POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Felix V. Garde, Jr.

Institute of Computing and Engineering

March 22, 2017

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Objective

Our objective in this topic is to develop a formula that enables

us to express functions as infinite polynomials.

Question: How much error would be incurred if we truncate

those polynomials to make them finite.

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Series of Constant Terms

An infinite sequence of numbers is a function whose domain

is the set of integers ≥ to some integer n0

Domain: 1 2 3 ...n...
Range: 3 6 9 . . . 3n . . .

Series of n terms is defined as

u1 + u2 + u3 + · · · + un

Example:
• 1+3+6
• π + 2π + 3π

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Series of Constant Terms

Arithmetic series
is formed by adding a fixed amount to the preceding term.

1 + 2 + 3 + ···

Harmonic series
∞
1 1 1 X1
1 + + + ··· + + ··· =
2 3 n n=1
n

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Series of Constant Terms

Geometric series
each term bears a constant ratio to the preceding term.
∞
1 1 1 1 X 1
1 + + + · · · + n−1 + · · · =
2 4 8 2 n=1
2n−1

Alternating series
1 1 1 (−1)n−1
1− + − + ··· +
2 3 4 n

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Series of Constant Terms

Infinite Series
is in the form of
∞
X
u1 + u2 + u3 + · · · + un + · · · = un
n=0

Sum of an infinite series is the limit, if it exists, of the sum of

a finite number of terms, as the number of terms approaches
infinity,
S = lim SN
N→∞

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Convergence and Divergence

If the series has a sum S, i.e., if SN approaches a limit when

N → ∞, the series is said to be convergent. If the limit does
not exist, the series is divergent.

Tests for Convergence

• Comparison test
• Integral test
• Ratio test
• Root test

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Example
Write out the first five terms of each series.
∞
X (−1)n+1
1.
n=1
n2
∞
X 2n2 − 5n + 6
2.
n=1
6n!
∞
X 1 − (−1)n
3.
n=1
n2 + 1
4. Show that the given series are identical
∞ ∞
X xn X xn
and 1 + x +
n=0
n! n=2
n!

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Ratio Test

Test for convergence

 
 un+1 
• If lim   < 1, the series converges
n→∞ un 
 
 un+1 
• If lim   > 1, the series diverges
n→∞ un 
 
 un+1 
• If lim   = 1, test fails
n→∞ un 

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Alternating Series Test

The series
∞
X
(−1)n+1 un = u1 − u2 + u3 − u4 + · · ·
n=1

converges if all of the three conditions are satisfied:

• The un 0 s are all positive.
• If un ≥ un+1 for all n ≥ N, for some integer N,
• If un → 0.

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

How to Test a Power Series for Convergence

Step 1. Use the Ratio Test to find the interval of convergence.

|x − a| < R or a−R <x <a+R

Step 2. If the interval of absolute convergence is finite, test for

convergence or divergence at each endpoint.
Step 3. If the interval of absolute convergence is
a − R < x < a + R, the series diverges for |x − a| > R.

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Example: Test for Convergence

∞
X (−1)n
1.
n=0
2n!
∞
X (n − 2)(n + 3)
2.
n=1
2 · 4 · 6 · · · (2n)
∞
X (−1)n−1 (2n + 1)!
3.
n=1
n!
∞
X 1 · 4 · 7 · · · (3n + 1)
4.
n=1
n5

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Example: Interval of convergence

Determine the interval of convergence and test the series at

the endpoints of the interval.
∞ n
n−1 x
X
1. (−1)
n=0
n
∞
X x 2n−1
2. (−1)n−1
n=1
2n − 1
∞
X xn
3.
n=1
n!

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Power Series

Definition
Power series about x = 0 is a series in the form of
∞
X
cn x n = c0 + c1 x) + c2 x 2 + · · · + cn x n + · · ·
n=0

Definition
Power series about x = a is a series in the form of
∞
X
cn (x −a)n = c0 +c1 (x −a)+c2 (x −a)2 +· · · cn (x −a)n +· · ·
n=0

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Operations with Power Series

Power series centered at a is in the form of

∞
X
2
c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a) + · · · = cn (x − a)n
n=0

Addition
∞
X ∞
X
f (x) = an x n , g (x) = bn x n
n=0 n=0

then,
∞
X
f (x) + g (x) = (an + bn )x n
n=0

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Operations with Power Series
Multiplication
∞
X ∞
X
n
f (x) = an x , g (x) = bn x n
n=0 n=0

then,

f (x)g (x) = a0 b0 +(a0 b1 +a1 b0 )x +(a0 b2 +a1 b1 +a2 b0 )x 2 +· · ·

Division
∞
X ∞
X
n
f (x) = an x , g (x) = bn x n
n=0 n=0

then,
f (x)
g (x)
Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION
Operations with Power Series

Differentiation
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n + · · ·
then,
f 0 (x) = a1 x + 2a2 x + · · · + nan x n−1 + · · ·

Integration
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n + · · ·
then,

a1 x 2 a2 x 3 an x n+1
Z
f (x)dx = C + a0 x + + + ··· + + ···
2 3 n+1

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Taylor Series

Let f (x),

f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · · + cn (x − a)n + · · ·

be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout some

interval containing a as an interior point. The Taylor series
at x = a is
f 00 (a) f (n) (a)
f (x) = f (a)+f 0 (a)(x−a)+ (x−a)2 +· · ·+ (x−a)n +· · ·
2! n!
or,
∞
X f (n) (a)
f(x) = (x − a)n
n=0
n!

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION

Maclaurin Series

For f (x),

f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + · · · + cn x n + · · ·

The Maclaurin Series is (x=0)

f 00 (0) 2 f (n) (0) n

f (x) = f (0) + f 0 (0)x + x + ··· + x + ···
2! n!
or,
∞
X f (n) (0)
f(x) = xn
n=0
n!

Felix V. Garde, Jr. POWER SERIES SOLUTION