GSV 313: ELECTRONICS

FOR GEOINFORMATICS
AND SURVEYING.

LECTURE NOTE
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Have you ever thought about the importance of electronics in our daily life? The electronic
devices and their usages have influenced our daily life in such a way that it is impossible to
spend even a few hours without them. Right from the beginning of the day till the time we go
to bed, we use a large number of electronic gadgets to simplify our work and to solve our
problems. From small alarm watches to the complex computers, from mobile to the
camcorders, from kitchen to toilet, from bedroom to office, everywhere electronic items can be
seen. It seems that they are omnipresent.

Why have we become so dependent on electronics?

The answer is very simple. They simplify our daily activities and lifestyle. Let us take mobile
phone as an example. It has changed the definition of communication. In the beginning of the
history of telephone system, no one would have imagined a combination of 'talking and
walking.' The invention of mobile phones has made talking while walking possible.
CD drives, DVD players, record players, stereos and tape recorders are the result of the
advancement in electronic technology in the last few decades. With the use of headphones,
music can be heard without disturbing the people nearby.

The introduction of electronic technology in cameras has completely changed the history of
photography. A digital camera is now available at an affordable price. The cell phones now
include a fairly sophisticated digital camera that can capture still pictures and even video
pictures. The videos and pictures can be easily transferred to a computer, where they can be
saved, shared on internet or printed out in hard form. Such pictures taken from a camera can
be edited, cropped, enhanced or enlarged easily with the help of electronics.

Even our kitchens are equipped with electronic equipment, from water coolers to microwave
ovens. Doctors and scientists have found new uses of electronic systems in the diagnosis and
treatment of various diseases. Equipment such as MRI, CT and the X-rays rely on electronics in
order to do their work quickly and accurately.

Surveyors have also found advancement in their profession as a result of advancement in

technology. Years ago, Surveyors depended on tapes, chains, e.t.c. in carrying out survey
operations which made their work slow and tedious with limited accuracy. But because of
advancement in electronic technology, they carry out their operations with portable, accurate
and user friendly higher accuracy equipments.
1.1 Definition of Electronics & its application:

The electronic equipment has several electronic components like resistors, inductors,
capacitors, diodes, transistors, integrated circuits (ICs), etc. The components like diodes,
transistors and ICs are made up of semiconductor materials. The working of these components
is based on the amount and direction of current flowing through them.

The word electronics means - 'pertaining to electrons'. Electronics can be defined as the branch
of science and engineering which deals with the controlled flow of electrons through vacuum,
gas or semiconductors. The control of electrons flow is accomplished by devices that resist,
carry, select, steer, switch, store, manipulate, and exploit the electron.

1.2 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONICS:

Electronics play an important role in almost every sphere of our life. Electronics has penetrated
in every field from an ordinary wrist watch to super computers; from telephone repeaters
buried deep under sea to the satellites far out in space; from the control of modern household
appliances to the control of super tankers carrying cargo across the sea.
1. Communication and Entertainment
The progress of a nation depends upon the availability of cheaper and faster means of
communication. The main application of electronics in the beginning was in the field of
telephony and telegraphy. This utilizes pair of wires as communication channel. Later it was
possible to transmit any message from one place to another without wires (wireless
communication). Satellite communication has reduced the distance between people and
places.
Radio and TV broadcasting provide a means of both communication as well as entertainment.
Electronic gadgets like tape recorders, music and video players, stereo systems, public address
systems, etc. are widely used for entertainment.

2. Applications in Defense sector

In a war, success or defeat of a nation depends on the reliability of its communication system.
In modern warfare, communication is almost entirely electronic. Guided missiles are completely
controlled by electronic circuits.
One of the most important developments during World War II was the RADAR (Radio
Amplification Detection and Ranging). By using RADAR it is possible not only to detect, but also
to find the exact location of the enemy aircraft. The anti-aircraft guns can then be accurately
directed to shoot down the aircraft. In fact the RADAR and anti-aircraft guns can be linked by an
automatic control system to make a complete unit.

3. Instrumentation
Instrumentation plays a very important role in any industry and research organization, for
precise measurement of various quantities. Very accurate and user-friendly instruments like
total station, DGPS, digital voltmeter (DVM), cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO), frequency counter,
signal generator, strain gauge, pH-meter, spectrum analyzers, etc. are some of the electronic
equipment without which no research laboratory is complete.

4. Medical Electronics
Electronic equipments are being used extensively in medical field. They not only assist in
diagnosis but also help in the researches that provide treatment and cure for illnesses and even
genetic anomalies. Examples are Electron microscope, ECG, EEG, X -rays, defibrillator,
oscilloscopes, MRI, CT scanner, etc.

5. Applications in Industries
Use of automatic control systems in different industries is increasing day by day. The thickness,
quality and weight of a material can be easily controlled by electronic circuits. Electronic circuits
are used to control the operations of automatic door openers, lighting systems, power systems,
safety devices, etc.
Use of computer has made the ticket reservations in railways and airways simple and
convenient.
Even the power stations, which generate thousands of megawatts of electricity, are controlled
by electronic circuits.

6. Applications in Automobiles
Several electronic equipments are used in cars for charging battery, enabling power assisting
functions, measuring gauges and monitoring and controlling the engine performance. The most
important application is electronic ignition, which provides better timing of the ignition spark,
especially at high speeds.
Automobile industry is one of the fastest growing sectors in the world. The end users are
demanding greater fuel efficiency, security and safety. This is possible because of the rapid
development in the technology. Other areas of application in automobile are parking sensors,
auto wipers, auto lights, safety e.g. Air bags, security, anti-theft systems, etc.

7. Consumer Electronics
We use fans in our home, class rooms, library, etc. You are familiar with the electronic
regulators used with them. Have you ever thought of the mechanism behind that? Here we use
an electronic component known as TRIAC to control the speed of the fan. The speed of the fan
is directly proportional to the electric power reaching the motor. The regulator controls the
speed by controlling the electric power. The regulator controls electric power according to the
position of the knob. Special electronic components like Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) are
used in the speed-control of motors, power rectifiers and inverters.
Home appliances are used 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. It includes personal computers,
telephones, audio equipment, televisions, calculators, washing machines, DVD players, etc.

1.3 HISTORY OF ELECTRONICS

2.0 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT AND THEIR SYMBOLIZATION

A circuit built on a printed circuit board (PCB).

An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors,

transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through
which electric current can flow.

Circuits can be constructed of discrete components connected by individual pieces of wire, but
today it is much more common to create interconnections by photolithographic techniques on
a laminated substrate (a printed circuit board or PCB) and solder the components to these
interconnections to create a finished circuit. In an integrated circuit or IC, the components and
interconnections are formed on the same substrate, typically a semiconductor such as silicon or
(less commonly) gallium arsenide. . However, a circuit is complete only if it starts and ends at
the same point, forming a loop.

The Elements of an Electronic Circuit

The complexity and the number of components in an electronic circuit may change depending
on its application. However, the simplest circuit consists of three elements, including a
conducting path, a voltage source, and a load.

1: Conducting Path - The electric current flows through the conducting path. Though copper
wires are used in simple circuits, they are rapidly being replaced by conductive traces.
Conductive traces are nothing but copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
They are often used in small and complex circuits such as Printed Circuit Boards (PCB).

2: Voltage Source - The primary function of a circuit is to allow electric current to pass through
it safely. So, the first key element is the voltage source. It is a two-terminal device such as a
battery, generators or power systems that provide a potential difference (voltage) between two
points in the circuit so that current can flow through it.

3: Load - A load is an element in the circuit that consumes power to perform a particular
function. A light bulb is the simplest load. Complex circuits, however, have different loads such
as resistors, capacitors, and transistors.

Electronic symbol

An electronic symbol is a pictogram used to represent various electrical and electronic devices
or functions, such as wires, batteries, resistors, and transistors, in a schematic diagram of an
electrical or electronic circuit. These symbols are largely standardized internationally today, but
may vary from country to country, or engineering discipline, based on traditional conventions.

Wires

A wire is a two terminal, single and flexible material that allows the flow of power through it.
These are mainly used to connect the power supplies to the PCB (Printed Circuit Board) and in
between the components. The different types of wires will be as:

Wires: A single wire with two terminals will pass the current from one component to another.
Wires Jointed: When two or more wires are connected with each other that is called as wires
jointed. The joining or shorted of wires at one point is indicates the “blob”.
Wires not Jointed: In complex circuit diagrams, some wires may not connect with others, in this
case, bridging is commonly utilized.

Power Supplies
A Power supply/ power supply unit is an electronic device, that supplies electric energy to an
electrical load. The flow of an electric current will be measured in terms of Watts. The function
of the power supply is in conversion of energy from one form to another according to
requirement. The various types of power supplies are:
Power Supplies
Cell circuit: Supplies electrical energy from larger terminal (+) positive sign.

Battery circuit: A Battery is two or more cells. The function of a battery circuit is the same as
cell circuit.

DC circuit symbol: Direct current (DC) always flows in one direction.

AC circuit symbol: AC (Alternating Current) flows periodically reverses direction.

Fuse circuit: The fuse will flow sufficient current and it is used to provide over current
protection.

Current source: It will supply current to the circuit elements.

Voltage source: This supplies voltage to the circuit elements.

Solar cell: Converts light energy into electrical energy.

Transformer: Used to produce AC power supply.

AC voltage source: It will supply the AC voltage to the circuit elements.

Controlled voltage source: It generates controlled voltage to the circuit elements.
Controlled current source: It generates controlled current to the circuit elements.
Resistors

Resistor: This is a two terminal component that restricts the flow of current.

Rheostat: Two terminal components that is used to adjust the flow of current.

Potentiometer: Potentiometer is a three-terminal component that will adjust the voltage flow
in circuit.

Preset: Preset is a low-cost adjustable resistor that operates by using small tools like
Screwdrivers.

Capacitors

Capacitor: A capacitor is used to store the energy in electrical form.

Polarized capacitor: Stores electrical energy these must be a one way round.
Variable capacitor: These capacitors are used to control the capacitance by adjusting the Knob.
Trimmer capacitor: These capacitors are used to control the capacitance by using Screwdriver
or similar tools.
3.0 BASIC ELECTRICAL TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND FUNCTIONS:

I) Current and frequency:

Current

Current is the flow of electrical charge carriers like electrons. Current flows from negative to
positive points. The SI unit for measuring electric current is the ampere (A). One ampere of
current is defined as one coulomb of electrical charge moving past a unique point in a second.
Electric current is widely used in household and industrial appliances.

There are two types of electric current:

 Alternating current
 Direct current

In alternating current, the flow of current reverses its direction periodically. Alternating current
in a circuit is represented by the sine wave. Direct current, unlike alternating current, flows in
the same direction continuously. An example of direct current would be the current provided
by a battery. In order to calculate the current flow through a conductor, Ohm’s law is used.
According to Ohm’s law, the current through a conductor between two given points is also
directly proportional to the potential difference between the points. The constant used in the
proportionality is called resistance and the mathematical equation is I =V/R.

Electric current produces heating and magnetic effects. When current passes through a
conductor, there is some heat generation due to ohmic loss in the conductor. This property is
put to use for creating light in incandescent light bulbs. The stronger the current, the higher
would be intensity of the magnetic field. Electric current is measured with the help of an
ammeter.

Frequency

For an oscillating or varying current, frequency is the number of complete cycles per second in
alternating current direction. The standard unit of frequency is the hertz, abbreviated Hz. If a
current completes one cycle per second, then the frequency is 1 Hz; 60 cycles per second
equals 60 Hz. Larger units of frequency include:

 The kilohertz (kHz) representing thousands (1,000's) of cycles per second;

 The megahertz (MHz) representing millions (1,000,000's) of cycles per second;
 The gigahertz (GHz) representing billions (1,000,000,000's) of cycles per second.
 The terahertz (THz) is used; 1 THz = 1,000,000,000,000 cycles per second.

Computer clock speed is generally specified in megahertz and, more recently, in gigahertz.
 II) Oscillators:
An oscillator is a circuit which produces a continuous, repeated, alternating waveform without
any input. Oscillators basically convert unidirectional current flow from a direct current source
into an alternating waveform which is of the desired frequency, as decided by its circuit
components. The oscillator converts the direct current from the power supply to an alternating
current and they are used in many of the electronic devices. The signals used in the oscillators
are a sine wave and the square wave. Some of the examples are the signals broadcasted by the
radio and television transmitter, clocks which are used in the computers and in the video
games.
Oscillators are important in many different types of electronic equipment. For example, a
quartz watch uses a quartz oscillator to keep track of what time it is. An AM radio transmitter
uses an oscillator to create the carrier wave for the station, and an AM radio receiver uses a
special form of oscillator called a resonator to tune in a station. There are also oscillators in
computers.

III) Mixers and Multipliers:

Frequency translation is essential to communications and other electronic systems, and can be
achieved in a number of ways with or without an additional signal source.
Many applications translate frequencies higher or lower in various ways, such as via frequency
mixers, frequency multipliers, and frequency dividers. These components take different
approaches to transform the frequencies of signals and their modulation content from their
inputs to their outputs.

The main functional difference between the components involve how frequency conversion is
achieved: A frequency mixer requires a second input signal, adding and subtracting the two
signals to achieve a desired result. On the other hand, a frequency multiplier or divider works
with the first input signal alone, extracting the final result from harmonic or sub-harmonic
signal components. Frequency mixers and multipliers/dividers both rely on the nonlinear
behavior of semiconductors, such as diodes and transistors, to translate frequencies from input
to output ports.

Translation to higher frequencies can also be achieved by means of frequency multipliers.

IV) Rectifiers & Filters

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (which periodically reverses
direction) to direct current (which flows in only one direction). The process is known as
rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current. Physically, rectifiers take a number
of forms, including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, stacks of copper and selenium
oxide plates, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based
semiconductor switches.
The need for a rectifier is to provide continuous voltage (DC Voltage) required to run almost all
electronic devices and circuits.
An electrical filter is a circuit which can be designed to modify, reshape or reject all the
undesired frequencies of an electrical signal and pass only the desired signals.

In other words we can say that an electrical filter is usually a frequency selective network that
passes a specified band of frequencies and blocks signals of frequencies outside this band.
Electronic filters are used to prevent certain electronic frequencies from passing from one
region of an electronic circuit to another region of that circuit. Electronic filters generally
perform one of three functions: allowing certain electrical frequencies to pass through the
filter, blocking certain frequencies from passing through the filter and completely blocking
direct current electrical energy.

Classification of Filters
Depending on the type of element used in their construction, filters are classified into two
types, such as:

1. Passive Filters: A passive filter is built with passive components such as resistors,
capacitors and inductors.
2. Active Filters: An active filter makes use of active elements such as transistors, op-amps
in addition to resistor and capacitors.

According to the operating frequency range, the filters may be classified as audio frequency
(AF) or radio frequency (RF) filters. Filters may also be classified as:

1. Low Pass Filter: The low pass filter only allows low frequency signals from 0 Hz to its
cut-off frequency to pass while blocking any higher frequency signals.
2. High Pass Filter: The high pass filter only allows high frequency signals from its cut-off
frequency and higher to infinity to pass through while blocking those any lower.
3. Band Pass Filter: The band pass filter allows signals falling within a certain frequency
band set up between two points to pass through while blocking both the lower and
higher frequencies either side of this frequency band.
4. Band Stop Filter: The band stop filter blocks signals falling within a certain frequency
band set up between two points while allowing both the lower and higher frequencies
either side of this frequency band.

The above can be summarized as:

 Low pass - lets low frequencies pass but blocks high frequencies.
 High pass - lets high frequencies pass but blocks low frequencies.
 Band pass - blocks high and low frequencies but passes middle frequencies.
 Band stop- passes high and low frequencies but blocks middle frequencies.

In the field of electronics, there are many practical applications of filters. Examples include:
  Radio communications: Filters enable radio receivers to only "see" the desired signal
while rejecting all other signals (assuming that the other signals have different
frequency content).
 DC power supplies: Filters are used to eliminate undesired high frequencies (i.e., noise)
that are present on AC input lines. Additionally, filters are used on a power supply's
output to reduce ripple.
 Audio electronics: A crossover network is a network of filters used to channel low-
frequency audio to woofers, mid-range frequencies to midrange speakers, and high-
frequency sounds to tweeters.
 Analog-to-digital conversion: Filters are placed in front of an ADC input to minimize
aliasing.

V) Electronic amplifier

An electronic amplifier is a device for increasing the power of a signal. It does this by taking
power from a power supply and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with
larger amplitude. An idealized amplifier can be said to be "a piece of wire with gain", as the
output is an exact replica of the input, but larger.

Most of the electronic systems require at least one stage of amplification. Hence amplifiers can
be seen in almost all the electronic devices. Amplifiers are the devices that increase the
amplitude of the input signal.

The output of the power supply is modulated by the Amplifier. Amplifiers increase only the
amplitude and the other parameters such as frequency and shape remain constant.

There are many types of amplifiers available. But they can be distinguished by the type of signal
they amplify and the type of function they perform.

There are three categories of amplifiers depending on the property of their output.

1. Voltage Amplifiers: These are most common amplifiers used in the electronic devices. These
amplifiers increase the amplitude of the output voltage of the signal.
2. Current Amplifiers: These amplifiers increases the amplitude of the input current compared
to the input current waveform.

3. Power Amplifiers: The purpose of the power amplifiers is to increase the power i.e. the
product of output voltage and current is greater than the product of input voltage and current.

Either the voltage or current at the output may be less than the input, the overall voltage or
current product will be greater than the input. When an AC signal is applied to the amplifier,
only a part of it is amplified.
 VI) Electronic Vibrator

In electronics before the development of switch-mode power supplies and the introduction of
semiconductor devices operating off low voltage, there was a requirement to generate voltages
of about 50 to 250V DC from vehicle batteries. Electromechanical components known as
vibrators were used in a circuit similar to modern solid state inverter circuits to provide a
pulsating DC which could be converted to a higher voltage with a transformer, rectified, and
filtered to create higher-voltage DC. This "vibrator" is essentially a relay using normally closed
contacts to supply power to the relay coil, thus immediately breaking the connection, only to be
reconnected very quickly through the normally closed contacts. It happens so rapidly it vibrates,
and sounds like a buzzer. This same rapidly pulsing contact applies the rising and falling DC
voltage to the transformer which can step it up to a higher voltage.

The primary use for this type of circuit was to operate vacuum tube radios in vehicles, but it
also saw use with other mobile electronic devices with a 6 or 12V accumulator, especially in
places with no mains electricity supply such as farms. These vibrator power supplies became
popular in the 1940s, replacing more bulky motor-generator systems for the generation of AC
voltages for such applications. Vacuum tubes require plate voltages ranging from about 45 volts
to 250 volts in electronic devices such as radios. For portable radios, hearing aids and similar
equipment, batteries were manufactured with various voltage ratings. In order to provide the
necessary voltage for a radio from the typical 6 or 12 volt DC supply available in a car or from a
farm lighting battery, it was necessary to convert the steady DC supply to a pulsating DC and
use a transformer to increase the voltage.

Vibrators generate a certain amount of audible noise (a constant buzzing sound) while in
operation, which could potentially be heard by passengers in the car while the radio was on. To
help contain this sound within the vibrator's enclosure, the inside surface of the can was often
lined with a thick sound-deadening material, such as foam rubber. Since vibrators were typically
plugged into sockets mounted directly on the radio chassis, the vibration could potentially be
mechanically coupled to the chassis, causing it to act as a sounding-board for the noise. To
prevent this, the sound-deadening lining inside the can was sometimes made thick enough to
support the vibrator's components by friction alone. The components were then connected to
the plug pins by flexible wires, to further isolate the vibration from the plug.