PV Systems in Warm and Sunny Climates: Performance Assessment of

Commercially Available Solar Photovoltaic Technologies under

Different Climatic Conditions in the Brazilian Energy Mix
Lucas Rafael do Nascimento, Marília Braga, Ruany Dolla, Rafael Antunes Campos and Ricardo Rüther
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC), Campus Universitário Trindade, Caixa Postal 476,
Florianópolis – SC, 88040-900, Brazil

Abstract — The performance assessment of seven different, penetration and is part of the strategic planning of the national
commercially-available PV technologies was carried out at eight electricity sector in Brazil.
different climates in Brazil. The eight identical, fully-monitored 70
kWp photovoltaic Evaluation Sites (ESs) have all electrical and II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND METHODOLOGY
environmental parameters measured at one-second intervals. The
R&D project, funded by twelve Brazilian Electric Utilities in the Eight identical fully-monitored 70 kWp PV Evaluation Sites
scope of the Brazilian National Regulatory Agency’s R&D (ESs), each using seven different, commercially-available PV
Program, aims at providing performance information for Utilities technologies (single- and multi-crystalline silicon, two-axis-
to make informed decisions on which PV technology to adopt in
the forthcoming utility-scale solar energy auctions taking place in tracking 820 suns concentrated PV, and the thin-film PV
Brazil. The PV technologies evaluated are: thin-film amorphous technologies CdTe, CIGS, a-Si and a-Si/μc-Si), were installed
silicon (a-Si), microcrystalline silicon (a-Si/μc-Si), cadmium in different regions of Brazil between 2013 and 2014. Fig. 1
telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), and shows the map of Brazil and the location of the eight ESs, while
bulk mono and multi-crystalline silicon (c-Si and m-Si), all at Fig. 2 shows an aerial view of one of the eight ES. The only
fixed, latitude tilt, as well as double-axis tracking, concentrated PV
(CPV) using InGap/GaAs/Ge at 820 suns concentration. difference between the eight ESs is the module tilt angle for the
Index Terms — cloud enhancement, PV performance, utility- fixed-tilt arrays at each site, which is equal to the local latitude
scale solar, O&M, PID. in each case. The ESs are constantly monitored, with irradiance,
temperature (ambient and back-of-module) and electrical
I. INTRODUCTION parameters measured and logged at one-second intervals. High-
quality, research-grade and state-of-the-art irradiance, electrical
With the declining costs of photovoltaics (PV), and the parameters and temperature measurement devices and
excellent solar energy resource availability in the country, the dataloggers were used. A more detailed description of the eight
Brazilian government and the electricity sector have started to locations, the experimental set up and equipment specifications
evaluate and consider PV as a serious potential contributor to were presented elsewhere [3].
the national electricity mix. Since the late 1990’s, Brazilian
electrical utilities are required by the National Electrical Energy
Regulatory Agency (ANEEL) to invest 1% of their operational
income on R&D. In 2011, ANEEL issued an R&D call
dedicated to utility-scale PV. The solar energy research group
at the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
(www.fotovoltaica.ufsc.br) has been actively investigating and
promoting PV in Brazil, and operates since 1997 the first grid-
connected, thin-film PV generator in the country [1]-[2].
This paper shows the results of this utility-scale R&D project
with the PV assessment of six fixed, flat-plate PV technologies,
as well as double-axis tracking concentrated PV (CPV)
installed at eight different sites, with distinct Brazilian climatic
conditions. The results also present some of the peculiarities
observed during the continuous and high-temporal-resolution
monitoring of PV generators at all these warm and sunny sites.
Cloud-edge and cloud-enhancement effects of solar irradiance
resulted in operational issues that were not previously described
in the literature. This information is of great scientific and Fig. 1. General location in the Brazilian territory of the eight
economic interest as the PV technology increases its identical R&D ESs, located between 3°S and 28°S, each with 70 kWp
of PV installed power evenly distributed among seven different
commercially-available PV technologies.

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 Measuring environmental and operational PV electrical TABLE I
parameters at the individual PV string level, and at one-second TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF MAXIMUM POWER POINT FOR
time resolution at all these sites leads to very large amounts of THE PV MODULE TECHNOLOGIES USED IN THIS STUDY, SORTED
data, which have to be verified and qualified every day. This FROM LOWEST TO HIGHEST.
high time-resolution was chosen in order to enable the detection
and evaluation of fast-changing environmental conditions 

(particularly irradiance, which was measured with Kipp and 
Zonen SMP11 pyranometers and IMT reference cells), and 

their influence on the response and performance of PV devices 
operating in a utility-scale PV power plant environment. The  
decision of measuring all parameters at the one-second time  
resolution was made in the context of our previous experience  
with solar irradiance variations in a sunbelt region, in contrast
 
with that in higher latitude climates [4]-[6], and the effects of a
larger fraction of solar energy availability at higher irradiances  
on PV generator inverter sizing [7]-[9].  

TABLE II
IRRADIANCE-WEIGHTED BACK-OF-MODULE TEMPERATURE
AVERAGE OF THE SIX FIXED PV MODULE TECHNOLOGIES AT
EACH OF THE EIGHT ESS DURING THE ANALYZED PERIOD.

 

Fig. 2. Aerial view of one of the eight identical R&D ESs, with 70
kWp of PV using seven different commercially-available PV
technologies.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: PV PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT
In a warm and sunny environment, temperature is the main
cause of energy losses in a PV system. Table I shows the
temperature coefficient of maximum power point for the PV
module technologies used in this study and Table II presents the
irradiance-weighted back-of-module average temperature of
the six fixed PV module technologies at each of the eight ESs
during the analyzed period.
The AC Performance Ratio (PR) assessment of the PV
technologies installed in the ESs is presented in Fig. 3. The
analyzed period includes only simultaneous valid data for all
the PV technologies on each ES; this is the reason why some
sites have only a few months of available data.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
For the presented data it can be observed that the thin-film a-
Si technology resulted in a superior PR than the other
technologies for most of the ESs. This behavior is due to the
lower temperature coefficient of this technology, which results
in good performance in warm climates [10]. A bluer spectral
content of sunlight in the region might also have been beneficial
for these blue-biased PV devices. The analyzed period was after
stabilization of the Staebler-Wronski effect (SWE), which
affects the output performance of thin-film a-Si PV modules
strongly during the first year of outdoor operation and stabilizes
after some 1000 kWh/m2 of sunlight exposure [11].
For c-Si and m-Si technologies, a good performance is
observed in most of the ESs, with both technologies presenting
very similar PR. However, a few ESs have presented a marked
discrepancy between the two technologies. Field evaluations
revealed intense PID degradation in coastal areas with high
relative temperate and humidity at such sites. Fig. 4 shows the
effect of PID in two p-type multicrystalline silicon strings from
the Capivari de Baixo ES (28°S, 49°W), located on the coast of
southern Brazil.

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Fig. 3. AC Performance Ratio (PR) of the PV technologies installed
at the eight ESs in different climates in Brazil.
Fig. 4 (a) shows the mapping of the two strings: string M
outlined in blue, and string P outlined in orange, with 13 and 16
modules, respectively. In the image, modules in green belong
to the positive end of the string, while modules in red belong to
the negative end. Fig. 4 (b) shows the electroluminescence (EL)
images made for the same two strings. Finally, Fig. 4 (c) shows
the measured power relative to the healthiest module on the
string, obtained from individually measured I-V curves. The
modules marked in black on images (a) and (c), and shaded and
outlined in red on image (b), are modules that were blown away
from the metallic structure during an extreme meteorological
event that hit the region on October 16th, 2016 with strong
winds (up to 200 km/h gusts), prior to the EL imaging and the
measuring of the modules I-V curves. Many modules were
severely damaged, but not all of them could be replaced, and
therefore were put back on the structure but not connected back
to the strings they belonged to, hence should be disregarded in
this analysis. In Fig. 4 (b), it can be easily seen that the modules
located towards the negative end of the strings present more
darkened cells on the EL image and, therefore, presented a
lower peak power when measured with the I-V curve tracer, as
seen in Fig. 4 (c).
Fig. 5 shows the individually measured I-V curves for each
of the modules on the two strings shown in Fig. 4. A reduction
in shunt resistance can be seen, as well as a decrease in Voc,
reflecting the junction to be less capable of separating holes and
electrons [12].
For the a-Si/μc-Si and CIGS technologies, a slight negative
discrepancy between the measured power and the power
declared by the manufacturer was observed at the
commissioning of these technologies.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4. PID effect on two p-type multicrystalline strings from the
Capivari de Baixo ES (28°S, 49°W), located on the coast of Southern
Brazil. (a) Shows the mapping of the two strings connected to
independent MPPT channels: string M (outlined in blue, with 13
modules) and string P (outlined in orange, with 16 modules), with
positive modules in green and negative modules in red. (b) Shows the
EL images made for all the m-Si modules within the two strings. (c)
Shows the measured power, obtained using an I-V curve tracer,
relative to the healthiest module on the string. The modules shaded in
red and black in the pictures are modules that were damaged and were
thus disregarded in the study.
For the CdTe technology, important advances have been
made by the manufacturer First Solar since the installation of
these systems [13], and the output characteristics of Series 2
modules installed at our eight ESs were considerably improved
in the current Series 4 product. AC performance ratios 2-3%
higher than multicrystalline silicon have been reported in the
literature for Northern Brazil in a similar R&D project using
CdTe Series 3 modules from the same manufacturer [14].
At the end of the project, all installed double-axis tracking
concentrated PV (CPV) were inoperative or intermittent. In
view of the faced problems, it was not possible to assess the
long-term evaluation of this PV technology. Despite the state of
maturity of CPV systems, until the deployment of this project
(2013-2016) no such system had been installed in Brazil. The
equipment was supplied by the company for the first time to the
Southern hemisphere, which required changes in system
control and hardware, which were not sufficient for the
acceptable operation of the systems.
A detailed energy loss analysis was also carried out through
simulations regarding the Itiquira ES (17°S, 54°W), using PV
sizing software PVsyst 6.72 with default parameters values,
with exception of soiling losses, which were assessed on site
through the measurement of I-V curves before and after
cleaning the PV modules. The simulation was performed using
on-site measured GHI (secondary standard pyranometer) and
ambient temperature. The total measured loss and the simulated
losses are presented in Fig. 6 and in Table III a summary of the
results obtained in this part of the study is shown.
0105

(a)
(b)
Fig. 5. Individually measured I-V curves for each of the PV
modules on the two strings shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 6 (a) displays the I-V
curves measured for the modules on string M, while Fig. 6 (b) displays
the same for string P.
Measured losses were calculated using the Performance
Ratios for each technology in this specific ES using GTI data
measured with secondary standard pyranometers, and energy
data obtained through high-quality, research-grade energy
meters.
Fig. 6. Measured loss (left bars in orange) and simulated losses
(stacked bars on the right) for the Itiquira ES (17°S, 54°W).
Most of the differences between simulation and measured
results, as presented, are a consequence of PID problems,
marked initial degradation and not necessarily only due to
simulation uncertainties.
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TABLE III
SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR MEASURED LOSSES AND TOTAL
SIMULATED LOSSES FOR THE ITIQUIRA ES (17°S, 54°W).
  

  
   
   
   
   
   
   
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS: OVERIRRADIANCE EVENTS
The highest irradiance measurement reported in the literature
so far was 1891 W/m2 [15], measured at a 1829 m altitude site
in Colorado - USA. The highest irradiance peak measured in
Brazil (Itiquira ES 17°S, 54°W), at 522 m altitude, and where
large-scale PV power plants are currently being installed, was
1823 W/m². While this extreme overirradiance event only
lasted a few seconds, other overirradiance events lasting several
minutes have also been recorded, as detailed in Table IV, and
which can lead to deleterious consequences to the operation and
maintenance of PV power plants, as will be further discussed.
Overirradiance events can only be detected if solar irradiance is
measured at a high time resolution with high-quality, fast
pyranometers, and the suspicion is that such events might go
unnoticed in many other low-latitude sites throughout the
globe.
When overloaded, inverters limit the output power to
nominal power. This is done by the inverter’s MPPT
(Maximum Power Point Tracking) increasing the DC voltage
from maximum power point voltage towards open circuit
voltage. Assuming this inverter strategy and considering that
most of utility-scale projects use undersized inverters, one
might be lead to the conclusion that, in the occurrence of an
overirradiance event, inverters will sweep MPPT and all the
strings will operate with a higher voltage and a lower string
current than during normal MPPT operation. However, infield
measurements in this R&D project support what has already
been suggested in the literature: overirradiance events have
only a small spatial footprint, because of their direct
dependence on the suncloud edge-surface geometry [15]. This
implies that depending on cloud geometry, inverter maximum
power and Inverter Loading Ratio (ILR), during an
overirradiance event part of the array could be operating with
currents proportional to overirradiance magnitudes, while the
other part of the array could be in the cloud shadows, resulting
in an instantaneous inverter output power below inverter
nominal power. In this case, the inverter will not limit the
output power using the strategy described above, which will
0106
result in high currents, which associated with high fuse averaged data, however, prevents the better assessment of ILR
operating temperatures might cause string fuses to blow. losses. In Fig. 7, a cloudy day’s global horizontal irradiance
measured at one-second (blue and orange spiky curve) and 10-
TABLE IV minute averages (light-orange shadow smooth curve) at the
OVERIRRADIANCE EVENTS AND EVENT DURATION FOR Cachoeira Dourada ES (18°S, 49°W) are presented. Averaging
IRRADIANCE PEAKS AT OR ABOVE THE EXTRATERRESTRIAL one-second measurements at 10-minute intervals hides
IRRADIANCE OF 1367 W/M2 REGISTERED IN BRAZIL (ITIQUIRA valuable information on irradiance peaks, and leads to
ES 17°S, 54°W) BETWEEN JANUARY 2015 AND MARCH 2017. misleading conclusions on ILR losses and the true irradiation
resource availability at a particular site.
  
 
  
    

   


   


   


   


   


Typically, technical specifications provided by PV module

manufacturers include information on the “maximum series
fuse rating”, and designing a PV array with a fuse rated above
this maximum value will lead to voiding the PV module
warranty. At most sites where PV plants in Brazil will operate,
ambient temperatures and irradiation levels are high, and the
string boxes where the above-mentioned fuses are installed can
reach temperatures higher than 70°C [16], as has been routinely
measured throughout this project. Fuse maximum currents are
usually rated at 20°C operating temperatures, and at 70°C the
typical derating factor is 0.7. This fact, associated with
overirradiance values in excess of 1.4 to 1.6 suns for time spans
in the minute-range, will result in conditions that will lead to
the blowing of even slow-blow or time-delay fuses, if they are
designed as per the PV module manufacturer’s maximum series
fuse rating specifications.
No previous reports of such a combination of effects has
been found in the literature. Based on these findings, it can be
foreseen that a number of such events might take place in many
of the large-scale PV power plants being installed in Brazil
since 2017. It is therefore recommended that PV module
manufacturers reassess their maximum series fuse ratings in the
light of this information, and utility-scale projects could size
string boxes in a manner to keep fuses from reaching such high
temperatures.
In Brazil, current guidelines require that a minimum of one-
year irradiance measurements in 10 minutes averaging intervals
should be presented for a PV power plant to be eligible for the
regulated market energy auctions. These requirements are made
so that site-adaptation techniques between long term satellite-
derived data and ground measured solar radiation can be
performed, aiming at the reduction of the uncertainty on the
energy production estimation [17]-[18]. This 10-minute
Fig. 7. One-second instant (blue and orange spiky curve) and 10-
minute averages (light-orange shadow smooth curve – Brazilian PV
power plant standard data acquisition resolution) solar irradiance
measurements at the Cachoeira Dourada ES (18°S, 49°W). The high
irradiance peaks tend to disappear when data is averaged at 10-minute
intervals.
However, the use of one-second time resolution leads to very
large amounts of data and requires high-performance
computing. Data averaging of one minute is suggested to be an
optimum resolution without requiring further improvements in
computational capacity.
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this work, the performance assessment of seven different
PV technologies for utility-scale applications in eight warm and
sunny sites in Brazil has been described and evaluated on a
long-term project. The results presented in this paper give a
concise overview of the main aspects (cloud-enhancement
effects, blowing fuses, PID, simulation uncertainties) that will
have to be considered as utility-scale PV power plants start to
emerge in large amounts in warm and sunny countries.
The results also present the performance assessment of the
PV technologies installed at each ES. Thin-film PV
technologies with a low temperature coefficient of power
presented superior output performance. Mono- and multi-
crystalline revealed intense PID degradation in coastal areas
with high temperature and relative humidity. Extreme
overirradiance events (which lasted from seconds to several
minutes) were measured and shown, and it can be speculated
that high time resolution irradiance measurements in many
sunny sites with considerable cloud movement will reveal this
aspect to be a common feature at such sites.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [14] M. Braga, R. A. Campos, L. R. D. Nascimento, E. M. Santos and
R. Rüther, “Avaliação de desempenho de diferentes tecnologias
The authors wish to acknowledge with thanks the Brazilian fotovoltaicas em Irecê, BA.” in VII Congresso Brasileiro de
Electrical Energy Regulatory Agency ANEEL, as well as Energia Solar, 2018. Anais. Gramado - SC, 2018.v.p.
ENGIE Brasil Energia and the 11 other cooperating Electrical [15] C. A. Gueymard, “Cloud and albedo enhancement impacts on
solar irradiance using high-frequency measurements from
Utility companies involved in project PE-0403-0027/2011 for thermopile and photodiode radiometers. Part 1: Impacts on global
sponsoring this project. horizontal irradiance.” Solar Energy. v.153, p.755-765, 2017.
L. Nascimento acknowledges the Brazilian Post-Graduate [16] R. Rüther, L. R. D. Nascimento and R. A. Campos, “Performance
council CAPES for a doctoral scholarship. assessment issues in utility-scale photovoltaics in warm and
sunny climates,” Renew. Energy Environ. Sustain, v.2, p.35,
2017.
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