide, or
high helium isotopes.
IX. Drying up of springs/wells around the
volcano
X. Development of new thermal areas
and/or reactivation of old ones;
appearance of solfataras (craters with
sulfur gas)
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Rainfall - Induced Landslide
• A landslide is a massive outward and
downward movement of slope-forming
materials.
• The term landslide is restricted to movements
of rocks and soil masses.
• A landslide is initiated when a section of a hill
slope is rendered too weak to support its own
weight.
•This is generally triggered by other natural
hazards such as prolonged, heavy rainfall or by
other sources of water which increase the water
content of the slope materials.
•Susceptibility of hill slope to landslide is
developed as a result of denudation of
mountainsides which removes the trees or
ground cover that holds the soil, or alteration of
the surface of the ground like grading for roads
or building constructions.
Natural Causes of Landslide:
I. groundwater (pore water) pressure acts
to destabilize the slope.
II. loss or absence of vertical vegetative
structure, soil nutrients, and soil
structure (e.g. after a wildfire).
III. erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers
or ocean waves.
IV. earthquakes adding loads to barely
stable slopes.
Landslide Aggravated by Human
Activities:
1. deforestation, cultivation and
construction, which destabilize the
already fragile slopes.
2. vibrations from machinery
3. blasting
4. earthwork which alters the shape of a
slope, which imposes new loads on an
existing slope
5. in shallow soils, the removal of
deep-rooted vegetation that binds
colluvium to bedrock
6. construction works, agricultural or
forestry activities (e.g. logging) which
change the amount of water
infiltrating the soil
Effects of Landslides:
➔ property damage,
➔ injury,
➔ death, and
➔ adversely affect a variety of resources,
for example, water supplies, fisheries,
sewage disposal systems, forest, dams,
and roadways, can be affected for
years after a slide event.
Negative economic effects include:
a) cost to repair structures
b) loss of property value
c) disruption of transportation routes
d) medical costs
Indirect costs such as lost timber and lost fish
stocks. Water availability, quantity and quality
can be affected by landslides.
Signs of Impending Landslide:
1. Earlier Landslide as an Indicator
Observing old landslides is a good indication
that the area has unstable geology, and that
more landslides are likely in the future.
Multiple landslide events in the same place can
be retrogressive, piecemeal, or reactivated.
2. Tension Cracks
Tension cracks are created by the stress of
geological material pulling apart. They often
mark the eventual landslide scarp, the top edge
of the failure zone. However, if tension cracks
are found on flat ground, they are more likely
related to a fault than a landslide.
3. Things Moving
Observable movement and deformation of
things - The most common among these is that
trees are bending up in a J-Curve as a sign that
the ground slips out under them (the ground is
less solid).
4. Water doing something different
Changes in water flow. - Sudden arrival of
water in a spring, seep or wet ground
somewhere that is usually dry indicates that
something changed, & this change is not to be
trusted. Disappearance of water is just as
ominous. - Water level in a creek suddenly
dropping can be due to an upstream obstruction
like a landslide-dam that will break and send a
debris flow rushing downstream.
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Sinkholes
➢ Sinkholes are cavities in the ground
that form when water erodes an
underlying rock layer.
➢ Sinkholes are common where the rock
below the land surface is limestone,
carbonate rock, salt beds, or rocks that
can naturally be dissolved by
groundwater circulating through them.
➢ As the rock dissolves, spaces and
caverns develop underground.
➢ Sinkholes are dramatic because the
land usually stays intact for a while
until underground spaces just get too
big.
➢ Vary from a few feet to hundreds of
acres and from less than 1 to more
than 100 feet deep. Some are shaped
like shallow bowls or saucers whereas
others have vertical walls; some hold
water and form natural ponds.
Types of Sinkholes:
1) Dissolution Sinkhole
Occur at the ground surface where
bedrock is exposed or is very shallow,
and result from rainfall and surface
water percolating through the
bedrock’s joints and fractures.
Dissolved carbonate rock
transported in the water, leading to the
formation of a depression.
2) Cover-Subsidence Sinkholes
When a thicker layer of overburden
covers the bedrock, the underlying
bedrock may wear away. If it carries
the overburden with it, a depression
remains. Occur most often when the
overburden is mostly sand. Tend to
develop gradually and go undetected
for long periods of time.
is
3) Cover-Collapse Sinkholes
Cover-collapse sinkholes may develop
abruptly and cause catastrophic
damages. They occur where the
covering sediments contain a Signs of Impending Sinkholes:
significant amount of clay. Over time,
surface drainage, erosion, and
deposition of sinkholes develop into a
shallower bowl-shaped depression.
Sinkholes can be human-induced:
New sinkholes have been correlated to land-use
practices, especially from groundwater
pumping and from construction and
development practices.
Sinkholes can also form when natural
water-drainage patterns are changed and new
water-diversion systems are developed. Some
sinkholes form when the land surface is
changed, such as when industrial and run
off-storage ponds are created. The substantial
weight of the new material can trigger an
underground collapse of supporting material,
thus causing a sinkhole.
1. Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall
2. Foundation that slant
3. New small ponds that appear after rain
4. Cracks in the ground
5. Sudden drainage of a pond
6. Rapid appearance of a hole in the
ground
7. Dips, depressions, slopes that appear
in a yard
8. Dead patches of grass or plants
9. Sinkholes in the neighborhood
10. Wilted vegetation in a limited area
11. Well water that is discolored or
contaminated with debris
12. Cracking of buckling of home’s
concrete slab
13. Presence of odd bugs like slugs and
centipedes in the home
14. Earthly odor in home after rain
15. New or widening cracks
 16. Separation between walls and ceiling
of floors
17. Cracks interior walls
18. Cracks ground between tiles
19. Uneven floors, warping of hardwood,
bulging or sagging sections
Precautionary Measures:
➔ Watch for signs of water disappearing
from the surface.
➔ If a sinkhole occurs in an area of
traffic, barricade it to prevent
motorists or pedestrians from getting
too close to it. Remember that the size
can continue to increase, so barricade
with ample room to spare.
➔ Check fields before undertaking
machine-related activities, such as
haying or harvesting.
➔ Keep tractors and heavy machinery far
enough away from the sinkholes since
the ground near the edge can easily
give way. It is recommended that
machinery stay at least as far from the
edge as the hole is deep.
➔ Sinkholes will be more prevalent
during times of increased and rapid
rainfall, such as with the type of rains
occurring during a hurricane.
➔ Call emergency hotlines and advise
them of the sinkhole and of the hole
which is near utility lines or in a
roadway.
➔ Restrict access to the hole.
➔ Do not get too close or go down into
the hole.
➔ Do not allow unauthorized or
inexperienced persons to investigate
the sinkhole.
Mitigation Strategies to Prevent Loss of
Lives and Properties in Case of Landslide:
What to do before a landslide
1. It’s good to secure clearance from the
Mines and Geosciences Bureau
(MGB) on the status of possible
landslides.
2. Help prepare the members of the
family for evacuation upon the
direction of proper authorities.
3. Maintain a list of contact numbers
during emergencies
4. Participate in planting trees to cover
slopes or in building riprap to prevent
soil erosion.
5. Participate in regular drills on
evacuation procedures
6. Help promote public awareness and
involvement on landslide mitigation
7. Help develop family preparedness and
evacuation plans.
What to do during landslide
1. Evacuate immediately if warned of an
impending landslide or mudflow.
2. Stay away from the path of landslide
debris, or seek refuge behind a sturdy
tree or boulder
3. Get out of the house as soon as
possible when rumbling sounds are
heard from upstream or the trembling
of the ground is felt, indicating a
possible mudflow.
4. Run across a slope, not downwards.
What to do after landslide
1. Examine thoroughly the damaged
parts and utilities of the house before
re-occupying it.
2. Stay away from the landslide area.
There may be danger of additional
landslides.
3. Help check with caution injured and
trapped persons within the landslide
area and direct rescuers to their
locations.
4. Listen to local radio or television
stations for the latest emergency
information.
5. Help in seeking the advice of a
geotechnical landslide hazards or
design corrective measure to reduce
landslide risk