WEAR

Wear 185 (1995) 3546

Analysis of sliding behaviour for fretting loadings: determination of

transition criteria
S. Fouvry *, Ph. Kapsa, L. Vincent
&de Centrale de Lyon URA 855 et (IRA447, BP 163,69131 Ecully, France

Received 26 July 1994; accepted 15 December 1994

Abstract

The determination of the sliding transition is of primary importance in describing the loading conditions in a contact. Various damages
have been observed depending on the sliding regime. Assuming Mindlin hypotheses, an analysis for an elastic ball on flat contact submitted
to a constant normal force and a varying tangential force is made. Both the energy and the sliding ratio are studied in order to quantify the
fretting behaviour. They present a theoretical constant at the transition but their experimental determination is dependent on the tangential
accommodation of the testing apparatus. Nevertheless, by combining the two former variables it is possible to deduce a system free criterion.
This analysis is completed by considering the discontinuity of the transition through differential calculations. Finally an expression of the
boundary between the partial and gross slip is given to describe the transition in fretting maps (RUM). These theoretical results are compared
with experiments obtained for two different tribo-systems HSS-Cr-steel and HSS-TiN (5 ~m)-Cr-steel and various loading conditions.
Good correlation is observed between theoretical and experimental results if the tangential accommodation of the apparatus is taken into
account.

Keywords: Fretting; Sliding transition criteria; Partial slip; Gross slip

1. Introduction of the degradation is often due to the presence of oxide debris

Fretting damage is often the origin of catastrophic failures
or loss of functionality in many industrial applications. Con-
sidered as a plague for modern industry, fretting is encoun-
tered in all quasi-static loadings submitted to vibration and
thus concerns many industrial branches. Specifically, fret-
ting-fatigue damage was reported by Hoeppner [ I] to occur
in parts found in helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft, trains, ships,
automotives, trucks and buses, farm machinery, engines, con-
struction equipment, orthopaedic implants, artificial hearts,
rocket motor cases, wire ropes, etc.
Fretting is now fully identified as a small amplitude oscil-
latory motion which induces a harmonic tangential force
between two solid surfaces in contact. It is related to three
main loadings, i.e. fretting-wear, fretting-fatigue and fretting-
corrosion [ 21. In the case of fretting-wear, the movement is
the result of external vibrations applied to surfaces not sub-
mitted to imposed displacement. The relative displacement
between the two contact surfaces is a consequence of the
fatigue loading of one of the two parts. In the case of fretting-
fatigue, the term fretting-corrosion is used because the nature
* Corresponding author.
or to a predominant chemical reaction. Corrosion has been
shown to be a consequence of mechanical damage in many
cases.
Waterhouse’s synthesis [ 3,4] gave experimental and the-
oretical evidence of the specificities of fretting behaviours.
The main parameters were reported to be amplitude displace-
ment, normal load, frequency, surface roughness and mor-
phology, and residual stresses. More recently fretting has
been discussed using the third-body concept and using the
means of the velocity accommodation mechanisms intro-
duced by Godet et al. [ 5-71. This approach focuses on the
role of the third body material which separates the two first
bodies rubbing through its load carrying capacity. A fretting
problem is defined from the triplet “mechanisms-first bod-
ies-third body” [ 81.
The initial material effect is noted as a specific degradation
which then modifies the contact nature and especially the
velocity accommodation mechanism. This first response
obviously depends on the velocity accommodation mecha-
nism in the two first bodies and on the amplitude of the strain
and stress fields. Depending on the critical values of the first
bodies (stress yield, elongation to rupture, fatigue limit, etc.),

0043-1648/95/$09.50 0 1995 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved

SSD10043-1648(94)06582-9
36 S. Fouvry et al. /Wear
these fields induce the first degradations which in turn modify
the accommodation mechanisms and so on.
During a fretting test, it is important to record the tangential
force variation vs. the instantaneous displacement for every
cycle. Results can be discussed from the analysis of the max-
imum tangential force Ft and of the ratio Ft,,,,/F,. The evo-
lution of the tangential force vs. the displacement during the
test is given by friction logs or Ft-D-N curves [ 9 1. Each
cycle is characterised by a specific shape. Three shapes have
been identified: closed, elliptic or quasi-rectangular. They are
related to the three fretting conditions, i.e. respectively the
so-called stick, partial slip and gross slip conditions. An accu-
rate definition of these three conditions is difficult as pure
sticking does not exist while partial slip as defined by Mindlin
[ lo] begins a gross slip condition. The material (surface and
bulk) contributes to the nature of the regime and physical
chemistry appears to be a main approach used to justify its
establishment.
Fretting regimes were first mapped by Vingsbo et al. [ 111.
In a similar way, three fretting regimes will be considered
here:
(1) the stick regime is defined from F-D cycles remaining
closed to a coarse damage initiation characterised by a
decrease in the contact stiffness or in the F-D initial
slope. It is a non dissipating regime;
(2) the slip regime is characterised by cycles that remain
quasi-rectangular but for which possible strong varia-
tions of the maximum tangential load can be obtained
at the end of each cycle (friction coefficient) ;
(3) a mixed regime is a fretting regime characterised by a
complex shape for the friction log. Closed, quasi-rec-
tangular and very often elliptic cycles are noted during
one and the same testing. The elliptic cycle generally
appears after some time.
Three main responses of the bulk materials (first bodies)
have been identified using optical microscope analyses of
contact cross-sections [ 121. These are either the absence of
damage (notation ND) or wear induced by fretting (WIF) -
particle detachment, and cracking induced by fretting (CIF) .
In the case of WIF, the material failed due to overstraining.
Whether the applied deformation is higher or lower than the
elongation to failure, the process appears to be time depend-
ent. Brittle materials such as ceramics or highly cold drawn
steel wires generate debris as early as the very first strokes.
Other more ductile materials suffer cyclic plastic deformation
which induces a phase transformation decreasing ductility to
such low values that debris then form. Here the surfaces are
considered to be a moving target. That is to say that the critical
characteristics which justify the damage appearance vary
throughout the fretting testing. This plastic fatigue phenom-
enon can develop up to the creation of a new micro structure
called tribologically transformed structures (ITS) [ 131.
Cracking mechanisms appeared to be very complex. Two
main evolutions of cracks were noted:
185 (1995) 3546
- the fretting crack stopped and a large particle could detach
due to the joining of two cracks nucleated at each side of
the contact (in the moving direction) ;
- the fretting crack propagated but the direction strongly
changed.
Cracks induced by fretting can be responsible for strong
limitations in the durability of industrial parts.
Describing fretting damage through WIF or CIF requires
the development of two tools. The first one introduced by
Vingsbo et al. [ 111 was called a fretting map as it locates the
three fretting conditions for several test parameters such as
normal force, displacement amplitude and frequency.
Recently, Vincent et al. [ 141 proposed to distinguish running
condition fretting maps (RCFM) which describe the fretting
regimes characteristic of the test throughout its whole dura-
tion using the material response which takes into account the
bulk material properties (material response fretting map or
MRFM). The RCFMs are plotted from the analysis of the
friction log while the MRFMs require the metallographic
observations of cross-sectioned specimens.
From numerous fretting tests performed on coated or
uncoated metallic alloys [ 121, polymers [ 151 or fibre rein-
forced polymers [ 161, the mixed regime of RCFMs was
shown to be the most detrimental for cracking. The cracking
domain of the MRFM first appears in the mixed domain of
the corresponding RCFM. The mixed regime was made up
of initial gross slip followed by partial slip conditions after a
few hundred cycles. Obviously the partial slip transition
develops the highest stress levels which can induce fatigue
crack nucleation depending on the fatigue properties of the
two contacting first bodies. Therefore prediction of the fron-
tier between partial slip and gross slip is required.
This paper proposes several criteria to determine the tran-
sition between partial slip and gross slip. A theoretical expres-
sion of the transition depending on the applied normal force
and the tangential displacement will be introduced in order
to plot fretting maps. All the relations exposed in the present
paper obey the restrictive conditions exposed by Mindlin
[ lo]. A ball on flat contact will be considered with a constant
normal force P and a varying tangential force Q. All the
relations were written using Johnson’s notation [ 17 1. The
theoretical approach is compared to experimental results
obtained using the fretting device developed at the Ecole
Centrale de Lyon [ 9) . The materials of the two counter bodies
were hardened steels, uncoated or coated with a 5.5 pm Bal-
zers triode ion-plating TIN layer (Tables 1 and 2) [ 181.
Table 1
Mechanical properties of the two substrates and the coating (TiN)
Mechanical properties HSS Cr-steel TiN
Young modulus, E (GPa) 230 211 330
Poisson coefficient u 0.28 0.28
Yield stress, Ys (MPa) > 1500 1500
Hardness ( GPa) 8 7.4 27
Roughness, R, (cc.m) 0.04 0.02 0.04
 S. Fouvty et al. /Wear 185 (1995) 3546 37

Table 2
Chemical composition of two substrates

Chemical composition C% 0% MO% V W% Si%

HSS 1.2 4.2 5 3 6.4 -

Cr-steel 1 1.5 - _ _ 0.35

Normal force P was imposed in the range of 200-500 N,

displacement amplitude S* was l-l.5 pm, 5 Hz frequency
and a 12.7 mm Cr-steel ball radius was used as the counter
body. Loading conditions were selected to remain under her-
tzian elastic conditions. When the tangential force is
increased, plastic conditions can be reached on the sliding
borders.

2. Analysis of ball on flat contacts

2. I. Tangential force loading

Depending on the loading conditions, different sliding

behaviours are obtained.
Fig. 1, Sphere on plane contact with a constant normal force P and a variable
2.1.1. Quasi-elastic behaviour tangential force Q,
For a very small tangential force Q,, the micro-displace-
ment 8, observed between the two distant points T, and T2 The relation between 8, and the applied tangential force
in the undeformed region of each body (semi infinite condi- Q, is,
tions) can be associated with a linear function of Q,. This
elastic behaviour is related to the surface or contact tangential
(2)
compliance. Nevertheless, when a tangential load is imposed,
a sliding ring on the external part of the contact is observed.
with
For this type of loading the dissipated energy on the tiny
sliding area is very small. Thus the sliding behaviour can be
considered to be non dissipating.

2.1.2. Partial slip

For higher tangential forces that remain inferior to the gross
slip transition PP, the Q,-8, relation is no longer linear. The
extension of the sliding area toward the central part of the and
contact is observed. The contact is composed of a central l/3

stick area, surrounded by a sliding annulus (Fig. 1) [ 10,191.

A friction coefficient p is introduced. It can be defined as
p = ]]t]]/ ]Jn I] where n and t are respectively the normal and
a
:= (l-51 (5)

where R’ and E’ are defined respectively as the equivalent

the tangential components of the local stress at the interface
contact radius and the equivalent elastic modulus, i.e.
of the sliding area. The operator I] ]] corresponds to the cal-
culation module of the stress vector. The friction coefficient
is assumed to be constant over the entire sliding area (Amon-
ton’s principle). The tangential displacement for a ball-ball
contact was expressed by Mindlin [ lo] through the relation: 1
_=- 1 -V: 1- VZ
+-
E’ E, E2
(1)
The experimental values are reported in Table 3.
with: v,, u2, Poisson coefficients of the materials 1 and 2;
G,, G,, shear elastic modulus of the materials 1 and 2; a, 2. I .3. Gross slip
radius of the hertzian contact area; c, radius of the stick central For Q, = @, the entire contact is sliding. In this sliding
area. condition, the contact compliance tends to be infinite.
38 S. Fouwy ef al. / Weur 185 (1995) 35-46

Table 3
Mechanical parameters of two first bodies ( 1) HSS, (2) Cr-steel

El (GPa) & (GW G (GPa) G (GW R’ (mm) E’ (GPa)

230 211 159.7 146.5 12.7 119.4

2.2. Alternated tangential force loading
A similar description can be introduced for an alternated
tangential force. As before, different sliding behaviours can
be depicted depending on the amplitude of the tangential
force Q * . For these loading conditions, the applied tangential
force Q will be constricted in the interval [ - Q * , Q * 1. Thus
the sliding behaviour will depend on the level of Q * referring
to the limit value PP.
2.2.1. Partial slip
In this case, the tangential force amplitude Q * is inferior
to PP (Q < Erp = Q,).The evolution of Q =f( 6) describes
an elliptic shape i.e. an hysteresis loop (Fig. 2). Therefore,
depending on the loading situation, two displacements will
be observed for a same tangential force. Mindlin and Cattaneo
expressed the evolution of the displacement as a function of
the tangential force Q depending on the direction of the tan-
gential loading [ 10,191.
The displacement amplitude 6* and the tangential force
amplitude Q * can be connected by the relation:
** +q1-(l-PJ3] (8)
The area of the curve corresponds to the mechanical energy
dissipated during the cycle W,. Mindlin [ lo] expressed this
energy using an elliptic distribution of stress:
w = 24(~p)X
d [l-(1-@J3
5a
+(1+pg3)] (10)
It can easily be demonstrated that for QE [ -Q*, Q*]
and 8E [ - 6*, 6* ] and the reverse can also be obtained.
The expression can be simplified by introducing the following
variable
(11)
Several other variables can be introduced: the “total
energy” W, defined as the energy input by the system
(W,=46*Q*) (12)
and the elastic energy W, restored by the contact accommo-
dation. This elastic energy is determined by the difference
between the total energy and the dissipated energy,

w,=w,-w,j (13)
It can be noted that the displacement obtained for Q = 0 is
For a purely elastic behaviour, the elastic energy W, will
not zero but equal to 6( Q = 0) = 8,. Consequently the aper-
be equal to the total energy W,. For a purely dispersing system,
ture of the cycle defined by 8, can be obtained and is equal
i.e. no elastic accommodation, the dissipated energy W, will
to:
be equal to the total energy W,. This latter case can be illus-

so3.@[+_ &yl_$y3_l] (9)

trated by pin on disk loading conditions.

2.2.2. Gross slip

To extend the above results to gross slip conditions, an
tangential force energetic description of the fretting cycle was developed
Q (NJ (Fig. 3).
The hypotheses agree with:
“TQ* - Mindlin’s restrictive conditions;
- 6 * amplitude of displacement, with 6 * 2 8,;
- Q * amplitude of tangential force maintained constant and
independent of 6 * , i.e. Q * = Q, = pP (as a first approxi-
6* mation).
t
With regard to the description of the gross slip cycle, the
-4 4
total displacement (28 * ) can be expressed as the sum of the
partial slip displacement (26,) and of the total sliding com-
ponent (26,)) i.e.
6* = &+a, (14)
The dissipated energy W, corresponds to the sum of the
Wt energy dissipated during the partial slip accommodation W,,
Fig. 2. Representation of the various parameters characterising the fretting and the energy dissipated during the total sliding component
cycle under partial slip conditions, W,,. The relation
 S. Fouvry et al. /Wear I85 (1995) 3546 39

2.h 3. Transition criteria

b
2.& 2.6,
b- From this rapid description of the sliding behaviour, sev-
tangential force
QN eral criteria have been introduced that allow for a quantitative
determination of the transition between a partial and a gross
wd slip behaviour for alternated loadings.

we
3.1. The energy ratio
w,
The energy ratio A between the dissipated energy W, and
the total energy W, was introduced to normalise the energy
evolution as a function of the loading conditions. This vari-
able was first mentioned by Mohrbacher et al. in experimental
work [20]. An analytical expression is given to define a
transition criterion [ 211.
Under partial slip conditions, i.e. for Q * < pPO, this can
Fig. 3. Representation of the various parameters characterising the fretting be expressed by:
cycle under gross conditions.

(23)
Wd= Wd,+ Wd, (15)
is deduced with or

w,, = 4S,Q, (16) 6 I-y5’3 ( 1+ Y2’3)

A=~(1_~(1_y2~3)-(l-y213)
(24)
and determined
Considering the transition from partial slip to gross slip,
W, = W,, + 4agQ, (17)
the tangential force amplitude will be at least equal to /_L?‘.
This demonstration expresses the aperture of the cycle as Referring to Amonton’s principle, the coefficient of friction
a function of the transition aperture &, and the sliding ampli- can be kept constant in a first approximation. Thus at the
tude ag, transition, Y = 0 and a constant value for the energy ratio is
obtained: A, = 0.2. For A <A,, partial slip prevails.
8, = S,, + 6, (18)
The same approach was applied to detect transition in the
case of a gross slip condition, where
2.3. Conclusion
(25)
Partial slip corresponds to an elliptic Q =f( 8) loop shape,
which indicates that a stick area is maintained at the centre Introducing W, as the restored elastic energy during the
of the contact throughout the cycle. Gross slip corresponds cycle, W, is shown to be identical to the restored energy
to a partial slip observed at the beginning of the loading, during the partial slip accommodation (sliding is a purely
followed by a total sliding over the whole contact area. The dissipating phenomenon).
relation Q =f( S) thus describes a quadratic loop shape. Then
The value of 6 * , W, and W, obtained at the transition, i.e.
respectively S,, W,, and W,, can also be expressed as: we, = w,, - w,, (26)
and
(19)
W
A=l-2
(27)
w =4bP)‘K, 4Q,S*
lit (20)
5a
w =4bP)*fG 4Q,S * --) W,, and A = 1 - ( W,,/ W,,) =A, = 0.2 (28)
t, (21)
a
Therefore, A,= 0.2 was demonstrated to be the transition
and between partial slip and gross slip conditions whatever the
initial slip condition was. This constant is independent of the
w = 16(Pn2K1 material properties ( v,, v2, G1, G2), of the contact geometry
et (22)
5a (R’ ) and of the coefficient of friction (p).
40 S. Fouvry et al. /Wear 185 (1995) 35-46

3.2. The sliding ratio Table 4

Contact parameters for the uncoated system. Compliance C (pm daN-‘):
c, contact; r, recorded; s, system. Displacement amplitude S (pm): r,
The evolution of the aperture of fretting cycles was also recorded; t, transition.
used as a transition criterion. The sliding ratio was defined as
H.S.S-Cr-steel contact parameters

Normalforce, P (N) 200 300 400 500

C.O.F, fi (at the transition) 0.97 0.95 0.87 0.85
This variable was first introduced to analyze the sliding a, (pm) 252 288 317 342
behaviour under fretting conditions [ 221. As is the case for P” (MPa) 1507 I725 1898 2045
the energy ratio, it is possible to give an analytical expression C, (pm dab- ‘) 0.112 0.098 0.089 0.082
C’, (PmdaN’) 0.285 0.268 0.256 0.250
of this parameter and for partial slip conditions:
C,=C,-C,(~mdaN’) 0.173 0.170 0.167 0.168
l-((l+Y)/2)*‘3 S, (pm) (recorded) I 9.25 10.75 12.5
.+_, (30) S, = S,-C,@ (pm), experimental 3.6 4.4 4.9 5.4
l-P’3 value
S, (pm) theoretical value (Mindlin) 3.2 4.1 4.6 5.2
As can be seen with the energy ratio, this parameter appears
to be independent of the contact dimension (R * ) and of the
Table 5
mechanical properties of the tribopair. Considering the tran-
Contact parameters for the coated system: calculations were made without
sition between the two sliding conditions (i.e Y=O), D,
taking into account the mechanical properties of the coating (alh>45) (h,
reaches a constant value: thickness of the coating). Only the variations induced by the change in the
213 friction coefficient are considered
- 1 = 0.26 (31)
HSS-TiN-Cr-steel (thickness h = 5.5 pm)
Normal force, P (N) 200 300 400 500
In the same way, in the case of the gross slip condition D, alh 46 52 58 62
is shown to reach D, = 0.26 at the transition to partial slip and C.O.F, p (at the transition) 0.6 0.56 0.46 0.48
to reach 1 when 6* tends to infinity. C, (pm dab- ‘) 0.112 0.098 0.089 0.082
C, (pm dab- ‘) 0.256 0.22 0.228 0.204
C,=C,-C, (ymdah-‘) 0.144 0.122 0.139 0.122
S, ( wrn) (recorded) 4 4.6 5 5.8
4. Comparison with experimental results S, = S, - C,fiP ( gm) , experimental 2.3 2.6 2.4 2.8
value
S, (pm), theoretical value 2.0 2.4 2.4 2.9
Calculations of A and D require the determination of the
(Mindlin)
four experimental values 6 * , Q * , W,, and 8,. It must be
emphasised that calculations are only valid in cases of semi
infinite body conditions (Mindlin’s hypotheses). It is obvi- d6 d6 d6
-I=-+>
ous that experiments do not fulfil these conditions. The (34)
recorded displacement 8, depends on the tangential accom-
dQ dQ dQ
modation 6, of the testing device. Taking into account the The tangential force was not modified by the testing appa-
apparatus and the applied tangential force, an elastic behav- ratus. The recorded value Q, can be related to the contact
iour with a constant compliance C, was assumed. This com- force Q (Q = Q,).This hypothesis is validated considering
pliance was related to the elastic tangential accommodation the position of the tangential load sensor and the low test
of the system S,, i.e. frequencies.
Compliances for unloading conditions (i.e. decreasing of
8, = CsQ (32) the tangential force) are:
In order to compare the experimental results with the ana-
lytical formula expressed above, the influence of the testing
cG2!&25(ls&Q-‘” (35)
system must be eliminated (Tables 4 and 5). To obtain the
contact accommodation, the system accommodation 6, must
be subtracted from the recorded experimental displacement
8,.
dS,
S=S,-S,=S,-C,Q cs=~=c,=c,, (37)

i.e. with C, defined as the recorded compliance, C, as the contact

S,=S+C,Q
Deriving the latter expression
tangential force Q leads to
compliance, Q * as the experimental recorded amplitude of
(33)
the tangential force.
with regard to the recorded Considering the limit condition to be Q = Q * , the previous
relation is determined to be equal to
 S. Fouvty et al. /Wear 185 (1995) 35-46 41

tangential force fore, the dissipated energy recorded W, is equal to W,. The
Q (N)
experimental aperture, estimated for Q= 0, appears to be
independent of the system accommodation and gives 8, = S,
For partial slip, the only variable which needed to be cor-
rected to take into account the elastic compliance of the sys-
tem was the tangential displacement amplitude a*. Thus:

A=-_=-
w* Wd
(42)
10
recorded dis$acement 6, (pm) W, 4S*Q*

and

(43)
Fig. 4. Determination of the recorded tangential compliance for a fully stick
contact (i.e. Q = Q * and unloading condition). (with 6* =a*,-Q*C,).
For the gross slip condition and a constant value of Q,
during sliding, the recorded sliding amplitude 6, is not mod-
C,(Q*) =2 (38) ified by the system. Therefore, the only variable which must
be corrected is the transition amplitude 6,. This can be
(Mindlin [ IO] ) and deduced from the relation Eq. (4 1) .
The experimental results are obtained for a 300 N normal
A& force, with a 12.7 mm radius ball plane contact. They are
Cr(Q* >=z (39)
determined by progressively increasing the displacement
is measured for 8, = 6 * (Fig. 4). Then the system compliance amplitude. The values are plotted taking into account the
C, can be deduced as tangential compliance of the system [C, = 0.017 pm N- ‘1.

G=Cr(Q*)-G(Q*) (40) 6 ‘JT

0
To minimise the error of the measured value C,( Q * ), all $ 0.8.
the values were identified for small tangential forces (Q * )
(i.e. for quasi-stick behaviour) . In this case the contact com- 3 0.6 -
pliance is supposed to verify the Mindlin hypotheses no
roughness. Nevertheless the determination of the contact
compliance should take into account the effect of the asper-
ities. For elastic behaviour it was shown that an increase of
the roughness tends to increase the tangential accommodation 0 5 10 15
[ 231. Nevertheless this effect is reduced if the roughness is
displacement amplitude 6 * (Pm)
small compared to the contact dimensions (i.e. H.S.S-Cr-
Fig. 5. Evolution of the energy criterion A as a function of the displacement
steel R, = 0.04 pm, a > 250 pm). Moreover by integrating a
amplitude for a 300 N normal force HSS-Cr-steel ball contact. The transition
local approach it is necessary to introduce an elasto-plastic was experimentally defined by the shape of the fretting loops.
behaviour to determine the surface accommodation. The
comparison between the experimental results and the various
modellings should permit the investigation of the different
mechanisms involved in the contact accommodation.
The displacement amplitude at the transition 6, was
deduced after the determination of the tangential compliance:

8, = 8, - QG (41)

It can be compared with the Mindlin’s theoretical value

(Tables 4 and 5).
Thus experimental fretting curves (Q-s) were plotted and
compared with theory for a similar friction coefficient p and
similar applied tangential forces and geometries. The vali- 0 5 10 15
dation of the two transition criteria required the taking into displacement amplitude 6 * (pm)
account of the device compliance. Assuming an elastic behav- Fig. 6. Evolution of the energy criterion D as a function of the displacement
iour of the test system, the corresponding dissipated energy amplitude for a 300 N normal force HSS-Cr-steel ball contact. The transition
can easily be demonstrated to be zero for one cycle. There- was experimentally defined by the shape of the fretting loops.
42 S. Fouvry et ~1. / Wear 185 (1995) 3546

The two criteria A and D present a discontinuity between ’T

partial and gross slip (Figs. 5 and 6). The transition was m
observed for A, at very near to 0.2 between 0.19 and 0.23, 0 B,
‘G
whereas the sliding ratio D, was found at between 0.25 and E

0.29. The transition was experimentally confirmed by the

5
observation of the fretting loop shapes. b 0.5

5. Other transition criteria

5.1. System-free transition criterion (FTC) i

0 5 10 15
Even if the two ratios A and D appeared to be quite relevant displacement amplitude 6 I (pm)
to the characterisation of the transition from one regime to
Fig, 7. Evolution of the energy criterion D as a function of the displacement
another, computation required the determination of the sys- amplitude for a 300 N normal force HSS-Q-steel ball contact. The transition
tem compliance. Such evaluation implied the measurement was experimentally defined by the shape of the fretting loops.
of the C, slope. Thus, even if Mindlin’s restrictive conditions
were verified, dispersion was introduced by the determination it also permits a finer definition of the fretting loading con-
of the system compliance. Using the test apparatus described ditions imposed in the contact.
in [ 91, dispersion remained small. Four tests performed on
the same sample gave similar values for the tangential com- 5.2. Determination of the transition by differential
pliance of the system with a dispersion of less than 4% for calculations
the uncoated system.
Nevertheless, the determination of the transition would be The transitions between partial slip and gross slip can also
easier if a parameter independent of the system compliance be obtained using a derivation of the function Q =f( 6 * ) and
was introduced. Coupling the two previous criteria led to W,, = f( 6 * ) with regard to the displacement amplitude 6 * .
another criterion independent of the testing device. This sys- Two different expressions are introduced for each of these
tem-free criterion was introduced as B and defined as functions depending on the sliding condition. Demonstration
will only be given in the case of partial slip and for the force
B=-
Wd
(44) approach.
4Q*G
Evolution of Q * =f( 6 * ) as a function of 8 * is expressed
In the case of partial slip: as:

1-y5’3-~(1-Y)(l+Y2’3) Q* =e,(l-(l-Fr*) (47)

(45)
2((1+Y)/2)2’3-Yz’3-1
Thus
B presents a constant value at the transition (Q, = pP, and 112
Y=O), i.e.: (48)

B, = 0.77 (46) and

(with B,= A,/D,). The same approach was applied in the
case of gross slip. For 8, = 0, B reached the transition value (49)
B, = 0.77 while when Sp tends to the infinite, B will be equal
to one.
The experimental results indicate that even if the transition
corresponds to the B, value, a large experimental scattering
is observed (Fig. 7). This is mainly related to the cumulative
effect of the two variables 8, and W, recording dispersion. --_tOands+-cc
dQ*
dS*
Therefore the obtaining of this information implies a high
accuracy of the data recording. Nevertheless the system does In the case of gross slip (6 * L 6,), dQ * Id8 * = 0 and
not interact for the determination of the parameter. It therefore d2Q* /d6*2=0
theoretically appears to be the more relevant way to charac- The transition can be related to the discontinuity observed
terise any fretting behaviour and to compare tribosystems. for the second derivation of Q * . It presents an infinite value
The correlation between experimental data is thus possible. (negative) for 6 * = 8, under partial slip (6* 5 S,), and a
Associated with the other mechanical parameters (Q, PO, 6), zero value under a gross slip condition ( 6 * 2 8,).
 S. Fouwy et al. /Wear 185 (1995) 3546 43

1 experimental data mean squared approximation. Similar

methodology is employed to define the first and second der-
PS G.S ivation. The procedure is fastidious, but it permits a quasi on
Q*/Po
line analysis of the contact dynamics and the development of
0.5 future controlled testing systems.
d (Q* PO) Similarly this approach can be extended to the other vari-
d& ables like the A and D ratio. For the energy evolution with
I. --
4
regard to the displacement amplitude, a discontinuity was
5 10 found at the transition step. Accordingly,
displacement amplitude 6 * (pm) 312

-0.5
Fig. 8. Evolution of the Q* /P variable as a function of the displacement
amplitude S* for a 300 N normal force HSS-TiN-Cr-steel ball contact. It
is compared with the first and second derivation. These values are calculated
taking into account the tangential compliance of the system (C, = 0.013 km
N-‘). The curves are obtained after numerical mean square fitting.
and
Thus the transition criterion is

d*Q *
max* (50)

This criterion appeared to be very useful when the

Q * =f( 6 * ) was plotted experimentally using an incremental
(52)
variation of the displacement amplitude ( 6 * ) . An example
is given on Fig. 8 for a HSS-TiN-Cr-steel contact. The ratio For gross slip conditions dW,/dG* =4Qt= C,, and
Q * lP is studied as a function of S* . In this case the normal d*W Id8 * * = 0 is obtained
force is observed to be constant throughout the test ge transition can again be related to the determination of
(300 +2 N). Therefore the variation of the force ratio is
connected to the tangential force fluctuation. The transition (53)
from partial to gross slip sliding is related to a discontinuity
which presents a maximum for the second derivation. Fur-
thermore the analysis of the three variables appears to be a
relevant way to quantify friction behaviour. It permits the 6. Comparison of the various transition criteria
characterisation of the sliding transition for incremental dis-
placement amplitude analysis. It can also be employed to Difficulties in establishing the transition between partial
study contact dynamics and it allows, for instance the analysis slip and gross slip conditions suggested the need to develop
of the coating degradation as a function of the number of several criteria, each having its own interest. Table 6 provides
cycles. Widely employed for chemical analysis (AEM, tendencies to select a criterion depending on the ease of cal-
AES), differential analysis implies a very good determination culation and of experimental determination. It appears that
of the parameter. In fact, any variable scattering will be the energy ratio is easier to determine than the sliding criterion
emphasised by the differential procedure. In this case, the because the obtaining of W, is less dependent on the data
determination of the Q * /P =f( 6 * ) curve is fitted by an scattering than the sliding aperture. The system free criterion

Table 6
Comparison of the different transition criteria

Name Expression Transition value Compliance dependent Determination

A, energy ratio A+ 0.2 Yes Easy ( W,)

t
D, sliding ratio D=+ 0.26 Yes Difficult (8,)

B, system-free criterion +A-_ 0.77 No Difficult ( W, - 8,)

4Q*%

Differential criteria (variable X) -$,s Max1 I Yes Very difficult (numerical fitting)
44 S. Fouvry et al. /Wear 185 (1995) 35-46

is highly dependent on the 6, variation and it is not easy
therefore to obtain an accurate value for the transition. Nev-
ertheless, it is the only criterion which is not affected by the
tangential accommodation of the testing apparatus. The dif-
ferential criteria permits the quantification of the dynamic
evolution of the different parameters. Moreover the deter-
mination of the transition is simplified to the determination
of a maximum. Data processing is more difficult here because
the differential procedures imply an amplification of any
experimental scattering. It is necessary to introduce a numer-
ical mean square fitting of the experimental results.
Each of the criteria presents advantages and disadvantages.
To better characterise the fretting sliding behaviour, a com-
bination of the different variables can be introduced. This
permits the study of the fretting cycle under partial slip con-
ditions and also the analysis of the sliding behaviour when
gross slip conditions are imposed in the contact.
These criteria have been theoretically introduced assuming
restrictive Mindlin’s hypotheses. It is clear that under ele-
vated elasto-plastic conditions these relations are no longer
valid. However, results obtained under high hertzian pres-
sures (as compared to the elastic properties of the two first
bodies) gave quite similar values for transition as in the case
of A with A, = 0.2. This result now must be analyzed from the
point of view of elasto-plastic investigations.
7. Introduction of theoretical fretting maps
7.I. Theoretical fretting mapping
Fretting maps locate regimes (RCFM) during the test
duration, or the material response at the end of the test. They
can also give the fretting conditions if the fretting loop shape
for a given number of cycles is considered. The criteria intro-
duced above are useful to plot these fretting conditions in
classical “normal load P-displacement 6 * ” diagrams. The
evolution of the normal force P, corresponding to the transi-
tion is described as a function of the applied limit displace-
ment amplitude 6,. Mindlin’s theory allows the relation:
(54)
the geometry of the contact R* and the coefficient of friction
I_L.Numerous experimental results are given as a function of
the applied maximum hertzian pressure. This variable is usu-
ally expressed by ‘‘pO’’.
Hertz gives the relation between this pressure obtained at
the centre of the ball contact and the applied normal force P:
(57)
Thus the transition is given by:
(58)
From these different relations, fretting maps can be drawn
to locate the transition between partial and gross slip.
7.2. Comparison with experiments
In order to compare the theoretical evolution of the sliding
transition, the experimentally recorded values must be mod-
ified to take into account the accommodation due to the sys-
tem. Thus the theoretical evolution of the transition can be
drawn and the experimental results plotted on the same graph.
Such a plotting is given in Fig. 9. In a first approximation,
good agreement between calculated and experimental results
are noted. The variation of the friction coefficient appears to
be not too large and thus theoretical and experimental results
can be compared. Moreover it confirms the influence of the
coefficient of friction for the sliding boundary localisation.
A small deviation is observed nevertheless for high normal
forces. One of the reasons is that increasing the normal force,
tends to decrease the friction coefficient. Typically, for a
300 N normal force, the friction coefficient is equal to 0.97
whereas it decreases to 0.85 when the applied normal force
is 500 N. This supposes the taking into account of different
friction models when increasing the pressure field.
800 r
L ~1=0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.9 1
2
‘;; 600
n
0”
8 400

Ti
In the case of a homogeneous contact E, = E2= E and
E 200
vi = v2 = v the following relation was obtained:
if

0
(55)
0 2 4 6 a
In the same way, the displacement amplitude at the tran- displacement amplitude 6 * (pm)
sition is expressed as a function of the applied normal force. Fig. 9. Boundary between partial slip domain (PS) and gross slip domain
(0) for: HSS-G-steel and ( +) HSS-TiN (5.5 pm)-Cr-steel ball
(R= 12.7 mm) contacts. Experimental results are plotted as a function of P
(56)
and 6* and connected to the friction coefficient measured at the transition
(/.L). Theoretical curves are plotted for various friction coefficients. The
Therefore, the theoretical evolution of the transition will mark ( ? )?corresponds to the first yield condition observed in x = /a I sliding
depend on the mechanical properties of the tribopair studied, transition.
 S. Fouvry et al. /Wear
-2 -1 0 1
X
Fig. 10. Evolution of the Von Mises plastic parameter (u,( t,x,O,O) / Ys) with
E[O,T] and T period of the cycle. The X-axis distribution (z = 0, y = 0) is
made using an nondimensional ratio x/a (a = 288 km). The test conditions
are a 300 N normal force ball-flat contact (Cr-steel ball-HSS) with /.L=0.9,
cla=0.5 and Q* 236 N.
For each sliding transition curve, the first contact yielding
normal force is plotted. The sliding transition field stress can
be related to the one observed for total sliding, where the
more severe plastic conditions are observed for x = a [ 241.
The loading conditions are slightly higher than pure elastic
conditions. Contact plastic accommodation can then explain
the difference between experiments and computations. Nev-
ertheless the effect of elasto-plastic contact accommodation
must be temperate because as observed in Fig. 10, plasticity
under partial slip condition is mainly located on the annular
sliding surface area. The stick domain appears to be safe from
plasticity. Therefore the tangential surface accommodation,
which is mainly driven by the stick domain, will obey elastic
behaviour rules. The plastic approach is analyzed without
taking into account the metal hardening. Therefore the plastic
influence on the surface tangential accommodation can be
reduced for partial slip conditions.
Until now, the dynamics of the loading cycle have not been
taken into account. Indeed, the Mindlin’s expressions are not
time dependent. Elevated frequencies can modify the elastic
properties and then interact. The effects of frequency can
modify the trapping of the third body. If the third body
dynamics are modified, the value of the friction coefficient
on the sliding area is changed and it then reacts on the tran-
sition. But in the case presented here, the range of frequencies
is too small to present any significant variations.
In conclusion it can be said that for the condition studied,
the Mindlin elastic modelling appears to be a relevant way to
describe the sliding behaviour in fretting maps in a first
approach. Nevertheless by improving data recording and by
decreasing the influence of the apparatus for the tangential
accommodation, more in depth analysis can be made. Differ-
ent material and friction rheological behaviours can be stud-
ied and compared with experiments to give a more precise
definition of the fretting phenomena.
8. Conclusion
The analytical development for both the energy and the
sliding ratio and the introduction of a system free criterion
I85 (1995) 3546 45
permitted better identification of the fretting conditions and
an expression of the theoretical expressions for the boundary
between fretting partial and gross slip conditions. The cal-
culations were complemented by experiments for two differ-
ent tribo systems which present different coefficients of
friction. Comparison between the theoretical and the experi-
mental computations appears to be possible if the tangential
compliance of the system is taken into account. Good corre-
lation is observed there even if the imposed conditions are
2 slightly higher than the pure elastic conditions. Nevertheless
the differences for the accommodation and the determination
of the system compliance seem to be useful to analyze the
effect induced by the elasto-plastic accommodation, the effect
of the surface asperities and the study of different friction
models. By introducing a dynamic analysis of the sliding
conditions and determining the evolution of the stress field
imposed in the contact it becomes possible to relate the deg-
radation with the loading history. A better understanding of
fretting damages, the crack nucleation or the debris formation
as a function of the loading conditions for example, can now
be considered.
Acknowledgements
The authors want to thank the Commission of the European
Community for the financial support of our project (BRE2-
CT92-0224) and their colleagues in this project for furnishing
the coated samples and for helpful discussions.
Appendix A: Nomenclature
Hertz contact radius
energy ratio, transition value (C,, = 0.2)
system-free criterion, transition value
(C,,=O.77)
stick contact radius
contact compliance, system compliance
sliding ratio, transition value (C,,= 0.26)
Young’s elastic modulus of the materials
1 and 2.
equivalent elastic modulus
shear elastic modulus of the materials 1
and 2
normal force, normal force at the
transition
maximum hertzian pressure, maximum
hertzian pressure at the transition
tangential force, tangential force
amplitude, tangential force at the
transition
equivalent radius
dissipated energy, dissipated energy at
the transition
 S. Fouvry et (11./ Weur 185 (1995) 35-46
elastic energy, elastic energy at the
transition
total energy, total energy at the transition
yield stress (without considering
hardening)
displacement, amplitude, amplitude at
the transition
aperture of the cycle, recorded aperture,
aperture at the transition
recorded displacement, amplitude,
amplitude at the transition
total sliding amplitude
amplitude of the system accommodation
coefficient of friction (at the transition)
Poisson coefficients of the materials 1
and 2
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Biographies
Siegfried Fouvry: graduated as a mechanical engineer from
l?cole Centrale de Lyon in 1992. He is now a research fellow
working in the field of fretting. His main interest are analysis
of surface degradation from the mechanical and physico-
chemical point of view. He focuses on the development of
energetic and multiaxial fatigue models to analyse fretting
damage. He is also looking for a post doctoral position in
1996.
Philippe Kapsa: is graduated as an engineer from l&ole Cen-
trale de Lyon in 1976. He is now a research fellow in the
Laboratoire de Tribologie et Dynamique des Systbmes of the
same school. In 1982, he received his Ph.D. from Lyon Uni-
versity in mechanics. He is working in the field of tribology
and belongs to the staff of the Centre National de Recherche
Scientifique, CNRS. His first subjects of interest are the study
of friction and wear phenomena in various conditions. In
relation with friction and wear studies, he is interested in the
use of new tools for characterisation of surface mechanical
properties by penetration resistance tests. His current activi-
ties in these fields concern research into a model to describe
and understand tribological phenomena and the research of
high performance new materials like special ceramics, com-
posite materials, hard or soft tribological coatings and surface
treatments.
Leo Vincent: is Professor of Material Science at ficole Cen-
trale de Lyon. He has been working in tribology and fatigue
of both metallic and composite materials for more than 22
years. Formerly head of Departement Materiaux-Meca-
nique-Physique, he is now vice-director of l?cole Centrale de
Lyon.