Ultrasonic Testing

Part 2

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 Ultrasonic Testing techniques
• Pulse Echo
• Through Transmission
• Transmission with Reflection

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 Pulse Echo Technique
• Single probe sends
and receives sound
• Gives an indication of
defect depth and
dimensions
• Not fail safe

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 Defect Position

B
A

No indication from defect A (wrong orientation)

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 Through Transmission Technique
Tx Rx
Transmitting and
receiving probes
on opposite sides
of the specimen

Presence of defect
indicated by
reduction in
transmission signal

No indication of
defect location

Fail safe method

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Copyright © 2004 WI Ltd Name
 Through Transmission Technique

Advantages Disadvantages
• Less attenuation • Defect not located
• No probe ringing • Defect can’t be
• No dead zone identified
• Orientation does not • Vertical defects
matter don’t show
• Must be automated
• Need access to both
surfaces
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 Transmission with Reflection
T R

Also known as:

Tandem Technique or
Pitch and Catch Technique
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 Ultrasonic Pulse
• A short pulse of electricity is applied to
a piezo-electric crystal
• The crystal begins to vibration
increases to maximum amplitude and
then decays Maximum

10% of
Maximum

Pulse length
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 Pulse Length
• The longer the pulse, the more
penetrating the sound
• The shorter the pulse the better the
sensitivity and resolution

Short pulse, 1 or 2 cycles Long pulse 12 cycles

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 Ideal Pulse Length

5 cycles for weld testing

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 The Sound Beam
• Dead Zone
• Near Zone or Fresnel Zone
• Far Zone or Fraunhofer Zone

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 The Sound Beam

NZ FZ Main
Beam

Intensity
varies

Exponential Decay

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 The side lobes has multi
minute main beams
Two identical defects may
give different amplitudes of
signals

Near
Side Lobes
Zone
The main beam or the centre
beam has the highest
intensity of sound energy

Main Lobe Any reflector hit by the main

beam will reflect the high
amount of energy
Main Beam

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 Sound Beam
Near Zone Far Zone
• Thickness • Thickness
measurement measurement
• Detection of defects • Defect detection
• Sizing of large • Sizing of all defects
defects only

Near zone length as small as possible

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 Near Zone

2
D
Near Zone =
4λ
V
λ=
f
2
D f
Near Zone =
4V
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 Near Zone
• What is the near zone length of a 5MHz
compression probe with a crystal diameter
of 10mm in steel?
2
D f
Near Zone =
4V
10 ×5,000,000
2
=
4 ×5,920,000
= 21.1mm
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 Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone = =
4λ 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the
near zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the
near zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near
zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high
or low frequency?
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 Which of the above probes has the longest Near Zone ?

1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz

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 Near Zone
2 2
D D f
Near Zone = =
4λ 4V
• The bigger the diameter the bigger the
near zone
• The higher the frequency the bigger the
near zone
• The lower the velocity the bigger the near
zone
Should large diameter crystal probes have a high
or low frequency?
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 Beam Spread
• In the far zone sound pulses spread out
as they move away from the crystal

θ/2
θ

θ Kλ KV
Sine = or
2 D Df
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 Beam Spread
θ Kλ KV
Sine = or
2 D Df
Edge,K=1.22
20dB,K=1.08
6dB,K=0.56
Beam axis
or Main Beam

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 Beam Spread
θ Kλ KV
Sine = or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the
beam spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller
the beam spread

Which has the larger beam spread, a compression

or a shear wave probe?
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 Beam Spread
• What is the beam spread of a 10mm,5MHz
compression wave probe in steel?

KV θ
Sine =
2 Df
1.08 ×5920
=
5000 ×10
= 0.1278 = 7.35 o

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 Which of the above probes has the Largest Beam
Spread ?

1 M Hz
5 M Hz
1 M Hz 5 M Hz

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 Beam Spread
θ Kλ KV
Sine = or
2 D Df
• The bigger the diameter the smaller the
beam spread
• The higher the frequency the smaller
the beam spread

Which has the larger beam spread, a compression

or a shear wave probe?
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 Testing close to side walls

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 Sound at an Interface
• Sound will be either transmitted across
or reflected back
Reflected

How much is reflected and

Interface transmitted depends upon the
relative acoustic impedance of
the 2 materials

Transmitted
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 The Phenomenon of Sound

REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION

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 The Phenomenon of Sound

REFLECTION
REFRACTION
DIFFRACTION

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 Law of Reflection
• Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

60o 60o

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 Inclined incidence(not at 90o )
Incident

Transmitted

The sound is refracted due to differences in

sound velocity in the 2 DIFFERENT materials
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 REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°

30°

Water Steel Water

Steel Steel Steel

Refracted

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 REFRACTION
• Only occurs when:
The incident angle is other than 0°
The Two Materials has different
VELOCITIES

30°
30°

Steel Water

Steel Steel
65°
30°

No Refraction Refracted

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 Snell’s Law
Normal

Incident I
Material 1

Material 2 Refracted
R

Sine I Vel in Material 1

=
Sine R Vel in Material 2
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 Snell’s Law
C
20 Sine I Vel in Material 1
=
Sine R Vel in Material 2
Perspex Sine 20 2730
=
Steel Sine 48.3 5960
48.3 0.4580 = 0.4580
C

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 Snell’s Law
C Sine I Vel in Material 1
15 =
Sine R Vel in Material 2

Perspex Sine 15 2730

=
Sine R 5960
Steel
5960
34.4 SinR = Sin15
2730
C
SinR = 0.565
R = 34.4
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 Snell’s Law
C
20

Perspex

Steel
48.3

C
24
S

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 Snell’s Law
C
C When an incident beam of sound
approaches an interface of two
different materials:
REFRACTION occurs

Perspex
There may be more than one waveform
Steel transmitted into the second material,
example: Compression and Shear

When a waveform changes

into another waveform:
C MODE CHANGE
C
SS

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 Snell’s Law
If the angle of Incident is
C increased the angle of
refraction also increases

Up to a point where the

Compression Wave is at
Perspex 90° from the Normal

C
Steel 90° This happens at the
FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE

SC
CS
S

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 1st Critical Angle
C 27.4 Compression wave refracted
at 90 degrees

33

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 2nd Critical Angle
C
C
57

S (Surface Wave)
90

Shear wave refracted at 90 degrees

Shear wave becomes a surface wave

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 1st Critical Angle Calculation
C 27.2 Sine I 2730
=
Sine 90 5960
Perspex Sin90 =1
C
Steel 2730
SinI =
5960
S SinI = 0.458

I = 27.26
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 2nd Critical Angle Calculation
C C Sine I 2730
57.4 =
Sine 90 3240
Perspex Sin90 = 1
S
Steel 2730
SinI =
3240
SinI = 0.8425

I = 57.4
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 Before the 1st. Critical Angle: There
1st. are both Compression and Shear
wave in the second material
C
At the FIRST CRITICAL ANGLE
2nd. Compression wave refracted at 90°
Shear wave at 33 degrees in the
material

90° Between the 1st. And 2nd.

Beyond the 2nd. Critical Critical Angle: Only SHEAR
Angle: All waves are wave in the material.
reflected out of the Compression is reflected out
material. NO wave in of the material.
the material.
S C At the 2nd. Critical Angle: Shear
is refracted to 90° and become
33° SURFACE wave

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 Summary
• Standard angle probes between 1st and
2nd critical angles (45,60,70)
• Stated angle is refracted angle in steel
• No angle probe under 35, and more
than 80: to avoid being 2 waves in the
same material. One Defect Two Echoes

C S

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 Snell’s Law
• Calculate the 1st critical angle for a
perspex/copper interface
• V Comp perspex : 2730m/sec
• V Comp copper : 4700m/sec

2730
SinI = = 0.5808 = 35.5
4700

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