LESSON 1.

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTAL

Introduction
 Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know
about computers.
 A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores data input,
processes the data input, and generates the output in a required format
 Computer is an Electronic Device. It is used to calculate and manipulate data. If we give any
instruction to the computer it gives us output (Result).
Full Form of Computer
C- Commonly
O-Operating
M-Machine
P-Particularly
U-Used For
T-Technical
E-Educational
R-Research

What is Computer?
 The word computer comes from the word”compute”, which means “to calculate”.
 Thereby, A computer is an electronic device that can perform Arithmetic operations as well as
logical operations at high speed.
 A computer is also called a data processor because it can store, process and retrieved data
whenever desired.
Data Processing

The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing.

Data is raw material used as input and information is processed data obtained as output of data
processing.
For example If we read a newspaper there is lot of data is available but we want read some
particular news that is information.

Father of Computer
 Charles Babbage, British Mathematics professor regarded as the Father of Computers.
 He was born in England in 1792 as the son of a rich banker.
 He began to design a "difference engine" in 1821
 It was very complicated machine for doing calculations automatically.

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  He began design of another machine "the analytical machine", which could carry out many
different types of calculations
 His machine was too ahead of the time of development.
 Lack of better technology Babbage could not complete their work and passed away in 1871
before he had completed his work.
Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital computer carries out the following five functions:
 Step 1 - Takes data as input.
 Step 2 - Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
 Step 3 - Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
 Step 4 - Generates the output.
 Step 5 - Controls all the above four steps

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers:-
1. High Speed- Computer is a very fast device. It is capable of performing calculation of very large
amount of data. The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond. It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will
spend many months to perform the same task
2. Accuracy- In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate. The calculations are 100%
error free. Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct.
3. Storage Capability- Memory is a very important characteristic of computers. A computer has much
more storage capacity than human beings. It can store large amount of data. It can store any type of
data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.
4. Diligence - Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration. It can work continuously without any error and boredom. It can perform repeated
tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
5. Versatility- A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done. This machine can be
used to solve the problems related to various fields. At one instance, it may be solving a complex
scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card game. A computer is a very
versatile machine.
6. Reliability -A computer is a reliable machine. Modern electronic components have long lives.
Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
7. Automation- Computer is an automatic machine. Automation is the ability to perform a given task
automatically. Once the computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer
memory, then the program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction.

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 8. Reduction in Paper Work and Cost - The use of computers for data processing in an organization
leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the process. As data in electronic files
can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large number of paper files
gets reduced. Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially
reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of computers.
1. No I.Q. - A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task. Each instruction has to
be given to the computer. A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
2. Dependency - It functions as per the user’s instruction, thus it is fully dependent on humans
3. Environment - The operating environment of the computer should be dust free and suitable.
4. No Feeling - Computers have no feelings or emotions. It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste,
experience, and knowledge unlike humans.

Evolution of Computer
Since man is born with intelligence, he thought of ways that would make things easy for him.
One of the problems encountered by man was counting the things he had. Because of this, he invented
something that could help him count fast and easy.

Early Computing Device

1. The Abacus
About 4,000 years ago, the Chinese invented the ABACUS. It is an adding tool that can help can
you add & subtract numbers by moving beads back & forth on rods. The abacus was one of the earliest
counting devise invented to help man solve his counting problems.
2. Slide Rule
English mathematician Edmund Gunter developed the slide rule. This machine could perform
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It was widely used in Europe in 16th
century.
3. The Pascaline Calculator
In 1642, Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, invented the Pascal calculator. This device, also
known as the Pascaline, operated 8 movable dials, which could add numbers up to 8 figures long. It was
used to perform simple arithmetic calculations. This device was limited to addition & subtraction only.
4. Leibnitz Calculator
In 1673, G.F. Leibnitz, a German mathematician & philosopher, enhanced the Pascaline by
creating a device that could also multiply. It can even find the square root of number. The device was
called the Leibnitz Calculator/ machine.
5. Jacquard’s Automatic Loom
In 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, a Frenchman, invented the Jacquard’s loom. Jacquard’s loom
used punch card to program pattern that were outputted as woven fabrics by the loom.

Electro-Mechanical Computing Device

1. Difference Engine

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 In 1822, Charles Babbage, a British mathematician professor, invented the Difference Engine.
Powered by steam & as large as a locomotive, the machine had the capacity to perform calculations &
print the results.
2. Analytical Engine
In, 1833, several years after Babbage worked on the Difference Engine, he began working on the
first general-purpose digital computer, which he called the Analytical Engine. This steam-powered engine
outlined the basic elements of today’s modern general-purpose computer and was a breakthrough concept.
Electronic Computing Device
1. Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine
In 1889, Herman Hollerith, an American inventor, invented the Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine.
The machine was a punch card reader & had the capacity to store & process data. Hollerith brought his
punch card reader into the business world, founding the Tabulating Machine Company which later
became International Business Machine (IBM) in 1924.
2. MARK I
This all-electronic calculator was invented by Howard H. Aiken in 1930. This was used to create
ballistic charts for the U.S. Navy. The Mark 1 is called the Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled
Calculator.
3. ENIAC
Between 1943 and 1946, the ENIAC or the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer was
developed by John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. This general purpose computer computed at a speed
1,000 times faster than the Mark 1.

SOME WELL KNOWN EARLY COMPUTERS

1. The Mark I Computer (1937-44)
2. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42)
3. The ENIAC-(1943-46) Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer.
4. The EDVAC-(1946-52)-Electronic discrete variable Automatic Computer.
5. The EDSAC (1947-49)-Electronic Data storage Automatic calculator.
6. Manchester Mark I(1948)
7. The UNIVAC I (1951): Universal Automatic Computer

Generation of Computer
Sr.
Generation Description
No.
1 First Generation The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.
2 Second Generation The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
3 Third Generation The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor
4 Fourth Generation
based.
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor
5 Fifth Generation
based.
1. First Generation Computer
The period of first generation was from 1946-1959.

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•The computers of first generation used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry
for CPU (Central Processing Unit).
•These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse frequently.
• Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations were able to afford it.
•In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used.
•Punch cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were used as input and output devices.
• The computers in this generation used machine code as the programming language. The main features of
the first generation are:
Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated a lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of AC
 Non-portable
 Consumed a lot of electricity
Some computers of this generation were:
 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

2. Second Generation Computers

The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were used
that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first
generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary
memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation, assembly
language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL was used. The computers
used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system

The main features of second generation are:

 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages

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Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108
3. Third Generation Computer
The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and capacitors
along with the associated circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made
computers smaller in size, reliable, and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing,
multiprogramming operating systems were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL,
PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of third generation are:

 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Costly
 AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
 Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
4. Fourth Generation Computers
The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used Very
Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit
elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth
generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a
result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real time
networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc.,
were used in this generation.

The main features of fourth generation are:

 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PCs

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  Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No AC required
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available
 Some computers of this generation were:
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)
5. Fifth Generation Computers
The period of fifth generation is 1980- till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips
having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and
AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets the
means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and
C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.

AI includes:
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life situations
 Natural language understanding and generation
 The main features of fifth generation are:
 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
 Some computer types of this generation are:
 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook

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Classification of Computers
Computer is a multipurpose machine and suited to almost all kinds of requirements. It is very
difficult to classify them straight forward, therefore we classify it on the following bases:-
1. On the basis of applications
2. On the basis of purposes
3. On the basis of sizes

ON THE BASIS OF APPLICATIONS, COMPUTER CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS:-

1. Analog computer
2. Digital computer
3. Hybrid computer

On the Basis of Application

These computers represent data/information in a continuous form. That is there are no breaks
during signal transmission. They represent information by processing measurable physical quantities.

1. Analog computer
These are the computers which can work continuously variable physical parameters e.g. pressure,
temperature, length, voltage, etc. and express them in numerals like a thermometer does, which in fact
does not calculate anything but compares body temperature with relative expansion of mercury.
 Analog computers mainly used in the field of science and engineering ,as these fields deals with the
computation of physical quantities.

Examples of Analog Computer

o Speedometer
o Thermometer
o Conventional watch

2. Digital Computer
These are computers that represent data /information in a binary form. That is they represent
signals in just two states. 0s and 1s are used during data communication.

Examples of Digital Computers

 Desktop computers
 Laptop computers
 Mobile phones
 iPads
 iPhones
 Scientific calculators
3. Hybrid Computers
These computer possess the property of both analog and digital computers. Such computers
are used in medicines and surgery. The analog devices of computer mainly temperature and blood
pressure; and the digital parts convert them in numeric value. Hence they jointly monitor the condition of

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the patient. The digital component normally serves as the controller and provides logical operations, while
the analogue component normally serves as a solver of different equations.

Examples of Hybrid Computers

 Automated teller machine (ATM)
 Electrocardiogram

On the Basis of Purpose

Computers can also be classified according to the purpose or application to which it is put. There
are two (2) main groups under this category, these are:
 Special purpose
 General purpose

Special purpose -A computer is said to be special purpose if it is designed to solve a specific class of
problem for which it was made
Examples of special purpose computers
 Computers for chemical processes.
 Computers in digital watches.

General Purpose- A general purpose computer is not limited to the number of applications it can be used
for.

On the Basis of size/capacity

Sr.
Type Specifications
No.
PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having
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Computer) moderately powerful microprocessor
It is also a single user computer system,
2 Workstation similar to personal computer however has a
more powerful microprocessor
It is a multi-user computer system, capable
3 Mini Computer of supporting hundreds of users
simultaneously.
It is a multi-user computer system, capable
of supporting hundreds of users
4 Main Frame
simultaneously. Software technology is
different from minicomputer.
It is an extremely fast computer, which can
5 Supercomputer execute hundreds of millions of instructions
per second
1. Personal Computers
PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one
chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for

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running Spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal
computers is playing games and surfing the Internet. Although personal computers are designed as single-
user systems, these systems are normally linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-
adays high-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability
as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell. Workstation is a comp

2. Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a
large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical
user interface. Most workstations also have mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of
workstation, called diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. Common operating systems for
workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, workstations are also single-user computers like PC
but are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-
alone systems.
3. Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.
4. Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports
many simultaneous execution of programs.
5. Supercomputers
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of mathematical
calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated)
graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of
geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). The first supercomputer was “param” developed by c-
dac in 1991

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