Geological Hazards

Landslide
A landslide is a ground movement on a sloping terrain. It does not happen on flat ground because of the
angle on the ground, gravity induces the land to move downward. It is aggravated by rain because water
is a natural agent for erosion. If rain or any source of water frequently flows down a sloping area, the
gravitational descent of loosened soil makes it possible for landslide to occur.

Types of Landslide

1. Soil Creep Landslide

Is a very slow downslope movement of particles that occurs in every

slope covered with loose, weathered material (Britannica dictionary).

2. Slumping Landslide

Is a downward movement of rock debris, usually the consequence of

removal of buttressing earth at the foot of a slope of unconsolidated
material (Britannica dictionary)

3. Debris Flow Landslide

Happens when the slope becomes saturated with water, this then
triggers a landslide of water-soaked mass of rock and soil that slides
down the slope.

4. Rock Fall landslides

Are sudden slides caused by heavy rain the rock on the slope loosens
and then slides down the slope.
Sinkhole
A sinkhole is a topographic depression created when groundwater dissolves the underlying limestone
bedrock. Often known as "sink" or "doline,".
Characteristics:
● Occur in areas where the soil foundation is made of soft minerals and rocks such as limestone, salt
beds, or any acidic rocks.
● The depth of sinkholes ranges from a couple of meters to several mile deep.
Types of Sinkholes
There are three main types of sinkholes, according to the geologist, but there is an additional category,
the artificial sinkholes which are caused by human activity
1. Cover Collapse Sinkhole
- It develops suddenly (over an hour period) thus, causing catastrophic damage.
2. Cover Subsidence Sinkhole
- It gradually grows where the sediment covers are permeable and contain sand.
3. Dissolution Sinkhole
- It occurs in areas where calcareous is exposed on the ground or where thin layers of soil and
permeable sand are also covered. Limestone or dolomite dissolution is most intense when the water
first reaches the rock surface.
4. Artificial Sinkhole
- Such types of sinks may be caused by various human activities, including groundwater pumping and
building.
CAUSES OF GEOLOGIC HAZARDS
LANDSLIDE
NATURAL CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES
– Climate
Long-term climatic changes can significantly impact soil stability. A general reduction in precipitation
leads to lowering of water table and reduction in overall weight of soil mass, reduced solution of
materials and less powerful freeze-thaw activity. A significant upsurge in precipitation or ground
saturation would dramatically increase the level of ground water. When sloped areas are completely
saturated with water, landslides can occur. If there is absence of mechanical root support, the soils start
to run off.

– Earthquakes
Seismic activities have, for a long time, contributed to landslides across the globe. Any moment tectonic
plates move, the soil covering them also moves along. When earthquakes strike areas with steep slopes,
on numerous occasion, the soil slips leading to landslides In addition, ashen debris flows instigated by
earthquakes could also cause mass soil movement.
– Weathering
It is the natural procedure of rock deterioration that leads to weak,landslide-susceptive materials. It is
brought about by the chemical action of water, air, plants and bacteria. When the rocks are weak
enough, they slip away causing landslides.
– Erosion
Erosion caused by sporadic running water such as streams, rivers, wind, currents, ice and waves wipes
out latent and lateral slope support enabling landslides to occur easily.
– Volcanic eruption
If an eruption occurs in a wet condition, the soil will start to move downhill instigating a landslide.
Stratovolcano is a typical example of volcano responsible for most landslides across the globe. Volcanic
gases partially dissolve in groundwater which turns into acidic hydrothermal systems that weakens rock
by altering minerals to clay.
– Forest fires
Burns vegetation that holds soil in place. Since it takes time for vegetation to re-establish on steep
slopes, the risk of landslides prevails or up to 20 years in dry climates. Wildfire removes the protective
ability of vegetation which increases runoff, erosion, and debris flow because the water cannot
penetrate through the soil thus carrying the debris downslope. Burrowing insects also play a role by
aerating the soil destabilizing it during a wildfire because they tend to seek for cooler soil to survive.
– Gravity
Steeper slopes coupled with gravitational force can trigger a massive landslide. Steeper slopes can also
cause the debris to move farther from the foot of the area.
HUMAN CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES
– Mining
Mining activities that utilize blasting techniques contribute mightily to landslides. Vibrations emanating
from the blasts can weaken soils in other areas susceptible to landslides. The weakening of soil means a
landslide can occur anytime. Earthwork alters the shape of a slope, imposing new loads on an existing
slope.

– Clear cutting
Clear cutting is a technique of timber harvesting that eliminates all old trees from the area. This
technique is dangerous since it decimates the existing mechanical root structure of the area. It changes
the amount of water infiltrating the soil.

SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING GEOLOGIC HAZARD

SIGNS OF IMPENDING LANDSLIDE OR SINKHOLE
Signs of impending landslides and sinkholes are observed on man-made infrastructures, bodies of water
and vegetation.
This list does not cover every possible indication of an impending landslide, nor does anything on this list
trigger a landslide immediately. It contains warning signs that are listed to help people recognize when
it’s time to hire an expert to assess a slope’s stability, or to make people more aware that something is
wrong.

WARNING SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING LANDSLIDE

1. Earlier landslide as indicator
- If there’s frequent occurrence of landslides in a section, it implies that the soil in this area is weak and
has unstable geology; thus, more susceptible to landslides. This may be caused by lack of vegetation,
weathering, erosion, etc.
- Multiple landslide events within the same place are retrogressive, piecemeal, or reactivated.
- A reactivated landslide is when an old, semi-stable landslide changed something, causing a new
collapse at the same place.
- Inspecting an area of an old landslide for scarps and deposits is a clear indicator that a landslide will
reactivate. This is also a sure sign that much of the region's underlying geology is fragile and vulnerable
to landslides.

2. Tension cracks

- These are caused by the stress and friction produced by geologic materials moving apart which forms
steep lines of cracks in the terrain.
- Tension cracks above an existing landslide can hint at a future reactivation.
- These cracks are located on higher elevated ground.
- Cracks that are found on flat terrain are caused by fault movement and not landslide indicators.

3. Things Moving
- Deformation and movement of non-living objects not caused by human manipulation can also indicate
a landslide.
- The most common of these is that trees are bending up in a J-curve as a sign that the ground slips out
from underneath them.
- A patch of angled forest on a slope or J-curved trees somewhere can be a good indicator that the
ground is less solid than it seems.
- No longer closing properly, or broken utilities.
- This motion can be slow or rapid. Rapid landslides are results of sudden collapse of a slope. This
happens in terrains that are steeper uphill. Whereas, indicators of slow landslides are categorized by
movement of floor tiles, deformation of door frames which causes difficulty in closing and opening the
door, and broken electric posts, gas, water and sewage pipes.
- Creaking and cracking can also be warning signs.

4. Water Doing Something Different

- Changes in water flow.
- Springs, seep, or wet ground may appear on a seemingly dry terrain. Similarly, unexpected withdrawal
of water also indicates the same. Water causes alteration of the pressure within the slopes of a terrain.
- A debris flow is a very wet, very mobile landslide, where water is loaded with trees, mud, rock, and
everything else caught in the current. Low water level precedes the arrival of the debris flow surge.

WARNING SIGNS OF AN IMPENDING SINKHOLE

The occurrence of sinkholes and landslides may have something in common because they are both
geologic hazards. Here are some signs of an impending sinkhole.
- Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall
- Foundations that slant
- New small ponds that appear after rain
- Cracks in the ground
- Sudden drainage of a pond
- Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground
- Dips, depressions, slopes that appear in a yard
- Dead patches of grass or plants

- Sinkholes in the neighborhood

- Wilted vegetation in a limited area
- Well water that is discolored or contaminated with debris
- Cracking or buckling of home’s concrete slab
- Presence of odd bugs like slugs, centipedes in homes
- Earthly odor in home after rain

Interpretation of Geological Maps

What is a Geological Map?
This type of map shows how geological features, rock units or geologic strata are shown by colors or
symbols to indicate where they are exposed at the surface.

Geological Maps Features:

1. Faults 3. Folds
2. Tilts 4. Rock layers

Parts of Geological Map:

1. Legend
2. Interpretation
3. Title
4. Susceptibility
5. Sources

Symbols in Geological Maps

1. Thick lines and thin lines

2. First capitalized letter in geologic unit
3. Colors
4. Dotted contact line
Symbolizing Geology
There are different geological maps or geological hazard maps we have per municipal here in the
Philippines. The maps depend on what disaster it focuses on. Based on the given sample, we can
interpret the susceptibility of an area to rainfall induced landslide by using the legend above.
Legend per type of geological map varies, it describes the severity of the disaster in that area.

Mitigation for Rainfall-induced landslide

Mitigation strategies for rainfall-induced landslide include studying rainfall patterns, type of soil, land
characteristics and flow of nearby bodies of water. This information can be gathered from a landslide
geologic map. Areas with steep slope and coarse, bare soil are more susceptible to landslides. Coarse
materials generally have low cohesive strength. Deforestation and urban development in an area may
leave a region barren and reduce land strength. Rainfall and flooding from nearby bodies of could make
the land unstable, thereby increasing susceptibility for landslide. So, what should we do before, during,
and after a rainfall induced landslide?
What to do BEFORE a landslide
1. Have an emergency preparedness plan in your place.
2. Find out if you live in an area where rainfall-induced landslides could happen.
3. Listen to local news and weather reports for any potential rainfall-induced landslide warnings in your
area.
4. Talk with your family and neighbors on what you would do and identify a safe place to gather.
5. Become familiar with the land around where you live and work so that you will understand your risk
in different situations.
6. Have municipal emergency contact numbers on hand and have an emergency kit ready.
What to do DURING a landslide
1. Listen to local news stations on a battery-powered radio for the warnings of heavy rainfall.
2. Be alert for unusual sounds that could indicate movement of debris, such as trees cracking or
boulders knocking together.
3. Move away from the path of a landslide or debris flow as quickly as possible. The possibility of
mudflow increases near flowing bodies of water and with heavy rainfall.
4. Be vigilant for any sudden variation in water flow if you are near a stream or channel. Observe
whether the water changes from clear to muddy. These changes could indicate debris flow. Be prepared
to evacuate at once.
What to do AFTER a landslide
1. Go to a designated evacuation center if you have been told to evacuate or you have a feeling that it is
unsafe to remain in your home.
2. Stay away from the slide area. There may be danger of additional slides. 3. Listen to local radio or
television stations for the latest emergency information.
4. Report broken utility lines and damaged roadways and railways to appropriate authorities.
5. Check the building foundation and surrounding land for damage. These may help you assess the
safety of the area.
6. Seek advice from a geotechnical expert for evaluating rainfall-induced landslide hazards to reduce
landslide risk.
Mitigation for Sinkholes
Mitigation strategies for sinkholes include ground surveys and checking for signs of this impending
disaster. It is necessary to check for cracks in the land area and establishments, sloping of floor and any
other sign of weakness in land integrity.
What to do BEFORE a sinkhole
1. Check for the cracks in the exterior and interior of your property such as areas along joints, windows,
doors, sloping or uneven floors and muddy or cloudy well water.
2. Check for previously buried items such as fence posts, trees that are becoming exposed as the ground
sinks.
3. Check for a circular pattern of ground cracks around the sinking area.
4. Check for the formation of small ponds as rainfall accumulates in new areas.
5. Check for the slumping or falling trees or fence posts, sudden ground openings or ground settlement.
6. Check for the interrupted plumbing or electrical service due to damaged utility lines.
What to do DURING a sinkhole
1. Don’t get too close, stay well back and watch out for the surface cracks. 2. If the hole is very large and
a risk to others, call the authorities or emergency responders.
3. Keep the children away.
4. Place a piece of plywood over small holes to secure the area and by marking the hole for safety. Use
posts with caution tape or rope.
5. Take photographs for documentation, but do not get too close to the edges. 6. Don’t allow
unauthorized or inexperienced persons to investigate the sinkhole.
What to do AFTER a sinkhole
1. Don’t refill a sinkhole with trash because filling a sinkhole with waste materials may cause
groundwater contamination.
2. Prevent construction of building or other physical structures near the sinkhole area.
3. Call the authorities so they may plan to mitigate the effects of the sinkhole.

HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARDS

The Philippines being located in the

Southeast Asia is considered very vulnerable
to natural hazards and disasters, which
include typhoons, earthquakes,
floods, volcanic eruptions, landslides,
and fires that affect the country and its
inhabitants.

Surrounding the Pacific Ocean basin is a

circular arm of active volcanoes known as
the “Pacific Ring of Fire” in which most of
the volcanoes in the Philippines are part of.
Continental plate activities around this area
result to volcanic eruptions and tsunamis in
the country.
National Disaster Management Plan of 2016 stated that HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL
is a process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic nature
that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

Hydrometeorological hazards include:

1. Typhoon
2. Thunderstorm
3. Flood
4. Flashflood
5. Storm Surge
6. El Niño
7. La Niña
Hydrometeorological conditions lead to other hazards such as landslides,
fires, plagues, epidemics and in transport and dispersal of toxic substances and
volcanic eruption material.

Signs of Impending Hydro-meteorological Hazards

A. Tropical cyclone, also called typhoon or hurricane, an
intense circular storm that originates over warm tropical oceans and is
characterized by low atmospheric pressure, high winds, and heavy rain.

Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration

(PAGASA) stated that WEATHER FORECAST is a scientific estimate of future
weather condition, wherein a weather condition is a state of the atmosphere at a
given time expressed in terms of the most significant variables. In the Philippines,
cloudiness, rainfall and wind are the weather parameters with significant variation,
and therefore of interest to the forecast users.

How is a Weather Forecast Made?

Weather forecasting is done by a Meteorologist; he/she must know about the

existing weather condition over a large area. The accuracy of forecast decision is
based on forecasting tools known as the Weather Map.
The weather map displays the air pressure, wind, temperature, and humidity
distribution trends at various atmospheric rates. There are two forms, namely the
surface map and the upper-air maps, of the basic weather map. Weather forecasting
comprises of 5 steps as follow:

1st Step: Observation

A meteorologist forecasts weather decision through surface observations at

least every three hours over land and sea, and upper air stations at least every twelve
hours.
Meteorological satellites, geostationary and polar orbiting, take pictures of the
cloud imagery of the atmosphere. These satellites take pictures of the cloud
formations of the earth every hour, and continually, respectively.

Weather radars are also used to track the position of the atmosphere within
radar range. A numerical weather prediction is fed to the computer which analyzes
data as programmed and makes a time integration of physical equations.

2nd Step: Collection and Transmission of Weather Data

Collection and Transmission of Weather Data are condensed into coded

figures, symbols and numerals are transmitted via radiophone, teletype, facsimile
machine or telephone to designated collection centers for further transmission to the
central
forecasting station. Weather satellite images are transmitted to receiving stations on
the ground while radar measurements are transmitted through a local
communication network to forecast centers.

3rd Step: Plotting of Weather Data

Observations on land and sea are plotted on charts of surface or mean sea
level, which are prepared four times a day. Once the coded messages have been
received, they are decoded, and each set of observations is plotted over the respective
areas or regions in symbols or numbers on weather charts. Observations of
radiosonde, theodolite, aircraft, and satellite wind are plotted on top-level charts that
are prepared twice daily.

4th Step: Analysis of Weather Maps, Satellite and Radar Imageries and Other
Data

Current weather maps are analyzed through different weather charts namely
SURFACE (MSL) CHART, where data plotted on this weather map are analyzed
isobarically. This means the same atmospheric pressure at different places are
interconnected with a line taking into consideration the direction of the wind; UPPER
AIR CHARTS, data plotted on this weather map are analyzed using streamline
analysis; NUMERICAL WEATHER PREDICTION MODEL OUTPUT, the computer-
plotted weather maps are analyzed manually so that weather systems like cyclones
and anticyclones are located; and MONITOR WEATHER CHARTS, plotted cross-
section data, rainfall charts and 24 hour pressure change charts are analyzed to
determine wind wave movement, rainfall distribution and atmospheric pressure
behavior.

5th Step: Formulation of the Forecast

Upon completion of review of all available meteorological information / data,

the preparation of forecasts follows. The first and one of the preliminary steps is to
determine the position of the various weather systems and the actual weather over a
given area as accurately as the data permits.

Department of Science and Technology, “HOW A WEATHER FORECAST IS

MADE”, December 2014, http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/learning-tools/how-weather-
forecast-made
B. THUNDERSTORM

This is a powerful, short-lived weather disturbance, almost always associated

with lightning, thunder, dense clouds, heavy rain or hail, and fast, roaring winds.
Thunderstorms occur when layers of dry, moist air rise to cooler regions of the
atmosphere in a broad, rapid updraft.
Thunderstorm forms through 3 stages known as CUMULUS STAGE, MATURE STAGE
and DISSIPATING STAGE.

Cumulus Stage where the heats

the during the day and
warms the air around it.

MATURE STAGE
A cumulus cloud becomes very large,
where the water therein becomes large and
heavy, and raindrops begin to fall through the
cloud when the rising air can no longer hold
them up.

DISSIPATING STAGE

After 30 minutes, begins

to dissipate, this occurs when the
downdrafts in the cloud begins to
dominate over the updraft. Since warm
moist air can no longer rise, cloud
droplets can no longer form.

C. FLOOD & FLASHFLOOD

Flood is a high-water stage in which water overflows its natural or artificial
banks onto normally dry land, such as a river inundating its floodplain. The effects of
floods on human well-being range from unqualified blessings to catastrophes.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, “FLOOD”, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc,

Encyclopædia Britannica, April 30, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/science/flood
Here are the main types of floods to look out for:

1. Inland flooding is the technical name for ordinary flooding that occurs
in inland areas, hundreds of miles from the coast.
2. Flash floods are caused by heavy rain or the sudden release of
water over a short period of time. The name "flash" refers to their fast
occurrence and also to their raging torrents of water that move with
great speed. Flash floods are also caused by heavy precipitation in a
short period of time, usually less than 6 hours.
3. River flooding occurs when water levels in rivers, lakes, and streams
rise and overflow onto the surrounding banks, shores, and neighboring land.
4. Coastal flooding is the inundation of land areas along the coast by
seawater.
5. Urban flooding occurs when there is a lack of drainage in an urban (city)
area.

Means, Tiffany. "The Types of Flood Events and Their Causes." ThoughtCo, Feb. 11, 2020,
thoughtco.com/the-types-of-flood-events-4059251

D. STORM SURGE

Storm surge or "Daluyong ng Bagyo" in the Philippine system where the

irregular sea-level rise during tropical cyclone or "bagyo" occurs. When the tropical
cyclone reaches the coast, powerful winds force the ocean water over the coastal low-
lying areas, which can lead to flooding.

PAGASA takes many technological considerations into account when forecasting the
negative impacts of a storm surge. For storm surge prone communities, the most
important considerations are the strength of the tropical cyclone; the height of the
surge, and the community located in the low-lying area.

The infographic below discusses the STORM SURGE WARNING LEVELS,

E. EL NIÑO & LA NIÑA

EL NIÑO- means The Little Boy, or Christ Child in Spanish. El Niño was originally
recognized by fishermen off the coast of South America in the 1600s, with the
appearance of unusually warm water in the Pacific Ocean. The name was chosen
based on the time of year (around December) during which these warm waters events
tended to occur.
The term El Niño refers to the large-scale ocean-atmosphere climate interaction
linked to a periodic warming in sea surface temperatures across the central and east-
central Equatorial Pacific.

LA NIÑA – means The Little Girl in Spanish. La Niña is also sometimes called El
Viejo, anti-El Niño, or simply "a cold event."

La Niña episodes represent periods of below-average sea surface temperatures across

the east-central Equatorial Pacific. Global climate La Niña impacts tend to be
opposite those of El Niño impacts. In the tropics, ocean temperature variations in La
Niña also tend to be opposite those of El Niño.

Moravchik, Bruce, “WHAT ARE EL NIÑO AND LA NIÑA?”, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
AdministrationU.S. Department of Commerce, October 2017,
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ninonina.html

El Niño and La Niña: What Are They?

Both El Niño and La Niña are opposite results of ENSO (El Niño Southern
Oscillation), the same phenomenon. They are an oscillation in temperatures between
the Eastern Equatorial Pacific region's atmosphere and ocean, roughly between the
International Dateline and 20 degrees west. Building up between June and
December, El Niño is caused by a change in wind patterns. Here, after Asia's summer
monsoons, the Pacific Trade Winds struggle to replenish. The moist air contributes to
an oscillation between the colder and warmer waters, resulting in warmer than
average ocean temperatures.

Mason, Matthew, “EL NIÑO AND LA NIÑA: THEIR IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT”,
Environmental Science, April 2017, https://www.environmentalscience.org/el-nino-la-
ninaimpact-environment

El Niño & La Niña Affect Health Conditions

Extreme climatic conditions are characterized by the El Niño phenomenon; high

temperature rises with a little rainfall, and extremely heavy rainfall occurs at the
opposite end. According to the Philippines Department of Health, El Niño effects
health such as diseases related to water scarcity or shortage like diarrhea and skin
diseases; Red Tide Blooms also known as Paralytic shellfish poisoning and disorders
associated with high temperatures: heat cramps, heat exhaustion, exertional heat
injury and heat stroke.
 Department of Health, “EL NINO PHENOMENON”, Department of Health.gov.ph, February 17, 2015,
https://www.doh.gov.ph/Health-Advisory/El-Nino-phenomenon

La Niña is a weather phenomenon characterized by unusually cold ocean

temperature in the Equatorial Pacific which causes increased numbers of tropical
storms in the Pacific Ocean. According to the Philippines Department of Health, La
Niña effects Health through Disease related to contaminated water due to flooding,
such as acute gastroenteritis, typhoid fever, cholera and hepatitis A; Disease related
to wading in floodwaters contaminated with urine of infected animals, such as
leptospirosis; Disease brought by mosquitoes, such as dengue and
malaria; Accidents and injuries such as contusions, lacerations,
fractures, electrocution.

Department of Health, “LA NINA

PHENOMENON”, Department of Paraphrase to avoid copyright violations and
Health.gov.ph, February 17, 2015, give citation to the owner of information
https://www.doh.gov.ph/Health-Advisory/La-Nina- using Chicago manual style of referencing.
phenomenon

Climate and Weather-Related Hazards

NATURAL HAZARD - is defined as a natural process or event potentially

damaging that result in loss of life or injury, loss of property, socio-economic
destruction or environmental degradation.

CLIMATE- AND WEATHER-RELATED HAZARDS, refer to the direct and indirect

effects of observed changes in the frequencies and occurrences of extreme
weather/climate events (such as tropical cyclones, droughts, and El Niño and La Niña
events).

Interpret Different Hydro-

Meteorological Hazard Maps

Natural Hazard is an extreme event that

occurs naturally and causes harm to humans and
things that we care about, that hazard may
categorized as natural and anthropogenic hazards.
Climate and weather-related hazards, such as
typhoons and droughts, as well as earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions and tsunamis, ARE NATURAL

Gonzales, M (2013) BlankMap-PhilippinesProvinceBorders.

Digital illustration.
_https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=293
55165. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
HAZARDS while deforestation, mining and climate change is called MAN-MADE,
HAZARDS.

HAZARD MAPS highlights areas that are affected and/or vulnerable to a particular
hazard and help prevent serious damage and deaths.

Rainfall in the Philippines

A Modified Coronas Climate Classification
shows the monthly rainfall variations in the
Philippines: Rainfall distribution throughout the
country varies from one region to another, depending
upon the direction of the winds and t he location of
mountain systems.

•TYPE I – Two pronounced seasons.

Red Dry from November to April, wet
during rest of the year

•TYPE II – No dry season with a very

pronounced rainfall from November
Yellow to April and wet during the rest of
the year.

•TYPE III – Seasons are not very

pronounced; relatively dry from
Green November to April; wet during the
rest of the year.

•TYPE IV – Rainfall is more or less

Blue distributed throughout the year.

Rainfall Observation

In their weather forecast, PAGASA or

Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical
and Astronomical Services
Administration publishes regularly
updated color-coded satellite images
generated from Himawari-8 (shown
at right), a geo-stationary weather
sattelite that that visualizes rain
satellite is succesor to Japan
Meteorological Agency’s Multi

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2020).

Butchoy 2020 Luzon landfall. GIF file. https://www.
ssd.noaa.gov/PS/TROP/floaters/98W/imagery/wvanim
functional Transport Satellite ated.gif
(MTSAT) series, and is currently the
most used satellite imagery for weather monitoring.

Today, some provinces of the Philippines are considered areas highly at risk to the
occurrence of tropical depressions, tropical storms, typhoons and super typhoons.
These are: Cagayan; Albay, Ifugao, Sorsogon, Kalinga, Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte,
Camarines Norte, Mountain Province, Camarines Sur, Northern Samar,
Catanduanes, Apayao, Pampanga, La Union, Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan, Masbate,
Tarlac, and Western Samar.

The Philippine Radar Network

In addition to the satellite
observation, PAGASA operates 10 weather
radar stations all over the Philippines in
analyzing rainfall from thunderstorms or
typhoons. A rain gauges was use and the
most common is the tipping bucket type.
For this type of rain gauge, the funnel
collects the rain and when it has a certain
amount of precipitation, the rain gauge
sends electrical signals to the receiver.

ARM Climate Research Facility (2007) Tipping-Bucket Rain Gauge – Southern Great Plains.
Photograph. https://www.flickr.com/photos/50130159@N06/4786830625. Licensed under
CC BY-NC-SA 2.0. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/?ref=ccsearch&atype
=rich
A Doppler Weather Radars was
acquired by PAGASA several years. It is an
instruments that send out and reflect
electromagnetic signals and the receiver for
the radar listens for these reflections. The
most important objects that the radar signal
detects are the clouds.
Doppler radars, tell the amount of
rain the clouds bring and have a higher
Du Toit, Damien (2007) Golf ball Overberg. Photograph.
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. php?
curid=32523337. Licensed under CC BY 2.0.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/2.0/?
ref=ccsearch&atype=rich
resolution. Doppler radars are located at Aparri,
Baguio, Baler, Subic, Tagaytay, Virac, Gulian, Cebu. Hinatuan and Tampakan.
 FLOOD HAZARD MAP

A tool that determines flood zone areas due to different hazards such as storm,
surge waves, sea level.

The NOAH Nationwide Operational Assessment website displays the PAGASA

radar data, rainfall measurements of rain gauges of DOST, and has flood hazard
Paraphrase to maps in the Philippines. Nationwide Operational Assessment of Hazards or NOAH, a
avoid copyright
violations and
program under the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), advance the use
give citation to
of cutting edge technology and recommend innovative information services in
the owner of government’s disaster prevention and mitigation efforts. DOST-NOAH can be
information accessed online at http://noah.up.edu.ph/. Below is a screen shot from the
using Chicago Project NOAH web page, indicating the flood prone areas of Manila. Note the
manual style of meaning of the colors indicated on the left of the screen shot.
referencing.

EL NIÑO HAZARD
While we are usually concerned with heavy rainfall events, lack of rain is also
a significant condition that we also experience. The Philippines experiences the El
Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) or simply El Niño.

El Niño a significant increase in ocean temperature and it occurs at irregular

intervals ranging from 2-7 years. Months prior to the onset of El Niño, PAGASA
publishes Drought/Dry spell outlook meant as a warning for impending dry
conditions so the people can prepare for such extreme events.

La Niña that describes the cooling of surface ocean waters and is a

counterpart to El Nino, which is unusually warm ocean temperatures in the
equatorial region of the Pacific Ocean.

Below is an infographic from PAGASA issued last July 7, 2020

http://pubfiles.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/pagasaweb/files/climate/monthlyclimateassess
ment/jun-jul_2020_mcao.pdf. What weather phenomenon is expected to arrive in the
next few months?
Hydrometeorological hazards are hazards caused by extreme meteorological and
climate events which can lead to loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property
damage, loss of livelihood, social and economic disruption or environmental damage.

In the Philippines, examples of hydrometeorological hazards we encounter are

cyclones, typhoons, flashfloods, storm surge, lightning storms/ thunderstorms, El
Niño, and La Niña. In other countries, they experience snow fall, avalanches,
blizzards, heatwaves, cold spells, etc. Do you think tsunami is an example of a
meteorological hazard? Why do you say so?

The government agency which is tasked to monitor and give forecasts and warnings
about atmospheric conditions is PAGASA, or Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical
and Astronomical Services Administration.

Unlike an earthquake, forecasts pertaining to hydrometeorological hazards are easier

to predict with the help of some important tools which can monitor atmospheric
conditions.

Below are the tools used for monitoring atmospheric conditions.

(Source: http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/learning-tools/weather-instruments)

For measuring temperature

1. Thermometer
A thermometer measures the extent of a given
substance's hotness or coldness. Mercury is
one of the liquids which is overly sensitive to
temperature changes. The mercury expands
and rises in the capillary tube when the
substance to be measured is warm. Instead,
mercury contracts. That is, principle of

Indoor / Outdoor Classroom Thermometer, Classroom Outlet,

Accessed June 15, 2020.
https://www.dkclassroomoutlet.com/indoor-outdoor-
classroomthermometer
thermal expansion.
Usage tips: Place the thermometer about 5ft above the ground, under the shade,
ensuring good air flow. Then the temperature is directly read from the instrument.

2. Thermograph
This tool records air temperature continuously on graphing paper during a
period in a given area. I t uses digital infrared imaging to record slight changes
in temperature.

Sigma II Remote One Point Thermograph. Sato, Accessed on June 15, 2020 .
https://www.sksato.co.jp/modules/shop/product_info.php?cPath=24_34&products_id=30
8&language=english

Usage tips: A record of temperatures over a period is recorded in the generated graph.
By examining the graph, fluctuations in atmospheric temperature can be detected.

For measuring atmospheric pressure

Barometers can tell if a good or bad weather is on the way. Low pressure reading
is indicative of a foul weather while high pressure reading is a sign that the
weather will be fair.

1. Mercurial Barometer
 In a mercurial barometer, the atmospheric pressure balances
the mercury column, the height of which can be measured
precisely. Corrections and adjustments are made for
temperature expansion of the instrument, gravity and latitude
in order to obtain accurate measurements. Millibars,
millimeters or inches of mercury are the units of
measurements of pressure readings.

Muller, Alfred. Mercurial Barometer, Meteorologische Instrumente

KG., Accessed June 15, 2020. http://www.rfuess-mueller.de/111
0E.pdf

Usage tips: Read the pressure from the height of the mercury. Mercury is used, and
not water because mercury is denser than water. This tool is calibrated upon receipt
to make it appropriate for use in a given altitude of a place.

2. Aneroid B arometer
A sealed box (blue, sometimes called an
aneroid cell) is built around an aneroid
barometer, which expands or contracts
with increasing pressure . As it moves, it
pulls or pushes a spring and a system of
levers, moving a pointer up or down the
dial yellow .
 Barometer - Barometer Atmospheric Pressure Measurement Atmosphere Of Earth.
FAVPNG, Accessed June 15, 2020.
https://favpng.com/png_view/barometerbarometer-atmospheric-pressure-
measurement-atmosphere-of-earth-png/yGZ71JM9

Usage tips: Prior to reading, tap first the glass lightly, but firmly, to ensure that the
linkage mechanism is not sticking. Your barometer will most likely be marked in tens
of hectopascals (990, 1000, 1010 etc.) with further graduations given for each
hectopascal, which enable it to be read reasonably easily to the nearest half
hectopascal. (1000 hectopascals= 750.1 mm).

3. Barograph
A barograph is a recording barometer.
A barograph is a barometer that
records the barometric pressure over
time in the form of a graph. The pen
point which traces the pressure curve
on the paper is made to move up or
down by a series of levers attached in tandem to aneroid cells (metallic
boxes).

Meteoclima Barograph. Boat Books Australia, Accessed June 15, 2020.

https://www.boatbooks-aust.com.au/product/meteoclima-barograph/

Usage tips: Rotate the knob so that the barograph arm moves up and down against
the drum until the tip of your barograph pen rests on your chart at the correct
pressure reading.

For measuring atmospheric relative humidity

1. Sling Psychometer

A dry and wet -bulb thermometer is

made of the sling psychrometer. The
term bulb refers to the portion of the
glass tube that contains mercury. In
building the dry and the wet bulbs are
exactly the same .

Dew point is the temperature at which

the water vapor condenses while the
relative humidity is the ratio of the

amount of water vapor actually present in the air to
the maximum amount of water vapor that the air
at a given temperature can hold.
General Tools SP100FM Sling
Psychrometer, 20/120F Pocket Sling
Mercury Filled. John Morris Group,
Accessed June 15, 2020.
https://www.johnmorrisgroup.com/
AU/Product/133924/General-Tools-
SP100FM-Sling-
Psychrometer,20120F-Pocket-Sling-
Mercury-Filled

Usage tips: The weather observer first wets the cloth cladding the wet-bulb, whirls the
psychrometer a few times, then reads the wet-bulb. He reads the dry-bulb last.
Normally, the wet-bulb's reading will be lower than the dry-bulb. The dry-bulb
reading is the air temperature. The difference between the dry and the wet-bulb
readings will give, with the aid of a psychrometric table, the dew point temperature
and the relative humidity.

2. Hygrometer
This system uses an organic material (normally human hair) that
expands and contracts as a result of the humidity around. This change
can be made to move an indicator needle that moves across a scale, with
graduations ranging from 0 to 100%.

Wood, David. What does a

hygrometer measure. Sciencing.
Updated April 24, 2017, Accessed
June 15, 2020.
https://sciencing.com/what
-does
hygrometer -measure-4909583.html

Usage tips: The mechanical sensors inside the hygrometer move the needle along the
gauge, so it points at the proper level of relative humidity.

For measuring precipitation

1. 8-inch Rain Gauge

An 8-inch rain gauge, so-called because the collector's inner diameter is
exactly 8 inches above a funnel which leads rain into a cylindrical
measuring tube or receiver. The collector's volume is 10 times that of the
measuring tube. As a result, the actual precipitation depth is increased ten
times when collected in a smaller measuring tube.
 8-inch Rain Gauge. Pierce College
Weather Station, Accessed June 15,
2020.
http://piercecollegeweather.com/ins
truments/8-inch-rain-gauge/

Usage tips: To measure the amount of rainfall accumulated in the measuring tube,
a thin measuring stick with the magnified scale printed on its face is used. The
precisely dimensioned measuring tube has a capacity representative of only 2 inches
(50.8 millimeters) on flat level ground. Rainfall beyond this amount spills into the
overflow can but can be easily measured by pouring it into the measuring tube for
total rainfall.

2. Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge By capturing a small volume of water in

one of two small buckets, the tipping bucket gauges act. Once the rain
is caught, the tips of the bucket are empty. This tip is recorded and
precipitation volumes and rates are transmitted as the number of tips
and the rate at which they occurred.
 Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge. Darrera, Accessed June 15, 2020.

https://www.darrera.com/wp/en/product/hd2013-tipping-bucket-rain-
gauge/

Usage tips: Rainfall character is decided by the total amount of rain that has fallen in
a set period (usually 1 hour) and by counting the number of pulses clicks in a
10minute period the observer can decide the character of the rain. Algorithms may be
applied to the data as a method of correcting the data for high-intensity rainfall.

For monitoring clouds:

1. Ceiling Light Projector

A projector with ceiling light project a small beam of light vertically onto
a cloud foundation. The cloud base height is determined by using a
clinometer positioned at a known distance from the projector to
calculate the elevation angle contained on the cloud by the illuminated
spot, the measurement, and the projector.

Ceiling Light Projector. Weather Instruments, Accessed June 15,

2020.
http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/learning-tools/weatherinstrum
ents

2. Ceiling Balloon
This is another way of finding the height of the cloud base. A ceiling balloon is a
meteorological balloon whose rate of rise has been predetermined. It is lighter
filled with gas than air, usually hydrogen, and released. The release time is
recorded, and the time the balloon disappears into the cloud.
 The time difference multiplied by the rate of ascent will give the height of the
cloud base, that is speed=d/t, hence distance or height=t x s) where s=speed,
d= distance and t is time.

Weather balloon. New World Climate. Published May 7, 2015. Accessed June 15,
2020. http://www.nwclimate.org/guides/meteorological-instrumentation/

Special Instruments

1. Pilot Balloon/ Theodolite

A Pilot Balloon is a weather balloon lighter than air filled with gas. When
used in conjunction with a theodolite the pilot balloon is used to determine
wind speed and direction at different atmospheric levels.
Theodolite is similar to a transit made by an engineer. It consists of a
sighting telescope mounted in such a way that it is free to rotate around a
horizontal and vertical axis and has graduated scales so that the rotation
angles may be measured while tracking the pilot balloon.
Douglas, Michael, et. al. Underutilized observations for studying tropical climate variations:
the historical pilot balloon database. National Severe Storms Laboratory/NOAA, Cooperative
Institute for MesoscaleMeteorological Studies, Weather Decision Technologies.

2. Radiosonde
The radiosonde is an airborne instrument used in
the upper air for measuring sound, temperature,
and relative humidity. A meteorological
balloon inflated with hydrogen takes the instrument
up aloft.

Vaisala Radiosonde RS92-SGP. Vaisala, Published 2015, Accessed June 15, 2020.
https://www.vaisala.com/sites/default/files/documents/Vaisala%20Radiosonde%20RS9
2%20Users%20Guide_M210295EN-J.pdf

3. Rawindsonde
The rawindsonde is an electronic tool used aloft to determine wind speed,
strain, temperature, and humidity. It is also attached to a balloon and, as
it rises through the atmosphere, it measures the required.
 4. Wind Finding Radar
Through radar echoes it determines the speed and direction of winds aloft.
A radar target is attached to a balloon and it is this target that the ground
radar tracks. A receiver measures the bearing and the interval time of the
echoes.

WF2 Wind Finding Radar. Australian Government, Bureau of Meteorology, Accessed June
15, 2020. http://www.bom.gov.au/qld/longreach/images/LR6.jpg

5. Wind Surveillance Radar

A Weather Surveillance Radar is of the long range type that detects
and tracks typhoons and cloud masses 400 kilometers or less away.
This radar has a rotating antenna disk preferably mounted from any
physical obstruction on top of a building. The radar is a useful
instrument for monitoring and tracking tropical cyclones.
De Guzman, Rodolfo P. Doppler Radar and Synoptic Station in Iloilo. DOST.gov.ph, Published February
26, 2016, Accessed June 15, 2020. http://www.dost.gov.ph/knowledge-resources/news/45-
2016news/920-doppler-radar-and-synoptic-station-in-iloilo.html

Fire  

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a flammable material accompanied by

the  production of light and heat. The discovery of fire has brought
significant  advancements to people and industries. Aside from being used as
an external source 

5 
CO_Q2_DRRR12_Module4 
of heat and light, it is also used as a power source. Natural fires of low
intensity may  benefit the environment and restore ecological balance
through the removal of pests  and plants that compete with other species for
nutrients. 

Elements of Fire and stages of fire development 

   
Fire is composed of three elements,  
namely heat, fuel, and oxygen. These three  
elements form the fire triangle as seen in  
Figure 2. A fire starts when fuel is heated  
from an external source and reaches its  
ignition temperature. Oxygen reacts with  
the fuel to sustain the fire. Once fire has  
started, it will continue to burn until an  
e 2. Fire triangle Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_triangle

Figure 3 shows the four stages of fire development. It is during the

incipient  stage where ignition occurs. The fire has just started and has not
yet affected a large  area. It may produce a small flame and some smoke but
the heat of the fire produced  is still low. It would be best to extinguish the
fire at this stage while it is still small.  
Causes of fires 
Many fires start due to negligence such as leaving the stove
unattended or by  not organizing the storage cabinet. The things that we find
useful in our homes such  as paper, paint, cooking oil, and electrical
appliances can ignite and burn easily. The  following are common causes of
fire: 

1. Faulty electrical wiring or connection  2. LPG-related  

3. Neglected cooking or stove  
4. Lighted cigarette butts 
5. Left unattended open flame: torch or  sulo 
6. Left unattended open flame: candle  or gasera 
7. Matchstick or lighter kept near  flammable materials 
8. Direct flame contact or static  electricity  
9. Neglected electrical appliances or  devices  
10. Unchecked electrical types of  machinery 
11. Flammable chemicals  
12. Incendiary device or ignited  flammable liquid  
13. Spontaneous combustion 
14. Under planned pyrotechnics 
15. Bomb explosion  
16. Lightning  
17. Others (forest fire, vehicular fire,  etc. 

Flammable materials could also ignite on their own in an event

referred to as  spontaneous combustion. This happens when an object
produces its own heat  without absorbing heat from its surroundings. When
it reaches a temperature  enough for ignition, it will start a fire by itself.
Everyone should be mindful of  materials that are prone to spontaneous
combustion such as spilled oil, oily rags,  paper, dried leaves or hay. It is
better to store them in well-ventilated areas or  outdoors to prevent ignition
and to easily dissipate the heat. 

Precautionary and safety measures  

Uncontrolled fires, whether natural or man-made, may lead to injury,
death,  loss of livelihood, and damage to property with its toxic fumes and
high temperature. A person may die of asphyxiation as fire consumes oxygen
and the concentration of  carbon monoxide and other toxic gases increase.
Furthermore, the heat from a  hostile fire is far from any temperature that a
person is normally exposed to. This  can cause extreme pain, severe burns,
and other casualties. Fire may result in black  and impenetrable smoke that
may sting the eyes and block one’s vision. Once a  person is caught in a fire,
it would be difficult, if not impossible to escape the area.  With this, people
must participate in fire drills to be knowledgeable of the fire escape  plans.
Buildings and infrastructures should have a well-planned evacuation plan 
showing multiple escape routes to increase the chances of survival during a
fire. 
Moreover, one should be aware of the precautionary and safety measures for
fire.  These include the following: 

1. Never leave a fire unattended. Whether it is a stovetop, a candle, or a

bonfire,  it is never safe to leave an open flame. If you need to leave, make
sure to put  the fire out.

7 
CO_Q2_DRRR12_Module4 
2. Always check the electrical equipment. A faulty appliance or electrical
cord  can easily malfunction and ignite. Similarly, an overloaded electrical
socket or  extension cords can heat up and ignite due to the overuse of
electricity. Electrical wiring should be regularly checked to make sure
there is nothing  wrong with the system. 

3. Keep a good distance between things that can catch fire. Declutter the 
area and make sure that anything that can cause ignition and serve as
fuel is distant from each other.  
 4. Educate children and adults about fire safety. Curious children may 
accidentally set anything on fire. It is best to keep flammable materials
stored  in areas that are out of reach for them. Teach them about the
dangers of fire  and how it can be prevented.  

5. Store flammable materials properly. When fuels are exposed to ignition, 

they will easily catch and spread the fire. Always label them and keep
them  from any heat source. Be careful when using them. Wipeout any
spills in the  working space as they can easily be forgotten and may cause
a fire. Make sure  there are no sources of ignition around the area. 

6. Keep a fire extinguisher of a bucket of sand handy. Before using any 

flammable material, be prepared with materials that can put out the fire
in  case it occurs. Have a wet cloth, a source of water, or a fire
extinguisher in  strategic places that everyone knows and is easy to reach.
Learn how to use a  fire extinguisher. Pull the pin located at the handle
then aim its nozzle at the  base of the fire. Slowly squeeze the lever while
sweeping it from side to side.  The PASS acronym for using fire
extinguishers means to pull, aim, squeeze, 
and sweep. 

7. Install fire alarms and smoke detectors. These instruments alert

everyone  and signal them to escape when they can and before the fire
becomes bigger. 
8. Know what to do in case of fire. Participate in fire drills. Be aware of the

exit  points of your house, school, or workplace. Educate yourself and

the people  around you about what to do in case a fire breaks out. 

9. Develop a fire preparedness plan. A fire preparedness plan is a floorplan 

containing the possible sources of fire and a guide on what a person can
do  in the event of a fire incident. It gives us an idea of how one can save
himself  in case of a fire in their homes, workplace, and in school. It
presents the  location of the fire exits that people can pass through to
immediately evacuate  the area. It should also show the location of fire
assembly points, designated  safe areas where people can go in case of a
fire. 

The key to preventing fires from occurring is to make sure that the
elements  of the fire triangle do not come together. Prevent ignition by
making sure that  flammable materials do not heat up and reach the ignition
temperature. Fuel sources  should be kept away from ignition sources. In
case a fire breaks out, smother it to  eliminate the source of oxygen.

Basic Response Procedures

1. Get out of the building. Gases in smoke can disorient an adult in under a minute.
2. Don’t assume that anyone else has already called the fire department. If you get a chance
to call, do so.

3. Calling your friends & family may not be of immediate help. It can wait. Call them once
you are safe.

4. Stay calm when you call the fire department. Give the information they a request like
precise floor no, street, landmarks, the intensity of the fire.

In your Workplace/School when you notice a fire:

1. Sound the fire alarm. SHOUT “FIRE! FIRE! FIRE!”

2. Evacuate as per normal fire procedure.

3. Leave the building immediately. Use the nearest fire exit.

4. Do not use elevators. Always use emergency stairs.

5. Walk quickly but don’t run. ALWAYS STAY CALM.

6. Do not delay your exit trying to collect your belongings.

7. Assemble at the fire evacuation area and report to fire officers.

8. Do not go home. Rescuers need to ensure that all occupants are safely out

of the building & are accounted for.

9. Do not return inside the building until told to do so.

If you are stuck in a room & there is a fire outside the door:

1. Feel the door with the back of your hand (more nerve endings, more sensitive to touch).
If the door feels warm to the touch, DO NOT attempt to open it. Stay in the room.

2. Stuff the cracks around the door with wet towels, rugs, bedding, and cover vents to keep
smoke out. Fire is attracted to oxygen & room, not on fire has more oxygen than a room on
fire.

3. Call BFP and tell them exactly where you are located. Do this even if you can see BFP
on the street below.
4. Wait at a window and signal for help with a flashlight or by waving a bright cloth.

5. If possible, open the window at the top and bottom, but do not break it, you may need to
close the window if smoke rushes in.
If your clothes catch on fire use STOP DROP & ROLL TECHNIQUE
1. DO NOT RUN. It will spread the fire across your body.
2. Stop where you are, drop to the ground & roll back and forth
3. Spread across flat on the ground. DO NOT curl up.
4. Roll from your back to your front repeatedly till the fire is squashed.
5. After the flames are extinguished, get up & remove the clothing.
6. Burnt clothing can burn you. This is no time to be shy. If you have to
remove all clothes, just get naked.

THE R.A.C.E. ACRONYM AND FIRE EXTINGUISHER USE

If you are involved in a fire, remember R.A.C.E. to help you respond safely and
correctly:
R = RESCUE anyone in immediate danger from the fire if it will not
endanger your life.
A = ALARM: sound the alarm by calling the emergency hotline in your area
and activating a pull station alarm box.
C = CONFINE the fire by closing all doors and windows
E = EXTINGUISH the fire with a fire extinguisher or EVACUATE the area if
the fire is too large for a fire extinguisher.

PROPER USE OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS (P.A.S.S.)

To use fire extinguishers correctly, remember the P.A.S.S. acronym:
P = PULL the pin on the fire extinguisher
A = AIM the extinguisher nozzle at the base of the fire
S = SQUEEZE or press the handle
S = SWEEP from side to side until the fire appears to be out.

A fire emergency evacuation plan (FEEP) is a written document that includes

the action to be taken by all staff in the event of a fire and the arrangements for
calling the fire brigade.
Fire safety and evacuation plans
Your plan must show how you have:
1. A clear passageway to all escape routes.
2. Clearly marked escape routes that are as short and direct as possible.
3. Enough exits and routes for all people to escape.
4. Emergency doors that open easily.
5. Emergency lighting where needed.
6. Training for all to know the evacuation plan and how to use the escape
routes.
7. A safe meeting point for everyone.