NICOLE ORESME

L e L ivre du ciel et du monde

E D IT E D B Y

A L B E R T D. M E N U T A N D A L E X A N D E R J. D E N O M Y , C .S .B .f

T R A N S L A T E D W IT H A N IN T R O D U C T IO N B Y

A L B E R T D. M E N U T

T H E U N IV E R S I T Y O F W IS C O N S IN P R E SS

M A D IS O N , M IL W A U K E E , A N D L O N D O N

1968
 Published bj the University of Wisconsin Press Preface
Madison, Milwaukee, and London
U .S .A .: P .O . B o x 1379, Madison, Wisconsin 33701
U .K .: 26-28 Hallam Street, London, IF . /
Copyright © 1968 by the
The first printed edition o f Oresme’s L ivre du ciel et du monde appeared in three
Regents of the University of Wisconsin
consecutive annual issues o f M ediaeval Studies (1941-43). The Second W orld War
Printed in the Netherlands by
was raging, and the pages o f a review devoted to studies o f the Middle Ages
Koninklijke Drukkerij G . f . Thieme N . V ., Nijmegen
were hardly likely to compel attention o f scholars engaged in the tense and all-
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 67-110 61
absorbing activities o f wartime existence. With the end o f the war and the return
to normal scholarly interests, historians o f philosophy and science were quick
to discover and welcome the availability o f a work o f high repute previously
accessible only in manuscript copies in French and Swiss libraries. Demand
for the first edition soon exhausted the supply; for several years past, it has been
out o f print.
It was under such circumstances that Professor I. Bernard Cohen, o f Harvard
University, suggested to me the preparation o f a new edition, to be provided
with a parallel English version o f the Middle French text and to bring the edi­
torial apparatus up to date. Recognizing the paramount importance o f D u d e l
as a synthesis o f fourteenth-century ideas in natural philosophy, the National
Science Foundation undertook to support the proposed new and revised edition.
M ost regrettably, the untimely death o f Father Denom y in 1956 deprived this
new edition o f his participation. His scholarly contribution as collaborator added
much to the merits o f the edition o f 1941-43. The publisher o f M ediaeval Studies,
the Pontifical Institute o f Mediaeval Studies o f Toronto, o f which Rev. Father
Denom y was an esteemed colleague, has graciously released its copyright.
In adding an English version o f D u d e l in this new edition, the editor is well
aware o f the hazardous nature o f the enterprise. Th e purpose o f including this
parallel English translation is purely practical. N o other end is sought than the
clear and faithful rendering o f the substantive meaning o f the original text in
a style agreeable to the contemporary reader o f comparable subject matter in
modern English. Doubtless, enough o f the awkwardness o f Oresme’s French has
clung to the English version to preserve the savor o f the original. Indeed, it
should be remembered at all times that the English rendering is offered solely
for the convenience o f readers who may find Oresme’s Middle French sometimes
perplexing.
The quarter-century that has elapsed since the preparation o f the first edition
o f D u d e l has witnessed a truly phenomenal growth o f interest and productive
scholarship in the history o f science. Studies o f medieval science in particular

vii
viii | Preface

have multiplied both in number and in depth. From this intensive investigation
perhaps no single figure has profited more than Nicole Oresme. The relatively
recent recovery o f several o f his long lost or forgotten treatises o f scientific
purport will soon make it feasible to attempt a tentative recapitulation o f his
contribution to science. The editor owes to Professor John Murdoch, o f Har­ Contents
vard University, the privilege o f obtaining a photostatic copy o f the manuscript
containing the Quaestiones super septern libros Physicorum , recently discovered at
the Biblioteca Colombina in Seville by M . G u y Beaujouan, the distinguished
French medievalist. I am also indebted to Professor Murdoch for offprints o f
P re fa ce ................................................................................................... vü
his several articles and monographs dealing authoritatively with many problems
pertinent to Oresmian scholarship. It is not too much to say that Professor N ote on the Editorial A p p a r a tu s ..................................................... xi
Marshall Clagett’s voluminous studies o f medieval science in general and o f
Introduction
Oresmian problems in particular have been constant desk companios throughout
this editorial exercise. I: Origin o f the T r a n sla tio n ...................................................... 3
The occasion o f this new edition o f D u d e l makes it possible to take into ac­
II: Oresme’s Translation and C o m m e n ta ry .............................10
count in the editorial apparatus whatever seemed pertinent in this wealth o f
new and recent information. It has provided also the opportunity to eradicate III : Brief Summary o f Oresme’s Com m entary.............................16
the small number o f misprints and other minor errors inevitable in a work o f this
IV : The Manuscripts o f D u C ie l et du m o n d e.............................32
kind. I hope to have avoided in the Introduction the dangerous tendency to
bury the work itself under a mass o f editorial presuppositions, proffered in
the guise o f beneficent guidance to the patient reader.
In the process o f carrying through this editorial project, debts o f gratitude
L e L ivre du ciel et du monde
have mounted beyond all possibility o f individual acknowledgment in this nec­
essarily brief preface. The invaluable help given most generously by the highly
B o o k l ................................................................................................... 38
skilled reference librarians o f the Syracuse University Library; the unstinting
service rendered by the personnel o f the Science Division o f the N ew York Book I I ........................................................................................ 262
City Library; the gracious hospitality accorded an alumnus by the Reference
Book I I I ................................................................................... 528
Division o f the Butler Library at Columbia University— to these numerous
dedicated professionals my obligation is enormous. T o the editor-in-chief o f Book I V ................................................................................... 656
the Publications in Medieval Science Series, Professor Marshall Clagett, o f the
Analytical Table o f C o n t e n t s ............................................... 732
Institute for Advanced Studies at Princeton University, I am indebted for inval­
uable advice based upon his thorough critical reading o f the projected edition
in typescript ; I am grateful to Professor Edward Grant, o f Indiana University,
B ib lio g r a p h y ............................................................................. 75 3
for many suggestions directed to the improvement o f my introductory chapters.
None o f these kindly helpful persons bears any responsibility whatsoever for A Select List o f Technical N e o lo g is m s .............................. 763
the shortcomings o f the present work ; this burden must fall, as it rightly should,
General I n d e x ........................................................... ' 774
upon the editor’s shoulders. Finally, without the congenial ambiance created
by my treasured life companion, Marie Minevitch Menut, this project would have
languished long ago in limbo.
Albert Douglas Menut
N ew Y o rk , N .Y . Emeritus Professor,
Ju ly , 19 6 j . Syracuse University
IX
 Note on the Editorial
Apparatus

The text o f D u C ie l et du monde is preserved in the following six manuscript

opies :

Siglum

A = Bibl. Nat., Ms. franç. 1082, ff. ia-209c(late 14th century).

B = Bibl. Nat., Ms. franç. 565, fF. 2 3 a -iy id (15 th century).
C = Bern, Bibl. Bongarsiana, Ms. 310, ff. 28a-i 52d (late 14th century).
D == Bibl. Nat., Ms. franç. 1083, ff. ia -i2 5 b (15th century).
E = Bibl. Nat., Ms. franç. 24278, ff. ia-i4 6 a (15 th century).
F = Bibl. de la Sorbonne, Ms. 571, ff. ia -2 3 4 d (15 th century).

This edition reproduces the text o f A with the following exceptions:

(1) The geometrical figures appearing in the text have been numbered serially and
printed within the passage to which they relate in the English text o f each Book,
with a reference inserted in the French text at the point where they originally
occurred.
(2) A ll abbreviations have been resolved, and words run together in the text
have been separated in accordance with modern usage; proper names are uni­
formly capitalized throughout, and punctation has been supplied. Italics have
been supplied by the editor.
(3) The original text o f A is retained save where a scribal error is clearly in­
dicated, and all textual emendations are enclosed in angle brackets < ), with the
original reading in a footnote; unless otherwise indicated, emendations are
derived from C . Variant readings are given only when a change o f meaning is
involved and in Latin quotations, and omissions, repetitions, and orthographical
variants o f no contextual o f philological importance are not noted. Insofar as
practical, the rules for the use o f diacritical marks recommended by the Committee
o f the Société des Anciens Textes Français have been followed (cf. Rom ania
52(1926), 243-46).
(4) Folio numbers referring to the foliation o f the basic manuscript A are

XI
 x ii j Note on the Editorial Apparatus Note on the Editorial Apparatus ] xiii

printed in standard type in both text and footnotes ; the two recto columns are process o f publication, Berlin, W . de Gruyter, i960— ; vols. 1, 2, 4, and 5 are
lettered a and b respectively following the folio number, and the two verso available.
columns are lettered c and d respectively; the single bar (/) indicates the end o f A ll references to passages from the Bible are found in the Vulgate version;
the left-hand column, the double bar (//) the end o f the right-hand column on specifically, the eighth edition o f the Biblia Sacra ju x ta vulgatae, ed. A . C. Fillion
each page. Arabic numerals have been inserted at the beginning o f chapter (Paris : Letouzey et Ané, 1921).
headings. Inserted book and section headings in the French text have been en­ Titles listed in the Bibliography (p. 75 3) are cited in shortened form in the notes.
closed in square brackets [ ]. A ll other works are cited in full the first time they appear within each Book.
(5) The abbreviations T . and G . are used throughout to indicate the translated
text (T .) and the commentary or gloss (G .), the distinction indicated in the orig­
inal manuscript by “ Tiexte” and “ Glose,” by “ T .” and “ G .” and with fair con­
sistency by the use o f two different scriptural styles— the text in lettre de court
and the gloss in lettre bâtarde.
For convenience, the following abbreviations have been used in the footnotes :

Guthrie A r isto tle on the Heavens, Greek text with parallel

English translation by W. K . C. Guthrie (Cambridge,
Mass: Th e Loeb Classical Library, 1939).

Juntas Q uintum Volum en A r isto telis D e coelo, D e generatione

et corruptione, Meteorologicorum, De p la n tis, cum
A verrois Cordubensis variis in eosdem commentariis
(Venetiis apud Iunctas, M D L X II), ff. i - 2 7 i v.
This volume contains both the Moerbeke and
the Michael Scot translation (in italics) with the
Second Commentary o f Averroes accompanying
the latter version, and Averroes’ paraphrase o f
D e caelo, ff. 272-3 36v. “ Averroes” in the foot­
notes refers to Averroes’ commentaries in this
volume.
The complete Juntas edition is now available in
photographic reproduction, pub. Frankfurt, M i­
nerva, 1962, 9 vols, in 14.

St. Augustine, Sancti A u r e lii A u g u stin i episcopi De civitate D e i,

De civitate D e i ex recensione B. Dombart quartum recognovit
A . Kalb (Leipzig: Teubner, 1928-29). Reference
is made to book and chapter numbers, e.g. X X I .8
indicates Book 21, Chapter 8.

A ll footnote references to works o f the Aristotelian corpus in Greek are found

in A r isto te lis opera e x recensione /. B ek k eri (Oxford, 1831-70), 10 vols.; an Editio
altera, addendis instruxit fragmentorum collectionem retractavit O lo f G igo n is in
Introduction
 I

Origin o f the
Translation

“ A t the command o f the very noble and very excellent prince Charles, fifth
o f that name, by the grace o f G o d king o f France,” Nicole Oresme, the foremost
French savant o f the fourteenth century, translated from Latin to French, be­
tween 1370 and 1377, four treatises by the sovereign philosopher Aristotle.
N o official document exists to spell out precisely w hy the king requested these
translations, but it is not difficult to imagine several motives, any one o f which
would have justified the project. Concerning the E th ics, P o litics, and Econom ics,
Oresme himself explained in the preamble to his version o f the E th ics'. “ Pource
] que les livres morals de Aristote furent faiz en grec, et nous les avons en latin
I moult fort a entendre, le R oy a voulu, pour le bien commun, faire les translater
j en François afin que il et ses c o n s d llie r s et autres les puissent mieulx entendre.” 1
' N o one familiar with the medieval Latin versions o f Aristotle will dispute the
accuracy o f Oresme’ s description o f them as “ moult fort a entendre,” and it is hard­
ly surprising that Charles V , in spite o f Christine de Pisan’s assurance that he
“ understood Latin very competently,” 2 should have desired to possess these
works, inherently difficult in substance as well as in style, in a more easily com­
prehensible language. But Charles was not interested solely in his own understand­
ing o f Aristotle. Oresme states explicitly that it was the king’s intention that these
works should be read by the members o f his council and others. It is clear,
therefore, that in this instance translation implied definitely the vulgarization
o f knowledge in a truly social sense. By permitting the use o f his library in the
Louvre and by lending his manuscripts to members o f the nobility and to others
who enjoyed his friendship, this most enlightened o f French monarchs between
Saint Louis and François I pursued throughout his reign (1364-80) a course
calculated to enhance the wisdom o f his entourage and to increase thus the gener­
al welfare o f his subjects. Doubtless, it was this aspect o f his project which
Oresme had in mind in his reference to “ le bien commun.” We know that one
o f the important political innovations o f Charles’s reign, whereby the king’s
council was instructed to elect the royal chancellor, previously an appointive
1 Le Livre de Ethiques, p. 99. 2 Le Livre des fai^ et bonnes moeurs, pt. III,
ch. 12.

3
 4 Introduction
Origin of the Translation | /
office, coincided closely with the completion o f the translation o f the P o litics,
Oresme, the king commissioned his court physician Evrart de Conti to translate
in 1372.3 This coincidence may have been quite fortuitous, but it is not impossible
the pseudo-Aristotelian Problem ata (1372). Also for Charles was executed the
that the king’s council had been prepared for this unprecedented event by a
unique and beautiful copy o f the thirteenth-century French version o f a por­
reading o f Book III o f the P o litics in Oresme’s new French version with his
accompanying commentary.4 tion o f the M eteorologica, now preserved in the Belgian Royal Library.6 It is in­
teresting to note that this earliest vernacular translation o f an Aristotelian scien­
A lover o f learning and o f books in general, Charles V was especially fond o f
tific treatise (ca. 1270) was made by a compatriot o f Oresme, the Norman Mahieu
books in his own language. More than any o f his predecessors he enjoyed reading
le Vilain, native o f Rouen, who is shown in the principal miniature presenting
in the vernacular, and his cabinet des livres in the tower o f the Louvre contained
scores o f French works, many o f them translated at his command. His passion his work to his patron, the Count o f Eu.
A m ong the earlier works translated for Charles were several pertaining to
for books was, moreover, esthetic as well as intellectual. A s Malet’s inventory
astrology. In 1360, when, as dauphin, he established his residence in the Hôtel
indicates, the manuscripts made for him were generally “ très bien historiés.” 5
Saint-Pol, Charles took with him his professional astrologer Pelerin (or Peregrin)
He sought out the best-talent available to illuminate them with splendid miniatures
de Prusse who, besides writing several treatises on astrology, translated from
and vignettes. A desire to possess these Aristotelian treatises in attractive and
Latin to French a number o f short Arabic works o f similar nature.7 Some o f these
beautiful volumes must certainly be accounted an additional reason for his com­
may perhaps be identical with the series o f brief astrological tracts8 found in
mand to Oresme. It is only necessary to recall the great prestige o f Aristotle’s
name in every field o f knowledge at that time to understand w hy this art-conscious
6 Catalogue des mss. de la Bibl. Royale de Bel­phrase o f the spurious Secretum secretorum (ca.
monarch would desire to include among the numerous translated works o f gique, ms. 2903, Traduction des Météores d’A ri­ 1340), all in French; probably the earliest o f
antiquity which he was collecting in his magnificent library easily readable ver­ stote, 102 ff. See the excellent critical edition all is the Italian translation from the Latin o f
by R olf Edgren, Mahieu le Vilain : Les Metheo- the Summa alexandrina, giving excerpts from
sions o f his favorite Aristotelian treatises. Besides the four treatises entrusted to
res d'Aristote. Incipit: “ A [Aujfort, conte d’Eu, the Nicomachean Ethics, cited by Edgren as
3 Cf. Emile Bridrey, Théorie de la monnaie, each individual has some portion o f wisdom fils du roy de Jherusalem, par la grace de Dieu, contemporary with Mahieu’s Metheores. Cf.
p. 456. See also A . Co ville in E. Lavisse, His­ and virtue, and when they have assembled Mahieu le Vilain du N euf Chas tel de Drin- Pinchbeck, Jofroi de Waterford, pp. 6-10.
toire de France, vol. 4 (Paris, 1909), 182-217. together, just as the multitude becomes a court, salut et subjection,” (Text) “ Li philo­ 7 O n astrologers at the court o f Charles V ,
4 Several passages in Book III o f the Poli­ single man with many feet and many hands sophe dit : nous avon dit des premieres causes see Thorndike, Hist, of Magic and Experimental
tics recommend the delegation o f specific seg­ and many senses, so also it becomes one per­ de nature__” The w ork ends abruptly with Science, vol. 3,585-89, and Delachenal, Histoire
ments o f royal authority to carefully selected sonality as regards the moral and intellectual the fourth chapter o f Book III, omitting the de Charles V , vol. 2, 279.
subordinates; for example: “ It is by no means faculties.” (1281b 1-8). Possibly it was Ores­ six chapters o f Book IV entirely. Delisle, “ N o­ 8 The titles given in ms. franç. 1083 are as
easy for one man to superintend many things ; me’s gloss (Bk. Ill, ch. 13, fol. 93d in Avran- tice sur deux livres ayant appartenus au Roy follows: fol. 146a, “ Ci commence le livre des
he will have to appoint a number o f subor­ ches ms. 223) which prompted the king’s ac­ Charles V ,” Notices et extraits des mss. de la jugemens d’astrologie selon Aristote. Le pro­
dinates__I f the good man has a right to rule tion: “ Car aussi comme il est dit devant de Bibl. Nat., vol. 31 ( ière partie, 1884), 1-16, logue du derrenier translateur en le translatant
because he is better, still two good men are ceulz qui contribuent en une dépense, chescun observed that Mahieu’s version, lacking gloss de latin en françois pour très noble et très puis­
better than one. It was Agamemnon’s prayer: de pluseurs treuve aucune chose bonne pour and commentary, is rather a paraphrase than sant prince Charles, aizné filz du Roy de Fran­
‘would that I had ten such counsellors!’ ” la cité et tout ensemble est très bon. Et l’en a literal translation. Edgren believes (p. xii) ce, duc de Normandie et delphin de V ienne...”
(1287b 11, 12-15). Co ville, Histoire de France, dit qu’en ceste maniéré les Apostelz compo­ that the version was probably made for Jean Fol. i7 id , “ Le Livre Messehallac astrologien,
vol. 4, 193-94, cites the following passage as sèrent le Credo, et pour ce est il appellé Sym- de Brienne, comte d’Eu, who died in 1294 and des conjoncions et recepcion es Interrogacions”
apt to have suggested to Charles V the action bolum. Car aussi comme en un escot chescun was petit-fils o f the Roi de Jherusalem, A l­ (apparently, Messahala’s De recepcione)-, fol.
here under discussion: “ The principle that the de eulz en mist une partie. E t semblablement phonse de Brienne ; however, Edgren reserves 183a, “ Traité Messehallac arabe pour savoir la
multitude— the maj ority— ought to be supreme en Sainte Eglise au commencement et apres final judgment. The edition contains reproduc­ pensee et la cogitacion d’aucun qui veult de­
rather than the few best men is one that is quant elle procedoit en prospérité et en crois­ tions o f the three fine miniatures first repro­ mander d’aucune chose” (Messahala’s De occul-
explicable and seems to contain an element o f sance, toutes choses notables estoient ordon­ duced in J.Barrois, Bibliothèqueprotypographique tis); fol. 186c, “ Le Epistre Messehallac des
truth. For the majority— the many— though nées par les conciles generals.” This subject (Paris, 1830), pp. 224, 297, and 322. On the choses des eclipses de la lune et du soleil”
not individually good men, yet when coun­ was first examined by Simeon Luce, “ L ’élec­ early vernacular versions o f Aristotle, see Le (Messahala’s Epistula de lunae eclipsis et plane-
selling together may be better, not individually tion au scrutin de deux chanceliers sous Char­ Livre de Ethiques, Introduction, pp. 4, 39; to tis); fol. 189b, “ Le Livre que fist Zehel des
but collectively, than the few good; just as les V ,” revised, in Fa Guerre de cent ans, vol. I, the items noted there, add a late 12th century jugemens d’astrologie” (Zehel’s D e judiciis
public dinners to which many contribute are 177-202. version o f the spurious Liber de causis, a version asirorum)-, fol. 214c, Table o f contents. A
better than those supplied at one man’s cost; 5 Cf. L. Delisle, Recherches sur la librairie o f the Politics by Pierre de Paris, now lost (see similar collection o f astrological tracts is at­
for it may be argued that where there are many, de Charles V , vol. 2, 24 ff. M. Roques in Hist, littéraire de France, vol. 37 tributed to Pelerin de Prusse by Delachenal,
I1938], 419-88), Jofroi de Waterford’s para­ “ Note sur un manuscrit de la bibliothèque de
 Origin o f the Translation | 7
6 I Introduction
these French versions o f Aristotle is evident from the fact that he prepared two
the Bibl. Nat., ms. franç. 1083, follow ing after Oresme’s L iv re du ciel et du monde
redactions o f the E th ics, three o f the P o litics and spent nearly three years in pre­
and his T ra itié de Fespere. A bout this same time Guillaume Oresme, perhaps
paring L e L iv re du ciel et du monde. The royal treasurer’s records show that Charles
a brother o f Nicole, translated Plato o f T iv o li’s Latin version o f Ptolemy’s
V was not niggardly in recognition o f Oresme’s labors.11 D uring the entire
Q uadripartitum , including Aegidius de Thebaldis’ version o f Haly ibn-Ridwan’s
period o f his preoccupation with this project (1370-77) Oresme continued to
commentary.9 In the preamble to the latter work, Charles is referred to as “ hoir
fill the post o f dean o f the cathedral church o f Rouen, to which he was appointed
de France, a present gouverneur du royalme,” which must signify that this trans­
in 1364, upon the urgent insistence o f the dauphin. Oresme’s fondness for his
lation was made during the period o f John IPs absence in England (1356-60),
native Normandy and in particular for Rouen, its capital city, shows through
when the dauphin Charles was acting as regent. Nicole Oresme wrote in this same
in his occasional mention o f “ ceste Normandie” or “ la ville de Rouen” in glosses
period what is generally assumed to be his earliest treatise attacking judicial
otherwise quite impersonally professional.
astrology, Contra judiciarios astronomos, o f which he prepared a French version,
Whether Aristotle’s D e caelo et mundo was originally included among the treatises
L e L ivre de divinations, perhaps his first work in the vernacular. Oresme’s arguments
which Oresme was asked to translate is a m oot question. However, there can
appear to have had no effect upon Charles. After his accession to the throne in
be little doubt that it was Charles’s interest in astrology that prompted the se­
1364, the king continued to consult an astrologer before any important under­
lection o f this work in preference to some other item in the scientific corpus.
taking, and he called to his service the most celebrated o f contemporary practi­
Probably the translator’s motive was o f a wholly different order. Already, Oresme
tioners o f the art. In 1368, the Italian Thomas o f Bologna became his official
had behind him a long list o f scientific treatises o f his own that bear witness to
astrologer. Returning to the attack, Oresme produced a more elaborate series
his extraordinary interest in the physical universe and his exceptionally keen in­
o f arguments against astrological judgments, Contra divinatores horoscopios (1370).
sight into some o f its central problems.12 These works he had written in Latin
It is a mark o f the tolerance o f the king that, instead o f showing resentment for
for the world o f scholars ; now he wrote in French, and we may accept his own
Oresme’s opposition, he commissioned him at this time to translate “ aucuns
statement o f purpose given in the e x p licit o f D u C ie l et du monde :
livres lesquelx fist Aristote le souverain philosophe” and honored him by making
him his chaplain and perhaps also elevated him to the royal council.10
Et pour animer, exciter et esmouvoir les cuers des jeunes hommes qui ont subtilz et
Thus, in full enjoyment o f his sovereign’s confidence, Oresme set about the
nobles engins et désir de science, afin que il estudient a dire encontre et a moi reprendre
prolonged task o f translating and interpreting three major works o f the prince
pour amour et affection de vérité, je ose dire et me faiz fo rt qu’il n’est honm e m ortel
o f philosophers— the Nicom achean E th ics (1370), the P o litics (1372) and O n the
qui onques veist plus bel ne meilleur livre de philosophie naturele que est cestui, ne en
Heavens (1377); to these must be added the short, spurious Econom ics (1372), ebreu, ne en grec ou arabic, ne en latin, ne en françois (203c).
which was traditionally appended to the P o litics. Th e care Oresme bestowed upon
From this it is clear that Oresme considered his task to be the spreading of
Charles V ,” Bibl. de VEcole des Chartes, vol. 71 tends to confirm the attribution o f Le Quadri- scientific knowledge by means o f the vernacular; the substance o f his commentary,
(1910), 33-38, the manuscript in question partit to Guillaume Oresme, as indicated in the avoiding as it does the more abstruse problems examined e x professo in his Latin
being Arsenal, ms. 2872, ff. 37-84; ff. 85-309CI, manuscripts. However, we cannot be abso­
“ Le Livre des .ix. anciens juges de astrologie” ; tracts, bears out this assumption. Thus the earliest complete and commentated
lutely certain that this prohibition would have
explicit: “ Cestui livre fu translaté de latin en prevailed against an urgent request from the version o f an Aristotelian scientific work in any o f the modern languages was
françoys par maistre Robert Godefroy, maistre regent o f France. not made for the specialist exclusively, but quite definitely for the educated
es ars et astronomien de très noble et puissant 10 Apparently the only evidence that Ores­ layman as well, to acquaint him with the fundamental concepts o f the Aristotelian
prince Charles, ainsné filz du roy de France, me was chaplain to Charles V is his reference system, interpreted and corrected by the translator in the light o f the best available
duc de Normandie et dalphin de Vyannois.” to himself as such in the Prologue to Le Livre
9 Because Latin was prescribed as the offi­ knowledge o f the time. Indeed, the principal interest o f D u C ie l et du monde
de politiques: “ vostre humble chapellain.” In
cial language o f the College o f Navarre, Meu­ Mandements de Charles V , ed. L. Delisle, Item
11 See items 889, 1061, and 1691 in Mande­ See A . Maier, Zwei Grundprobleme, pp. 236-49,
nier held it improbable that Oresme would 1619, p. 804, Oresme is mentioned as “ nostre
ments de Charles V . where this Latin tract is compared with the
have written in French before his resignation amé et féal conseillier, l’evesque de Lisieux.”
12 Oresme had produced an ex professo anal­ French Livre du ciel et du monde, with extensive
(1362) freed him from this prohibition (.La Vie This document is dated January 26, 1377 (old
ysis o f De caelo at least a score o f years earlier, passages cited from both works; see also A .
et les ouvrages de N . O., p. 8). Both Duhem, style). Bridrey, Nicole Oresme, pp. 443-33, dis­
during his pre-magisterial years at Navarre. Maier, Metaphysische Hinfergrmde, pp. 31-38.
Etudes sur Léonard de Vinci, vol. 3, 348, and cusses at length Oresme’s role as an évêque
This work, Quaestiones super librum de celo et and A n der Grenue, pp. 204-07.
Borchert, Die Lehre von der Bewegung bei N . O., politique in the entourage o f Charles V .
p. 10, accepted Meunier’s assumption, which mundo, has been edited by Claudia W. Kren.
 8 | Introduction
Origin o f the Translation | 9
for our own time resides in the glimpse it affords, because o f Oresme’s extensive
the College o f Navarre, a post equivalent in modem terms to the rectorship,
commentary, o f the state o f natural philosophy in the fourteenth century. Since
which he held until 1362. B y far the greater part o f his voluminous Latin works
Oresme was the leading savant o f his age, his criticism o f the Aristotelian system
were almost certainly produced while he was connected with Navarre, between
may fairly be considered to represent the most advanced thought o f the time,
1348 and 1362; his prestige as a scholar o f renown dates from these, his earlier
although his most distinctive and important contributions to knowledge are
years. B y 13 56, Oreme had entered into friendly relations with his future sovereign
contained in other works.
and patron Charles V ; through more than a score o f years their fruitful collabo­
The earliest mention o f Nicole Oresme thus far discovered is the inclusion
ration links their names together in the crowning intellectual achievment o f four­
o f his name, along with that o f Guillaume Oresme, among twenty students en­
teenth century France.
rolled at the College o f Navarre in the fall term o f 1348.13 Nicole was one o f
Oresme left Navarre in 1362 to accept an appointment as canon o f Rouen
six enrolled for theology. Both Oresmes belonged to the Norman “ nation,”
Cathedral. In 1364, he became dean, the position in which he served his king as
and the family name was still found in the city o f Caen in the early years o f the
chaplain and perhaps also as counsellor. It was as dean o f Rouen Cathedral that
eighteenth century. It can be assumed that Nicole was born in that vicinity.
he produced his French translations o f Aristotle. With the king intervening in
The date o f his birth is usually given— though conjecturally— as 1323. Doubtless
his favor, Oresme was elevated to the bishopric o f Lisieux in 13 77. He outlived
it would be wiser to indicate it thus : ca. 13 20-2 5.14
his royal patron by tw o years ; he died in 13 82.16
Alm ost certainly, Oresme had obtained the master’s degree in arts prior to
his entry at Navarre. This was the customary routine, and w e find him referred
to as “ magister artium” in several manuscripts, though more frequently as “ re-
verendus doctor,” his theological title. A t the time, there was a rather strict
requirement o f eight years o f study for the doctorate in theology. Assuming that
Oresme followed this pattern, his studies at Navarre occupied the span o f years
1348-56, and his studies in the arts faculty probably began in 1342.15 Where he
obtained the degree in arts remains unknown, but that he was well grounded
in natural philosophy as well as in theology appears certain from his subsequent
accomplishments. Upon receiving the master’s licence, equivalent to our modern
doctorate, in theology in 1356, Oresme was at once appointed grand master o f

13 Cf. Denifle et Châtelain, Cbartularium,
vol. 2, 641, n. 3; this confirms C. E. Du
Boulay, Historia universitatis parisiensis, vol. 4,
977 -
14 Meunier, Essai sur... N . O., p. 6, was ap­
parently the first to set this date; most others
have added a plus or minus, and we have no
desire to disturb an established tradition. H ow ­
ever, if Oresme was born in 1323, it may be
noted that he could not have attained the 35
years o f age required o f masters in theology
in 1356. O n this age requirement, see Thurot,
V Enseignement dans T Université de Paris au
moyen âge, pp. 151 ff. ; cf. also RashdaWs Euro­
pean Universities, vol. i, 472. O n Oresme’s
family, cf. Feret, La Faculté de Théologie, vol. 3,
289.
15 “ Dass Oresme auch Magister artium war,
ist durch handschriftlichen Notizen des ms.
522 (Arsenal) und des ms. lat. 2831 der Bibl.
Nat. belegt__Ueber die Zeit und Dauer sei­
ner Tâtigkeit als Magister artium sind wir nur
auf Vermutungen angewiesen. Mit einigen
Sicherheit kann man annehmen dass die Kom-
mentare zu dennaturwissenschaftlichen Schrif-
ten des Aristoteles und wohl auch die mathe-
matischen Schriften in dieser Zeit entstanden
sind” ; Borchert, Der Einfluss des Nominalismus,
pp. 12 -13 ,n - 34- The explicits o f two 15 th cent­
ury ms. copies o f Oresme’s Questiones super de
anima refer to the author as magister artium as 16 The following summary o f precise dates Cathedral on November 23, 1362; he became
o f major events adequately substantiated is canon at La Sainte Chapelle in Paris on Fe­
well as reverendus doctor and the explicit o f Mu­
cited from Denifle et Châtelain, Cbartularium, bruary 10, 1363 ; he was named dean o f Rouen
nich, Clem. 761 reads: “ secundum Nicolaum
vol. 2, 641 and passim, from Gallia Christiana, Cathedral on March 18, 1364, and was made
Horem in vico Straminis disputata. . . ” which
vol. 11 (Paris, 1759), col. 789, and from Feret, bishop o f Lisieux August 3, 1377; he received
René Mathieu interprets to mean in the halls
La Faculté de théologie, vol. 7, 459-75 : Oresme the gift o f two valuable rings from Charles
o f the Faculty o f Arts, where the Ecole de la
entered the College o f Navarre in the fall o f V on January 28, 1378. Oresme died July 11,
Nation normande occupied the present site o f
1348; he received the master’s licence in theo­ 1382. For a fuller account o f Oresme’s career,
n° 8, rue du Fouarre, Paris Ve. Cf. R. Mathieu,
logy in July, 1356, and became grand master of consult Le Livre de éthiques, Introduction, pp.
“ A la Recherche du De anima de N . O .,” p.
Navarre on October 4, 1356. He left Navarre 10-21.
2-5 5-
in July, 1362, to become canon at Rouen
 Oresme’s Translation and Commentary | 11

the Greek texts. In the proemium to the L iv re de éthiques, Oresme set forth the
II guiding principles under which he proposed to carry out his commission to render
Aristotle into French: “ Je doy estre excusé en partie,” he writes, “ se je ne parle
en ceste matière si proprement, si clerement et si ordeneement comme il fust
Oresme’s Translation and mestier ; car... je ne ose pas esloingnier mon parler du texte de Aristote, qui est
en pluseurs lieux obscur, afin que je ne passe hors son intencion et que je ne faille.” 2

Commentary After this declaration, we are prepared for a literal rendering ; but actually, Oresme
took no inconsiderable liberties with his originals. His translations are indeed
so free that they may be considered as paraphrases, and it is certain that he frequently
interpolated phrases and expressions not present in the original Latin text. This
he did in order to make the vernacular version abundantly clear to lay readers.
Like the vast majority o f Western European scholars o f the 14th century, His translations are free in the best sense o f the term. Their characteristic qualities
Oresme knew no Greek. His translations o f Aristotle were all made from medieval may be seen at a glance when corresponding passages o f the Latin and French
Latin versions, and in every instance he chose as his original the Latin text trans­ texts are placed in juxtaposition:
lated directly from the Greek. In the case o f the E th ics and the D e caelo, for which
Arabic-Latin versions were available, he used the latter very sparingly as secondary D e caelo, ed. Juntas,3 D u C ie l et du monde, I, 24,
texts; he referred to them occasionally in his commentary as “ l’autre translation.” 66d-67a. fols. 34bcd~35bc.
Simul autem manifestum est quod neque Avec ce puet apparoir que hors le ciel
There were tw o Arabic-Latin translations o f the D e caelo, and there is no evidence
locus neque vacuum, neque tempus est ou hors ce monde n’est lieu ne vieu ne
that Oresme consulted the earlier (ca. 1170) by Gerard o f Cremona; he often cites
extra caelum. In omni enim loco, corpus temps, quar en tout lieu puet estre corps.
the commentary by Averroes which accompanied Michael Scot’s translation
esse possibile est. Vacuum autem esse di- Et ceulz qui dient que vieu puet estre,
from the Arabic (ca. 1230), and the quotation from “ l’autre translation” in fol. dient que vieu est la ou n’est quelconques
cunt, in quo non est corpus possibile autem
4c is taken from the translatio S cotti, as Scot’s version was called in the Renaissance. corps, et est possible que aucun corps y
est esse. Tempus autem est numerus mo­
It appears, therefore, that Oresme ignored the older Arabic-Latin version, but tus, motus autem sine naturali corpore non soit. Et temps est nombre et mesure de
kept Scot’s translation o f Aristotle’s text and the same Englishman’s version o f est. mouvement. Et mouvement n’est pas sans
Averroes’ M iddle Commentary constantly at hand. In the course o f his commen­ Extra autem caelum quod neque est ne­ corps naturel, et il est monstré devant que
tary, Oresme cites Averroes more than one hundred times. que contingit esse corpus ostensum est. hors le ciel n’est et ne puet estre quelcon­
The basic text o f Oresme’s Latin original was the so-called nova translatio Manifestum igitur est quod neque locus, ques corps. Et donques appert il que hors
neque vacuum, neque est extrinsecus. Qua- le ciel n’est lieu ne vieu ne temps. Et pour
from Greek to Latin, begun by Robert o f Lincoln (ca. 1250) and corrected and
propter neque quae illic sunt, nata sunt in ce, les choses qui sont yleuques ne sont
completed by William o f Moerbeke about 1265.1 From the time o f its adoption
loco esse, neque tempus ipsa facit senes- pas habiles a estre en lieu, ne temps ne les
by Saint Thomas Aquinas as the basic text for his Commentary, the nova translatio
cere, neque ulla transmutatio ullius eorum fait enviellir, quar nulle transformation ne
superseded the older versions. There are manuscript copies o f the nova translatio
est, qui super extima disposita sunt latione, puet estre de quelconques des choses qui
which contain also William’s translation (1271) o f Simplicius’ sixth-century sont sus ce qui est meu ordeneement. Mais
sed inalterabilia et impassibilia, optimam
commentary. Possibly, Oresme used such a manuscript as his original, one per­ ces choses sont sanz alteration et impassi­
habentia vitam et per se sufficientissimam
haps closely similar to Toulouse, ms. 733, ff. 245-67 or to Rennes, ms. 149, ff. persévérant toto aevo. Etenim hoc nomen bles, et ont vie très bonne, et par soy très
119-36, both o f the thirteenth century, with Simplicius commentary partly divine enunciatum est ab Antiquis; finis sufisante et parfaite, et l’ont en tôt le temps
marginal and partly interlinear. enim quod continet vitae uniuscuiusque pardurable. Car cest nom pardurable fu par
A ll William’s translations from the Greek are characterized by an extreme tempus, cuius nihil est extra secundum na- les anciens enoncié et aproprié a la divinité
literalness, to the extent that they have proved highly serviceable in reestablishing
2 Le Livre de éthiques, p. 100, fol. 2a. translation o f De caelo accompanied by A ver­
1 Book II and fragments o f Books I and III Latin version and added the missing portions 3 The reference is to vol. 5 o f the Juntas roes’ Middle Commentary. The fifth volume
were translated from a Greek original by Rob- o f Books I and III with Book IV to complete edition o f Aristotelis omnia quae extant opera contains besides the De caelo, the De generatione
ert Grosseteste, bishop o f Lincoln, about the work. (see Bibliography) containing Moerbeke’s ver­ et corruptions, Meteorologicorum, and D e plantis,
1250; William revised this earliest Greco- sion given here, along with Michael Scot’s with Averroes’ commentaries.

10
 12 Introduction
turam, aevum uniuscuiusque vocatum est.
Secundum eandem autem rationem et to-
tius celi finis, et finis omne tempus ac
infinitatem continens, aevum est ab eo
quod sit semper, sumpta de nominatione,
immortale et divinum. Unde et aliis pen-
det, his quidem exactius, his autem obscu-
rius esse et vivere. Etenim, quemadmodum
in vulgaribus sententiis circa divina saepe
declaratur rationibus quod divinum ipsum
intransmutabile esse necesse est omne, pri-
mum et maxime summum. Quid sic se
habens attestatur iis quae dicta sunt, neque
enim aliud melius est, quod moveat; illud
enim esset utique divinius, neque habet
pravitatem ullam, neque indigens suorum
bonorum ullo est. E t incessabili utique
motu movetur rationabiliter ; omnia enim
quae moventur, quiescunt, cum venerint
in proprium locum. Eius autem corporis
quod circulariter movetur, idem est locus
unde incoepit et in quem finit.
D e caelo, ed. Juntas, i6id.
Nos autem dicamus primum utrum ha-
beat motum, an maneat. Nam uti diximus,
alii quidem ipsam unum astrorum esse fa-
ciunt, alii autem in medio ponentes, volvi
et moveri dicunt circa medium polum.
Quod autem impossibile sit, manifestum
est sumpto principio, quod si fertur sive in
medio existens, sive extra medium, neces-
sarium est ipsam violentia moveri hoc mo­
tu, non enim ipsius terrae est : etenim par-
ticularum unaquaeque hanc haberet latio-
nem: nunc autem super recta omnes
ou aus choses divines, pource que la fin
qui contient le temps de la vie de quel­
conques chose, duquel temps rien de ceste
chose n’est hors selonc nature, il l’appel-
loient le pardurable ou l’eternité ou siecle
de celle chose. Et selon ceste rayson, la fin
de tout le monde et tout le temps et la
perfection qui contient infinité est pardu-
rableté et prent sa denomination ou est
ainsi dicte de ce qui est chose inmortelle
et divine. Et de ce est as autres choses com­
muniqué et dirivé estre et vivre, as unes
plus clerement et as autres plus obscuré­
ment. Quar si comme il est mainte foys
declairé par raysons es livres des choses di­
vines, ce qui est divin et premier et souve­
rain est intransmuable par neccessité et ne
puet estre transmué. Et ce que il est en
ceste maniéré donne testimonie aus choses
devant dictes. Quar se telle chose estoit
transmuée ou meue, celle qui la mouvroit
seroit meilleur de la chose dessus dicte.
Item, il n’a en soy rien de mal ne defaut de
quelconques bien. E t donques s’ensuit il
par rayson que il moeve le ciel par mouve­
ment qui onques ne cesse, quar toutes cho­
ses qui sont meues et cessent de leur mou­
vement et repousent, c’est quant elles sont
venues en leur propre lieu. Et du corps qui
est meu circulairement, le lieu est un meis-
me, et dont il commence et la ou il fine.
D u C ie l et du monde, II, 29,
fol. i48d.
Nous dirons donques premièrement, a
savoir mon se la terre a mouvement ou re­
pos, car si comme nous avons dit, les uns
dient que elle tourne environ le centre aus­
si comme une autre estoille ; les autres met­
tent que elle est ou milieu et que elle est
tournee et revolute environ son centre et
environ son pole ou ses poles. Mais que
ce soit impossible il appert : premièrement,
car posé que elle soit hors le milieu ou en
milieu, il convient par neccessité que mou­
vement circulaire lui fust violent, car tel
Oresme’s Translation and Commentary | 13
feruntur ad medium ; quapropter cum vio­ mouvement n’est pas naturel a la terre.
Car chascune partie de elle avroit tel mou­
lentia sit et praeter naturam, non possibile
vement, et nous voions que toutes tendent
est sempiternam esse: mundi autem ordo
au milieu par mouvement droit. Et don­
sempiternus est.
ques seroit ce mouvement circulaire vio­
lent a la terre. Et ce ne est pas possible
que chose violente et qui est hors nature
soit perpetuele, et l’ordre du monde est
perpétuel.
These representative passages demonstrate somewhat the extent o f Oresme’s
ingenuity as translator. Clearly, he was no slave to the letter o f the original,
yet his rendering is faithful to the meaning o f the text. His usual practice, where
no precise equivalent o f a Latin term yet existed in French, was the relatively
simple one o f turning the Latin into French by dropping a case ending or by al­
tering a verb tense to conform to the French system. For example, in the passage
above, dixim us becomes nous avons d it; a lii dicunt volvi et moveri becomes les autres
m ettent que e lle ... est tournee et revolute; prent sa denomination is followed by the ex­
planatory expression est ainsi dicte. In this last example, denomination is borrowed
directly from the Latin original; it is known as a caique in French, meaning a
direct copy or tracing o f the source word. In Oresme’s French translations
these caiques number several hundred. N o t all o f them have survived— denomination
has— but in this way Oresme enriched the French language with several hundred
neologisms that have become indispensable words in everyday use, such as
angulaire, concurrence, distinguer, excepté, gravité, moteur, ovale, profondeur, révolu,
triangulaire, utile— chosen at random from the scores o f caiques introduced into
the French language in the single work D u C ie l et du monde. Oresme’s occasional
interpolations generally assist the understanding o f the original, and his French,
in spite o f its heavy burden o f neologisms, conveys the feeling o f originality
and spontaneity. O n the general excellence o f Oresme’s workmanship, the fore­
most nineteenth century translator o f Aristotle from the Greek, Barthélemy
Saint-Hilaire, commented: “ L ’oeuvre d’Oresme est faite avec le plus grand soin
__ A u mérite d’être la première traduction en langue moderne, celle d’Oresme
en joint un autre: c’est celui de la clarté, de cette classification des choses, de cette
netteté qui sont toutes françaises__ A l’époque ou vivait Oresme, il n’existait
peut-être point en Europe un autre homme capable d’en faire autant que lui.*”
As in his earlier translations from Aristotle, in D u C ie l et du monde Oresme does
not follow the chapter divisions found in the Latin original. For the sake o f clarity
he divides again and again, and his chapter headings might well serve as a use­
ful outline o f the contents o f the work. Taken as a whole, the commentary inter-
4 J. Barthélemy de Saint-Hilaire. Les Politi- contributions to French lexical wealth has
ques d’Aristote, vol. 1 (Paris, 1837), Préface, p. been exceeded only twice— by Rabelais and by
xxvii. The importance o f Oresme’s permanent Hugo.
 Oresme’s Translation and Commentary U
*4 Introduction
Throughout his commentary upon D e caelo Oresme inserted short references to
spersed throughout is more voluminous than the text; it is the most extensive
parallel or analogous passages in other parts o f the text or in other Aristotelian
in any o f his four translations. W ith the exception o f three rather extended passa­
works. Such references are comparable to the footnotes accompanying a modern
ges, the comment in L es E thiqu es hardly deserves to be called “ commentary;”
work o f similar type. In this manner, the translator bound the work together
it might more properly be designated “ gloss.” In the L ivre de p olitiques, the transla­
in a closely knit unity o f organization, and this unity o f the whole is constantly
tor’s contribution is much greater; many passages deserve to be called “ com­
emphasized. Finally, in order to make easier the use o f such a compendious
mentary.” Roughly, the proportion o f commentary to text in L e s P olitiques
work, Oresme added at the end (fols. 203d-2o8c) a table o f “ choses notables”
is about one half that in D u d e l. In the latter work, the most extensive commen­
— a topical summary o f the translator’s principal commentaries, with chapter ref­
tary appears in B ook II; the last two Books contain proportionately far less
erences indicated. This helpful outline o f Oresme’s strictures upon the text
original material. This material ranges over a vast field o f subjects, dealing with
bears witness to his fondness for orderly, analytical arrangement as well as
the physical and cosmological speculations o f the original text. Sometimes
his concern for the reader’s convenience. W ith the addition o f folio references,
Oresme points out an inconsistency between a passage in D e caelo and a related
Aristotelian text, most frequently the Physics. Again, he explains the terse lan­ this table becomes a serviceable index.

guage o f Aristotle analytically, in simple terms that an educated layman might

be expected to comprehend, with examples drawn from concrete instances in
nature or easily observed experience. Frequently, the commentator brings out
a significant relationship between a statement o f Aristotle and the doctrine o f
the Church; when a conflict appears to exist between the two, he seeks to show
by logical argument why the doctrine o f the Church may reasonably be accepted
as true. Often he finds himself at odds with the principle expressed in the text;
on such occasions— and they are numerous— we may expect an extended com­
ment involving skillful discussion o f abstruse problems— the character o f a
continuum, the existence o f a vacuum, infinity and indivisibles, the nature and
the laws o f motion, the measure o f velocities, the plurality o f worlds, the rotation
o f the earth, the intensification and remission o f qualities— these and many other
subjects that challenged the best thought o f fourteenth-century science received
thoughtful treatment in Oresme’s commentary. These are the sections that offer
the maximum interest to the modern reader. Because o f their bearing upon the
science o f the time their importance has been widely recognized since Duhem
began, at the beginning o f the present century, his exciting revelation o f their
significant role in the evolution o f scientific thought. Duhem published and dis­
cussed substantial portions o f medieval scientific works. Despite his occasional
overestimation and wrongheaded interpretation o f his materials, we owe to
him the restoration to their rightful place in the history o f science o f numerous
scholars o f a long undervalued age.
N o prominent figure o f the fourteenth century has profited more from D u -
hem’s reconstruction o f the scientific past than Nicole Oresme, and o f all his
writings the D u d e l has become the most controversial and the best known.5

5 Duhem’s first quote from Du d e l appear-
ed in “ Un Précurseur français de Copernic:
Nicole Oresme,” pp. 866-73, in connection
with the now famous passage (Book II, ff.
I38b-i44c) in which Oresme discusses at
length and finally rejects the hypothesis o f
daily rotation o f the earth. Since this entrée en
scène, many scholars have cited this work and
have published passages more or less extensive
from it.

Ill
Brief Summary o f Oresme’s
Commentary
Oresme begins his commentary1 with full and clear definitions o f several
technical terms that will be encountered many times in the course o f the follow­
ing pages— terms introduced in the text also at the beginning, such as continu,
magnitude, divisible, ligne, longitude, spissitude, dimension, etc. (3c). H e notes that in
common speech, the longest dimension o f an object is called longitude, the next
in length latitude, and the shortest spissitude ou profondeur (4a). T o Aristotle’s
remark that “ three is the sum o f all possible dimensions,” he adds a reference
to this topic in the pseudo-Ovidian D e V etu la , adding that “ en chascune chose
est aucune trinité” (4c). This leads to a discussion o f the Pythagorean tradition
o f the mystic significance o f the number three, with citations from V irgil and the
L iv re des mystères des nombres and also a few examples drawn from arithmetic and
geometry (5 a). Oresme explains how a m oving point traces a line, a m oving
line traces a surface and a m oving surface traces a solid body (5d). The theologi­
cal connotation o f the term trinity is expounded at length (6abcd).
According to their nature, all corporeal things are capable o f motion— the
heavens, the four elements and all possible combinations o f the four elements—
either to their natural locus when they are accidentally displaced, or within their
natural locus as, for example, the heavenly spheres. Anticipating upon his specu­
lation that the earth may m ove (92b-94c, I38b-i44c), even though Aristotle
and Averroes held that the center o f the universe must o f necessity remain motion­
less, Oresme refers the reader to his discussion o f this question, declaring briefly
that daily rotation is possible and that it is perhaps necessary that the earth
be m oved “ aucune foys” — occasionally (7a). A ll motion must be (1) in a straight
line (2) circular or (3) mixed, i.e., composed o f (1) and (2). There are three kinds
o f simple motion: (1) in a straight line away from the center o f the earth (2) in
a straight line towards the center o f the earth and (3) circular motion around the
1 For editorial clarification o f the commen­ duction (pp. xix-xxix) to his Science of Mechanics
tary summarized in this chapter the reader is
in the Middle Ages affords the indispensable
requested to turn to the footnotes accompany­ general perspective for comparing Oresme’s
ing the original French text, conformable to views with those o f his contemporaries.
the folio references. Marshall Clagett’s Intro­
16
Brief Summary o f the Commentary | 77
center o f the earth. Simple bodies will have simple motions, while mixed bodies
will have mixed motions, i.e., straight and circular combinations or straight up
and straight down combinations (8ab). But this statement requires lengthy
explanation : Oresme gives several examples o f mixed motion— a fly walks along
the handle o f a lance which is being moved in the opposite direction ; a man walks
across the deck o f a ship which is proceeding forward; the sun has a daily motion
differing from the motion o f its sphere; the motion o f the planets is a further
example o f mixed motion (8bcd). Such mixed motions are controlled by the motive
quality which predominates in the object moved (9b), which makes it necessary
to know the qualities or properties o f the four elements o f the sublunar world,
each o f which has naturally a straight linear motion; the natural motion o f the
heavenly bodies is circular (9d). Each element seeks its natural locus, according
to Aristotle; but Oresme imagines a situation in which air is forced to descend
to the center o f the earth, to show that by violence or constraint the elements
may move contrary to their natural motion (10a).
Contrary motion is explained (iobc). Fire naturally ascends; but i f fire be made
to descend, this constitutes a contrary motion for this element. Aristotle maintains
that any motion can have only one contrary, but Oresme points out that if fire
is moved in a circle, such motion would represent a second contrary, which is
contrary to logic. Therefore, circular motion in the case o f fire does not consti­
tute a contrary motion, which explains why it is possible for the sphere o f fire
to move in its orbit without violence (10c). It is the natural circular motion o f the
celestial spheres which causes the celestial fire to m ove in a circle, contrary to the
natural linear motion o f fire ordinarily observed here below. Thus is manifested
the power o f the higher— and consequently, nobler— spheres above the spheres
o f the elements to determine the motion o f all the celestial bodies (11c). The
planets are nearer to the earth at certain times than at others, but this is not due
to linear motion; it is attributable to the fact that the planets move in epicycles.
Comets have linear motion; but comets are not really stars at all, as Aristotle
has shown in the first Book o f M eteors (i2d).
The heavens are not subject to the ordinary effects o f generation and corrup­
tion by heat, cold, health, taste, etc., for they were not created by the natural
processes of change from one state o f being to another, but were divinely created
by G o d (13 d). Aristotle maintains that the heavens are incorruptible, since no
change had been observed in their appearance before his time. But Oresme
notes that Varro, the Latin encyclopedist o f the first century B.C., declared on
the authority o f certain ancient mathematicians that in the time o f K in g O gyges
the sun changed its color, its strength, its appearance, and its course. A t that
time occurred a great flood— about 760 B.C. (14b). Moreover, the sun stopped
completely in the time o f Joshua and was eclipsed at the time o f the crucifixion.
This is Oresme’s first mention o f the biblical account o f Joshua; he uses it on
several occasions to disprove the idea o f incorruptibility (92d, 95 b, 142a, 144a)
 i S | Introduction
and to prove the power o f divine might to accomplish supernatural actions, such
as the creation o f the world so positively denied in the Peripatetic thesis that the
world had neither beginning nor end. This teaching, contrary to the Christian
doctrine o f creation, had been vigorously condemned by all previous Christian
commentators o f D e caelo, and Oresme spares no pains to refute it here and in
several other passages (14c).
It is true, as Aristotle states, that circular motion has no contrary. However,
it is possible to imagine the heavens or any spherical body turned about on its
poles so that the effect produced would be to give the appearance o f contrary
motion. Thus we can credit, in part at least, the statements o f Pomponius Mela
and Solinus that the sun now sets where it formerly rose. This is, o f course, not
literally true, for the world has not yet existed long enough for the arctic pole
to reach the position once occupied by the antarctic pole. But such a phenomenon
is imaginable if we concede that the earth itself moves, as will be shown in the
discussion o f this latter possibility in later chapters (92b~94c, I38b-i44c). This
passage (16b) prepares us for Oresme’s cogent reasons arguing for the daily ro­
tation o f the earth.
O n the basis o f the mathematical theory o f infinite series, it is conceivable
that a body m oving in a circle might pass through infinite space in a finite period
o f time or conversely, through a given space in infinite time. But this could not
happen in nature ; for the heavenly bodies proceed at a fixed rate o f speed and do
not increase or decrease their speed according to any mathematical proportion.
It might be said that above and beyond the heavens w e see, other heavens could
exist in infinite number, moving at various rates o f speed. This is imaginable,
but it is naturally impossible because the movement o f natural bodies is fixed
at a certain speed. Parts o f a m oving body may slow down to zero speed, but
they cannot increase their speed beyond that o f the parent body. T o imagine that
many heavens exist beyond the heavens we see is pure speculation and is contrary
to appearances and disproved in philosophy (i9ab).
T o refute Aristotle’s theory that a body moves at a rate o f speed proportionate
to its weight, Oresme introduces an argument drawn from the “ impetus impres-
sus” concept o f motion, widely subscribed to at the time by the Parisian School
o f natural philosophers and frequently cited in the course o f the present work.
Oresme declares that the rate o f speed is not determined by the proportional
increase or decrease o f the puissance motive, but rather by the increase or decrease
o f the proportion between the puissance motive and the resistance o f the body.
For example, i f 18 can move 8 in 1 day, the puissance required to m ove 8 in 2 days
will not be 9, but rather 12, and the puissance required to m ove 8 in 4 days would be
greater than 8 in a proportion “ which cannot be expressed in rational numbers and
is called medietas sesquialtere,” meaning the square root o f one and one-half (21c)2.
2 Cf. Clagett, Science of Mechanics, pp. 463- summarized briefly by A . Maier, Zwischen
64. The variant details o f the impetus theory Philosophie und Mechanik, p. 344, n. 1.
expressed by various leading exponents are
Brief Summary o f the Commentary | 19
Against Aristotle’s statement that an infinite body must extend infinitely in
every direction, Oresme contends that one can imagine a body infinite in only
one dimension, which would be no less infinite than a body infinite in all dimen­
sions. It would be possible, he declares, to draw conclusions far more wonderful
from this hypothesis, but he restrains himself “ quant a present” (23a). T o Aris­
totle’ s suggestion that the weight o f a falling object increases proportionately
to the speed and conversely, that the speed increases proportionately to the weight,
Oresme reverts again to the impetus theory and declares that this supposed in­
crease in weight is an accidental quality caused by the enforcement that results
from the increased speed. O n this subject, he refers the reader to a passage in his
Q uestions on the Physics, Book V II, Questiones 8-10, fols. 77-79, where he treats
rather superficially the principal features o f the theory. Enforcem ent is an accidental
quality inherent in any body in motion and may best be called im pétuosité', it
must not be confused with the weight o f the m oving object, for a stone weighing
one pound, being dropped from a point one league above the earth, would not
naturally weigh more at one part o f its descending course than at another point.
This impetuosity is present in all kinds o f motion, natural or violent, whenever
the speed increases, except in the motion o f the celestial spheres (30a). H eavy
bodies fall faster than light bodies, but any object moved by force moves more
slowly at the end o f its flight than at the beginning. This is because o f the impetus
imparted to the mobile by the mover. Th e speed increases for a period while
this impetus is in effective ascendency; then the speed decreases because o f re­
sistance (30b). From this general rule Oresme excepts the motion o f iron attracted
by a magnet, which he states to be faster the nearer the iron approaches the magnet
( 3°d).
Against the Peripatetic doctrine that there can be but one world Oresme argues
along theological lines o f reasoning that such a theory is not sufficiently proven.
H e follows the injunction stated in Article 34 o f the theses condemned at Paris
in 1277, against the teaching “ that the first cause (i.e., G od) cannot make more
than one world.3” Th e condemnation o f this Averroist-Aristotelian teaching
reflects the strong reaction by the Augustinian-oriented Faculty o f Th eology
in Paris at that time. This anti-Aristotelian wing, conservative and traditional,
had long resisted any infringement whatsoever o f the attributes o f divine power.
Building upon the Platonic principle o f plenitude,4 it could be argued, as Oresme
summary o f Platonic concepts dealing with
3 The 219 theses condemned by the bishop
o f Paris, Stephen Tempier, are contained in science by Dijksterhuis, The Mechanisation of
full and classified in P. Mandonnet, Siger de the World Picture, pp. 13-17, is excellent. The
Brabant et /’Averroisme latin au x iiime siècle subject o f cosmological plurality was long
(Louvain, 1911), pt. II, pp. 175-91; also, un­ debated and variously discussed; Avicenna,
classified, in Denifle et Châtelain, Chartula- Metaphysices Compendium, ed. N. Carame(Rome,
rium, vol. 1, 545-55. 1926), I, 4, tratt. I, 1, provided the mainstream
4 Cf. A . O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of o f medieval theorizing, supplying the principal
Being (Cambridge, Mass., 1936), ch. 4. The ideas; nearly every commentator on Aristotle
 20 Introduction Brief Summary o f the Commentary | 21

phrases it, that “ several primary bodies and several varieties o f movement
exist, and all these worlds and their movers are under a sovereign creator” (31b).
Rejecting the doctrine o f a single possible world, Oresme summarizes the
arguments in favor o f the Platonic view in this longest commentary in Book I
(350-390). First, he assumes the possibility o f a succession o f worlds following
one another in time, after the manner suggested by Empedocles, whose theory
Aristotle will presently refute (41a). Second, Oresme presents “ another specula­
tion which I should like to toy with as a mental exercise” (36a), the possibility
o f one world being contained within another, employing all the strings o f the
Scholastic instrument o f dialectic to prove that this possibility must not be ruled
out. A t the end, however, he admits that there is little likelihood that this hypo­
thesis is true, and one should not assume a thing to be true which has no appear­
ance o f truth or support an opinion whose contrary is probably true. Just the
same, it is good to have considered if this might be possible (36a). Third, the possi­
bility o f worlds existing outside our world must be considered. It is clear from
the drift o f his argument that Oresme was quite impressed by his own arguments
for this theory, which Giordano Bruno was to develop later into his apocalyptic
vision o f an infinite universe run in accordance with the Copernican system o f
celestial mechanics. The contention that the element o f earth in worlds outside
our world would be attracted to the earth o f our world as to its natural place
Oresme rejects, declaring that the earth o f other worlds than our own might
just as naturally be attracted to the earth o f other worlds o f which it was a part
(36d). It is easy to refute the argument that since there is but one G o d , there
can be but one world with the answer that the one G o d is infinite and that an
infinite number o f worlds would be within the scope o f His infinite power to
create. T h e statement that all matter is contained in our present world is refuted
b y the fact that G o d has the power to create a world e x nihilo,5 The doctrine that
nothing can exist above or beyond the outermost celestial sphere is not accept­
able to Oresme, for whom this presumed void becomes infinite space wherein
G o d could create infinite worlds at His pleasure (38c). Actually, however, there
has never been but one corporeal world and probably there never will be, just
as Aristotle has maintained (39c). In the preceding commentary Oresme exhibits
the deference which continued to be shown to the list o f the condemned theses
o f 1277, despite the fact that the prohibition had been lifted a half-century
before, in 1325. Buridan had raised the same problems in his Q uestiones de caelo et
mundo\ “ Whether, i f there are several worlds, the earth o f one world would
move naturally toward the center o f another world” (Bk. I, Q u. 18), and “ Whether
there can exist several worlds” (Bk. I, Qu. 19). Buridan’ s answer to the latter
question is, after much argument pro and con: “ I grant that G o d is able to make
other worlds.” 6 Oresme’s insistence upon the infinite space beyond the celestial
sphere conforms to the 1277 prohibition against teaching “ that G o d cannot
move the heavens with right motion; and the reason is that in such case a vacuum
would be left” (no. 49).7
Pursuing his explanation o f Aristotle’ s use o f the term p ossib ilité (potence),
and its opposite, Oresme enters into a discussion o f commensurability and in­
commensurability, referring his readers to his Latin treatise D e commensurabi-
litate vel incom m ensurabilitate motuum cell.8 T o refute the doctrine that everything
that has a beginning must have an end, he falls back again upon the evidence
supplied by the infinite series which never terminates.9 Following this line o f
reasoning, Oresme assumes that it is possible, on the basis o f incommensurable
magnitudes, to conceive o f a motion which never began that will end at a given
time; it is also possible to conceive o f a motion which began at a given moment
that will continue without end. It is amusing to find Oresme accusing Aristotle
and Averroes o f sophistry and declaring his inability to show the fallacy in their
logic, after his own extended excursus into mathematical subtleties dealing with
the notion o f infinity, so important in the annals o f the history o f the calculus.
Am id this rash o f conjectures about infinite series one can sense, lurking fur­
tively and undetected b y the theorizer himself, the notion o f the convergence
o f sequences. Th e complete definition o f this notion was still nearly five centuries
in the future, although Oresme and his contemporaries were aware that cer­
tain convergent series summed. This commentary (44a-47a) offers a striking
example o f the “ rationalistic orgy o f the Middle A ges,” as Whitehead termed it;10
at the same time, it contains several “ ymaginations” that tend to justify and vin­
dicate medieval faith in sheer rationality.
Oresme has divided Chapter X I I o f his Latin original into six chapters o f very
unequal length. Against Aristotle’s doctrine o f an ungenerated and indestructi-

noted Avicenna’s opinion, generally concur­
ring. However, the so-called Averroists upheld
Aristotle’s thesis that there can be no more
than one world. See Duhem, “ Léonard et la
pluralité des mondes,” Etudes sur L . de Vinci,
vol. 2, 55-96, which resumes much o f the
earlier debates. With Fontenelle’s Entretiens
sur la pluralité des mondes (1686) the subject be­
came interestingly popularized on the eve o f
the publication o f Newton’s Principia (1687),
in which the answer given was in the affirma­
tive. The origin o f the idea is told briefly by
Clagett, Greek Science in Antiquity, pp. 52, 88-
89.
5 The contrary thesis was condemned in
Article 185 o f the Decree o f 1277. See Man-
donnet, Siger de Brabant, p. 189: “ Quod non
est verum, quod aliquid fiat ex nihilo, neque
factum sit in prima creatione.”
6 Buridan, Quaestiones super libris quattuor de
caelo et mundo, p. 90: “ concedo quod Deus
potest facere plures alios mundos.”
7 Mandonnet, Siger de Brabant, p. 181:
“ Quod Deus non possit movere celum motu
recto. Et ratio est, quia tunc relinqueret va­
cuum.”
8 A critical edition o f this work is in prep­
aration by Edward Grant.
9 Oresme’s originality in this field will be­
come better known only when we have an
analysis o f the contents o f his recently recov­
ered Questiones super septem libros Physicorum.
The best synopsis o f medieval notions about
these highly significant items in the history o f
mathematics, especially o f the calculus, is
found in Boyer’s History of the Calculus, pp.
65-78.
10 A . N . Whitehead, Science and Modern
Thought (New Y o rk : Macmillan, 1925), p. 22.
 22 | Introduction Brief Summary o f the Commentary | 2y
ble world, Oresme marshals all the subtleties o f his logical razor, expanding his
assumption with the intelligences as movers. O n this subject, Oresme holds to
previous argument (3 5a-39c), citing Scripture, O vid, D e generatione, and the Physics
the traditional explanation o f celestial motion, denying the effects o f impetus
to confound the Stagyrite (48b). Basically, his objections, which are both numerous
to the heavenly bodies (69d). Heavenly bodies m ove regularly and without vio ­
and extensive, are directed against the setting o f any limitations whatsoever
lence; their motion may be compared— if we except the violent factor— to
to the omnipotence o f God. Rightly enough, he complains that the reasoning
the movement o f a clock, which we let run b y itself. “ In this same way, G o d allows
employed in the original is tortuous and dependent upon the interpretation o f
the heavens to m ove continually, in accordance with the proportions o f the motive
unusual terms. H e charges both Aristotle and Averroes with sophistic and ob­
forces to the resistance and according to the established order” (71a). A t least
scure reasoning (5 2a), with insufficient proof, and he attempts to clarify the text
one recent evaluation o f Oresme discerns in this clock metaphor a mechanistic
for the reader by introducing diagrams (Figs. 24, 25, and 26) to show the logical
concept o f the universe that anticipates the tendencies o f eighteenth-century thin­
relation between contraries, contradictories, and convertible terms (5 2d). He
kers.12 Likewise, the sentence (73d) in which Oresme states: “ it is not impossible
repeats with greater detail his previous argument based upon the numerical
that the heavenly body is m oved by some force or corporeal quality inside it, work­
phenomenon o f the infinite series (see above, 44d), and in Chapter X X X I V
ing without violence or labor, because the resistance within the body does not
the discussion enters the realm o f metaphysics, turning upon such terms as
incline it to any other movement nor to remain at rest, but only keeps it from ac­
necessity, duration, eternity, etc. (54b). A lengthy discussion o f both temporal
celerating its speed” (73 d). I f this idea were pressed to its logical end, it could, per­
and spatial infinity follows ; Oresme introduces the famous sphere-wrapping “ ex­
haps, have eventuated in the notion o f inertia.13
periment” (5 5d) to demonstrate that one infinity cannot be greater nor smaller than
The Aristotelian concept o f the celestial system is outlined, explained, and
another, that “ all past time plus all future time is not greater than all future time,”
corrected to conform with the system o f epicycles attributed to Ptolemy. Oresme
and he notes that he has argued this point previously. Possibly he refers to
maintains that the intelligences, if they exist, are m oved with the celestial bodies
a previous demonstration in Questio 12, Book III, o f his questions on Aristotle’s
which they cause to move. Th ey are related to the bodies they control as the human
Physics (ff. 37d~39d). This spherewrapping “ experiment” was apparently inven­
soul is related to the human body. A n angel may be in Paris, Rome, and Rouen
ted11 b y Oresme and appears again in his Q uestiones super de celo and also in D e
at one and the same time, just as a piece o f wax could be so elongated as conceiv­
configuratione. Finally, Oresme openly declares his ill-concealed preference for
ably to reach to the sky (7id). Four ways are imagined in which an angel may
Plato over Aristotle (62d), for, as Saint Augustine remarked, Plato’s doctrines
change its position, but wherever they move, they are never far from G o d, who
are more in keeping with the tenets o f the Catholic faith. Adm ittedly an excellent
is everywhere (72b). Rumor has it that angels inhabit certain places more than
philosopher, Aristotle frequently made the mistake o f overreaching himself in
others by preference; both Scripture and the pagan writers support this thesis
his efforts to disprove his master’s doctrines which, according to Eustrathios,
(73 a). After this extended, esoteric fantasy, Oresme returns again to the elucidation
the twelfth-century Byzantine commentator o f Aristotle, he hated unreasonably.
o f the physical laws governing the movements o f the celestial bodies. D o the
Oresme’s attitude was shared quite generally by the so-called Parisian School
heavens revolve without resistance or effort? Aristotle affirms this, but Oresme
o f fourteenth-century philosophers, whose anti-Peripatetic scholasticism explains
doubts it (73 c). In the heavenly bodies there is a special kind o f resistance to
in part the motive o f their stringent analysis o f the Aristotelian corpus and the
motion which does not incline them to any other motion or absence o f motion,
often severe criticisms which they leveled against it.
but merely governs the speed o f their rotation. This does not mean that the motion
Following the definitions o f terms customary at the beginning o f a new Book
o f the heavens is in any sense comparable to labor or effort; a stone falls without
(65 a), Oresme enters upon an extended discussion o f the heavens as the abode o f
labor, fire burns without effort. Th e angels which m ove the heavenly bodies
G o d (68a), combining pagan descriptions with Scriptural attributes and passing must set their speed at a certain fixed velocity, since an infinite force with all
on to the question o f the intelligences or angels. Buridan had attributed the contin­
its strength cannot be said to move a body having limited resistance, for this would
uing motion o f the heavenly bodies to the effect o f impetus, dispensing in this result in infinite speed, which is impossible (74a). Oresme goes on to say (74b)
that G o d is said to be unable to make a creature so perfect that He could not
11 Murdoch examines the sphere-wrapping sphere-wrapping ones, were used before Ores­
make one more perfect still.
argument at length, quoting Oresme, D u d e l, me. Thus, for example, in Thomas Bradwar-
fol. 55d, in his review o f Busard’s edition o f dine’s De causa D e i...” (n. 58). Further dis­ 12 See Lynn White, Jr., Medieval Technology 13 Clagett, “ N . O. and Medieval Scientific
Oresme’s Questiones super geometricam Euclidis. cussion o f sphere-wrapping appears in Mur­ and Social Change (Oxford, 1962), p. 125 ; also Thought,” p. 300 b, notes 19, 20; see also A .
O f Oresme’s originality, Murdoch writes : doch, Rationes mathematice, pp. 18-20. Clagett, “ N . O. and Medieval Scientific Maier, A n der Grenue, p. 185, n. 4 and Zwei
“ Other transformation arguments, but not
Thought,” p. 300 a. Grundprobleme, p. 257, n. 32.
 *4 Introduction
Against Aristotle, Oresme argues that the heavens are not composed o f living
matter ; they are moved by the intelligences, but the intelligences do not give life
to the bodies to which they attach themselves (77d). T o maintain the contrary,
as Aristotle does, would offer comfort to idolaters w ho worship the sun, moon,
etc. (79a). W ith the aid o f several diagrams (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6), Oresme defines at
length the meaning o f right and left, front and reverse, up and down (79d).
D o these directions apply to the heavens? O n ly in a relative sense, on the basis
o f an arbitrarily chosen point, observed by a person on the motionless earth.
This accounts for the fact that astronomers have chosen an imaginary point situ­
ated in the center o f the Eurasian land mass which they call Arim ,14 from which
point they determine east and west motion on the earth’s surface (83a). Th e discus­
sion allows Oresme to interpose a few ideas regarding the habitability o f the earth.15
He holds that the inhabitable parts are more noble thae the uninhabitable, and that
the heavens over these parts participate in the qualities attributed to the earth
beneath— which seems to disregard the basic assumption that the heavens are
in constant circular motion above a motionless earth and therefore one could say
no more than that the northern heavens are nobler than the southern. Oresme
repeats twice (81b, 83b) that the two ends o f the habitable earth are at no great
distance from each other, an idea that appears in a justly famous passage o f
Aristotle’s text at the end o f Book II (15 2d), where Oresme elaborates further
upon it. The ingenious arguments advanced to disprove the existence o f ab­
solute direction in the heavens are summarized (86d) with a further declaration
that Aristotle has failed to prove the heavens to be a living body on the basis
o f analogy with the human body. The heavens were moved in the first instance
from the exterior ; once set in motion, the perfectly smooth surfaces o f the celestial
spheres offer no resistance to perpetual motion— as long as it may please G o d to
maintain it thus (87a).
Regarding the position o f the habitable portion o f the earth, Oresme argues
that it can hardly be situated, as Aristotle states, in the left portion o f the southern
hemisphere. N o t only is it impossible to speak o f direction absolutely in this sense,
but it is unlikely that G o d would have placed Rome, the center o f Christianity,
in the least noble quarter o f the terrestrial sphere. O n the contrary, it seems wiser
to assume that Rom e is in the upper right quarter and therefore in the noblest
portion o f the sphere. However, Oresme admits the statement that the arctic
pole is at the bottom o f the earth, and he concludes that it must be true that w e
14 The idea o f a world center appears to the prime meridian o f the West, but it came
have originated in India among the Hindus to be placed arbitrarily io° east o f the city o f
and was transmitted to the West with the Baghdad. Cf. Wright, Geographical Lore of the
translation o f the Khwora^mian Tables by Adél­ Time of the Crusades, pp. 82, 86-87.
ard o f Bath (ca. 1130) from the Arabic version
15 Cf. A . D . Menut, “ Habitable Land:
o f the Little Sindhind by al-Khwarizmi. Arim Oresme and Columbus.”
or Arin was supposedly situated 90° east o f
Brief Summary o f the Commentary | 2/
live in the lower hemisphere (87a). However, there are many compensations
to mitigate this apparent disadvantage: we have a greater multitude o f stars
above us ; because o f a u x soils (perigee), our winters are milder and our lands more
suitable for habitation. Quoting from his own T ra itiê de Vespere— much o f this
long commentary is hardly more than a paraphrase o f this earlier treatise—
Oresme observes that the planets m ove from west to east and he discusses their
motion in relation to the sun and moon; he notes that, with respect to the pole
o f the planets, sun and moon, the habitable parts o f the earth are in the upper
and nobler portion o f the earth (89a).
W ith several ingenious arguments, Oresme attacks the Aristotelian precept
that the earth must o f necessity be in repose at the center o f the universe because
the center o f any sphere in motion must itself be motionless (92c). It is not necessary
to assume that the heavens are moved while the earth rests in order to arrive
at a reasonable explanation o f observed phenomena (95 a). There is the story
o f Joshua to prove that on at least one occasion the heavens stood still for twenty-
four hours ; but this does not imply that the other normal processes o f nature were
stopped coincidentally. There is also the story o f Jupiter making one night
last for forty-eight hours on the occasion o f his w ooing o f Alcmena. Possibly
this occurred at the same time as the miraculous stoppage o f the sun in answer
to Joshua’s prayer (95 c).
It is necessary to assume the absolute sphericity o f the heavenly spheres,
since any other figure, ovoid or elliptical, would imply an interpenetration o f
the spheres in connection with circular motion, unless we assume ovoid spheres
rotated upon the same diameter (99cd). That a spherical figure is the smallest
figure containing a given quantity is demonstrated in geometry; therefore a
sphere is the logical figure to assume for the shape o f the heavens, which con­
tain all things (100c). Without naming its author, Oresme states the Archimedean
theory that a body in water will displace its own weight ; fresh water will support
a lighter weight proportionally than sea water. It is conceivable that the same
law would apply to bodies in other elements, e.g., fire in air (103a).
Th e impetus theory o f motion is now explained in greater detail than in 3oab
above, and a definition o f the term non gradu is given. N o violent motion can be
absolutely regular throughout its duration, but one part o f a motion may be
proportional to another part in velocity (106b). Three distinct stages are per­
ceptible in any motion and these may be defined (107a). Th e speed o f an object
in motion is determined by the proportion16 between the vertu m otive and the
resistance o f the object to this propellant force or energy (108a). Th e motion o f
the celestial spheres does not involve resistance; however, if the speed o f their
motions were to be doubled or trebled, it would not be observable to human
beings provided a similar increase were applied to all earthly objects at the same
16 “ L ’isneleté du mouvement ouquel est motive a la resistence__” This is the propor-
resistence ensuit la proporcion de la vertu tion known as Bradwardine’s function.
 26 | Introduction
time (108b). It is conceivable, however, that the celestial bodies within the heaven­
ly spheres might alter their speed and consequently their position with respect
to the other bodies (io8d). The motion o f the heavenly spheres is regular, while
that o f material objects, with which w e are familiar, is irregular. Th e motion
o f the heavens is, however, difform is, that is, not uniform, because the parts near
the celestial poles and at the center m ove more slowly than the other parts,
while the circumferences move with equal speeds. It is possible to divide any
spherical body into an equal number o f degrees representing equal angles because
parts and whole m ove equally.
Oresme agrees with Aristotle that the stars are a part o f the spheres o f stars
in which they are contained— more noble than other parts because o f their
light-giving properties (112b). Does the motion o f the celestial spheres generate
heat? Oresme enters into a lengthy discussion o f rarefaction and condensation,
concluding (113 d) that only violent motion produces sufficient friction to create
heat. T h e rotation o f the celestial spheres produces no heat because “ the concave
surface o f the heavenly spheres is so perfectly polished that there is absolutely
no friction and consequently no heating occurs” (114c). However, the light o f
the celestial bodies produces heat and warms the air and the earth beneath
(115 b). The apparent motion o f the fixed stars may be due to optical illusion
(117a), in so far as this apparent motion is distinct from their motion as part
o f the sphere o f which they are an integral part. Th e moon appears to move,
but there are conflicting opinions on this question; Oresme adopts the Ptole­
maic explanation based on the theory o f the epicycle (118a). Against Aristotle,
Oresme contends that the different bodies in the heavens are not necessarily
o f the same identical species, adducing several reasons w hy this may be so
(120b).
Th e question as to whether in moving, the heavens produce sound— the har­
mony o f the spheres— is debated and leads to the discussion o f the proportions
involved in the musical scale. Supported by H oly Scripture, Plato, Macrobius,
and Saint Augustine, Oresme concludes that this celestial music o f the spheres
exists but is inaudible to the human ear (124b).
For an explanation o f the arrangement o f the planets and the other heavenly
bodies Oresme refers the reader to his T ra itié de Vespere, where the subject is treated
in full, in accordance with the system set forth in Sacrobosco’s D e sphaera,
the standard text throughout the later M iddle A ges (127c). Th e phases o f the
moon are explained (from the same source) on the basis o f conjunction and op­
position; the speculations o f various “ astrologiens” that there are mountains
visible on the surface o f the moon are dismissed as “ divinailles” (130a).
In the most striking and interesting o f all his commentaries, Oresme speculates
on the possibility o f reversing the Aristotelian system and postulates the daily
rotation o f the earth at the center o f an otherwise motionless universe. In support
o f this thesis he refers to its early promulgation by a contemporary o f Aristotle,
Brief Summary o f the Commentary | 2j
Heraclides o f Pontus, whose ideas were known but generally discredited during
the Middle A ges (138b). Oresme accepts the principle set forth in W itelo’ s D e
perspectiva that to be perceptible to man, motion must always be observed in
relation to two or more objects. This is a clear recognition o f the complete relativity
o f motion. Oresme reasons that to a spectator situated in the heavens it would
seem that the earth rotates, and the heavens would appear to be at rest (139a).
It is impossible to prove experimentally that the heavens m ove and the earth
does not m ove (140a). Well-devised and quite sophisticated arguments are pre­
sented in favor o f rotation, followed b y a weak defense o f the traditional geocen­
tric theory. However, the discussion breaks off quite abruptly with the conclusion :
“ and I think that the heavens do m ove thus...and that the earth does n o t...
in spite o f the contrary reasons, which are clearly inconclusive” (144b). Recalling
the two previous passages (fol. 7a and ff. 92b~94c) in which daily rotation was men­
tioned approvingly, w e are inevitably tempted to surmise that this final retraction
was prompted at least in part by a failure o f moral courage to sustain an intellec­
tual boldness that might prove dangerous to the peace both o f the Church and o f
the sponsor o f such unorthodox speculation.
Again drawing upon his T ra itié de Tespere, Oresme states the length o f a degree
upon the meridian to be approximately forty-three leagues, while the circum­
ference o f the earth is about 15,750 leagues (152d). T h e earth may be considered
as having three centers: (1) the true geometrical center (2) the center o f its mass
(3) the center o f its weight. These centers are not identical (153b). Th e quan­
titative and the gravitational centers would vary slightly in conformity with the
surface contour— mountains, valleys, seas, etc. (153c). This observation leads
to further discussion o f the limits o f habitable land (154a). T h e distance around
the earth at the latitude o f Rouen is far less than at the equator— Rouen is located
about 50° north latitude. T o traverse the earth at a parallel o f high latitude
would not be impossible; for, as Aristotle says, the terminus o f habitable land
in the west is not far distant from habitable land in the east (156b). This obser­
vation leads to the presentation o f the problem o f the traveller going eastward
around the earth who would pass one more day and night (nuit artificielle) than
had he remained at home. I f he went westward instead, his elapsed time would
be increased by twenty-four hours. This apparent enigma sets Oresme’s poetic
muse to work, and he concludes (156c) the last commentary in B ook II with a
Latin poem o f twenty-four lines, the longest poetic effusion found anywhere
in his entire works. It will be expedient, he advises, for the reader who wishes
fully to comprehend the present work to consult the translator’s T ra itié de Vespere,
which might be bound advantageously together with D u C ie l et du monde in a
single volume.17 Such a book would make a noble and excellent tome o f natural
philosophy.
17 This arrangement is found in four o f the below, chapter 4, under Mss. B, C, D , and the
six extant manuscript copies o f D u C iel ; see fragment E.
 28 I Introduction
Oresme’s first significant comment in B ook III (i6 ib c) stems from the problem,
much discussed in the Middle Ages, o f maxima and minima. T h e text o f D e caelo
(299b 18-23) states that every indivisible part o f a body has weight. A body o f
five points weighs more by one point than a body o f four points. Oresme finds
Aristotle’s reasoning inconclusive. He points out that bodies so small as to be
invisible, when taken together in quantities become visible, although one unit
alone remains invisible ; three points [sic] are invisible, but four points are visible.
This principle does not apply to the weight o f objects; if w e had sufficiently
strong powers o f vision, we could see every indivisible part separately by itself,
but an indivisible point can have no weight in and o f itself. Th e dust particles
we see reflecting sunlight in the air are far too light to divide the resistant air
with their weight, but one particle added to a heavier object increases the latter’ s
weight. T o illustrate this, Oresme repeats the traditional ship-hauling example:
i f eleven men could haul a ship and twelve men were hauling it, the addition o f
another man w ould enable the thirteen men to haul the ship faster (161c).18
Oresme continues to discuss indivisibles. Referring to his extended analysis
o f this problem in his Q uestiones super septem libros Physocorum19 (question 8,
Bk. V II), his lengthy commentary turns upon the action o f a ball o f fire placed
at the center o f the earth and attracted from all sides and from every conceivable
direction toward its natural place in the celestial sphere o f fire (162b). The terms
o f this discussion emphasize the vastly different point o f view held b y scholars
o f Oresme’s time from those held today with respect to the nature o f matter. Natu­
ral and violent motions are defined in great detail with numerous examples (166a).
A stone thrown straight downwards would travel faster than if allowed to fall
freely (that is, under gravity alone), but such motion is neither violent nor mixed
since it accords with the natural motion o f the object. However, a stone thrown
transversely combines natural motion with violent, and thus such transverse
motion is correctly called mixed (166b). A s Aristotle states, air or some other
medium is required in order that there may be motion; but this medium is not
the efficient cause o f violent motion, which is due rather to a vertu motive imparted
to the object by the prem ier m otif.
From Aristotle’ s definition o f an element in the M etaphysics, Oresme develops
an explanation o f the composition o f things from Form and Matter. Homely
examples are employed to elucidate the commoner terms o f metaphysics. Th e
question whether the elements are present in their proper form in a complex ob-
18 Ship-hauling is twice referred to in the traheret parvam navem et addatur unus, iste
Physics (VII.5. 205a 17 and V III.3. 253b 20). excessus equalis v° multum augeret velocita-
Oresme employs the ship-hauling example in tem.” Ship-hauling is referred to again in fol.
question 8, fol. 77d o f his Questiones on the 183d. Cf. Edward Grant, “ Aristotle’s Ship-
seventh Book o f the Physics: “ Si 1000 homines
haulers and Medieval Criticisms o f his Law o f
trahant navem et addatur unus, ex isto excessu Motion,” pp. 587-90.
parvum augetur velocitas; sed si unus solus 19 Fols. 77c~78a.
Brief Summary o f the Commentary | 29
ject is answered in the negative, with a reference to a discussion on this topic
in O resm e’ s Q uestiones super generacione et corrupcione (167c). Several geometrical
figures are defined with the statement that such figures are composed of, and
consequently, may be resolved into, triangles. The triangle, however, cannot
be resolved into any other figure. The Greek idea o f the composition o f the ele­
ments was based upon the supposition that each element is composed o f a charac­
teristic number o f triangles (i74d). Further definitions o f regular solid figures
are given, with their geometrical names, in several instances introduced here
for the first time in a French work (176b). Oresme explains what plane and what
solid figures can be so arranged around a given point as to form a completely
filled plane or solid figure (177a).
It is further argued— with another passing reference to the ship-hauling ana-
logy— that the elements are not present in their proper form in complex bodies
(i84d). Th e substantial form o f a body is the efficient cause o f its motion toward
its natural locus, and the same cause may be posited to explain the return o f a
body to its natural temperature after artificial heating or cooling (18 8a). Thus bodies
have in themselves a principle o f alteration just as they have a principle o f local
movement. The extension and intension o f qualities is said to account for change
in physical bodies. When the quality o f lightness, for example, is increased (in­
tension), the body will tend to rise in keeping with the principle that lightness
tends upwards, while heaviness tends downwards (188c). However, there must
be a puissance accidental in addition to the puissance essential, and it is the former
that causes the beginning o f a motion (189a). W ood is heavier in air than in water,
while lead is heavier in water than in air. This is due to the presence o f air in
the pores o f the wood, this air being absent in lead. But when the air disappears
after long immersion, the w ood sinks in water just as lead does. W ood which is
not porous tends to sink in water, and such w ood is found near Paris (190c).
Oresme repeats an example given in Book I (10a) to show that the natural action
o f the elements is relative to the milieu in which they are accidentally found.
Water will rise above earth, but will not rise above air ; air will rise above water,
but not above fire, etc. Ultimately, each element tends toward its natural locus
(192a). Th e element which contains another element, as the sphere o f air contains
the earth or the sphere o f fire contains the air, is situated above the element
contained and is therefore more perfect or noble and may be said to give form to
the contained element. In all transmutations o f the elements, one term is more
perfect than the other; fire is more perfect than air, and generation is said to
occur when a lower element, such as air, becomes a higher element, such as fire.
Th e contrary action is called corruption, as when a beast or a man is transformed
into carrion (193a).
Each element has its special qualities— fire is hot and dry, water is wet and cold
— and generation results from the interpenetration o f one o f the qualities common
to the two elements, as when the heat o f fire is fused with the heat o f air, Plato
 Brief Summary o f the Commentary | 31
jo j Introduction
a citation from Ecclesiasticus : “ Th e beholder will be overwhelmed by the glory
expressed this relation between the elements in terms o f numerical proportion o f His majesty” (202d). Th e occasional appearance o f a double rainbow suggests
(193c). Th e regions o f the elements are not as limited as Aristotle seems to think. to Oresme the analogy between this phenomenon o f nature and the close re­
He himself speaks o f high mountains like the Caucasus or Parnassus, which are lationship between the vision o f Christ and that o f His Blessed Mother, who is
among the highest portions o f the earth. I f a cistern o f water were located at compared to the second arc o f the double rainbow (203a). W ith true humility
the top o f one o f these mountains, it would remain in loco, unless the earth were and trembling heart, the author-translator offers] his work to the glory o f G o d
removed from under it. Nevertheless, it is true that the lighter element tends to and o f the Catholic faith and to the confusion o f all who calumniate (203 b). His
rise and the heavier to descend (195c!). However, in their natural locus neither task, undertaken at the command o f his king, Charles V , is completed, and he has
air nor water have either weight or lightness. Such was the opinion o f Ptolemy
been rewarded with the bishopric o f Lisieux (13 77).
and o f others, w ho state that a man in deep water does not sense more pressure N o finer w ork o f natural philosophy has been written in any language; the
than in shallow water. A nd the air over us weighs nothing, for a person on a high author expresses the hope that it may stimulate young men to the study o f science
mountain who has less air above him does not feel less pressure than a person in order that they may reply to its arguments and learn to love truth (203 c).
on low ground (196a). Oresme restates the Archimedean principle o f the dis­ These closing remarks are repeated in the form o f a Latin quatrain. There follows
placement o f water equal in weight to the body placed in that medium and offers (203d-2o8c) the “ Table des choses notables,” a useful chapter index to Oresme’ s
a lengthy explanation w hy a basin will not sink below a certain depth. Th e reason
principal commentaries.
given is that the air in the basin refuses to descend from its proper region into
the water (i98d). In the same way fire resists descending into air or water. It
seems probable, says Oresme, that a basin placed between the spheres o f fire
and o f air would react in the same way, since the fire inside the basin would
resist descending into the element o f air beneath it. Under these conditions, we
may suppose that a ship could float on the surface o f the sphere o f air just as
naturally as it would on the Seine River or on the surface o f the sea (i99d).
This final “ ymagination” in Oresme’s long critique o f Aristotle’s D e caelo ex­
hibits impressively the distance that separates the science o f today from that o f
the 14th century.
H aving completed the translation o f D e caelo, Oresme offers the reader a
brief account o f his understanding o f the Christian idea o f the abode o f the
blessed beyond the celestial spheres. This account he divides into three chapters,
numbered to follow Chapter 9 o f Book IV . Apparently, he intended this sequel
to serve as a final corrective to Peripatetic cosmology. Th e motion o f the angels
or intelligences is once again considered (cf. 68a~73a), and the nature o f the
D eity as infinite, indivisible, invisible, and omnipotent is stressed, with an addi­
tional proof o f the triune nature o f G od, drawn from the realm o f geometry
(200c). Three possible ways o f interpreting the existence o f the blessed in the
regions above the firmament are considered with interesting speculations re­
garding the physical problems involved (201b). Finally, the vision o f G o d which
the blessed souls o f the saved may enjoy eternally is discussed as a problem
in perspective (202a). Oresme refers the reader to his Q uestiones super metheorum
and to his short tract on comets and the rainbow, In ter omnes impressiones\ he
compares the vision o f G o d enjoyed by the multitude o f the blessed with the
view o f a rainbow as seen by a multitude o f people on the earth ; all see the rain­
bow from a slightly different angle o f vision, but to all it appears to be directly
in front (202b). The appropriateness o f his comparison Oresme supports with
 The Manuscripts o f Du Ciel et du monde | 33

the legend: “ L e temps venra,” motto o f the D uke o f Berry; at the bottom o f the
IV folio is the coat o f arms o f this Maecenas o f late medieval illumination and
superb manuscription. T h e capitals are colored throughout.
A has been chosen as the basic manuscript for this edition because it is ap­
The Manuscripts o f parently the earliest extant copy, because it presents the most intelligible readings
with the fewest omissions, corrections, repetitions and is the most carefully

Du d e l et du monde executed in one hand only; all the geometrical figures are shown, and it appears
to be the closest to the original o f the six extant manuscripts. A is a de lu x e book
on reserve at the Bibliothèque Nationale. The dialectal idiosyncrasies o f the scribe,
although not numerous, tend to indicate Norman provenance.3
Manuscript A
Manuscript B
Paris, Bibl. Nat., ms. franç. 1082 (ancien 7350). Vellum, 209 fols., 325 X 225
mm. in tw o columns o f 36 lines. G othic lettre de form e, late 14th century1. Fols, i a - Paris, Bibl. Nat., ms. franç. 565 (ancien 7065). Vellum, 171 fols., 375 x 250
203 c, L e L iv re du ciel et du monde, text and commentary entresuivant, indicated by mm., lettre de form e in tw o columns o f 39-40 lines. Early 15 th century. Ff. i-2 2 d ,
Tiexte and Glose (T., G .); fol. 203c, explicit; fols. 203d-2o8c, list o f choses notables, Oresme’s T ra itiê de Pespere; fols. 23-168, L e L iv re du ciel et du monde, text and com­
brief summaries o f each o f the longer commentaries o f the four Books, with mentary entresuivant-, no signs distinguish text from commentary; fols. 16 8 -17 id,
chapter references, serving as an index; top o f fol. 2o8d, the scribe repeats al­ Table des choses notables. Bound in red morocco leather with the arms o f France
most verbatim fols. 2o6b-2oya, ending on fol. 209c, with the signature : “ Ce livre on front and back, and with the arms o f Louis X V on back. Belonged to Jean,
est au duc de Berry Jehan B .” Geometrical figures illustrate the text, and on fol. D uke o f Berry, who wrote in the middle o f fol. i 7 i d : “ Ce livre est au duc de
3ab a quadrilobe miniature finely executed with sky-blue background represents Berry Jean B ;” this manuscript was formerly at Fontainebleau, where it bore the
G o d seated, his right hand raised in benediction, and in his left hand a circle library number 971, anc. cat. 453.4 Finely executed miniatures, five in number:
o f fire within which is drawn a symbolical representation o f the globe. Within fol. iab, Oresme seated at the left o f a desk, in right foreground a large celestial
the globe, a group o f medieval buildings is shown standing on the brink o f a globe; checkerboard background in blue, red, and gold colors, fleurs-de-lys
stream in which numerous fish are swimming. A b ove the globe is the inscription and marginal vignettes;5 fol. 23ab, Oresme presenting the volume to the seated
“ V ir insipiens non cognoscet et stultus non intelliget hec.” 2 In the right margin king attended by three figures, tw o standing and one kneeling, the last supports
a swan amid vignettes, which completely encircle the folio; with the swan is the king’s scepter held over the royal right shoulder; background, a canopy
o f diapered silk decorated with fleurs-de-lys. A t the right is the sphere o f the fixed
1 There is a confusing record o f the Livre a month o f this event. The manuscript in­ stars surrounded with a crenellated circumference. Inside the large sphere is
du ciel et du monde in the Inventaire ou catalogue ventoried in 1380 could have been our ms. A . set a smaller one, in which there is a threefold division: at the bottom, a body
des livres de Vancienne bibliothèque du Louvre, fait The only paleographic idiosyncrasy worthy
en l ’année 137) par Gilles Mallet (Paris, 1836), o f water, at the right, a walled city, outside which there are trees and a castle,
o f note in A is the broad flat-bottomed ‘u,’
p. 51, art. 233 : “ D e celo et mundo, en françois, which had established itself securely by the
translaté par Maistre Nicole Oresme, evesque time in which our manuscript was written, in 3 A detailed analysis o f the variant readings appellé du ciel et du monde ; couvert d’un drap
de Lixiex, couvert de soie vermeille a queue, the very conservative and stereotyped lettre de o f the six mss. was contained in the first edi­ de soye ouvré, doublé d’un viel cendal, a deux
a .ii. fer meurs d’argent dorés, haschiés aux forme. This trait o f our script tends to confirm tion o f this work, Mediaeval Studies, vol. 3 fermoers d’argent doré, esmailliés aux armes
armes de France.” There follows the entry: the date here assigned to the manuscript— the (1943), 267-88, together with an extensive de Monseigneur, assis sur tixus de soye ver­
“ a monss. d’Anjou, .vii dess, dit.” Obviously, last decade o f the 14th century. The surround­ word study (pp. 288-328). meille.” Bibl. Impériale, no. 7065, avec cette
this cannot have been found in the 1373 inven­ ing o f the folio with vignettes and vignettes 4 Cf. Paulin Paris, Les Manuscrits français de annotation autographe: “ Ce livre est au duc
tory, since it refers to Oresme as bishop o f only, with the diapered or checkerboard back­ la Bibliothèque du Roi, vol. 4 (Paris, 1841), 348- de Berry.”
Lisieux, and also to the gift o f the manuscript ground o f the miniatures, represents a style 32. That the ms. existed already in 1416 is 5 This miniature is reproduced in Ymago
to Louis d ’Anjou after the death o f Charles V , that appeared about the middle o f the 14th attested by entry no. i n o f La Librairie de mundi de Pierre d’Ailly, ed. Edmond Buron
giving the date o f gift as the 7th o f October ; century. These stylistic features are o f no use fean duc de Berry au Château de Mehun-sur-Yèvre, (Paris, 1930), vol. 1, 224; also in Histoire géné­
Charles died September 8, 1380, and Mallet for the dating o f this particular manuscript. 1416, ed. Hiver de Beauvoir (Paris, i860), pp. rale des sciences, vol. 1, 526.
made another inventory o f his library within 2 Psalm 91 : 7. 37-38: “ un livre en françois de l’Aristote,
32
 34 I Introduction
with fire at the left ;6 fol. 69cd, the eighth sphere and G o d with His right hand raised
in benediction, peering from above; ff. 8icd and 82ab left blank for miniatures
never executed; fol. i36cd, the heavens above studded with stars, and, fringing
the heavens, shafts o f fire radiating upwards to the circumference o f the heavens.
O n the horizon, between earth and the fire-fringed heavens, a background o f
blue and gold flowers ; fol. 1 52a, a small miniature representing heaven and earth;
under the starry heaven, birds fly through the air, some alighting on a height
o f land at the left. In the center, animals graze at the base o f the height o f land.
Vignettes and gold and colored capitals. Although space was left for them, the
majority o f geometrical figures were not executed. B is at once the most elegantly
designed and ornamented and the poorest textually o f the surviving manuscripts.
It abounds in scribal errors, repetitions, and omissions. Though not consistently
Picardian in dialectical traits, B was certainly written by a scribe o f the North.
Manuscript C strongly marked; the scribe was either Picard or Norman.
Bern, Bibl. Bongarsiana, ms. 310. Parchment, 152 fols., 380 x 220 mm., late
14th century, in tw o columns o f 33 lines. Fols. i-2 7 d , T ra itiê de Tespere fragment,
beginning with Ch. 13; If. 28-15 2d, L e L iv re du ciel et du monde; explicit 14yd;
fols. I4 7c-i5 2 d , Table des choses notables. T ext through Bk. I, Ch. 16 (fol. 47a) in
gothic lettre de form e', remainder o f text and entire commentary in lettre bâtarde',
text and commentary entresuivant, indicated from fol. 47a on by Glose and Texte.7
Th e text is generally good, although much corrected; the geometrical figures are
fairly well executed up to fol. 47a; no figures have been executed beyond this
point, although space was left to accommodate them. Fine colored capitals, no
miniatures. Except for an extended lacuna and the omission o f the geometrical
figures, C provides a generally good, dependable text comparable to A in excel­
lence; usually, C corroborates A . In the present edition, textual emendations
have been derived from C unless otherwise indicated. C has most o f the earmarks
characteristic o f scribes o f the Picard region.
Manuscript D
Paris, Bibl. Nat., ms. franç. 1083 (anc. 73 502, Colbert 3230), Parchment, 216
fols., 345 X 215 mm., early 15th century, 2 columns, 50 lines. Fols. i-i2 2 b . L e L i-
6 This illumination bears a striking resem­ 7 See the description o f this ms. in J. R.
blance in color tone, texture, and execution to Sinner, Catalogus codicum mss. bibliothecae Ber-
certain miniatures contained in Fascimile de nensis, vol. 1 (Bern, 1760), pp. 284-85; also
livres copiés et illuminés pour le roi Charles V , vol. 3, pp. 438-42, where specimens are given.
offert à ses amis par L . Delisle (Paris, 1903),
Cf. also H. Hagen, Catalogus codicum Bernen-
especially Plate III (Bibl. Nat., ms franç.,
sium (Bern: Bibliotheca Bongarsiana, 1874),
1930), done in 1379 by Henri du Trevor. p. 323.
The Manuscripts o f D u ciel et du monde | 33
vre du ciel et du monde, followed, fols. 1220-123 d, by the Table des choses notables; 126a-
147b, T raitiê de Tespere; L e L ivre des jugemens d'astrologie selon A risto te,
incipit: “ Des signes les uns sont appelléz masculins ou de masculin gendre...”
Explicit, fol. 171b: “ ...des planètes et par les eclipses qui aviennent en l’annee;”
171C-216C, five astrological treatises, the first four dealing with the L iv re de M esse-
hallach, translated by John o f Spain, and the fifth, the Jugemens d'astrologie by Zehel,
translated from Latin to French, probably for Charles V (see Ch. I, n. 8); fol.
214c, table o f contents. T h e text and commentary o f D u d e l are entresuivant,
indicated by T and G . T h e text is clear in lettre bâtarde. Blank spaces left for
miniatures and figures, none o f them executed. Ornamental capitals. It is D , rather
than A (which is on reserve), that has been cited by Duhem, Thorndike, Meunier,
Borchert, and also by A . Maier (prior to 19 52) to illustrate the doctrines o f Oresme.
D is textually much less correct and complete than both A and C , especially since
it lacks all the seventy-eight figures present in A . Th e dialectal features o f D a te
M anu script E
Paris, Bibl. Nat., ms. franç. 24278 (St. Victor 221). Parchment and paper,
146 fols., 295 x 210 mm., 15th century; full-page text in 44 lines. G o o d lettre
courante, but many folios deeply stained and partly illegible ; figures not executed
in spaces left for them; gold and colored caps begin Books, chapter initials in
color. Bound in embossed calfskin, with wooden boards. Fols. 1—13 5v, L e L ivre
du ciel et du monde; 136—138V, Table des difficultés [des choses notables]; fol. 139
blank; fol. 140 begins, “ la moitié du lonc et la sixte partie du la y ...” from Ch.
37 o f L e T ra itiê de Tespere, ending at fol. 145v ; 145^146 contain a list o f astro­
nomical terms with references to chapters in the T ra itiê where these terms are
defined; fol. i46r at bottom, “ Iste liber est sancti Victoris parisiensis; amori
gratia eum reddat.” Th e inside cover bears the old shelf number o f Claude de
Grandrue, “ M M M 22,” and the following legend: “ Liber de celo et mundo
Aristotelis ex precepto Karoli quinti quondam Francorum régis per magistrum
Nicolaum Oresme de latino in gallicum translatus et commentatus, continens
iiii libros partiales quorum primus i., secundus 42, trinus 104, quartus 120.
Item Oresme in gallico tractatus de Spere continens quinquaginta capitula 140.”
Ff. 140-15 3 o f the old pagination are missing. T ext and commentary entresuivant,
indicated by G lo. and Glose, Tex. and Texte. This manuscript is a companion
volume to Bibl. Nat., ms. franç. 24280, containing Oresme’s L iv re de éthiques, also
from the library o f St. Victor and o f the same period, 1440-5 o. The script seems to
be transitional between 14th-century cursive become calligraphical,and humanistic
cursive not in vogue until the second or third decade o f the 15 th century.
The dialectal traits o f the scribe are indubitably northern, but not so markedly as
in D .
$6 | Introduction

Manuscript F

Paris, Bibl. de la Sorbonne, ms. 571. Parchment, 234 fols., 302 X 205 mm.,
in two columns o f unequal length. Clear lettre bâtarde, 15 th century. Ff. 1-226,
L e L iv re du ciel et du monde, text and commentary entresuivant; 226c-234d, Table des L e L ivre du ciel et
choses notables. Geometrical figures not executed, no miniatures ; gold and colored
caps. The dialectal traits o f the scribe o f i 7 indicate his native speech to have been
northern; however, his orthography is highly inconsistent and careless, with nu­ du monde
merous omissions, repetitions, and inversions. F is o f little value for the recon­
stitution o f the text.

T h e six extant manuscripts o f D u C ie l et du monde described above fall textually

into tw o groups.8 Ms. A stands alone by itself, while mss. B C D E F show a
close relationship with one another. Omissions common to this latter group are
rarely found in A and vice versa; readings in A differ frequently from those in
the secondary group, and in general the readings in A are correct. T h e contrary
does occur, however, and a few correct readings are supplied by B C D E F ,
either singly or collectively. Within the secondary group, C appears to be the
source o f D and E , while F shows a divided affinity with both A and C , with
the influence o f C the more pronounced. Corrections in C tend to produce a
text seemingly related to B , and B stands nearer to A than do the other mss. D E
stem from C after it was corrected (probably from B ), and thus the textual varia­
tions between the six manuscripts are on the whole o f little significance with
respect to meanings, but consist largely o f differences due to omissions, or­
thographical errors, and scribal carelessness. In any case, there is no evidence
o f more than a single redaction in the six available manuscripts.

8 This paragraph summarizes the results o f the six mss. found in the first edition o f this
the extensive study o f the interrelationship o f work, Mediaeval Studies, vol. 5 (1943), 288-96.
 I L e L iv re du ciel et
du monde]
[Prologue]
(ia) O u nom de Dieu, ci commence le livre d’Aristote appelé D u C ie l et du
monde, lequel du commandement de très souverain et très excellent prince
Charles, quint de cest nom, par la grace de Dieu roy de France, désirant
et amant toutes nobles sciences, je, Nychole Oresme, doien de l’eglise
de Rouen, propose1 translater et exposer en françoys. E t est cest livre ainsi
intitulé quar il traite du ciel et des elemens du monde, en prenant cest nom
monde pour les .iiii. elemens contenus dedens le ciel et souz le ciel, quar au­
trement et communelment en cest livre, cest nom est prins pour toute la
masse du ciel et des .iiii. elemens ensemble. E t est cest mot prins ailleurs
en pluseurs autres significations qui ne sont pas propres a cest propos.
E t en cest livre sont .iiii. livres partialx. O u premier, il determine de tout
le corps du monde selonc soy et de ses proprietéz; ou secont, en especial
du ciel ; ou tiers, des elemens selonc les anciens ; ou quart, des elemens selon
son opinion. E t contient le premier livre .xxxvi. chappitres.
1 A proposer.
[ The B o o k o f the H eavens
and the W orld]
[Prologue]
(ia) G lory be to G o d, here begins Aristotle’s treatise on The Heavens and the W orld
which I, N icole Oresme, dean o f the [cathedral] church o f Rouen, propose to trans­
late and explain in French, at the command o f the all-powerful and most excellent
Prince Charles, the fifth so named, by G o d ’s grace K in g o f France, seeker and lover
o f all noble wisdom. This work bears this title because it treats o f the heavens and
o f the elements that compose the world, using the word w orld to include the four
elements contained both within and under the heavens ; for in this treatise w orld is
commonly construed otherwise, to mean the entire mass o f the heavens together
with the four elements. Elsewhere w orld is used with several other meanings not
pertinent to the present treatise. This work contains four separate Books. In the
first, he [Aristotle] considers the cosmos [universe] as a whole, as a unit in itself,
and discusses its distinctive characteristics; in the second Book, he treats o f the
heavens ; in the third Book, he surveys the views o f his predecessors regarding the
elements ; in the fourth Book, he states his own opinion concerning the elements.
The first Book contains thirty-six chapters.
39
 [Livre I]
[Table sommaire des chapitres du premier livre]
1. O u premier chapitre, il monstre que le monde est parfait selonc
quantité ou magnitude. [3a]
2. O u secont chapitre, il monstre comment/ (ib) des corps du monde
sont .iii. simples mouvemens locals. [6d]
3. O u tiers chapitre, il applique aucuns des mouvemens locals a aucuns
des corps du monde, [yd]
4. O u quart, il monstre par .v. raysons que sanz les .iiii. elemens il con­
vient mettre .i. autre corps simple. [9c]
5. O u .v.e chapitre, il monstre que le ciel ne est pesant ne legier. [12a]
6. 0 < u > 2 .vi.e, il monstre que le ciel ne puet avoir esté engendré ne estre
corrumpu ne creu ne appeticié ne altéré. [13a]
7. O u .vii.e, il preuve par .iii. singnes les choses devant dictes. [14a]
8. O u .viii.e, il monstre que a3 movement circulaire ne est aucun m ove­
ment contraire. [i4d]
9. O u .ix.e, il propose a savoir mon se aucun corps est infini et monstre
comment ce appartient a ceste science. [17a]
10. O u .x.e, il monstre que ce est impossible que corps meu circulaire-
ment soit infini. [17c]
11. E n le .xi.e, il monstre que nul corps mouvable de mouvement droit
ne peut estre infini. [19c]
12. O u .xii.e, il monstre que nulle pesanteur ne puet estre infinie/ ne
legiereté. [2od]
13. O u .xiii.(e) , 5 il monstre generalment que nul corps ne puet estre
infini par raysons prinses quant a movement local. [22a]
14. O u .xiiii.e, il monstre que nul // (ic) corps ne puet estre infini par
raysons prinses generalment quant a toute transmutacion.6 [24a]
15. O u .xv.e, il monstre par autres raysons plus generalles et moins
évidentes que nul corps ne puet estre infini. [24d]
o. que quelconque pesanteur soit infinie,
au. 5 A .xiii.
B C D F il monstre que ce est impossible 6 B C D quant a tout mouvement ou action.
[Book I]
[Index o f chapters in Book I]
1. In Chapter One he [Aristotle] demonstrates that the world is perfect with
respect to both its quantity and magnitude. [3a].
2. In Chapter T w o he explains how / (ib) bodies in the world are capable o f
three simple local motions. [6d]
3. In Chapter Three he applies his observations regarding local motion to a few
terrestrial bodies. [7d]
4. In Chapter Four he presents five reasons w h y it is necessary to posit another
simple body in addition to the four elements. [9c]
5. In Chapter Five he shows that the heavens are neither heavy nor light. [12a]
6. In Chapter Six he indicates that the heavens cannot have been either genera­
ted or corrupted, or increased or diminished, or changed. [13 a]
7. In Chapter Seven he presents three proofs o f what he has just stated. [14a]
8. In Chapter E igh t he shows that there is no contrary to circular motion. [i4d]
9. In Chapter N ine he sets out to discover whether some infinite body exists
and shows how this problem pertains to this science. [17a]
10. In Chapter Ten he shows that it is impossible for a body m oved circularly
to be infinite. [17c]
11. In Chapter Eleven he shows that no body capable o f rectilinear motion can
be infinite. [19c]
12. In Chapter T w elve he shows that no heaviness or lightness can be infinite.
[2od]
13. In Chapter Thirteen he argues broadly that no body can be infinite, basing
his reasons on the rules governing local motion. [22a]
14. In Chapter Fourteen he shows that no // (ic) body can be infinite, using
reasons based in general upon all kinds o f motions or actions. [24a]
15. In Chapter Fifteen he adduces other reasons more general and less evident
to show that there can be no infinite body. [24d]
41
42 Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, List o f Chapters j 43

16. O u .xvi.e, il propose a savoir mon se plusseurs mondes sont ou
3o peuent estre et prove que non par .ii. raysons. [26a]
17. O u .xvii.% il preuve par une autre rayson que il ne puet estre fors
un seul monde. [2yd]
18. O u .xviii.e, il prove que les elemens sont meus a certains lieux déter­
minés sanz ce que la distance soit infin<i)e;7 et ce avoit il suspousé devant.
35 [29a]
19. O u .xix.e, il reprove les oppinions contraires a ce que dit est ou cha­
pitre precedent. [30b]
20. O u .xx.e, il monstre encore par deux raysons que il ne puet estre
que un seul monde. jjod]
40 21. O u .xxi.e, il met une rayson par laquelle aucuns cuideroient que
plusseurs mondes peussent estre. [32a]
22. O u .xxii.e, il met solution8 a la rayson dessus dicte en confermant
son propos. [3 2d]
23. O u .xxiii.e, il monstre que hors cest monde ne puet estre corps sen-
45 sible quelconque; et ce avoit il suppousé ou chapitre precedent. [33b]
24. Ou. .xxiiii.e, il monstre que hors / (id) cest monde ne est chose qui
appartiengne a corps sensible. [34b]
25. O u .xxv.e, il commence a enquérir se le monde est pardurable et
met les oppinions des autres anciens. [39c]
50 26. O u .xxvi.% il reprouve l’oppinion de Plato. [40a]
27. O u .xxvii.e, il reprove les oppinions de Empedocles et de Anaxa­
goras. [41a]
28. O u .xxviii.e chapitre, il met disti<n)ctions9 d’aucuns termes dont il
entent user en cest propos. [41 d]
55 29. O u .xxix.e, il determine de ce que est possible ou impossible ou
resgart d’aucune puissance. [42d]
30. O u .xxx.e, il entent et commence a prouver que toute chose qui a
eu commencement, et toute chose corruptible ara fin, et que toute chose
qui avra fin a eu ou avra commencement. [47a]
60 31. O u ,xxxi.e, il veult monstrer universelment que chose qui n’est pas
sanz commencement ne est pas sanz fin, <(et se elle ne est pas sans fin elle
ne est pas sans commencement)10 et que chose qui est sanz commencement
est sanz fin, et se elle est sanz fin elle est sanz commencement. [51b]
32. O u .xxxii.e, il monstre comment des termes de ceste matere aucuns
65 sont convertibles.11 [5 2d]
33. O u .xxxiii.e, il s’efforce encore de prouver que, par neccessité, toute
16. In Chapter Sixteen he proposes to find out whether there are or can be sever­
al worlds, and he proves by two arguments that there cannot. [26a]
17. In Chapter Seventeen he shows by another argument that there can be only
one world. [2yd]
18. In Chapter Eighteen he proves that the elements move to certain definite
places without the distance being infinite. A n d this he had assumed before. [29a]
19. In Chapter Nineteen he refutes the opinions contrary to that which is stated
in the preceding chapter. [30b]
20. In Chapter Tw enty he shows again by two reasons that there can be only
one world. |jod]
21. In Chapter Twenty-one he advances a reason w hy some have thought that
there could be several worlds. [3 2a]
22. In Chapter Tw enty-tw o he finds an answer to the argument above, thus
confirming his opinion. [3 2d]
23. In Chapter Twenty-three he shows that no living body can exist outside o f
this world, and this he had assumed in the preceding chapter. [3 3b]
24. In Chapter Twenty-four he shows that there is / (id) nothing outside this
world that pertains to a living body. [34b]
25. In Chapter Twenty-five he begins to inquire whether the world is eternal
and reviews the opinions o f other ancient thinkers. [39c]
26. In Chapter Tw enty-six he refutes Plato’s opinion. [40a]
27. In Chapter Twenty-seven he refutes the opinions o f Empedocles and A n ­
axagoras. [41a]
28. In Chapter Twenty-eight he distinguishes precisely the various meanings o f
certain terms which he will use in this exposition. [41 d]
29. In Chapter Twenty-nine he solves the problem o f the possible or impossi­
ble with respect to a given force. [42d]
30. In Chapter Thirty he asserts and begins to prove that everything that has
had a beginning and all things subject to change will have an end, and also that
everything that will end has had or will have a beginning. [47a]
31. In Chapter Thirty-one he seeks to demonstrate as a universal law that what­
ever is not without a beginning is not without an end, and if it is not without an
end, then it is not without a beginning ; also that what has no beginning is ever­
lasting and, if it is everlasting, it is without a beginning. [5 ib]
32. In Chapter Thirty-two he shows how certain terms used in this field o f study
are convertible. [5 2d]
33. In Chapter Thirty-three he endeavors once more to prove that, o f necessity,

7 A infinee. ne est pas sans commencement. Cf. chapter

8 B C D F il fait response. heading 51b.
distictions. 11 B C D F aucuns ensuient l’un l’autre con-
omits et se elle ne est pas sans fin elle vertiblement.
 44 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
chose qui eut commencement avra fin, et ( q u i) 12 avra fin eût commence­
ment. [54a]
34. O u .xxxiiii.e, il argue encore a cest meisme propos. [5 6b] //
70 (2a) 35. O u .xxxv.e chapitre, il veult dire que de nécessité toute chose
corruptible13 sera corrompue, et argue encore au propos dessus dit. [58c]
36. Ou. xxxvi.e chapitre, il fait a son propos une autre raison plus es-
peciale et de science naturele. [60c] /
(3a) 1. E n ce premier chapitre il monstre que le m onde
est .i. corps très parfait.1
T . La science naturele, presque toute, est des corps et des magnitudes
qui sont, et de leurs passions ou qualités, et de leurs mouvemens, et encore
de quelconques principes ou causes de tele sub-/ (3b) stance.
G . Il dit presque toute, par aventure, pour ce que une partie de celle science
5 traicte de l’ame intellective laquele n’est pas chose corporele, ou pour ce
que elle traicte de lieu et de vieu2 et de infini, si comme ou tiers et ou quart
de P h isique.2
T . Car des choses natureles, les unes si sont corps et magnitudes ...
G . Si comme sont les pierres et // (3 c) teles choses qui sont sanz ame.
10 T . E t les autres ont corps et m agnitude.. .4
G . Comme celles qui ont ame, quar une beste a corps et aussi elle puet
estre dite corps.
T . E t les autres sont principes ou causes des choses qui ont corps.
G. Si comme la forme ou la matere ou les elemens. E t ces .iii. moz— ma­
is gnitude et chose continue et continu— signifient une chose. E t pour ce que
tout corps est continu, <il> diffinist5 apres continu et dit:6
T . Continu est ce qui est divisible7 en parties touzjours divisibles.
G . D iv isib le est dit en .ii. maniérés; une par separacion de parties reai­
ment, et l’autre par signacion de entendement. E t n’est pas a entendre que
20 toute magnitude ou tout continu soit divisible en la premiere maniéré,
quar ce est impossible par nature que deviser le ciel aussi comme l’en devise
une busche en séparant une partie de l’autre. Item, en devisant une busche
12 A omits qui. IV. 1. 208a 28; de vieu, III. 1. 200b 21 ;
13 A chose cor se corruptible. IV .6. 2x3a 12-13; de infini, III.1. 2oobi8-20,
1 D omits chapter heading. Guthrie, ch. 1 and 4. 202b 30— 203a 3.
{see Note on the Editorial Apparatus). 4 A corps et ame ; E corps et ame, but has
2 A D bien; F dieu. “ magnitude” superscript before “ ame.” The
3 Physicorunr. de lieu, III.i. 200b 12-15 > Latin text reads: “ Entium enim naturalium
Book I, Chapter 1, fols. 3a~3C 4J
everything which had a beginning will have an end, and that whatever will have
an end has had a beginning. [5 4a]
34. In Chapter Thirty-four he argues further this same problem. [5 6b] //
(2a) 3 5. In Chapter Thirty-five he advocates the idea that all perishable things
will, o f necessity, be destroyed, and he argues further concerning the previous ques­
tion. [58 c]
36. In Chapter Thirty-six he adduces another more specific reason taken from
natural science in support o f his argument. [60c]
(3a) 1. In this first chapter he [Aristotle] demonstrates that the
world is a single, completely perfect body.
T . Th e science o f nature is for the most part concerned with existing bodies and
magnitudes, with their changing properties or qualities, with their motions or
movements, and also with certain principles or causes o f this kind o f substance. /
(3 b) G . H e says fo r the m ost p a rt, perhaps, because one part o f natural science
treats o f the intellective soul which is not corporeal, or because it deals also with
place and void and the infinite, as in the third and fourth books o f his Physics.
T . For among natural things there are, first o f all, bodies and m agnitudes...
G . Such as stones and // (3 c) things devoid o f life.
T . A n d next, there are beings endowed with body and magnitude...
G . Such as living things, for animals have bodies and they can also be called
bodies.
T . A n d the principles or causes o f bodily objects constitute the third category o f
things found in nature.
G . Such as the form or the substance or the elements. A n d these three words—
magnitude, continuous body, and continuum— have a single meaning. Since every
body is a continuum, he defines this word by saying :
T . T h e continuous is that which is divisible into parts, which themselves are con­
tinuously divisible.
G . D iv isib le is used in tw o ways : one way it means the real separation o f the
parts o f anything, and the other way it means division conceptually in the mind.
It is not to be thought that every magnitude or continuum is divisible in the first
sense, for it is naturally impossible to divide the heavens as one divides a wooden
log, separating one part from another. In dividing a lo g or a stone or another ma-
qued/m sunt co,pus, et magnitudo, et quedam 5-6, “ alia corpora ac magnitudinem habent.”
habent corpus, et magnitudinem et quedam 5 A continu et diffinist.
sunt— ” Cf. Juntas, fol. ib {see Note on the 6 A et est dit.
Editorial Apparatus). In D e caelo, I.i. 268a 7 A dit visible.
 46 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ou une pierre ou autre corps materiel et corruptible, Ten puet venir a
si petite partie que on ne la pourroit plus deviser sans corrompre sa sub-
25 stance. Mais tout continu ou magnitude est divisible par signacion en
en-/ (3d) tendement en parties touz jours divisibles, si corne les astrolo-
giens divisent les cercles du ciel en degréz, et les degréz en minuz, et les
minuz en secons, et les secons en tiers, et puis en quars, et puis en quins.
E t ainsi puet l’en, par ymaginacion, procéder sans cesser. E t semblable-
30 ment de quelconque corps ou magnitude si comme terre, eaue, une
pierre, une busche, et cetera, chascun a pluseurs parties, et de ces parties
chascune a pluseurs parties, et ainsi touzjours oultre; si corne chascun
corps a .ii. moitiéz et chascune moitié a .ii. moitiéz, et ainsi en procédant
sans fin, combien que par tele division l ’en viengne a si petites parties qu’
35 elles sont insensibles. E t est semblablement de toutes choses continues si
corne sont ligne, superfice, corps, mouvement, temps et teles choses,
quar chascune a parties et ne puet l’en dire ne penser si grant nombre de
ses parties que encore ne soit il plus grant, et plus grant .c. ou mil foiz,
et oultre toute proporcion sans fin et sans terme, combien que la chose
40 soit petite et fust ore la <millesme> partie89d’un grain de millet. E t ce est
déterminé par Aristote ou vie de P h isi que.^
T . E t corps est divisible de toutes pars ou en touz senz, et a touz léz
ou selon // (4a) toutes dimensions et mesures, car des magnitudes, celle
qui est divisible en un sens ou selonc une dimension, ce est ligne; et celle
45 qui est divisible en .ii. sens ou selonc .ii. dimensions, ce est plain <ou>
superfice;10 et celle qui est divisible en .iii. sens, ce est corps.
G . Troys dimensions ou mesures sont longitude et latitude et spissi-
tude ou parfondesce, et selonc ce, un corps est lonc et lé et espés. E t ne
pueent estre plusseurs dimensions, quar selonc ymaginacion mathématique,
50 se un point indivisible fluoit et aloit et il lessast apres soy son estrace,
ce seroit une ligne, laquelle seroit divisible seulement selonc longitude.
Item, se ceste ligne fluoit et aloit ou estoit meue et elle lessast apres soy
une estrace, ce seroit superfice” qui seroit longue et lee sanz parfondeur
ou sanz spissitude. Item, <s>e12 ceste superfice estoit meue et fluoit, elle
55 descriroit et lesseroit une estrace qui seroit longue et lee et espesse; et
ce sont .iii. dimensions et est ceste quantité appellee corps. E t se cest corps
estoit meu et fluoit et il lessoit apres soy une estrace, elle ne avroit plus de
dimensions fors .iii. et seroit un corps. E t pour ce, ne pueent estre plusseurs
dimensions. Item, encor appert / (4b) autrement, quar en une plaine super-
60 fice l’en puet ymaginer .ii. lingnes qui se intersequent en un point et font
8 A la mendre partie. 11 A une before superfice deleted. B C D F
9 Cf. Physicorum, V I, passim, and especially une sup.
1. 231a 2i-232a 22; also 231b 16. 12 A ce.
10 A plain en superfice.
Book I, Chapter 1, fols. jd-qB | 47
terial or destructible object, one can reach a part so small that further division
would destroy its substance. But any continuum or magnitude is continually divi­
sible conceptually in the human mind / (3d), just as astrologers divide the heavens
into degrees, the degrees into minutes, the minutes into seconds, the seconds into
thirds, fourths, and then fifths. T h e imagination can proceed thus endlessly. In the
same way, any object or magnitude such as earth, water, a stone, a log, et cetera,
has many parts, and each o f its parts has many parts, and so on and on; just as each
body has two halves and each half has two halves, proceeding thus endlessly even
though b y these divisions we arrive at parts so small that they are imperceptible to
the senses. This is true o f all continous things like a line, a surface, a solid body,
motion, time, and similar things ; for each o f these has parts and we cannot say nor
think a number o f parts so great that it could not be greater, even a hundred or a
thousand times greater, beyond any ratio, without any end or limit, however small
the thing may be, even the thousandth part o f a grain o f millet. This subject is
treated by Aristotle in the sixth book o f h is Physics.
T . A body is divisible in all directions and in all ways and all extensions // (4a)
or dimensions and measures ; for magnitude divisible in one direction or dimen­
sion only, is a line; if divisible in tw o directions or according to two dimensions, it
is a plane or surface; if it is divisible in three directions, it is a solid body.
G . Three dimensions or measures are : 1) length, 2) width, 3) depth or thickness ;
accordingly, a body is long, wide, and thick. There can be no more dimensions
than these, for in mathematics we can imagine an indivisible point which flows or
goes and leaves a trace behind it; this trace would be a line, divisible only as to
length. I f this line were fluid and m oving and left behind a trace, this would be a
surface that would have length and width but no thickness. N o w i f this surface
were fluid and were moved, it would describe and leave behind it a trace that would
be long and wide and thick, and these are three dimensions and this quantity is
called a body. I f this body were fluid and were m oved leaving a trace behind,
this trace would have no more than three dimensions and would still be a body.
Therefore, there can be no more than three dimensions. / (4b) Moreover, a further
proof is the fact that on a plane surface one can imagine two lines which intersect
at one point making four square or right angles as in a cross, and these two
 4$ | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
.iiii. angles escarrés ou drois aussi comme en une croiz; et sont ces .ii.
lignes longitude et latitude. E t se l ’en ymagine13 une autre ligne traver­
sant selonc spissitude ou parfondesce parmy cestes en cel point, et a angles
escarrés ou drois, ces .iii. lignes feront environ le point moyen, xii. angles
65 droiz. Mes ce ne puet bien estre figuré en plain, et est simplement impossi­
ble de ymaginer en une superfice plus que .ii. lignes environ ce point telle­
ment disposées ne en quelconque magnitude plus de .iii. lignes tellement
disposées14 environ un point, si comme il puet legierement apparoir a tout
homme de cler entendement. E t donques ce est impossible que les dimen-
70 sions soient plus que .iii., et pour ce dist Aristote apres:
T . E t ne est autre magnitude ou dimension fors cestes...
G . L ’en doit savoir que chascune de ces .iii. dimensions selonc vérité
peut estre indifferenment dicte longitude, et chascune latitude ou profun-
dité selonc vérité, fors que tant que celle qui premiere est nommee ou
75 ymaginee est dicte longitude, et la seconde latitude, et la tierce profon-
dité ou spissitude. Mais selonc le commun usage de parler, // (4c) la ou
elles sont inequales, la plus grande est appellee longitude, et l ’autre apres
latitude, et la plus petite est dicte spissitude. Apres il met encor une cause
pourquoy elles ne sont plusseurs, et dit :
80 T . Pour ce que .iii. choses sont toutes choses, et que estre divisible
.iii. foys ou treblement, ce est estre divisible en toutes maniérés.15
G . Il dist: Propter tria omnia esse. E t selonc l’autre translacion il dit:
Omnia sunt tria.16 D e ce dit un aucteur en in livre intitulé D e vetula : Inquit
Aristotiles, grecorum philosophorum princeps et dominus verique per-
85 hennis amicus, omnes res sunt très, numerus ternarius in re qualibet existit.17*
Il vouloit dire que en chascune chose est aucune trinité, et en ce appert
la perfection de elle. E t pour ce, la magnitude qui a .iii. dimensions est
parfaite, quar elle a toutes dimensions. Apres il prouve par .iii. signes
la perfection de cest nombre.
90 T . Quar en la maniéré que dient les Pithagoriens...
G . Ce estoient ceus qui ensuioient les opinions de Pythagoras.
T . T o u t et toutes choses sont determinees par .iii., car le acomplissement
ou fin, et le moien et le commencement sont tout et sont en cest nombre,
lequel est trinité.
95 G . N ous disons que chascune chose est parfaite parce que elle / (4d)
a commencement et moien et fin ou acomplissement. Mais ces termes ne
13 Z7 et selon ce ymagine on. divisa in très mensuras.” The antiqua translatio
14 B C D F omit ne en quelconque... dispo­ reads: “ Propterea quod ipsa tria omnia sunt.”
sées. Oresme’s reading corresponds with the Latin
15 E en .iii. maniérés. text o f St. Thomas Aquinas, Opera omnia,
16 “ L ’autre translacion” is the translatio Scot- Leonine ed. (Rome, 1886), vol. 3, 5. Cf. Bek-
ti, which reads: “ Omnia enim sunt tria, et ker’s edition, 268a 9-10.
Book I, Chapter 1, fols. 4C-4d | 49
lines represent longitude and latitude. N o w , i f we imagine another [straight] line
passing through the meeting-point o f the four right angles to represent depth or
thickness and at right angles to this crossing point, then the three lines will form
twelve right angles around this point. But this cannot be shown well on a flat
surface, and it is impossible to imagine on a flat surface more than two lines, nor
in any magnitude whatsoever more than three lines, thus arranged around a
point, as anyone o f clear mind can easily understand. Therefore it is impossible
that there be more than three dimensions, and for this reason Aristotle says :
T . A n d there are no other magnitudes or dimensions except these [three]...
G . W e should observe that each o f these three dimensions can in fact be called
longitude indifferently, and each one latitude or depth quite truthfully; except that
in practice the first named or imagined is called longitude, the second latitude, the
third depth or thickness. But, according to common usage, incases where //(4c)
the lines are o f unequal length, the longest is called longitude, the next latitude,
and the shortest is called thickness. N ext he sets down another reason w h y there
are not more dimensions :
T . Because three ways are all ways, and to be divisible three times or trebly is to
be divisible in every way.
G . He says: Propter tria omnia esse; and the other translation reads: Omnia
sunt tria. O n this matter, an author wrote in a book called The O ld H a g : “ Said
Aristotle, lord and prince o f Greek philosophers and never-failing friend o f truth,
‘A ll things are three ; the threefold number is present in all things whatsoever.’ ” He
meant that there is a kind o f trinity in each thing which lends to it its semblance o f
perfection. Thus the three-dimensional magnitude is perfect, for it has all dimen­
sions. N ext he proves the perfection o f this number three b y three observations.
T . For as the Pythagoreans say...
G . These were the followers o f the opinions o f Pythagoras.
T . Th e whole world and everything in it are controlled by the number three ; for
the completion or end, the middle, and the beginning are everything there is, and
they are all contained in this number which is trinity.
G . W e say that each thing is perfect because it / (4d) has a beginning, a middle,
and an end or completion. But these terms are not really distinct in eternal things,
17 Cf. P . Ovidii Nasonis Pelignensis de Vetula See also La Vieille ou les dernières Amours d’Ovi­
libri très (1534), fol. 5V, 11. 20-24: de. Poèmefrançaise du X I V e siècle traduit du latin
‘ ‘Inquit Aristoteles G r aecorum philosophorum de Richard de Fournirai par Jean Lefevre, ed.
Princeps et dominus, verique perennis amicus, Hippolyte Cocheris (Paris, 1861), p. 265, 11.
Res omnes sunt très, numerus ternarius in re 5653~54-
Qualibet existit, nec nos extraximus istum
A nobis numerum, sed eum natura docet nos.”
 JO Le Livre du ciel et du monde
sont pas distintes royalment en chose pardurable, et selon ce disoit Nostre
Seingneur: Je sui commencement et fin.18 E t aussi: en la circunference
d’un cercle le commencement est partout indifferenment. Apres il met un
ioo autre signe.
T . Item, et pour ce, anciennement les gens prinstrent leurs loys de cest
nombre— et par nature— et usent de cest nombre aus sanctificacions des diex.
G . Les loys qui sont voluntaires doivent ensuir nature laquelle encline
voulenté bien ordenee a maittre loys telles ou telles. E t pour ce que les
105 loys qui sont a magnifier le créateur ont regart a cest nombre et veullent
que il soit loé et magnifié selon cest nombre .iii., ce est signe que trinité
est es natures des choses et est es creatures, et que nature nous enseingne
a Dieu louer selonc cest nombre. E t pour ce disoit l’aucteur devant allégué :
Numerus ternarius in re qualibet existit, nec enim invenimus istum a nobis
no numerum, sed eum natura docet nos19— cest nombre .iii. est en chascune
chose et nous ne avons pas ce trouvé, mais nature le nous aprent. E t pour
ce, les anciens poiens faisoient leurs sacrefices et mettoient plusseurs
choses divines selonc cest nombre, // (5 a) si comme il appert meismement
es livres de V irgile et des autres poètes, et es hystoires et en un livre que
us l’en lit aus enfans appellé G recism e . 20 E t dit Virgile que D ieu se esjoist de
nombre nomper: Numéro deus impare gaudet;21 et .iii. est le premier
nomper. Item, les Pythagoriens mettoient nomper en la coordinacion de
bien, et per en la coordinacion de mal; et .iii. est le principal et premier
nomper comme dit est. Item, unité est principe, commencement et naissance
120 de tous nombres aussi comme Dieu est de totes creatures, lequel est sou-
vraine et vraie et simple unité. O r est unité en l’ordre des nombres nom-
pers desquelz .iii. est le premier, pourquoy appert la dignité et perfection
de cest nombre. Item, selon le livre des M isteres des nom bres22 le premier
per est ou fu aussi comme commencement de division et de separacion
125 ou inymisté, et par le premier nomper est reformee union et amistié aussi
comme se il retornast a unité, et comme se .iii. fussent un; 23 et par ce appert
la digneté et perfection de cest nombre. Item, qui met ensemble24 .i. et
.ii. et .iii., ce sont .vi. lequel est le premier nombre parfait a prendre^5
perfection si comme elle est prinse en arismetique, quar, a parler reaiment
i3o et proprement, .iii./ (5b) est plus parfait que .vi. Item, la premiere figure
de lignes droites et en laquelle toutes les autres sont résolûtes, et qui est
aussi comme ellement et principe de toutes, si comme il est demonstré
en geometrie, ce est triangle lequel a .iii. costés 26 et .iii. angles. E t donques
appert la dignité et la perfection de cest nombre par arismetique et par
135 geometrie et par plusseurs autres consideracions des dictes sciences et
18 Cf. Apoc. 1 : 8 : “ E go sum Alpha et 20 Eberhardi Bethunensis Graecismus, VII. 18-
Omega, principium et finis.” 19, 38-68, ed Ioh. Wrobel (Bratislava, 1887)^
19 See note 17 above. 21 Vergil, Ecloga V III.75. B numerus.
Book I, Chapter 1, fols. 5a -5b | ji
and thus Our Lord said : I am the beginning and the end. Also in the circumference
o f a circle, the beginning is anywhere and everywhere, without distinction. Next
he offers other evidence.
T . For this reason, people formerly derived their laws from this number, as
though it were entirely natural to do so, and they make use o f it in the sacred wor­
ship o f the gods.
G . Laws based on voluntary action must follow nature, which disposes the well-
disciplined will to institute such and such laws ; and because the laws whose pur­
pose is to magnify the Creator are related to this number three, with the intention
o f praising and magnifying Him according to this number, then the trinity is a na­
tural component o f things and creatures, and nature teaches us to praise G o d ac­
cording to this number. This is the reason that the author cited above [Ovid] said :
Numerus ternarius in re qualibet existit, nec enim invenimus istum a nobis nume­
rum, sed eum natura docet nos. “ The three-fold number is present in all things
whatsoever; nor did we ourselves discover this number, but rather, nature teaches
it to us.” Thus the ancient pagans used to make their sacrifices and set around
them many religious tokens in groups o f three,// (5a) as V irgil and other poets
have told and as we learn from history and also from a book that is read to children
called Graecism us. V irgil says that G o d delights in odd numbers : Numéro deus im­
pare gaudet. A n d three is the first odd number. Also, the Pythagoreans placed odd
numbers in the class o f good things and even numbers with evil things. A n d three
is the principal and first odd number, as already said. Thus unity is principle,
the starting point, and birth o f all numbers, just as G o d is the beginning o f all
creatures, for H e is sovereign, true, and simple unity. N o w unity stands in the or­
der o f odd numbers o f which three is the first, which fact makes clear the dignity
and perfection o f this number three. The book o f the Secrets o f N um bers states that
the first even number is the symbol o f the beginning o f division and separation or
o f enmity; and the first odd number indicates the reestablishment o f union and
friendship, as though this number reverted to unity and three became one. This is
further evidence o f the dignity and perfection o f this number. I f we put one and
two and three together, we have six, which is the first perfect number i f we con­
sider perfection as it is conceived in arithmetic; for, properly speaking, three / (5b)
is more perfect than six. Besides, the first figure o f straight lines in which all lines
are terminated, and which is, as it were, the element and principle o f all figures, as
geometry demonstrates, is the triangle which has three sides and three angles.
Thus the dignity and perfection o f this number are clearly substantiated by arith-
22 Unidentified; possibly the D e mysteriis o f 24 ^4 en ensemble.
Iamblichus. Cf. English version ed. by A. 2S A parfait et a prendre.
Wilder (London, 1911). 26 B C D F testes.
23 B .vii.
J2 Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 1, fols. 5c~5d |

des autres math<e>matiques27 desquelles je me passe pour cause de brieté.
Apres il met son tiers signe.
T . Item, nous assignons les appellations selon ceste magniere quar quant
.ii. choses sont, nous disons ambes .ii., et .ii. honmes ambes .ii., et ne disons
140 pas que il sont touz mais nous disons premièrement ceste prédication ou
appellation de .iii.
G . Quar en grec et, par aventure, presque en tout autre language, l’en
ne disoit pas de .i. ne de .ii., il y sont touz, mais l’en le disoit de .iii. et des
nombres ensuianz.
145 T . E t si comme dit est, nous disons ainsi pour nature laquelle nous
ensuions.
G . Apres il applique cest signe a propos.
T . E t pour ce que ces .iii. choses, ce est a savoir tout et tout et parfait,
ne different pas en espesce mais different en la matière28 en laquelle il sont
150 dis ... J/
(5c) G . Ces .iii. mos segnefient une chose fors tant que le premier tout,
ce est omne, est plus aproprié a nombre ; et le secont, ce est totum , a magnitude,
et le tiers a forme ou espesce.
T . Il s’ensuit donques que corps sera ou est entre les magnitudes celle
155 qui est parfaite, car ceste seulle est determinee par .iii__
G . Ce est assavoir par .iii. dimensions comme dit est.
T . E t ce est tout.
G . E t tout et parfait sont une chose comme dit est.
T . Quar ce que est29 divisible en touz sens ou de toutes pars est divisible
160 en totes maniérés. Mais des autres magnitudes, une est divisible a .ii. ou
en .ii. maniérés, et l’autre en une, quar aussi comme elles ont du nombre
des dimensions, en celle maniéré ont elles division. Une, c’est assavoir
ligne, a une dimension, et l’autre, c’est a savoir superfîce, a .ii., et l’autre, ce
est corps, a division30 a toutes dimensions.
165 G . E t tout ce est desclairié devant.
T . E t toutes magnitudes sont continues, mais se toutes choses continues
sont divisibles il ne appert pas par ce que dit est maintenant.
G . Mais au sixte de Phisique est monstré que nul corps n’est indivisible
ne autre magnitude ne composte de parties indivisibles.31
170 T . Mais il appert yci que / (5 d) de corps l’en ne puet passer en autre gerre32
ou en autre espesce de magnitude aussi comme de longitude ou de ligne
l’en passe en superfîce et de superfîce en corps. E t telle magnitude qui passe
metic, geometry, and by several other cogent arguments drawn from these same
sciences and from other branches o f mathematics— considerations which I pass
over here for reasons o f brevity. N ext he states his third observation.
T . In this way we assign names [to imply numbers], for, if there are two things,
we speak o f them as both, or o f two men we say both men ; we do not speak o f tw o
men as all men, but we use this term or predicate o f three.
G . For in Greek and perhaps in most other languages, people did not use all in
speaking o f one or two, but they used all in speaking o f three and o f all succeeding
numbers.
T . A n d as we have said, we use this manner o f speaking because we are fol­
lowing nature herself.
G . N ext he extends this observation pertinently.
T . A n d since these three terms— all, whole, and complete— are not different in
species, but do differ with respect to their application to specific cases ...//
(5 c) G . These three words have a single meaning, except that the first all or omne
is most appropriate in referring to number, the second whole or totum with refer­
ence to magnitude, and the third word “ complete” with reference to form or spe­
cies.
T . It follows that among magnitudes the only complete magnitude will be a
body, for only a body is defined by three...
G . That is, b y three dimensions, as already stated.
T . A n d is an all.
G . A ll and complete are one and the same, as said above.
T . For what is divisible in every sense and direction is divisible in every way.
But o f other magnitudes, one is divisible by tw o or in tw o ways and the other in
one way; for whatever the number o f their dimensions, the manner o f possible
divisions will be the same. A straight line has one dimension, a plane has two, and
the solid body is divisible in all dimensions.
G . A n d all this has been declared above [see fol. 4a].
T . A n d all magnitudes are continuous; but whether all continuous things are
divisible has not yet appeared in what we have said thus far.
G . But in Book Six o f the P hysics it is shown that no body is indivisible, nor is
any other magnitude composed o f indivisible parts.
T . But it is evident at this point that/(5 d) we cannot move from a body to yet an­
other type or kind o f magnitude in the same way that we move from longitude or
line to surface and from surface to body. A n d a magnitude such that it can move

27 A mathometiques. 231a 24; 2, throughout, 232a 23— 233b 33,

28 B maniéré. especially 232a 23-25 and 233b 31-32.
29 A quar ce est que est. 32 A guerre, here; elsewhere (5d below,
30 A E divisions. 31b, 96c, etc.) gerre (modem genre < genus,
31 Physicorum, V I. 1, throughout, especially treated as 2nd declension, accus. *generum).
J4 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
en autre gerre ou en autre espesce ne est pas parfaite, quar par neccessité telle
issue ou passée en autre est faite selon et pour la deffection ou imperfection
175 de la chose, et ce qui est parfait ne puet avoir telle defaute quar il est divisible
et estendu de toutes pars ou en toutes maniérés.
G . T o u t ce puet apparoir par une consideracion devant mise, car se l’en
ymaginoit que un point indivisible par son mouvement lessast ou des-
crisist33 une estrace apres soy, ce seroit une ligne et est la premiere magni-
180 tude qui est divisible seullement selonc longitude. E t par le mouvement
de ceste ligne seroit <descripte>3* une superfice divisible selonc longitude
et selonc latitude, et ceste description est ce que il appelle passer en autre
autre espesce de magnitude. E t superfice descri<r>oit3s corps ou passerait
en corps par samblable mouvement, mais corps ne pourroit descripre
185 autre espesce de magnitude que corps, quar il a toutes dimensions et est
magnitude parfaite comme dit est. Apres il met comment le monde est de
touz corps le très plus parfait.//
(6a) T . E t chascun des corps partialz est tel comme dit est selon raison
ou selon soy car il a toutes dimensions.36 Mais il est terminé au corps qui
190 est prochain de lui par atouchement, et pour ce chascun de ces corps est
partie d’une multitude.
G . Si corne la terre touche a l’eaue et a l’air et nouz touchons a l’air et
l’air au corps en quoy il est contenu, et ainsi de chascun jusques au derrenier
ciel qui n’est contenu en nul autre corps mais encore touche il au corps
195 qu’il contient.37
T . Mais le tout de quoy ces corps sont parti<e>z38 est parfait par necces­
sité si corne le nom le signifie, c’est assavoir tout le monde, quar il ne contient
pas une partie des corps et les autres non.
G . Mais il contient et comprent tout et dehors lui n’est quelconque corps.
200 E t donques tout corps est parfait en quantité, et celui est très parfait qui
tout contient par aggregacion.
O r avons donques en ce chapitre comment Aristote, a ceste conclusion
prouver, prent pour supposicion que le nombre de .iii. est parfait, et me sem­
ble qu’il touche .iii. maniérés de trinitéz. Une est celle que mettoient les Py-
thagoriens et est que toute creature a commencement et moyen et fin, quar
205 combien que / (6b) aucunes soient perpetueles, toutesvoies selon Plato39 Ce
n’est pas de leur nature ne par elles, mais seulement*0 du maintieng et de
la volenté du créateur. E t meisme selon la philosophie de Aristote, toutes
sont conservées et gardées en estre par l’influence de D ieu aussi corne,
par le solail, la lumière est continuelment causée et maintenue. E t donques,
descruisist. 37 B corps en quoy il est contenu,
ta Ïl ^ ^
desqri a ce. E escripte. 38 A partiz.
descrisoit. 39 Timaeus, 41A.5— 41B. A ll references to
omits car il a toutes dimensions. this work are taken from the edition contained
Book I, Chapter 1 , fols. 6a-6b | //
from one class or species to another is not complete; because, necessarily, such
transition or passage into another magnitude is made to supply the defect or in­
completeness o f the thing; and what is perfect or complete cannot have such a
defect, for it is divisible and extended in every sense and direction.
G . A ll this can be understood from the observation above [see fol. 4ab] ; for if
we were to imagine that an indivisible point should m ove and describe a line after
itself, this would be a line, which is the first magnitude, being divisible only longi­
tudinally. A n d by the movement o f this line would be described a surface divisi­
ble by length and by breadth; and this is what he calls m oving from one to another
kind o f magnitude. A n d a surface b y a similar movement would describe or pass
into a body, but a body could not describe any other kind o f magnitude than a
body, for it has all possible dimensions and is a complete magnitude, as we have
said [see fol. 4c]. N ext he explains how the world is the most perfect and complete
o f all bodies. / /
(6a) T. In the same manner, each part o f a body is complete according to this line
o f reasoning, for it possesses all the dimensions. But it is delimited by the body
contiguous with it, so that each one o f these [partial] bodies is itself part o f a clus­
ter o f bodies.
G . Just as the earth touches the water and the air, and we touch air, and the air
touches the body in which it is contained, in the same way each body right up to
the last heaven, which is not contained in any other body, still touches the body
which it contains.
T . But the whole o f which these bodies are parts is necessarily complete pre­
cisely as its name, the whole world, signifies, for it does not contain one part o f the
bodies and not the other parts.
G . But it contains and comprises the whole, and outside it there is no body
whatsoever. A n d therefore every body is perfect in quantity, and that one is com­
pletely perfect which contains everything by aggregation.
Thus we have in this chapter how Aristotle, in seeking to prove this conclusion,
assumes the number three to be perfect [or complete]. It seems to me that he is
dealing with three kinds o f trinity. The first kind is that posited by the Pythago­
reans, which is that every creature has a beginning, a middle, and an end, for, al­
though / (6b) some are eternal, nevertheless Plato holds this to be not naturally so
nor because o f their own virtue, but only because o f the sustaining power and will
o f the Creator. Even according to Aristotle’s philosophy, all things are preserved
and kept in existence by the influence o f G od, as, for example, light is continu­
ally maintained and caused by the sun. Therefore, o f necessity, the trinity men-
in the Platonis opera, edited by John Burnet 40 A mais seulement mais du.
(Oxford, 1905), vol. 4.
 j6 [ Le Livre du ciel et du monde
par neccessité, la trinité dessus dicte est en toute creature quant est de
soy. E t pour ce que la chose faite doit avoir et a similitude a son faicteur
ou a ce qui est en la pensee de son faicteur, ce est signe evident que en Dieu
est trinité selon ce que, par sa puissance infinie, trinité et pluralité est en
215 lui avec simple unité. Item, autre maniéré est quar les principales choses
du monde et les proprietéz de elles sont selon cest nombre, si comme .iii.
simples mouvemens et .iii. maniérés de corps mouvables de simple m ouve­
ment41— et ce appert ou chapitre ensuyant— et .iii. parties de temps—
preterit, present et futur— et pluseurs autres trinitéz sont es creatures
220 et en signe de perfection, et es choses sacrées meismes selon les payens,
si comme il est touchié devant. E t pour ce fu dit que le créateur veult estre
magnifié selon cest nombre, et ce nouz enseig- // (6c) ne nature42 en laquele
est relucente la fourme,43 vestige ou estrace de Dieu. E t pour ce appert
que en Dieu est trinité et par consequent Dieu est trinité. Item, une autre
225 maniéré est en ce que toute chose corporelle a .iii. dimensions si comme
déclaré est devant.44 E t posé que nul corps ne fust, encore est ce simplement
impossible et enclôt contradiction45 que Dieu feist et formast une chose
corporele qui eust plus ou moins de dimensions si comme chascun de cler
entendement puet legierement ymaginer. E t donques convient par neces-
230 sité que D ieu qui est exemplaire des creatures ait en soy trinité incorporelle,
quar ce est impossible que la divine substance soit selon soy corporelle.
E t ceste trinité de Dieu laquele nature nous monstre {apparceurent) 46
jadis pluseurs solempnelz philosophes en lumière naturele, combien que
ce fust obscurément ainsi comme l’en voit une chose de loing.47 Item, les
235 sains patriarches et les prophètes la cognurent par inspiracion du saint
Esperit et ne la nouz exposèrent pas clerement mais en figures et en paroles
obscures.48 Item, nostre Sauveur par soy et par ses disciples et par les sains
docteurs la nouz a plainement des- / (6d) claree en tant comme il souffist
a croire pour nostre sauvement, 49 et avec ce comment creature incorporelle
240 est ymage de ceste divine trinité.
2. Ou second chapitre il monstre comment des corps du monde
sont trois simples mouvemens <locals).1
T . Mais de la nature de tout le corps du monde se elle est infinie selon
41 A simples mouvemens. 46 A E apertement; ont inserted in A in
42 B enseigne cest nombre. margin to be read before monstre.
43 A E et la fourme. 47 Plato, Plotinus, and the Neoplatonists.
44 A par devant. See R. Arnou, “ Le Platonisme des Pères,” in
45 B consideracion. Dictionnaire de théologie catholique, (Paris, 1935),
Book I, Chapter 1, fols. 6c-6d | jy
tioned above is found in every creature, qua creature. A n d because everything made
must have and does have the likeness o f its Maker or the likeness o f that which is
in the thought o f its Maker, this is a clear sign that trinity is in G o d in accordance
with His infinite divine power, which implies that trinity and plurality are His at­
tributes in addition to simple unity. The second kind o f trinity is involved in the
first principles o f the world, and their properties conform to this number, such as
the three simple motions, the three kinds o f bodies movable by simple motion—
this will appear in the following chapter [see fol. 7c]— and the three kinds o f time
— past, present, and future. A n d many other trinities are observable in creatures
and are a sign o f their perfection [or completeness] : and also in sacred observances
even among the pagans, as we have heard mentioned above [see fol. 4d]. This is the
reason that the Creator wishes to be praised in accordance with this number three;
and Nature, // (6c) in which the form, the vestige, or trace o f G o d is refulgent,
teaches us this. Thus it appears that trinity is in G o d and that consequently G o d is
trinity. A [third] kind o f trinity is seen in the fact that all corporeal objects have
three dimensions, as stated above [see fol. 4a]. A n d even if no body existed, it is
simply impossible and a contradiction that G o d should make or form a corporeal
object having more or less dimensions, as anyone o f clear understanding can
easily imagine. Therefore, we must necessarily assume that G od, w ho is the exem­
plar o f creatures, possesses in Himself incorporeal trinity, for it is impossible that
the divine substance should be corporeal in and o f itself. A n d this trinity o f G od,
which nature demonstrates to us, was perceived formerly in natural light b y many
solemn philosophers, although it was obscurely seen, as one sees a thing from a
distance. Th e holy patriarchs and the prophets knew it by inspiration o f the H oly
Spirit, but did not explain it to us clearly, but in figurative language and obscure
words. Y et our Savior Himself and His disciples and the holy doctors o f the church
have clarified it plainly for us / (6d) in sufficient manner to lead us to believe our
salvation, and with this to understand how an incorporeal creature is the image o f
this divine trinity.
2. In Chapter Tw o he explains how bodies in the world are
capable o f three simple local motions.
T . With regard to the nature o f the world as a whole, whether it is infinite in size
vol. 12, col. 2322-38. Also R. Arnou, De Pla- 48 Cf. Gen. 1:28, 3.22. Isai. .3. s. 32.
tonismo Patrum, textes et documents, Pontificia 49 Cf. Matt. 3:16, 28.19. Luc. 1 *35* 0
Universitas Gregoriana, series theologica, vol. 14:16; 15: 26. I Joan 4 .13 , 5
21 (Rome, 1933), 17 ff.
 J 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 2, fols. 7a-7b | j?

magnitude, ou se elle est finie et de certaine quantité selon toute la masse
de elle, nous entendrons apres a ce.
G . O u ixe chapitre et apres.
5 T . Or, disons donques maintenant des parties de cest corps, et faisons
nostre commencement de ce que touz corps naturelz et toutes magnitudes
sont mouvables selon lieu, car nature est en eulz principe et cause de cestui
mouvement.
G . Telz corps sont le ciel et les .iiii. elemens et les choses compostes ou
io composées des elemens, car <tous>2 sont mouvables ou en leur lieu naturel,
si comme les esperes du ciel, ou a leur lieu naturel se il en estoient hors,
si comme les choses pesantes en bas et les legieres en haut, et tout par inclin-
cacion naturele selon leur forme substanciele. Quar posé que toute la terre
ensemble fust perpetuelment sans soy mouvoir, jouxte ce que dit l’Escrip-
i5 ture: // (7a) Terra vero in eternum stat,3 et alibi: Q u i fundasti terra<m>
super stabilitatem suam non inclinabitur in seculum seculi;4 ou que les
parties de elle qui sont vers le centre fussent touzjours sanz mouvement,
si comme dit Av<er)rois5 ou secont de Physique,6 toutesvoies elles pueent
estre dictes mouvables pour ce que elles ont ce par quoy elles se mouvroi-
20 ent a leur lieu naturel se elles en estoient hors, et par quoy elles y reposent,
et pour ce que semblables en espesce se mouvent aucune foys. E t nyent-
moins, je diray apres ou secont livre7 comment il est possible, et par aven­
ture neccessaire selon le cours de nature, que toute la terre ensamble soit
meue aucune foys.
25 T . E t tout mouvement selon lieu ou local est droit ou circulaire ou com­
posé de ces .ii., car ces .ii. mouvemens sont meismement simples. E t la cause
est quar ces magnitudes seulles sont simples, ce est a savoir, la droite et la
circulaire.
G . To u t mouvement local est mesuré par aucune espace ou ligne laquelle
30 descript la chose meue par tel mouvement, et tote telle mesure ou ligne est
droite si comme l’en diroit une estade ou une lieue en lon<c>,8 ou elle est
circulaire et en ront ou composée de ces .ii. E t ceste composicion / (7b)
puet estre en .ii. maniérés. Une est par parties dont une soit droite et l’autre
courve si comme ainsi [Fig. 1]. Autre maniéré est que la ligne ne soit pas
35 droite ne circulaire mais que elle soit corve et tortueuse autrement que circu-
lairement, si comme le cercle d ’une cuve beslongue [Fig. 2]9.
or whether it is finite and o f fixed quantity in so far as its entire mass is concerned
— o f these matters we shall discourse later.
G . In Chapter Nine and after [see fol. 17c].
T . Let us now speak o f the parts o f this body [of the world as a whole], and let
us begin with this, that all natural bodies and all magnitudes are capable o f motion
with respect to place or position, for nature is the principle and cause o f this mo­
tion.
G . Such bodies are the heavens and the four elements and things composed or
compounded o f the elements ; for all are capable o f motion either in their natural
place, like the heavenly spheres, or to their natural place i f they are outside o f it,
like things that are heavy m oving downward and light things m oving upward, all
according to their natural inclination in keeping with their substantial form. Let us
assume the earth altogether and perpetually without motion, as the Scripture
states: // (7a) “ Th e earth stands forever;” and elsewhere: “ T h ou hast laid the
foundations o f the earth that it should not be removed forever;” or that the parts
o f the earth near its center are without motion, as Averroes says in the second book
o f Physics', nevertheless, these parts may be said to be movable because they pos­
sess that by which they would move themselves to their natural place i f they were
outside o f it and that by which they remain there, and also because things o f like
species do sometimes m ove themselves. However, I shall consider later in B ook II
how it is possible, perhaps even necessary, that in the course o f nature the earth as
a whole be moved sometimes.
T . A ll local movement is either straight or circular or a mixture o f these two, for
these two are indeed the only simple motions ; the cause o f this is the fact that these
magnitudes alone are simple, that is, the straight and the circular.
G . A ll local motion is measured by some distance or line which the thing moved
by such movement describes, and all such measure or line is either straight, as
when we say a stade or a league in length, or it is circular and round or a compound
o f these two. This compound motion / (7b) may be o f tw o kinds : one is where part
o f the motion may be straight and part may be circular [see Fig. 1]. Another kind

1 A B omit locals. Guthrie, ch. 2.
2 A toutes.
3 Cf. Eccles. x : 4— Terra autem in aeternum
stat.
4 Ps. 103:5. A terra.
5 A Avrois.
6 Cf. Quartum volumen Aristotelis de physico
atiditu, cum Averrois Cordubensis variïs in eodum
commentants (Juntas, 1570), vol. 4, t.c. 45, fol. Fig. 1
67 ff.
7 Ch. 9, 92b-94c; ch. 25, 138-144C. is when the line is neither straight nor circular, but curved and crooked otherwise
8 A E en loing. than circularly, as in the case o f an oblong tub, flat at the sides with rounded ends
9 In A , by mistake, a perfect circle was
[see Fig. 2].
originally inserted in col. 7b, later marked
vacat, with corrected figure— an elongated
spheroid— crudely drawn at side in margin.
 6o Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T. E t donques mouvement circulaire est celui qui est fait environ le
milieu.
G. Ce est entor un point appellé centre qui est ou milieu du cercle.
T . E t le mouvement droit est celui qui est en haut ou en montant, et
celuy qui est en bas ou en descendant. E t je // (7c) di celui estre en montant
qui est en soy esloingnant du milieu, et celui estre en descendant qui <est>10
en soy approchant du milieu. E t donques est neccessaire que tout m ouve­
ment local simple soit: un en soy esloingnant du milieu, autre en tendant
45 a milieu et autre environ le milieu. E t semble que ceste chose soit conse-
quante selonc rayson a celles que nous avons dictes au commencement,
quar corps est parfait en .iii. et mouvement de corps en .iii.
G. Il appert par le premier chappitre comment tout corps est parfait
parce que il a .iii. dimensions, et comment cest nombre est parfait, et a ce
50 s’acorde ce que maintenant est dit que des corps du monde sont .iii. mouve-
mens simples. E t appert par ce que dit est que tout mouvement n’est pas
simple qui est selonc droite ligne mais seullement celui qui est en montant
droit ou en descendant droit. E t ce est selonc partie d ’une ligne ymaginee
du centre du monde a la circonferance qui est appellee semidiametre du
55 monde, si comme est la lingne .ab. [Fig. 3]. / (yd) E t donques le mouvement
qui seroit selonc quelconque autre ligne droite ou en travers ou en biés
ne seroit pas symple, mais seroit composé de circulaire en tant comme au­
cunement et en partie il est environ le centre du monde, et seroit composé
de mouvement droit en tant comme il est aucunement en approchant ou
60 esloingnant du centre si comme le mouvement qui seroit selonc la ligne
.cd. E t semblablement le mouvement circulaire est simple seulement
qui est environ le centre du monde ou qui est sanz monter et sanz descendre,
et nul autre n’est proprement simple. E t donques sont .iii. mouvemens sym-
ples en general pour ce que tant seullement en .iii. maniérés se puet avoir
10 A .C D F omit est.
Book I, Chapter 2, fols. 7C-yd | 61
T. Thus, circular motion is motion around the center.
G. That is, around a point called the center, in the middle o f the circle.
T. Straight motion is up or upward movement, or down or downward m ove­
ment. A n d I II (7c) mean by upward movement that which moves out and away
from the center and by downward movement I mean motion down towards and
approaching the center. Therefore, it is necessary that all simple local movement
be either one which moves away from the center, one which moves toward the
center, or one which moves around the center. It seems that this observation fol­
lows naturally and reasonably from what we have said at the beginning, namely,
that body is perfect [and complete] in the number three, and now the motion o f
bodies is likewise summed up in this same number.
G. In the first chapter it is made clear how every body is complete because it has
three dimensions and how this number is perfect; what he now says, namely that
all bodies have three simple motions, agrees with this earlier statement. B y what he
has said, it appears that not all motion along a straight line is simple, but only
motion straight up or straight down. A n d this motion would be along a part o f an
imaginary line drawn from the center o f the earth to its circumference, this line
being called the semidiameter o f the earth, as shown b y the line ab [see Fig. 3]. /
(7d) Thus any motion along any other straight line, either oblique or slanted, would
not be simple motion, but compounded o f circular motion, being to some degree
around the center o f the earth, and o f rectilinear motion since it would be to some
degree approaching or m oving away from the center o f the earth, as shown by the
motion indicated along the line cd. Likewise, circular motion is simple only if it is
around the center o f the earth or without any upward or downward motion, and
no other is correctly called simple. Therefore, generally speaking, there are three
simple motions because a body can move in three ways only with respect to the
 62 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 3, fols. 8a-8b | 63

center o f the earth: 1) approaching, 2) m oving away from, and 3) moving around
65 par mouvement un corps ou regart du centre ou du milieu du monde, c ’est
a savoir en approchant et en esloingnant et en avironnant. the center.

3. Ou .iii. chappitre il aplique aucuns des mouvemens locals 3. In Chapter Three he applies his observations regarding local
a aucuns corps du monde. motion to a few terrestrial bodies.

T. E t des corps les uns sont simples et les autres sont composts ou com­
T. Some bodies are simple, and some are compound or mixtures o f these simple
bodies. B y simple bodies I mean those which contain the principle or cause o f their
posés de ces simples. E t je di que les simples sont ceulz quelconques
motion within themselves by nature, like fire and earth and bodies o f their species
< q u i)J ont principe ou cause de mouvement en eulz selonc nature, si comme
sont le feu et la terre, et corps de leur espece // (8a) et ceulz qui sont pro- //(8a) or o f the same order.
5 chains de eulz. G. For example, the air, which is next to fire in its sphere, and water, which is
next to the earth. These four elements are simple, and all other bodies here below
G. C ’est a savoir l’air qui est prochain du feu en son espere et l’yaue qui
are mixed and are compounds o f the elements. These elements and their parts,
est prochaine de la terre. E t ces .iiii. ellemens sont simples et les autres
which are o f the same species, contain their own principle o f local motion, and the
corps de ci bas sont mixtes et composts des ellemens. E t ces elemens et
mixed bodies derive their local motion from the nature o f the simple elements
leur parties qui sont de leur espece ont en soy principe de mouvement
[composing them], as will be stated next.
10 local, et les corps composts ont tel mouvement par la nature des simples
si comme il sera dit apres. T. Thus, it is necessary that there be simple and also mixed motions, that the
motions o f simple bodies be simple and the motions o f compound bodies be
T. Pour ce est il neccessaire que des mouvemens les uns soient simples
mixed, and also that a compound body should be moved in the manner o f the
et les autres mixtes aucunement, et que des simples corps les mouvemens
element which predominates and holds mastery in such a mixed body.
soient simples et que des corps composts les mouvemens soient mixtes
G. Here are two things which require clarification. One is to explain the charac­
15 et que le corps compost soit meu selonc le mouvement du simple element
teristics o f mixed movement; such motion is neither purely straight nor purely
qui est predominant et a la seingnourie en tel corps compost.
circular. Generally speaking, this mixture may be o f three kinds. One is composed
G. Icy sont .ii. choses a desclairier. Une est comment un mouvement
o f several varieties o f rectilinear motion and the other o f several kinds o f circular
est mixte; et pour ce que il n ’est pas purement droit ne purement circulaire.
motion and the third o f both rectilinear and circular or o f several such compound
E t en general ceste mixtion puet estre en .iii.2 maniérés. Une est de plusseurs
motions. A n example o f the first [several rectilinear motions] : if a lance were borne
ao mouvemens drois, et l’autre de plusseurs circulaires et la tierce de droit et
straight forward horizontally and / (8b) a fly walked directly upward on the lance,
de circulaire ou de plusseurs telz. Exemple du premier : se une lance estoit
the fly’s motion would be compounded o f two rectilinear movements, namely 1)
portée tout droit en travers et / (8b) une mouche montast tout droit contre-
that movement which it shares with the lance and 2) its own rectilinear movement
mont ceste lance, le mouvement de la mousche seroit mixte de .ii. mouve­
upon the lance ; thus its actual motion would describe a diametrical or oblique line.
mens drois, c’est a savoir de celui dont elle est meue aveques la lance et
The same would happen to a man crossing a ship which is m oving and going
25 du sien propre, et decriroit par son mouvement une ligne dyametrale3 ou
straight down stream. In this way, a single motion can be composed o f three, four,
biese. E t samblablement feroit un homme qui traverseroit une nef quant
or more rectilinear motions, as can be easily seen. A n example o f the second kind
elle est meue et va tôt droit aval. E t en ceste maniéré .i. mouvement puet
o f motion [circular] is the movement o f the planets ; as with the sun, whose motion
estre composé de .iii. ou de .iiii. ou de plusseurs mouvemens drois, si
is mixed, being involved in the daily movement o f the heavens and in the proper
comme l’en puet ymaginer legierement. D e la seconde maniéré sont pour
movement o f its own sphere, and this applies to other planets also. These com-
30 exemple les mouvemens des plannettes, si comme du solleil le mouvement
est mixte du mouvement journal de tout le ciel et du mouvement propre
de son espere, et ainsi des autres planètes. E t ne sont pas ces mouvemens
omits qui. 3 A dyamentrale.
b k

.ii.
 64 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
mixtes seullement de .ii. mais de plusseurs selonc plus et selonc moins. D e
la tierce maniéré seroit exemple le mouvement d’une chose sus le semidia-
35 metre d’un cercle, lequel semidyametre seroit meu circulairement. E t par
tel mouvement est descripte une ligne appellee Elycen de laquelle use A r-
chymenides4 en la demonstreson5 de la quarreure de cercle // (8c) et est telle
comme il appert yci en figure [Fig. 4]. Item, selonc la premiere magniere
est possible <que>6 de .ii. mouvemens drois soit fait un mouvement cir-
40 culaire, si comme se la ligne, .bed. descendront7* droit en bas, et .a. fust
meu sus elle en alant de .c. vers .b. [Fig. 5]. Je di que les velocitéz de ces
.ii. mouvemens pourroient estre tellement disposées que quant .a. vendroit
sus .b., il avroit descripte la quarte partie de une circonferance. Item, en
retornant de .b. vers .c. et que la / (8d) lingne total descendist touzjours,
45 .a. pourroit descripre une autre quarte partie de la circunference. Item, se
la ligne total retournoit en montant droit en haut et .a. alast oultre vers
.d. et apres retournast vers .c., ainsi pourroit estre descripte l’autre moitié
de la circonférence. Item, selonc la seconde magniere, un mouvement droit
pourroit estre mixte de .ii. ou de pluseurs movemens circulaires, si comme
50 qui signeroit un point en la circonférence d’un epicicle [Fig. 6], cest point
4 D E Archimeniades. For the definition o f is not used throughout the text; the figure
tinea spiralis, see Archimedes omnia opera, ed. used throughout is conus.
J. L. Heiberg, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1913), 44, 11. 6 A omits que.
16-23. 7 A descendist.
* Ibid., pp. 262-315. The term tinea spiralis
Book I, Chapter 3, fols. 8c-8d | 6j
pound movements are not limited to two kinds o f circular motion but may be sever­
al, some more, some less. O f the third kind o f motion [rectilinear and circular
mixed], an example would be the movement o f an object upon the semidiameter
[or radius] o f a circle when the radius is m oved circularly. Such a motion describes
a line called helix, which Archimedes uses in his demonstration o f the squaring o f a
circle // (8c) and a typical helix is shown here in a drawing [see Fig. 4]. N o w in the
first example given [dealing with several rectilinear motions], it is possible from
two rectilinear motions to derive a circular motion; as when the line bed dropped
straight down and i f a were moved upon it, going from c toward b [see Fig. 5], I
_d d
c
C3 c
d
b
a_
c d
H g. 5
say that the velocities o f these two motions could be so disposed that, when a
reaches b, it would have described one quarter o f a circumference ; now, if a returns
from b toward c and the / (8d) entire line drops with it, a would thus describe an­
other quarter o f the circumference. I f the entire line returned upward in a perpen­
dicular motion [with a] m oving beyond [e] toward d and then returning toward c,
then the second half o f the circumference would be described. N o w , according to
the second example, a rectilinear motion could be mixed with two or more circular
motions, as in the case o f assigning a point on the circumference o f an epicycle [see
Fig- 6], this point could describe a straight line by its own circular motion around
Fig. 6
66 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
pourroit descripre une ligne droite par son propre mouvement circulaire envi­
ron le centre de l’epicicle et par le mouvement de l’epicicle environ le centre
du grant cercle. Mais en touz telz cas les simples mouvemens dont les mixtes
sont composés ne sont pas réguliers. Apres convient desclairier comment
55 chascun corps mixte est meu selonc le // (9a) mouvement de Pelement qui a
dominacion en cel corps. E t premièrement, ce est a entendre de mouvement
purement naturel qui n’est pas violent, si comme quant l’en jecte une pierre
en haut, et qui n’est pas selonc fantasie et appétit de beste, si comme courir,
voler, noer, qui sont mouvemens mixtes et de corps mixtes. E t nientmoins,
60 telz corps mixtes sont mouvables du simple mouvement de l ’element qui
a en eulz dominacion. Item, ceste dominacion est a entendre quant as
qualités motives lesquelles sont gravité et levité, ce est a dire pesanteur et
legiereté. E t celle est dicte avoir dominacion qui habonde et passe l’autre
et est la (p lu s )8 forte. Or, est ainsi que es corps mixtes parfais, gravité
65 ( o u ) 9 pesanteur a dominacion, si comme il appert ou secont livre de Gene-
racione et corrupcione.1° E t sont telz corps plus pesans que legiers, et pour
ce, il tendent en bas naturelment par simple mouvement, aussi comme feroit
la terre qui seroit simple element. Mais en aucuns corps mixtes imparfés,
legiereté habonde et a dominacion, si comme sont flamme, fumee, exalacions
70 et aucunes impressions dont est traitié ou livre de Metheores.11 E t pour ( c e ) 12
telz corps, quant est de soy, seroient meuz droit en haut, mes / (9b) par
accident ou par aucune violence, leur mouvemens sont souvent obliques
ou tortueus ou traversains et mixtes, si comme il appert par ce que dit Sene-
que ou livre des Questions naturel^.I3 E t se aucun demandoit a savoir mon
75 se un corps porroit estre mixte egualment de ces .ii. qualités motives, je
di que non quar se ces .ii. qualités, c ’est a savoir pesanteur et legiereté,
estoient equales en un corps, les qualités actives, comme sont chaleur et
froidure, seroient en tel corps inequales. E t ne puet estre autrement par
nature, quar la chaleur passeroit et avroit dominacion. E t donques par son
80 action tel corps seroit tantost altéré et fait (e n c o r)14 plus chaut et plus sec
et par consequant plus legier. E t ainsi l ’equalité15 de ces .ii. qualités motives
ne pourroit demourer. E t donques appert que un corps mixte ou mixtioné
equalment de ces .ii. qualités motives ne puet durer par temps en ceste
equalité, mais convient que une ait dominacion et que elle encline cest
85 corps plus fort que l’autre qualité ou a monter ou a descendre. E t donques
tout corps mixte est mouvable selonc la qualité motive qui a en [lui domi­
nacion. E t pour miex entendre ce qui s’ensuit, l’en doit savoir que les .iiii.
elemens sont dis corps simples pour ce que de eulz sont corn- // (9c) posés
les autres corps corruptibles et eulz non, fors seullement de leur fourme
omits plus. 31—35, and also Averroes, II, t.c. 49.
en. 11 Cf. Meteorologicorum, IV .9. 387a 8— 388a
10 See De generatione et corruptione, II.8. 334b 9.
Book I, Chapter 3, fols. 9a-9c | 6j
the center o f the epicycle and by the motion o f the epicycle around the center o f
the great circle. But in all such cases the simple motions o f which the mixed motions
are composed are irregular. N o w , let us explain how each compound body is m ov­
ed in accord with // (9a) the motion proper to the element which is predominant
within the compound body. In the first place, we are to consider motion which is
purely natural and not violent— as is the case when a stone is thrown upwards— or
motion that is not effected b y the whim or appetite o f an animal— such as running,
flying, swimming, all o f which are mixed motions o f compound bodies. Neverthe­
less, such compound bodies can have the simple motion o f the element dominant
within them. W e are to understand domination with reference to such motive
qualities as heaviness or lightness, weight and lack o f weight. A n d that quality is
said to dominate which exceeds and surpasses the other quality and is the stronger.
N ow , the fact is that in completed mixed bodies heaviness or weight predominates,
as appears in the second book o f Generation and Corruption. Such bodies are heavy
rather than light and therefore they tend naturally downwards by simple motion,
just as earth would tend since it is a simple element. But in certain imperfectly mixed
bodies, lightness exceeds [heaviness] and predominates, as with flame, smoke, ex­
halations, and certain atmospheric conditions which have been discussed in the
book o f Meteors. Because they are light, such bodies in and o f themselves would be
moved straight upwards, but / (9b) accidentally or from some violent stimulus
their movements are often oblique or crooked or transverse and mixed, as Seneca
states in his book ofQuestions about N ature. A n d if it be asked whether a body could
be composed o f an equal mixture o f these two motive qualities, I say no ; because i f
these two qualities— heaviness and lightness— were equal in a body, the active
qualities, such as heat and cold, would be unequal in such body. N or can it be other­
wise in nature, for heat would exceed cold and predominate. Thus by its action
such a body would soon be altered and become warmer and drier and conse­
quently lighter, and the equality o f the two m otive qualities could not remain. It
appears, therefore, that a body composed or compounded o f equal parts o f these
two motive qualities cannot maintain for any length o f time this equality, but must
yield to the domination o f one or the other, and that this predominant quality in­
clines this body more strongly than the other quality— either upwards or down­
wards. Therefore, all mixed bodies are capable o f motion in accordance with the
motive quality which predominates within. T o understand better what follows,
one should know that the four elements are called simple bodies because from them
are composed //(9c) the other destructible bodies, they themselves being indestructi-
12 A omits ce. Teubner, 1907), p. 61, especially 11. 16-21.
13 L . Annaei Senecae naturalium questionum li- 14 A ou corps.
bros viii, 11.24, ed. Alfred Gercke (Leipzig: 15 B D F la qualité. E le qualité.
 68 Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 4, fols. 9d-ioa | 69

90 et de leur matière et de leur parties intégrales. E t des .iiii. elemens le plus
bas et le plus gros c ’est la terre toute ronde ; et apres est l’eaue tôt environ
fors tant que une partie de la terre est decouverte; et apres, par dessus, est
l ’air qui environne yaue et terre; et apres, par dessus l’air est le feu qui
environne l’air. E t de tant comme l’yauue est plus soubtile et plus clere
95 que la terre, et16 l’air plus soubtil et plus cler que n’est l’yauue, de tant est
l’element du feu en sa region et en son espere plus subtil et plus cler que
n’est l ’air. E t pour ce, cest feu est invisible et n’est pas ardant aussi comme
ceü qui est ou charbon ou en la flamme, quar il n’a pas en son espere estrange
matière que il arde ainsi comme busche ou telle chose et il ne art pas soy
100 meisme.
ble, except as to their form, their matter, and their integral parts. A n d o f the four
elements the lowest and the heaviest is the whole round earth; next is water round
about it, save for that portion o f the earth which is exposed; next, above these two,
is the air which surrounds earth and water; and, finally, above the air is fire which
surrounds the air. A n d just as the water is more subtle and more transparent than
the earth, and the air more subtle and transparent than the water, just so is the ele­
ment o f fire more subtle and transparent in its region and sphere than the air.
Therefore, this fire is invisible and does not burn brightly as does the fire in a
burning coal or in a flame, for in its own sphere fire has no foreign matter, like a
log or similar thing, to burn, and fire itself does not burn.

4. Ou quart chappitre il monstre par .v. raysons que sanz les 4. In Chapter Four he presents five reasons why it is necessary to
.iiii. ellemens il convient mettre un autre corps simple.1 posit another simple body in addition to the four elements.
T . O r disons donques que se ainsi est que d’un corps le mouvement qui est T . N o w let us assume that, i f it is a fact that the circular movement o f a body is a
en circuite est mouvement simple ...
simple m otio n ...
G . Sy comme il fu dit ou secont chappitre.
G . As was stated in the second chapter [see fol. 7a].
T . E t tout simple / (9d) mouvement est d ’aucun simple corps, quar le
T . And that all simple / (9d) motion pertains to a simple body because the m o­
5 mouvement d ’un corps compost et mixte est selonc la nature du simple
tion o f a composite or mixed body is governed by the simple body in such a com­
corps qui en tel mixte est predominant et a seingneurie ...
pound that predominates and controls i t ...
G . T o u t ce fu dit ou tiers chappitre.
G . A ll this was stated in Chapter Three [see fol. 8a].
T . E t pource que ainsi est, il convient par neccessité que aucun corps sim­
T . Then it must follow, i f this is the case, that some simple body exists whose
ple soit lequel est enclin selonc sa nature a estre meu de mouvement cir-
nature it is to be moved by circular motion.
10 culaire.
G . A n d lest someone say that this movement is natural to some one o f the four
G . E t se aucun disoit que cest mouvement est naturel a aucun des .iiii.
elements, he objects and states :
elemens, il oppose encontre et dit :
T . For, indeed, there may be a body with another natural motion that could be
T . Quar bien puet estre que un corps qui a autre mouvement naturel
impelled by violence into circular motion, but it is impossible that a simple body
seroit meu de cestui par violence, mais ce est imposible que un corps sim-
have more than one simple motion corresponding to its nature.
15 pie ait plus d’un simple mouvement selonc nature.
G . And each o f the elements is naturally movable in rectilinear motion, as stated
G . E t chascun des elemens est par nature mouvable de mouvement droit,
in Chapter Three [see fol. 8a]. Thus, circular motion is somehow violent and un­
si comme il appert au tiers chappitre. E t donques mouvement circulaire
natural to the four elements. Consequently, it is proper and natural to another sim­
est as elemens aucunement violent et hors nature, et par consequent,
ple body, and this body is the heavens. Thus it appears that, even though we did
il est propre et naturel a un autre simple corps; et c ’est le ciel. E t par ce
not see the heavens, natural reason would teach us that some simple body exists o f a
20 appert que susposé que nul ne veist le ciel, nientmoins rayson naturele
different nature than the four elements and that this simple body is capable o f cir­
enseingne que aucun corps simple est de autre nature que les .iiii. elemens
cular motion. // (10a) But there is reason for doubt when he says that a simple body
et qui est mouvable circulairement. // (10a) Mais une doubte est de ce que
has only a simple motion; for air descends when it is in the region o f fire and goes
il dit que un simple corps n’a que un simple mouvement, quar l’air descent
up when it is in the [region of] water. T o this I reply that these tw o motions are like
quant il est en la region du feu et monte quant il est en l’yaue. A ce je respon

16 A est. 1 B C D F omit simple. B ou .x. c.


que ces .ii. mouvemens sont aussi comme un pour ce que il sont en un meisme
terme,c’est a savoir au lieu naturel de l ’air. Mais je <fais>2encor une doubte,
et pose par ymaginacion que un tuel ou canel de cuivre ou d’autre matière
soit si lonc que du centre de la terre il ataingne jusques a la fin de la region
des elemens, c’est a savoir jusques au ciel. Je di que <se>3 cest tuel est<oit>4
plain de feu fors que un petit de air fust par dessus tout en bout de haut,
cest air descend<r>oit5 jusques au centre de la terre quar touzjours le
moins legier descent sous le plus legier. E t se cest tuel estoit plain de yaue
fors que cest tanteit de air fust pres du centre, cest air monteroit jusques
au ciel, quar touzjours monte air en yaue naturelment. E t par ce appert
que l ’air puet naturelment descendre et monter par le s<e)mydiamettre6
de l’espere des elemens. E t ces .ii. mouvemens sont simples et contraires,
et donques un simple corps est mouvable naturelment par .ii. simples mou-
/ (iob) vemens et contraires. Je respon que, par aventure, l’en pourroit
dire que le mouvement de cest tantet d’air, ou cas dessus mis, en descendant
est naturel jusques a tant que cest air soit endroit la region ou est le lieu
naturel de cest element, et apres cest air descent encor en bas par violence
parce que le feu qui est plus legier le foule et le met dessous soy. E t ainsi
ceste descendue est partie naturele et partie violente. Semblablement le
mouvement de cest air en montant en l’yaue est naturel jusques a tant que
il est monté du centre de la terre jusques a la region de l’air, la ou est son lieu
naturel.7 E t apres ce, il monte par violence pour ce que l’yaue eslieve cest
air et se boute sous luy par sa pesanteur. E t donques toute la descendue
de cest air et toute la montée, ces .ii. mouvemens en tant comme il sont
contraires, un est naturel et l’autre violent. E t ainsi pourroit l’en dire pour
salver les dis d’Aristote; mais il me semble que ce ne soffist pas.8 Apres il
met au propos principal la seconde rayson.
T . Item, se le mouvement qui est hors nature est contraire a celui qui
est selonc nature, et une chose est contraire seulement a une chose, il
s’ensuit par necces- // (ioc) sité que le mouvement simple circulaire, se il
est d’aucun corps et non selonc nature, que il soit de celui corps hors nature.
E t donques se le feu ou aucun autre de telz corps est meu circulairement,
il convient que le mouvement naturel de tel corps soit contraire a mouvement
circulaire. E t une chose n’a que un contraire et le mouvement qui est droit
en haut et celuy qui est droit en bas sont contraires.
G . E t selonc ce qu’il appert ou comment, 9 les paroles d ’Aristote sont
fortes et obscures, mais pour la chose entendre, je di que mouvemens sont
de .iii. maniérés. Un est naturel, si comme du feu droit en haut; l’autre est
pur violent contre nature, si comme du feu droit en bas; l’autre est ne
A omits fais. 5 A descendoit.
A omits se. 6 A somy di a mettre.
A est. 7 B omits la ou est son lieu naturel.
Book I, Chapter 4, fols, io b -io c | ji
one motion because they have a common limit, namely the natural locus o f the air.
But I still doubt, and I imagine the case o f a tile or copper pipe or other material so
long that it reaches from the center o f the earth to the' upper limit o f the region o f
the elements, that is, up to the very heavens. I say that, if this tile were filled with
fire except for a small amount o f air at the very top, this air would drop down to
the center o f the earth for the reason that the less light body always descends be­
neath the lighter body. A n d if this tile were full o f water save for a small quantity
of air near the center o f the earth, this air would mount up to the heavens, because
by nature air always moves upward in water. From these examples it appears that
air can, by reason o f its nature, descend and m ove upward to the distance o f the
semidiameter o f the sphere o f the elements. N o w , these two m o tio n s are both
simple and contrary, and thus a simple body is by its nature capable o f m oving in
two / (10b) simple contrary motions. I reply to this that perhaps we may say that the
downward movement o f this small amount o f air, in the case above, is natural up
to the point where this air is directly above the region where the proper sphere o f
this element, air, is located; after which this air descends again by violence as it
meets the proper sphere o f fire which is lighter and which mixes it up and casts it
down beneath it. So, this descent is in part natural and in part violent. In like man­
ner, the upward motion o f the air rising in the water is natural while it rises fro m .
the center o f the earth to the point where it meets the region o f the air, its natural
place. After this the air is m oved upward by violence because the water lifts it up
and pushes under it by reason o f its heaviness. Thus, in so far as the up and down
motions o f this air are opposed to each other, one motion is natural and the other
violent. In this w ay we can ransom Aristotle’s statements, but it seems to me that
this is not enough. N ext he presents the second reason for his principal proposi­
tion.
T . I f the motion contrary to nature is the contrary o f natural motion and if a
thing can have but one contrary, it follows necessarily // (10c) that simple circular
motion, if it is not the natural motion o f a body, must then be contrary to its nat­
ure. Thus, if fire or some similar body is moved circularly, it follows that the nat­
ural motion o f such a body is the contrary o f circular motion. N o w , one thing can
have only one contrary, and rectilinear motion upwards and rectilinear motion
downwards are contraries.
G . According to the Commentary [of Averroes], these words o f Aristotle are
difficult and obscure ; however, to make them understandable, I say that motions
are o f three kinds: natural, as when fire mounts straight upwards; violent and
8 B C D P omit Et ainsi pourroit l’e n ... ne 9 Averroes, t.c. 10. B commencement. F
soffist pas. convient.
 72 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
selonc nature ne contre nature, mais hors nature, si comme se le feu en
65 son lieu ou en son espere estoit selonc partie meu en travers. E t Aristote
use yci aucune foys de cest m ot hors nature pour pur violent et qui est con­
tre nature. Je di donques que il a prouvé par la rayson devant mise que
mouvement circulaire n’est pas naturel a quelconque des .iiii. elemens, et
par ceste seconde il voult monstrer que a nul element cest mouvement
70 n’est pur violent et contre na- / (iod) ture, quar chascun element10 a un mou­
vement contraire au sien naturel, si comme mouvement droit en bas est
contraire au mouvement naturel du feu. E t donques mouvement circulaire
n’est pas contraire au mouvement naturel du feu,11 quar une chose n’a
pas .ii. contraires, mais un tant seullement quant est de parfaite contrariété,
75 si comme sont contraires très chaut et très froit, quar ce qui est tiede est
contraire a touz ces .ii. de contrariété imparfaite.
T. E t se aucun autre corps estoit meu circulairement hors nature ou con­
tre nature, il co< n )ven d roit12 que cest corps eust aucun autre mouvement
selonc nature; et c’est impossible, quar se c’estoit mouvement en haut, tel
80 corps seroit feu ou air; et se c ’estoit mouvement en bas tel corps seroit
yaue ou terre.
G . E t donques est ce impossible que ce fust autre corps simple que
un des .iiii. elemens, et, par consequent, tel mouvement circulaire est na­
turel et non pas violent a un corps simple autre que un des .iiii. elemens;
85 et c’est le ciel, etc. Apres il met la tierce rayson.
T. Item, encor convient il par neccessité que tel movement circulaire
soit premier, quar chose parfaite est premiere par nature que n’est chose
imparfaite.
G . E n intencion et en dignité, combien // (n a ) que aucune foys chose
90 imparfecte soit premiere selonc temps et par generacion.
T. E t figure ou lingne circulaire est parfaite, mais la droite n’est pas
parfaite, soit infinie ou finie, car chose qui n’a fin et acomplissement n’est
pas parfaite.
G . E t donques la lingne qui seroit infinie seroit imparfaite.
95 T. E t la droite ligne finie n’est pas parfaite quar l’en puet a elle adj ouster
et la alongier13 tant comme l’en veult.
G . Selonc ymaginacion. E t donques figure circulaire est parfaite et
finie de soy meisme et ne puet estre a lo n g i e ( e ) 14 ne creue, combien que
l’en puisse bien faire une autre ligne circulaire plus grande, mais il n’est
100 pas ainsi de figure droite.
T. E t le mouvement qui est premier par nature est du corps qui est premier
par nature. E t mouvement circulaire est premier par nature que n’ est
10 B mouvement. F omits element. 12 A covendroit.
11 D omits E t donques mouvement circu- 13 A E aloignier.
laire... naturel du feu. 14 A aloingnie; C D alongnie; E aloingnee.
Book I, Chapter 4, fols, io d - iia 73
directly contrary to nature, as when fire descends directly or downwards ; and the
other motion is neither natural nor contrary to nature, but rather outside o f nature,
as when fire in its proper place or within its own sphere is moved in part transver­
sely. In this passage Aristotle uses [the phrase] outside nature to mean violent and
contrary to nature. Therefore, I say that he has proved by the [first] argument a-
bove that circular motion is not natural to any one o f the four elements ; and by this
second argument he would demonstrate that this circular motion is not completely
violent and unnatural / (iod) for each element has a motion contrary to its natural
motion, as, in the case o f fire, a downward motion is the opposite o f its natural
motion. Therefore, circular motion is not contrary to the natural motion o f fire,
for nothing can have tw o contraries, but only one in so far as its complete contrary
is concerned, like very hot and very cold; for lukewarm is the contrary o f both hot
and cold in a kind o f incomplete [or neutral] opposition.
T . If any other body were m oved circularly not in accordance with its nature or
contrary to its nature, it would follow that this body had some other motion natu­
ral to it; and this is impossible, for, if the motion were upward, such a body would
be fire or air, and if the movement were downward, the body would be water or
earth.
G . Thus it is impossible that the body should be other than one o f the four ele­
ments ; and consequently, such circular motion is natural and nonviolent to a sim­
ple body other than one o f the four elements, and this is the heavens, etc. Next, he
states the third reason.
T . A n d it is also necessary that such a circular motion be primary, for that which
is complete is necessarily prior by nature to that which is incomplete.
G . In intensity and in dignity, although // (11a) sometimes an incomplete body
may be prior in time and in its commencement.
T . A n d a circular figure or line is complete, while a straight line, whether infinite
or finite, is not complete, because whatever has no end or terminus is not com­
plete.
G . So that an infinite line would be incomplete.
T . A straight line, though finished, is not complete for one can add to and ex­
tend it as much as he wishes.
G . In imagination [or speculatively]. Thus a circular figure is complete and ends
in itself and cannot be extended nor increased, although we can readily make an­
other and larger circular figure; but this is not true o f a rectilinear figure.
T . A nd the motion which is prior by nature is that o f the body that is prior by
nature, and circular motion is prior by nature to rectilinear motion. N o w , such
74 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
mouvement droit. E t convient que tel mouvement circulaire soit d ’aucun
corps simple, et les corps simples de < c )iIS bas, si comme sont feu et terre,
105 ont mouvement droit et nous avons dit devant ...
G . O u tiers chappitre.
T . Q ue tout corps mixte est meu selonc le mouvement du simple qui
a dominacion en luy. E t donques par ces choses appert manifestement
que une substance de corps / ( n b ) est laquelle est autre que les elemens
i io et les corps mixtes qui sont yci bas, et qui est plus divine et premiere que
toutes les16 substances corporelles qui sont yci bas ou yci aval.
G . C ’est le ciel que l’en apelle la quinte essence, qui est plus divine et plus
precieuse pour ce qu’elle est plus haut que les elemens. E t des elemens
la terre qui est la plus basse est la plus ville, et le feu est le plus noble. Apres
115 il met la quarte rayson qui est telle en sentence:
T . Item, tout simple mouvement qui est d’aucun corps ou ce est selonc
nature ou hors nature. E t tout tel mouvement qui est trouvé en un corps
hors nature, il compete a .i. autre corps selonc nature. E t ainsi le voions
nous es elemens de cy bas, quar le mouvement que la terre a hors nature,
i2o si comme est monter haut, compete au feu selonc nature; et descendre est
au feu hors nature et a la terre selonc nature. E t pour ce, donques, que mou­
vement circulaire est a ces elemens hors nature— quar autres mouvemens
leur sont naturelz— il convient par neccessité que cest mouvement compete
a autre corps selonc nature.17
125 G . Ceste rayson coïncide ou est près de la premiere. Apres il met la
quinte (raison ).18
T . Item, puis- // (n e ) que le mouvement circulaire est d ’aucun corps
selonc nature, il convient que aucun des corps simples et premiers soit
mouvable de cest mouvement selonc nature, et que, aussi comme le feu
13o est meu vers en haut et la terre en bas, que cest corps soit meu circulaire-
ment selonc nature. Quar se les corps qui sont meus selonc circuite ou cir-
culairement sont ainsi meus hors nature ou violentement, ce est mervilleuse
chose et du tout desraysonnable que cest mouvement qui seul est continuel
et perpétuel soit hors nature, quar en autre(s) c h o se (s)19 l’en voit que
135 les choses qui sont hors nature sont très tost corrompues et ne durent pas
longuement. E t pousé que le ciel qui est meu circulairement fust feu si
comme aucuns dient, cest mouvement ne seroit pas moins hors sa nature
que celuy qui est en bas.
G . Combien que il fust moins contre sa nature.
140 T . Quar nous voions que le mouvement du feu est en soy esloingnant
du moien ou du milieu selonc droite ligne.
G . Aucuns, si comme fu Anaxagoras, disoient que le ciel est de nature de
si. que toutes les.
repeats substance de corps... premiere 17 B omits Et ainsi le voions nous... a autre
Book I, Chapter 4, fols. 1 ib - i ic | 7/
circular motion must be natural to some simple body, and the simple bodies o f the
sublunar world, such as fire and earth, have rectilinear motion and we have stated
ab o ve...
G . In Chapter Three [see fol. 8a].
T . That all composite bodies are moved in accordance with the motion o f the
simple element which predominates in them . From these observations, it is mani­
fest that some substance / ( n b ) exists which is different from and other than the
elements and the mixed bodies that exist here below, and this substance is more di­
vine and primary than all the corporeal substances which are here on earth or be­
neath it.
G . This is the heavens, called the quintessence [or fifth element], which is more
divine and precious because it is higher than the other elements. A n d earth is the
lowest and commonest o f the elements, while fire is the noblest. Next he states the
fourth argument, which is expressed as follows :
T . A ll simple motion o f bodies is either natural or unnatural, and all such motion
unnatural to one body will be natural to some other body. W e can observe this
fact in the elements here below, for upward motion, contrary to the nature o f the
earth, will be natural to fire ; and, similarly, downward motion, unnatural to fire,
will be natural to earth. Therefore, since circular motion is unnatural to these sub­
lunar elements, while other motions are natural to them, it follows necessarily that
this circular motion is natural to some other body.
G . This argument coincides, or very nearly so, with the first reason. He next
presents the fifth argument.
T . Therefore, since // (1 ic) circular motion is natural to some body, it must fol­
low that some one o f the simple primary bodies moves thus according to its na­
ture and that, just as fire moves upward and earth downward, this body is m oved
in circular motion by its own nature. For, i f the bodies moved in circles or circular­
ly are moved thus unnaturally or by violence, it is a strange tiling and contrary to
all reason that this motion, the only perpetual and continuous motion, should be
unnatural, for with other things we observe that unnatural things are soon de­
stroyed and do not last long. N o w , if we assume that the heavens, which are moved
in circular manner, are fire, as some maintain, then this circular motion would be
no less unnatural to it than would a downward motion.
G . Although it would be less unnatural to it.
T . For we can see that the natural motion o f fire is to move away from the cen­
ter in a straight line.
G . Some [philosophers], such as Anaxagoras, used to say that the heavens are o f
corps selonc nature. 19 A autre chose.
18 A E omit raison.
j6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
feu, mais se ainsi estoit, le mouvement circulaire ne luy seroit pas naturel quar
il a autre mouvement propre a sa nature. / (x id) E t donques li seroit il violent
145 ou hors nature. Mais une doubte est; quar selonc ce que il appert ou premier
de Metheores,20 le feu en son espere et la plus haute partie de l’air sont meus
circulairement, continuelment et perpetuelment. E t cest mouvement leur
est hors nature. E t de ce s’ <en)suient21 deux choses contre ce que dit est.
Une est que posé que le ciel fust de nature de feu, nientmoins il puet estre
150 ainsi meu perpetuelment; l’autre est que mouvement hors nature puet estre
et est perpétuel. Je respon et di que le feu est meu circulairement en son es­
pere non pas par sa nature, mais pour ce que le ciel le trait aveques soy par
son mouvement et par son influence. E t seroit chose impossible que le ciel
fust ainsi meu hors nature se ce n’estoit par la vertu d’un autre corps qui
155 fust ainsi meu par nature. E t donques convient il que aucun corps soit meu
circulairement par nature, autre cors que n’est le feu. A l’autre consequant
je di que, combien que le feu soit meu circulairement, ce n’est pas pure
violence quar il est touzjours en son lieu, mais est hors nature. E t tel mouve­
ment n’est pas perpétuel, quar nul feu n’est perpétuel, mais perpetuelment
160 feu est ainsi meu, aussi comme l’en // (12a) dirait que perpetuelment est
ou fu et sera22 aucune violence et aucune maladie hors nature. E t toute-
voies (nulle ) 23 telle chose singulière ne dure longuement. Apres il conclut.
T . E t pour ce, l’en puet conclurre par ses raysons que hors ou sanz les
corps qui sont yci bas environ nous (e s t)2* un autre corps séparé de ceulz
165 yci, lequel a plus hounourable nature de tant comme il est plus esloingnié
de ces yci.
G . Quar des elemens l’un est plus noble que l’autre selonc ce qu’il a plus
haut lieu. E t donques le ciel qui est pardessus eulz est encor plus noble.
5. Ou quint chappitre il monstre que le ciel
n’est pesant ne Iegier.1
T . Pource que des choses devant dictes nous supposons les unes estre
vraies...
G . Si comme que .ii. magnitudes simples sont, et ce fu dit ou secont
chappitre.
5 T . E t les autres nous avons monstrees et prouvées...
G . Si comme que le ciel est d’autre nature que les elemens, ou chappitre
precedent.
20 Meteorologicorum, I.2. 339a 11-21. ^ A omits nulle.
21 A sousvient; C D F sensuit. 2+ A et.
22 B C D E F fu ou a esté aucune. 1 Guthrie, ch. 3.
Book I, Chapters 4-5, fols. n d -i2 a 77
the nature o f fire; but, if it were thus, the circular movement would not be natural
to the heavens, for fire has a different natural motion. / (1 id) Thus circular motion
would be violent or unnatural to fire. But a doubt arises : because, according to the
first book o f Meteors, fire in its sphere and the higher part o f the sphere o f the air
are moved circularly, continually, and perpetually. A nd this motion is not natural
to them. From this, tw o things contrary to what has been said must follow. The
first is that, supposing the heavens were o f the same nature as fire, they can never­
theless be moved perpetually; the second is that violent or unnatural motion can
be and is perpetual. I reply by saying that fire is moved circularly in its sphere not
by its proper nature, but because the heavens drag or draw it along with them by
their movement and influence. It would be impossible that the heavens should be
moved in this unnatural manner were it not for the virtue or force o f some other
body thus moved quite naturally. Therefore, there must be some body m oved cir­
cularly by nature, a body other than fire. Regarding the other consequent, I say
that, although fire may be moved circularly, it is not merely by violence, for it is
always in its proper place, but is moved unnaturally. Such motion is not perpetual,
for no fire is perpetual; but fire is perpetually m oved thus, just as one // (12a)
could say that there is at all times and was or will be some violence and some un­
natural malady. However, no such accidental thing lasts for long. He concludes :
T . Thus we may conclude from these reasons that, apart from the bodies around
us here below, there exists another body separate from these, which possesses a
more honorable nature by reason o f the fact that it is far removed from these.
G . Because one o f the elements is more noble than the other in proportion to
the higher place it occupies. Therefore, the heavens, which are above the sublunar
elements, are also more noble.
5. In Chapter Five he shows that the heavens are
neither heavy nor light.
T . Since we suppose certain o f the preceding statements to be true...
G . Such as the fact that tw o simple magnitudes exist, as was said in Chapter
T w o [seefol. 7a].
T . A nd the other statements we have demonstrated and proved...
G . For example, that the heavens have a nature different from the elements, in
the preceding chapter [see fol. çd].
y 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Il convient dire que tout le corps du ciel n’est pesant ne legier, et
convient supposer qu’est a dire pesant et qu’est a dire legier. E t de ce dirons
io maintenant tant comme il souffist a la neccessité présente, mais nous /
(12b) considérerons de ce plus diüganment quant nous dirons derechief
de la substance de ces choses.
G . Ce sera ou tiers et ou quart livre.
T . O r disons donques que chose pesante est qui est nee et encline a estre
15 meue au melieu ou vers le centre du monde, et chose legiere est encline
a soy esloingnier de cest milieu. E t la chose est très pesante qui est en bas
dessous toutes autres qui tendent en bas, et celle est très legiere qui est sus
toutes choses qui tendent en haut et tent en haut. E t convient par neccessité
que toute chose qui tent ou est meue en bas ou en haut ait en soy legiereté
20 ou pesanteur ou tous les .ii., mais non pas en un regart. Quar aucunes choses
sont pesantes et legieres en divers regars, si comme l’air est legier ou regart
de l’yaue et de la terre, et est pesant ou regart du feu; et est l’yaue legiere
ou regart de la terre et est pesante ou resgart et ou lieu du feu et de l’air.
Mais le corps qui est meu en circuite par nature, c ’est impossible que il ait
25 en soy pesanteur ou legiereté, quar ne estre meu au milieu ou en soy es-
loingnant du milieu ne luy compete selonc nature ne hors nature. Première­
ment, mouvement selonc droi- // (12c) te ligne ne li compete pas selonc nature
quar chascun tel mouvement est propre a aucun des .iiii. simples elemens,
et ainsi le ciel seroit de la nature d ’aucun des corps tellement meus.
30 G . E t c’est contre ce qui est déterminé ou chappitre precedent.
T . Item, tel mouvement ne li compete pas hors nature ou par violence
car se estre meu en bas est au ciel hors nature ou par violence, donques
estre meu en haut li sera selonc nature. E t se estre meu en haut li est contre
nature, estre meu en bas li sera selonc nature, quar nous avons mis devant
35 que les mouvemens qui sont contraires, se un est a un corps contre nature,
l’autre li est selonc sa nature.
G . E t par ce s’ensuiroit que le ciel fust de la nature d’aucun des .iiii.
elemens. E t se aucun disoit que tout le ciel en son lieu n’est pas meu de mou­
vement droit, mes se aucune partie du ciel estoit hors de son lieu et yci bas,
40 elle tendroit naturelment en haut selonc droite ligne, et donques elle est
legiere. E t pour ceste doubte oster, il dist apres :
T . E t vérité est que le tout et sa partie sont meus selonc nature a un meis-
me lieue si comme toute la terre et une petite mote.
G . C ’est a entendre posé que tote la terre fust hors de son lieu / (i2d)
45 quar le tout et sa partie tendent en un lieu.
T . E t pour ce, le premier corps, c ’est a savoir le ciel, n’a en soy quelcon­
que legiereté ne quelconque gravité ou pesanteur, quar se il avoit un ou
l’autre il pourroit estre meu au milieu ou en soy esloingnant du milieu selonc
nature.
Book I, Chapter 5, fols. i2 b-i2d | y9
T . We must now state that the entire body o f the heavens is neither heavy nor
light, and we must decide upon the meaning o f these terms heavy and light. For
the present, we will say o f them only what is sufficient for our understanding, but
we / (12b) will consider them more diligently when we come to speak again o f the
heaviness and lightness o f these things.
G . This will be in Books III and I V [of this treatise].
T . Let us say, therefore, that heavy is that which by nature is inclined to m ove to­
ward the middle or center o f the world and that light h inclined to move away from
this center. That thing is very heavy which is below, beneath all others which tend
downward, and that thing is very light which is above all things which tend up­
ward and which itself tends upward. Thus, o f necessity, all things which tend or
move downward or upward must possess within themselves this quality o f light­
ness or o f heaviness or both together, but not in the same relation; for some things
are heavy and light in relation to different things, as air is light in relation to water
and earth, and heavy in relation to fire; and water is light with respect to earth and
heavy with respect to fire and air. But the body which is naturally moved circular­
ly cannot possess heaviness nor lightness because it is neither natural nor unnatural
to it not to be m oved toward or away from the center o f the earth. In the first
place, rectilinear motion // (12c) is unnatural to it because such motion pertains to
one o f the four simple elements, and the nature o f the heavens would thus be iden­
tified with that o f some one o f the bodies moved in this manner.
G . This is contrary to what was established in the preceding chapter [see fol.
9d].
T . Such motion is conceivable to it neither unnaturally nor by violence, for, if
motion downward is unnatural in the heavens, upward motion will be natural ; and
if upward motion is unnatural, downward motion will be natural; for we have
stated above that, with respect to motions in contrary directions, if one is unnat­
ural to the body, the other is natural to it.
G . A n d from this it would follow that the heavens are o f the same nature as one
o f the four elements. I f someone were to say that the heavens as a whole, within
their proper place, are not moved in rectilinear motion, but that if some part o f the
heavens was outside its place and was down here below, then it would tend natu­
rally upward in a straight line; and thus the heavens are light. T o relieve this doubt
he states hereinafter :
T . A nd the truth is that the whole and its part are moved naturally to the same
place, as, for example, the whole earth and a small particle o f it.
G . This is assuming that the entire earth were out o f its proper place, / (i2d) for
the whole and its part tend toward a single place.
T . Therefore, the primary body, i.e. the heavens, has no lightness or heaviness
or weight whatsoever, for, if it had either quality, it could be moved to or away
from the center naturally.
 So I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
50 G . E t ce ne porroit estre, quar il a autre mouvement qui li est natu­
rel.
T . E t par ce appert il que c ’est impossible que aucune partie de luy qui
seroit detraite et separee soit ou fust meue en haut ou en bas, car nul autre
mouvement que circulaire ne compete au ciel selonc nature ne contre na-
55 ture, ne a luy ne a quelconque partie de luy, quar quant a ce, une meisme
rayson est du tout et de sa partie.
G . E t est a savoir que combien que les pianettes soient plus bas et plus
près du centre du monde une foys que autre, toutevoies ce n’est pas par
mouvement droit mais par mouvement circulaire selonc leurs excentri-
60 ques et epicicles. Item, les impressions qui semblent estoilles qui cheent
selonc droit mouvement ne sont pas estoilles du ciel, si comme il appert
ou premier de Metheores .2 Item, par ce que dit est appert que, se par impossi­
ble selonc nature, une petite porcion du ciel estoit yci bas, elle ne mon-
II (13a) teroit pas amont, car elle n’a pas en soy la qualité qui encline a tel
65 mouvement ne a autre mouvement droit. Ore avon donques par cest chap-
pitre que le ciel n’est ne legier ne pesant, et ces .ii. qualités regardent
mouvement local.
6. Ou .vi.e chappitre il monstre que le ciel ne puet avoir esté
engendré ne estre corrompu ne creu ou apeticié ne altéré
T . Semblablement est chose raysonnable de cuidier que le ciel ne fu on-
ques engendré et que il est incorruptible et que il ne puet crestre ne estre
altéré.
G . Tout ce est a entendre selonc le cours de nature et non pas que il
5 ne puisse estre autrement par la puissance divine qui créa le monde de nient.
T . Premièrement, que le ciel ne puet avoir esté engendré ne estre corrom­
pu il appert pour ce que toute chose qui est engendree est faite de son con­
traire; et convient supposer aucun subjet, et est de quoy elle est faite.
E t semblablement toute chose corruptible est corrompue de son contraire
10 et en son contraire,1 et suppose aucun subjet, si comme nous avons dit
es premieres paroles.
G . C ’est ou premier livre de Phisique2 et ou livre de Generation,2 etc.,
ou il appert que en toute generacion et corrupcion il convient aucune ma-
2 Meteorologicorum, I.4. 341b 1— 342a 33 and — 190b 10.
especially 342a.12-13. 3 tDe generatione et corruptione, II.4-5. 331a
1 B omits et en son contraire. 7— 333a 15 and especially 331a 14; I.i. 314b
2 Physicorum, I.j. 188b 21-23; 7.190a 34 26-27.
Book I, Chapters 5-6, fol. 13a | 81
G . This could not be so, since this body has a different motion which is natural
to it.
T . Thus, it appears that it is impossible that any part o f this primary body, which
might be taken away or separated from it, could be m oved up or down, because
only circular movement is compatible naturally or unnaturally with the heavens or
any part thereof, for the same reason applies alike to the whole and to its part.
G . It should be noted that, although the planets are sometimes lower and nearer
the center o f the earth than at other times, nevertheless this is not because o f rec­
tilinear motion, but because o f circular motion in accordance with their eccentrics
and epicycles. T h e phenomena which seem to be stars falling straight downward
are not stars o f the heavens, as is clearly indicated in the first book o f Meteors.
From what has been stated, it appears that i f the naturally impossible should happen
and a small part o f the heavens were here below, it would not rise //(13a) upwards
because it does not possess o f itself that quality which inclines a body to such mo­
tion nor to any other rectilinear motion. Thus we now have it from this chapter
that the heavens are neither light nor heavy and that these two qualities are related
to local motion.
6. In Chapter Six he indicates that the heavens cannot have
been either generated or corrupted, or increased
or diminished, or changed.
T . In like manner it is reasonable to believe that the heavens had no generation
and are indestructible and that they can have neither growth nor change.
G . A ll this is to be understood to mean according to the course o f nature, not
that it cannot be otherwise by the divine power which created the world out o f
nothingness.
T . In the first place, it is evident that the heavens cannot have been generated
nor be destroyed because all generated things are derived from their opposites,
and we must assume some substratum, [some origin], from which a given body is
derived. In like manner, all perishable things are destroyed by their contrary into
which they pass. A n d this presupposes some [origin or] substratum, as we have
stated in our earlier discussions.
G . In the first book o f Physics and in the treatise on Generation and Corruption,
etc., it is stated that in every generation and corruption some substance is the sub-
 82 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
tiere qui est / (13b) le subjet de ceste transmutacion; et est une meisme en la
15 chose engendree qui estoit en la corrompue. Item, la chose engendree est
faite en celle matière ou de celle matière4 apres la chose corrupte, et sont
ces .ii. choses contraires selonc leurs qualités, et par ce est faite alteracion
de froit en chaut ou de chaut en froit, etc. E t s’ensuit corrupcion d ’une
chose et generacion d ’autre, si comme quant une busche ou autre chose
20 est corrompue en feu ou en autre chose, etc.
T . E t des choses qui sont contraires les mouvemens locals sont con­
traires.
G . C ’est a entendre des corps simples, si comme nous voions en l’air que
le feu et l’yaue qui sont contraires, un monte <et)s l’autre descent.
25 T . E t au mouvement du ciel rien n’est contraire, quar a mouvement
circulaire nul mouvement n’est contraire.
G . E t ce sera desclairié apres en <le> .viii.e6 chappitre.
T . E t par ce semble que nature a bien fait en ce que le ciel qui devoit
non point7 avoir esté engendré et estre incorruptible, elle l’a exempté
30 de contrariété, car generacion et corrupcion sont en toutes choses8 con­
traires.
G . C ’est a savoir qui sont contraires selonc les qualités actives et passives
comme sont chaut et froit, et sec et moiste. // (13 c) E t le ciel n’a en soy nulle
telle qualité combien qu’il ait vertu et puissance de les causer et faire es
35 corps corruptibles.
T . Item, le ciel ne puet crestre, quar tote chose qui prent cressance,
c ’est de chose conveniente qui vient dehors et est résolue en la matière.
G . La chose dehors est altéré<e>9 et corrumpue ou résolue, et par ce
elle passe et est convertie en la substance de la chose qui crest soit par nu-
40 t<ri)cion10 ou nourrissement, si comme il est es bestes et es plantes, ou par
autre addition, si comme il est de la pierre qui crest en la terre.
T . E t il n’est chose de quoy le ciel soit fait ou partie de luy.
G . Quar le ciel n’est pas chose materiele ou se il est de matière, elle est
d ’autre nature que la matière des choses de ci bas qui est subjecte a corrup-
45 cion et generacion, etc. Apres il monstre comment le ciel ne puet estre
altéré.
T . Item, se le ciel ne puet crestre ne estre fait plus grant ne plus petit,
l’en doit entendre par semblable rayson que il ne puet estre altéré.
G . Alteracion est transmutacion a aucune qualité et le ciel si puet bien
50 en aucunes de ses parties estre altéré a qualité de lumière, tant pour Rappro­
chement du soiled a elles comme pour / (13 d) l’ombre de la terre et de la
lune et d’aucunes estoilles. Item, aus qualités des vertus par lesquelles sont
faites les influences peuent estre altere<e)sn les parties du ciel selonc la
4 D E omit ou de celle matière. 6 A en V IIIe chappitre.
5 A omits et. 7 B C D E F non povoir avoir.
Book I, Chapter 6, fols. 13 b -!3d 1 83
ject / (13b) o f the change, and this substance is the same in the generated thing as
in the thing corrupted. For the thing generated is made afterward in or from the
same material or substance as in the thing destroyed, and these two things are con­
trary qualities; and thus the change from cold to hot and from hot to cold, etc.,
is effected. Destruction follows from one quality and growth from another, just as
a log or other object is transformed into fire or into some other thing, etc.
T . The local motions o f opposites are opposites.
G . That is, with respect to simple bodies, just as we see with fire and water,
which are opposites, the former rises and the latter falls in air.
T . And nothing is contrary to the motion o f the heavens, for there is no motion
contrary to circular motion.
G . This will be clarified in the eighth chapter [see fols. I4d~i5a].
T . In this it appears that nature did well to exempt the heavens from the law o f
opposites by making them ungenerated and incorruptible, for generation and de­
struction are contraries found in all things.
G . That is to say, they are opposites with respect to their active and passive
qualities, such as hot and cold, dry and moist. //(13c) But the heavens possess no
such qualities, although they have the power to cause these qualities and to induce
them in perishable bodies.
T . Thus, the heavens cannot increase, for everything that grows does so from
the addition to itself o f some suitable substance derived from outside itself, which
substance is incorporated into its matter.
G . This substance from outside is changed and diminished or dissolved, and in
this way it passes into and is converted into the substance o f the grow ing thing
either as food or nourishment, as is the case with animals and plants, or by some
other kind o f addition such as that o f the stone which grows in the earth.
T . The heavens, nor any part o f them, are not made from anything.
G . For the heavens are not a material thing, or, if they are composed o f matter,
this is o f different nature from the things here below which are subject to corrup­
tion and generation, etc. N ext he shows how the heavens cannot be changed.
T . If, therefore, the heavens cannot grow or diminish, this should provide
sufficient reason to believe that they cannot be changed.
G . Change or alteration is the transmutation to some quality, and the heavens
can very well be altered in some o f their parts as to the quality o f the light, as
much by the approach o f the sun o f these parts as because o f / (13d) the shadow
o f the earth, the moon, and certain stars. Th e parts o f the heavens can be altered
also with respect to the qualities o f the virtues or forces through which the influ-
8 B C D E F sont entre choses. 10 A nutacion.
9 A altéré. 11 A altérés.
 84 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
diversité des regars et des dispositions que il ont par leurs mouvemens.
55 Mais le ciel ne puet estre altéré selonc les qualités actives et passives,
< si)12 comme sont chaleur et froidure et semblables ne13 selonc celles qui
sont causées de cestes, si comme sont oudeur, saveur, santé, langueur, etc.
E t ainsi est a entendre ce que dit est.
T . Quar alteracion est mouvement selonc qualité et les habis des qualités
60 et les dispositions, si comme sont santé et langueur, ne sont pas sanz
transmutacions qui sont selonc passions.
G . C ’est a savoir selonc qualités actives et passives.
T . E t nous voions de touz les corps naturelz qui sont transmués selonc
tele pasion qu’il ont acroissement et appetisement, si comme les corps des
65 bestes et des plantes et les parties de telz corps et semblablement des ele-
mens. E t donques se le corps circulaire du ciel ne puet avoir acroissement
ne appetisement, c’est chose raysonnable que il ne puisse estre altéré.
O r donques se l’en croit les choses // (14a) yci suspousees, il appert par ce
que dit est que le premier des corps, c ’est a savoir le ciel, est pardurable
70 et ne reçoit acroissement ne appetisement, et ne puet enviellir ne estre altéré
et est impassible.
G . T o u t ce est a entendre selonc le cours de nature ou selonc ce que puet
apparoir par rayson naturelle, car selonc vérité le ciel eut commencement
non pas par generation naturelle mais par creacion de Dieu.
7. Ou .vii.e chapitre il preuve par .iii. signes
les choses devant dictes.
T . E t semble que rayson face tesmoingnage et que elle s’acorde as choses
apparantes, et les choses apparentes1 a rayson, quar touz honmes ont esti­
mation des diex et que aucunes choses divines sont.
G . E t ce desclaire Tulles en son livre D e la N ature des d iex .7-
T . E t touz atribuent a Dieu le lieu qui est lasus, c’est a savoir le ciel.
G . Celum celi domino, etc. ;3 Pater noster, qui es4 in celis.5
T . E t Barbares et Grecs, quiconques cuident que aucuns diex soient,
attribuent a Dieu cest lieu aussi comme se6 a chose inmortelle fust deu
et convenable lieu inmortel; et est impossible autrement. E t donques se
omits si. 3 Ps. 113:16.
nés. 4 A est.
1 B C D E F omit apparentes. s Matt. 6:9.
2 Cicero, De natura deorum, 1.2, 4; II.16, 21, 6 A comme que se.
24, 31; III.3, 4.
Book I, Chapters 6-7, fol. 14a j 8j
ences are exerted, in accordance with the diversity o f aspects and positions which
they assume in their movements. But the heavens cannot be altered with respect to
the active and passive qualities, such as hot and cold, and the like, nor by those o f
which these are the cause, like odor, taste, health, lassitude, etc. This is the meaning
o f the passage.
T . For alteration is motion with respect to quality, and the habits and disposi­
tions o f qualities, such as good health and lassitude are not devoid o f changes af­
fecting the passions.
G . That is, according to active and passive qualities.
T . A nd we observe that all physical bodies which are transmuted in accordance
with such passion are capable o f growth and diminution, as, for example, the bodies
o f animals and plants and parts o f such bodies, as well as those o f the elements.
Therefore, if the circular body o f the heavens can have neither growth nor dimi­
nution, it follows logically that this body cannot be altered. N o w , i f we can trust
these /I (14a) suppositions, it appears from the above statements that the primary
body, the heavens, is eternal and undergoes neither growth nor diminution, can­
not grow old nor be changed, and is impassive.
G . A ll o f this discussion is to be understood to represent the course or process o f
nature or what is revealed to natural reason ; for, in truth, the heavens did have a
beginning, not by natural generation but rather by G o d ’s divine creation.
7. In Chapter Seven he presents three proofs o f what
he has just stated.
T . Reason seems to bear witness and to be in agreement with the appearances
and especially with appearances sanctioned by reason; for all men have some con­
ception o f the gods and assume that certain things are divine.
G . Tu lly makes the same statement in his book O n the N ature o f the Gods.
T . A nd all men attribute to G o d the domain up above, that is to say, the heav­
ens.
G . The heaven o f heavens is G o d ’s, etc. Our Father, who art in the heavens.
T . Barbarians and Greeks alike, all who believe in the existence o f the gods, at­
tribute to G o d this domain, as though an immortal dwelling place were suitable
and proper to an immortal being. Anything else would seem impossible. Therefore,
 86 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
io aucune chose divi- / (14b) ne est comme si est, les choses maintenant dictes
de la premiere substance corporelle sont bien dictes.
G . Selonc vérité Dieu est en ciel et en terre et partout, mais l ’en li ap­
proprie le ciel par especial pour la noblesce du lieu et pour ce que yleu-
ques apparoissent les oeuvres de Dieu plus mervilleusses. E t les autres
15 substances incorporelles appellees intelligences sont ou ciel et non ailleurs
selonc Aristote.7 Apres il met le secont signe.
T . Item, ceci appert sensiblement a souffisance quant a creance hu­
maine quar, en tout le temps passé selonc le mémoire qui a esté baillié
des uns aus autres, nulle chose n’est transmuée ou ciel ne en tout ne en
20 partie.
G . E t c’est grant signe que il est incorruptible, quar autrement il fust
envielli ou son mouvement fust retardé ou meu,8 ou il fust aucunement
altéré en tout ou en partie, si comme il est des autres corps corruptibles.
Mais aucunes choses estoient avenues et sont depuis desquelles Aristote
25 n’avoit pas congnoissance, si comme de ce dont saint Augustin fait men-
cion ou .xxi.e livre de la C ité de D ie u , 9 et alegue un appellé Varro, lequel
Varro alleguoit .ii. anciens nobles mathématiciens // (14c) qui disoient
que ou temps du roy Ogiges la très belle estoille que nous appelions jour­
nal mua sa couleur et mua sa quantité et sa figure et son cours. E t en ce
30 temps fu un deluge de yaue en Egipte ou en Achaïe, et fu environ mil et
.vii.e et .lx. ans avant la nativité nostre Seingneur.10 Item, nous avons en
la sainte Escripture comment le solleil se arresta ou temps de Josué11 et
comment il retourna ou temps de Ezechias,12 et comment il fu éclipsé
ou temps de la passion nostre Seingneur;13 mais telles choses furent hors
35 le commun cours de nature. Apres il met le tiers signe.
T . Item, il semble par le nom qui fu donné au ciel des anciens jusques
au temps present que eulz avoient telle estimacion comme est celle que nous
avons dicte. Quar il convient cuider que uns meismes oppinions revien­
nent ou retournent non pas seullement une foys ne .ii., mais par foys
40 infinies ou <in>nombrables.14
G . Suspousé que le monde n’eust onques eu commencement si comme
aucuns tenoient, et cest oppinion recite Ecclesiastes quant il dit: Nichil
novum sub sole,15 etc.; et n’est pas vraie.
T . E t pour ce, le corps qui est ou lieu souverain / (i4d) aussi comme s’il
7 See De caelo, II.2. 285a 28-30; 11.6288a 10 Apparently Oresme has computed the
34— 288b 6; Metaphysicorum, Lambda, 8. 1073a date o f this flood, recorded by Orosius as
28-38. See also René Mugnier, La Théorie du having taken place in Achaia 1040 years before
premier moteur et l'évolution de la pensée aristotéli­ the founding o f Rome, Pauli Orosii historiarum
cienne (Paris, 1930), especially Ch. 2. adversumpaganos, 1.7, ed. Carolus Zangemeister
8 B C F mue; D E minue. (Leipzig: Teubner, 1889), p. 20, and by Euse­
9 St. A ugustine, De civitate Dei, X X I.8 (see bius as having taken place in Egypt 1020 years
N o te on the Editorial Apparatus). before the first Olympiad in the reign o f
Book I, Chapter 7, fols. 14^-140 | 8j
if there is some divine object or being, / (14b) as there surely is, the statements
above regarding the primary corporeal substance are well said.
G . In truth, G o d is in the heaven and on earth and everywhere ; but we assign
heaven especially to Him as the noblest place and because his most marvelous
works appear in the heavens. A n d according to Aristotle, the other incorporeal
substances, called the intelligences, are also in heaven and not elsewhere. Next, he
offers his second argument.
T . This is sufficiently evident to the senses to warrant human belief, for, in all
past ages, whose records have been handed down from one generation to another,
nothing has been changed in the heavens, neither in whole nor in part.
G . And this is weighty evidence that the heavens are changeless, for, otherwise,
they would have grown old or their motion would have been retarded or altered,
either in whole or in part, as happens with other perishable bodies. But certain
phenomena had occurred and have occurred since o f which Aristotle had no know­
ledge, for example, that mentioned by St. Augustine in Book 21 o f the C ity o f
G o d : he cites a certain Varro quoting tw o noble mathematicians // (14c) who stated
that in the time o f K in g O gyges the beautiful star which we call the star o f the day
changed its color, its magnitude, and its shape and course. A n d at this time there
was a deluge o f water in E gyp t and in Achaia; this was about 1760 years before the
birth o f our Lord. Also, we read in H oly Scripture how the sun stopped in the time
o f Joshua and returned in the time o f Hezekiah and how it was eclipsed at the time
o f our Lord’s passion; but such things were outside the common course o f nature.
After this he states the third proof.
T . Moreover, it appears from the name which the ancients gave to the heavens,
and which we still use, that they held the same view o f the heavens that we have
just stated; for we must believe that the same ideas recur and return not only once
or twice, but with infinite or innumerable recurrences.
G . Assuming that the world never had a beginning, as some have held ; and this
opinion is recited in Ecclesiastes when it says : There is nothing new under the
sun, etc. A n d this is not true.
T . For this reason the body which is in the sovereign [highest] position, //
Ogyges, in Eusebii Caesariensis opera, vol. 1, o f our Lord, there is a period o f 2015 years
Praeparationis evangelicae, X .io , ed. W. Dindorf {ibid., p. 558). By subtracting 254 from 20x5,
(Leipzig: Teubner, 1867), from St. Jerome’s one obtains very nearly Oresme’s date o f 1761
nterpretation o f Eusebius’ Chronica. Accord­ B.C.
ing to St. Jerome’s interpretation, the flood 11 Jos. 10:13.
which occurred under King Ogyges took place 12 Isai. 38:8.
in the 254th year after Abraham, S. Hieronymi 13 Luc. 28:45.
interpretatio chronicae Eusebii Pamphili, P L , vol. 14 A nombrables; C innonbrales; F omits.
27, 142. N ow, from Abraham until the birth 15 Cf. Eccles. 1:10— Nihil sub sole novum.

fust autre que feu et terre et air et yaue, les anciens l’appellerent etheir
et li metoient ceste d<en)ominacion16 en segnefiant que il court et est meu
touzjours en temps par durable.
G . Quar etheir en leur language segnefie perpetuelment courant.
T . Mais Anaxagoras use de cest nom et non pas bien, quar il prent ether
pour feu. O r appert donques par ce que dit est que le nombre des corps
simples du monde ne puet estre plus grant, quar de corps simple, il convient
par neccessité que le mouvement soit simple, et nous disons que les mouve-
mens simples sont seulement droit et circulaire. E t de mouvement droit
sont .ii. parties; un <e)J7 est en esloingnant du milieu et l ’autre en ap-
<proch)ant.18
G . E t donques, en general, sont .iii. corps simples, c ’est a savoir pe­
sant, legier et celui qui n’est pesant ne legier; et, en especial, so<nt>19
.v., c ’est a savoir .ii. pesans et .ii. legiers et le ciel.
8. Ou .viii.e chapitre il monstre que a mouvement circulaire
n’est aucun mouvement contraire.1
T . Mais que a mouvement circulaire nul autre movement local n’est
contraire, l’en puet de ce prendre foy par plusseurs raysons.
G . E t ce avoit esté susposé au sixte // (15 a) chappitre. E t doit l’en savoir
que l’en puet ymaginer en .iii. maniérés que ce mouvement ait contraire:
une est que mouvement droit soit son contraire; autre est que une partie
de mouvement circulaire soit contraire a l ’autre; la tierce est que tôt .i.
mouvement circulaire soit contraire a tout un autre circulaire. E t selonc
ce, Aristote procédé en .iii. maniérés.
T . E t premièrement, il sembleroit meisement que a chose circulaire fust
contraire chose droite, quar concave et convex ou courve ne sont pas seul-
lement opposite<s>2 un a l’autre, mais touz .ii. semblent opposites a ce
que est droit.
G . Concave et conveux sont opposites par relacion et non pas par con­
trariété, quar la chose circulaire est dicte concave ou regart de ce qui est
dedens, et est dit<e>3 convexe ou regart de ce qui est dehors, et toutevoies
c ’est une meisme chose.
T . E t donques se en ce est contrariété, il convient par neccessité que mou­
vement droit soit contraire a celuy qui est en circuite. E t mouvement droit
est contraire a mouvement droit pour la contrariété des lieus, quar haut et
bas sont differances de lieu et sont contraires.
A dominacion; C nomination. 18 A apraissant.
A B C F un. 19 A son.
Book I, Chapters 7-8, fols. i4d -i5a | 89
(i4d) just as though it were different from fire, earth, air, and water, the ancients
called ether, giving it this name because it flows and is constantly in motion
through infinite time.
G . For in their language ether means “ perpetually flowing.”
T . But Anaxagoras employs this name incorrectly, for he uses it to mean fire.
Therefore, it now appears from what has been stated that the number o f simple
bodies in the world cannot be more than we have said ; for the motion o f simple
bodies must o f necessity be simple, and we maintain that simple motions are only
rectilinear and circular ; there are two kinds o f rectilinear motion, one being away
from the center and the other approaching or m oving toward the center.
G . Therefore, generally speaking, there are three simple bodies or elements, to
wit : heavy, light, and weightless ; and, more concisely, there are five, tw o heavy,
two light, and the heavens.
8. In Chapter Eight he shows that there is no contrary
to circular motion.
T . In the case o f circular motion there is no opposite or other local motion con­
trary to it; o f this we may be certain for several reasons.
G . This had been posited in Chapter // (15a) Six [see fol. 13b]. However, one
can imagine three cases o f possible contrary motion; one is that rectilinear
motion is the contrary o f circular motion, another is that one part o f circular mo­
tion could be the contrary o f the other part, and the third possibility is that the
whole circular motion could be the contrary o f another circular motion. Accord­
ingly, Aristotle proceeds with three considerations.
T . T o begin with, it w ould seem evident that a rectilinear motion would be the
contrary o f circular motion; for convave and convex or curved are not only op­
posites o f each other, but both seem to be opposites o f a straight line.
G . Concave and convex are related opposites and not true contraries ; for a cir­
cular body is said to be concave with respect to that which is inside it, and it is
called convex with respect to what is outside it, but it is nonetheless the same thing.
T . Thus, i f this be considered as contrariety, rectilinear motion must be consid­
ered to be the contrary o f circular motion. A n d rectilinear motion is contrary to
rectilinear motion with respect to place, for up and down are differences o f place and
are, in fact, contraries.
1 Guthrie, ch. 4. B C D E F circulaire nul 2 A B opposite,
mouvement n’est contr. 3 ^ c^t‘
 90 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . Les mouvemens sont contraires qui sont a termes contraires en dis­
tance, si comme sont monter / (15 b) et descendre. E t un mouvement n’a
fors un contraire, si comme il fut dit ou quart chappitre. E t donques a
mouvement droit n’est pas contraire mouvement circulaire, ne par conse-
25 quant, circulaire a droit. Apres il monstre que une partie de mouvement
circulaire n’est pas contraire a l’autre.
T . E t se aucun disoit que une meisme rayson est de mouvement droit
et du circulaire ...
G . Quant a ce que les parties du mouvement circulaire qui sont a termes
30 contraires fussent contraires.
T . E t que le mouvement qui est selon demycercle de .a. jusques a .b.,
fust contraire au mouvement qui est de .b. jusques a .a. selonc4 cest de­
mycercle [Fig. 7].5 Mais ce dit est voir en mouvement droit ouquel les ma­
niérés des voies sont finies, de .a. jusques a .b. et de .b. a .a.
35 G . Quar entre .a. et .b. ou de .a. a .b. n’a fors une ligne droite.
T . U (15 c) Mais de .a. a .b. et de .b. a .a. les lingnes ou voies circulaires
ou tortueuses sont infinies et innombrables.
G . E t donques ne sont pas les mouvemens selonc elles contraires, quar
une chose n’a fors un contraire comme dit est. Apres il oste une cavilla-
40 cion que aucun pourroit faire.
T . E t semblablement le mouvement qui est de .d. a .g. par .i. demycercle,
et de .g. a .d. par le dyametre ne sont pas contraires, quar nous mettons
que chascune distance local de contraires est prinse selonc lingne droite
[Fig. 8].
45 G . Quar contrariété est distance et toute distance est mesurée par lingne
droite comme par la plus brieve. Apres il oste une autre cavillacion.
T . I (15 d) Semblablement [Fig. 9] se aucun faisoit un cercle et metoit que
le mouvement qui est par un demycercle est contraire au mouvement qui
est par l’autre demycercle, si comme qu’en tout le cercle le mouvement
50 qui est de .e. a .z. par le demycercle signé par .i. soit contraire a l’autre
qui est de .z. a .e. par le demycercle signé par .t. Quar possé que il fussent
contraires, il ne s’ensuit pas pour ce que le mouvement qui est selonc tout
le cercle eust contraire.
4 D .a. si come il appert cy selon. E si corne 5 A selonc meismes cest.
apert ici selon.
Book I, Chapter 8, fols. 15b-! 3d | 91
G . Those motions are contraries o f which the directions are opposite with re­
spect to distance, as upward /(15 b) and downward motions. One motion has only
one contrary, as stated in Chapter Four [see fol. iobc]. Thus circular motion is not
the contrary o f rectilinear motion, nor consequently, is rectilinear motion the con­
trary o f circular. N ext he shows that one part o f circular motion is not contrary to
the other part.
T . I f someone were to say that the same thing applies to rectilinear motion and
to circular...
G . With regard to the opposition o f the parts o f a circular motion which are in
contrary directions.
T . A n d that the motion along the semicircle from a to b is the opposite o f the
motion b to a along the semicircle [see Fig. 7], this would be true as regards recti­
linear motion whose paths are finite from a t o b and from b to a .
Fig. 7
G . For between a and b or from a to b there is only one straight line.
T . //(15 c) But from a t o b and from b to a the circular or crooked lines or paths
are infinite and numberless.
G . A n d thus, motions along these lines are not contraries, for one thing can
have only one contrary, as has been said. N ext he removes an objection which
might be raised.
T . Similarly, motion from d to g through a semicircle and from g to d through
the diameter are not contraries, because we hold that each local distance o f con­
traries is measured along a straight line [See Fig. 8].
Fig. 8
G . For the contrariety is distance, and all distance is measured along straight
lines since they are the shortest distance. Next he removes another objection.
T . /(13 d) Similarly, if we drew a circle [see Fig. 9] and posited that the motion
along one semicircle is contrary to the motion along the other semicircle, as, for
example, that in the whole circle, the motion from e to ^ along the semicircle de­
signated i would be the oppisite o f the other motion form ^ to e along the semi­
circle designated as t. For, even assuming them to be contraries, it does not follow
that the motion along the entire circle had a contrary.
 92 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 8, fols. i6a-i6b | 99

G . E t d ’autre partie, contra<rieté>6 de distance local est prise selonc

\
55 ligne7 droite comme dit est. E t ce entent Aristote par ce que il dist sem­
blablement^ c ’est a dire par semblable rayson comme est la devant dicte.
Apres il monstre que tout un mouvement circulaire n’est pas contraire
a tout un autre circulaire et par .ii. raysons [Fig. 10].
T . Quant la circulacion ou movement circulaire qui commence //
60 (16a) de .a. et procédé par .b. et apres par .g. et revient a .a., qui mettroit
qu’elle est contraire a la circulacion qui commence de .a. et procédé l’autre
voie par .g. et puis par .b. et revient a .a., ce ne8 puet l’en dire, quar l’une
et l ’autre sont ou procèdent d’un9 meisme terme <a>10 un meisme terme; G . Moreover, in the case o f local distance, contrariety is measured along a
et mouvement contraire est de terme contraire a terme contraire. straight line, and this is what Aristotle means by saying similarly, that is, by a rea­
65 G . Il me semble que se une chose tournoit environ un cercle en une ma­ son similar to that already stated above. N o w he points out that the entire circular
niéré, et u n (e )11 autre en autre maniéré, et ces .ii. mouvemens seroient motion is not contrary to another entire circular motion, and gives tw o reasons
aucunement contraires ; et quant les corps s’entre’encontreroient il s’entr’em-
[see Fig. 10].
pescheroient aussi comme se l’un montoit et l’autre descendoit. Mais telz
mouvemens ne sont pas proprement circulaires, quar mouvement cir-
70 culaire est quant un corps circulaire ou sperique est meu environ son centre.
E t selonc ce, Aristote met apres la seconde rayson.
T . Item, se un mouvement circulaire estoit contraire a un autre circulaire,
il convendroit que un des .ii. fust pour noient, quar de quelconque partie
que tel mouvement commence, il retourne a uns meismes liex, et par toutes
75 les distances contraires. E t les contrariétés des lieux et des distances sont
haut / (16b) et bas, devant et derrière, destre et senestre. T . When the circulation or circular movement beginning 11 (16a) from a passes
G . Il sera dit apres ou secont livre comment telles differences sont prin- through b and afterwards through and then returns to a, it would not be true to
ses et assignees ou ciel.
say that this circulation is contrary to the circular motion which begins at a and
proceeds the other w ay through g and then through b and returns to a, for both
motions proceed from the same point to the same point ; and contrary motion is
defined as being from one point to its opposite.
G . It seems to me that, if one object turned around a circle in one direction and
another in another direction, these tw o motions would be considered to be in a
certain way contraries, and when these objects met, they would block each other
since, when one went up, the other would go down. But such motions are not pro­
perly circular, for true circular motion occurs when a circular or spherical body is
moved about its center. A n d following this definition, Aristotle presents the sec­
ond argument.
T . I f a circular motion were contrary to some other circular motion, it would
follow that one o f the two motions would be without purpose, for, from whatever
part such motion begins, it returns to the same starting point, passing through all
the opposed distances. A nd the contrarieties o f places and distances are up / (16b)
contraire, and down, front and back, right and left.
k

9 A une.
selon la ligne, 10 A et. G . It will be stated in Book II how such differences are established and assigned
omits ne. 11 A un. in the heavens [see fols. 8od-8ya].
 94 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . E t les contrariétés des movemens sont selonc la contrariété des liex.
80 Je di donques que se les puissances motives qui veullent m ouvoir circu-
lairement en maniérés opposites estoient égalés, elles ne mouvroient pas;
et se une de elles avoit dominacion, l’autre ne mouvroit pas. E t donques
se les .ii. ne povoient mouvoir, toutes .ii. seroient pour noient; et se une
ne povoit movoir, elle seroit pour noient, quar nous disons que le chause-
85 ment est pour nient dont l’en ne se puet chaucier. E t Dieu et nature ne font
rien pour noient.
G . D eux corps mouvables de mouvement proprement circulaire ne
pueent estre ensemble, quar ce seroit penetracion de dimensions qui ne
pueent estre par nature, si comme il appert ou quart livre de Phisique.12
90 E t se il estoient un dedens l’autre aussi comme sont les corps du ciel, et
un fust meu d’orient en occident et l ’autre a l’opposite, ces mouvemens
ne sont pas contraires et ne empeeschent pas un l’autre. Mais se un meisme
corps estoit une foys meu en une ma- // (16c) niere, et autre foys en autre,
il sembleroit que telz mouvemens fussent contraires, aussi comme les mouve-
95 mens d’une pierre qui monteroit et puis descendroit. Je respon que telz
.ii. mouvemens circulaires ne sont pas contraires. E t la cause est pour ce
que il pueent estre un apres l’autre sanz discontinuacion mais non pas sanz
moien et naturelment, quar posé que quelconque espere, si comme tout
le ciel, fust meue de orient en occident sus .ii. poles si comme le pole arti-
100 que et le pole ant<ar)tique,13 et aveques ce que le ciel fust meu sus .ii. autres
poles, un ymaginé en orient14 et l’autre en occident, en tant que, par procès
de temps, le pole artique venist par cest mouvement la ou est le pole ant-
artique, adonques le ciel tourneroit a l’oposite du mouvement present
et naturellement. E t tout ce puet l ’en legierement considérer ou esprouver
105 en une petite espere materielle. E t donques ces .ii. mouvemens ainsi oppo­
sites ne sont pas contraires. Mais aucun pourroit obicier encontre, quar
se une mousche montoit contremont une lance, et cependant la lance fust
tournee ce dessus dessous, la mousche descendroit, et donques ces .ii. mou­
vemens, monter / (i6d) et descendre, sont en ce cas un apres l’autre sanz
110 descontinuacion et non pas sanz moien. E t nientmoins il sont contraires.
Item, se une pierre descendoit jusques au centre du monde et passoit
oultre tout droit en montant de l’autre part, il appert clerement que <en>15
ce cas .ii. mouvemens contraires seroient continues et sanz moien, et don­
ques telle continuité n’oste pas contrariété. Je respon et di que combien
n5 que en ces .ii. cas derreniers un mouvement soit apres l’autre sanz des­
continuacion, toutesvoies ce n’est pas naturelment, quar un est naturel et
l’autre est violent. Mais ou cas devant mis un et l’autre seroient naturelz
equalment, et selonc ceste science c’est impossible que .ii. simples mouve-
12 Physicorum, IV . 1. 209a 6-7 and 5. 212b 25. 14 C D E F occident.
13 A antratique. 15 A omits en.
Book I, Chapter 8, fols. i6c-i6 d [ 94
T . Contrarieties o f motion correspond to contrarieties o f place. I say, therefore,
that if the motive forces are o f equal strength in opposite directions, there would
be no motion; and i f one motive force predominated, the other would not move.
A nd if neither o f the two could move, both would be purposeless, and i f one could
not move, it would be useless ; for we hold that footwear is without purpose i f we
cannot wear it. A n d G o d and Nature do nothing without some purpose.
G . T w o bodies capable o f true circular motion cannot exist together, for this
would constitute a penetration o f dimensions, which is impossible in nature, as
stated in B ook I V o f the Physics. A n d i f they were one within the other as are the
heavenly bodies, one being m oved from east to west and the other in the opposite
way, these motions are not contrary, nor are they mutually exclusive. But i f the
Same identical body were m oved at one time one w ay // (16c) and another time
another way, it would seem that such motions were contraries, like the motion o f a
stone upwards and then downwards. I reply by saying that tw o such circular mo­
tions are not contraries because they can occur one after the other without dis­
continuity, but not without interruption and naturally; for let us suppose that any
sphere like the whole heavens, for example, were m oved from east to west on tw o
poles such as the arctic and antarctic, and let us suppose that the heavens m oved on
two other poles, one imagined to be in the east and the other in the west, so that
with the passage o f time the arctic pole came to occupy the position o f the ant­
arctic pole ; in such case the heavens would be turning with a motion opposite to
the present motion and this quite naturally. This can be easily shown and proved
on a small material sphere. Thus, these tw o movements, opposites in this manner,
are not contraries. However, someone might object; for, i f a fly were walking up
a lance and the lance were turned head down, the fly would be walking down­
ward, and these tw o motions upward / (i6d) and downward would in this case
follow each other without breaking off but not without interruption. Neverthe­
less, they are contraries. Also, i f a stone were dropped to the center o f the earth and
then moved beyond the center straight up through the other part, it is clear that
these tw o contrary motions would be continuous and without interruption, and,
therefore, such continuity does not remove contrariety. I reply by saying that, al­
though in these tw o latter cases one motion may follow another without interrup­
tion, nevertheless this is not natural ; for one motion is natural while the other [or
opposite] is violent. But in the first case above, both motions would be equally
natural, and, according to the rules o f this science, it is impossible that tw o simple
 <)6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapters 8-9, fols. 17a-!7b | 97

mens contraires soient naturelz a un corps simple. E t par ceste considera-
120 cion l’en pourroit soustenier une chose que dient Pom ponius16 et Solinus,
laquelle sembleroit a plusseurs imposible. Pomponius17 dit ainsi en son pre­
mier livre: Mandatum litteris servant, Egipcii dum sunt, solem bis occi-
disse unde nunc oritur.18 E t Solinus dit ainsi: Egipcii ferunt a primis sibi
gentis sue avis traditum, ubi nunc occasus est, quo<n)dam 19 ibi ortus
125 solis U (17a) fuisse.20 Il dient que la ou le solleil rescouse, il leva ancienne­
ment. E t combien que ce soit faulz, quar le monde n’a pas tant duré que
ce peust avoir esté, toutevoies, se le mouvement du ciel duroit perpetuel-
ment, ce seroit bien possible,21 pour ce que le pole artique vendroit la ou
est le pole antartique par un mouvement si tardif que il n’est encor pas appar-
130 ceu. Item, telle chose pourroit apparoir ou estre par le mouvement de la
terre si comme je diray autre foys, quar ce ne fet pas a ce propos.22
contrary motions be natural to a simple body. A propos this consideration, we
might agree with one thing which Pomponius and Solinus say, which has seemed
impossible to many people. In his first book Pomponius states : “ Letters preserved
confirm that, while the Egyptians have been in existence, [the heavens have altered
their course four times and] the sun has already set twice where it now rises.” A n d
Solinus says the follow ing: “ The Egyptians have a tradition handed down from
their first ancestral people that where the sun now sets it once upon a time // (17a)
used to rise.” Both state that, where the sun now sets, it formerly rose. A n d al­
though this is false, for the world has not existed sufficiently long so that this could
have happened, nevertheless, i f the movement o f the heavens was perpetual, this
would surely be possible, for the arctic pole would occupy the place o f the antarctic
pole because o f a motion so slow that it is not yet perceived. Such an occurrence
could appear or take place by reason o f the motion o f the earth, as I shall show on
another occasion, for here it would not be in order.

9. O u .ix.e chappitre il propose a savoir mon se aucun cors est infini

et monstre comment ce appartie<n>tI a ceste science.2
T . Mais pour ce que il appert des choses dessus dictes, il convient en­
tendre a parler des autres. E t premièrement a savoir mon se aucun corps
est infini, si comme plusseurs des anciens ont cuidé, ou se c ’est impossible ;
quar se il est ainsi ou non, ce n’est pas peu de difference, mais fait différer
5 toute la speculacion de vérité, quar presque a touz ceulz qui dient aucune
chose de toute nature, ceci est commencement de contradicion.
G . Quar ceulz qui tiennent que aucun corps est infini ou plusseurs, il
convient que la plus grande partie de leurs conclusions et les plus principalles
contredient / (17b) a celles de ceulz qui tiennent l’opposite. E t ce desclaire
10 il apres.
T . Quar se aucun se depart de vérité au commencement, il se trouvera
apres plus loing de elle .x.m. fois, si comme celi qui diroit que aucune ma­
gnitude ou quantité est très petite et indivisible pour certain, en mettant
ou entroduisant ceste opinion, il oste et destruit très grande partie des con-
9. In Chapter Nine he sets out to discover whether some infinite body
exists and shows how this problem pertains to this science.
T . Having clarified the matters o f which we have spoken above, we must now
turn our attention to other things. First o f all, let us examine the question o f the
existence o f an infinite body, that many ancient philosophers believed to exist, or
determine whether this is an impossibility. For a positive or negative answer to
this question is o f no small importance, because upon it depends all our speculation
regarding the truth, since, with nearly all those who have expressed an opinion
about natural science, this has been the source o f their [disagreements and] con­
tradictions.
G . For those who maintain that some body exists that is infinite or that there are
several such infinite bodies, the greater part and most important o f their conclu­
sions must necessarily contradict / (17b) those o f the holders o f opposite views.
A nd he makes this statement hereinafter.
T . For, if a person misses the truth at the beginning, he will afterwards find him­

16 B Pom pim us.
17 Ibid.
18 Pomponii Melae de situ orbis, I.9, ed. Carolo
Henrico Tzschvckio (Leipzig, 1807), p. 21:
“ Mandatumque literis servant, dum Aegyptii
sunt, quater cursus suos vertisse sidéra, ac
solem bis jam occidisse, unde nunc oritur.”
19 A quodam.
20 C . Julii Solini collectanea rerum memorabi-
self ten thousand times farther from it, like the person who says that some mag­
lium, iterum recensuit T h. M om m sen (Berlin,
nitude or quantity is very small and surely indivisible ; by uttering and introducing
1895), p. 146,11. 39-41.
21 F impossible. this opinion he removes and destroys a very great part o f mathematical conclu-
22 Oresm e refers to his fam ous discussion
about the daily rotation o f the earth, x3 8b-
144c.
1 A appartiet.
2 G uthrie, ch. 5.

elusions mathématiques. E t la cause est quar la principe est plus grant
en vertu que en quantité et pour ce, l’erreur qui est bien petite au commen­
cement et ou principe est en la fin moult grande.
G . E t l’en suppouse comme principe en mathématiques que toute chose
continue3 est divisible et composée de parties qui sont touzjours divisibles
sanz ce que l’en puisse devenir a parties qui soient simplement très petites
si comme il fu dit ou premier chappitre.
T . E t dire que aucune chose est infinie et meismement en quantité,
cest dit a vertu de principe, et donques n’est ce pas chose merveilleuse
ne desraysonnable se grant differance vient4 de ce que l’en met aucun corps
a estre infini. E t pour ce, nous dirons de ceste chose en répétant aucunes
choses dites au commencement.//
(17c) G . Ce fu ou .iii.e chappitre.
T . C ’est a savoir que par neccessité tout corps est ou des simples ou des
composts, et pour ce, cors infini, se il povoit estre, seroit simple ou compost.
Mais il est certain que, se les simples sont finis, le corps qui est compousé
de eulz est fini, car le cors qui est composé de corps finis en multitude
et en quantité est fini en multitude et en quantité pour ce qu’il est tant grant
comme sont ceulz dont il est composé : O r reste donques considérer a sa­
voir mon se aucun des corps simples est infini en magnitude ou quantité.
E t nous monstrerons que ce est imposible. E t premièrement nous argue­
rons du premier corps, c ’est a savoir du ciel, et apres nous dirons des au­
tres.
10. Ou .x.e chappitre il monstre que c’est impossible1 que un
corps meu circulairement2 soit infini.
T . Il appert par les raysons qui ensuient que tôt cors meu circulaire­
ment est fini [Fig. 11],3 / (iyd) premièrement quar s’il est infini, chascune
des lignes qui issent du milieu ou du centre de cest mouvement et procédé
oultre e<s>t4 infinie. E t de .ii. telles lingnes infinies la distance ou esp<a)s-
se5 d’entre elles .ii. est infinie. E t donques se par le mouvement de cest corps,
la ligne .ab. venoit la ou est la ligne .ac., celle ligne .ab. avroit trespascé
en celuy temps une esp<a)sce6 infinie et c ’est impossible.
G . Si comme il appert ou sixte de Phisique.7
T . E t donques un corps infiny ne puet estre meu circulairement. E t nous
continuée,
fri b k
+ A et.
meust. E ni eust. 5 A espesse.
possible. 6 A espesce.
D E naturelment. 7 Physicorum, V I.2. 233a 3X-233b 14
B infini.
Book I, Chapters 9-10, fols. 17C-17CI 99
sions. The reason for this is that the starting point is greater in power than in ex­
tent; thus, the error which is quite small at the start and concerns only the begin­
ning becomes quite large in the end.
G . In mathematics we suppose as a principle that all continuous bodies are divi­
sible and are composed o f parts continuously divisible up to the point that the
parts become simply extremely small, as was said in Chapter One [see fol. 3cd].
T . T o say that anything is infinite, especially in quantity, has the power o f a bas­
ic principle, and, therefore, it is not strange nor unreasonable that it makes a great
difference if one assumes that an infinite body exists. So, we shall talk about this
matter, repeating some things we said at the beginning. //
(17c) G . This was in Chapter Three [see fols. 7d-8a].
T . For example, it is necessary that every body be either simple or compound,
and thus an infinite body, if such were possible, would be either simple or com­
pound. But surely, if the simple bodies are finite, the body compounded o f them
is finite because the body composed o f finite bodies in multitude and quantity is
finite in multitude and quantity, since it is as large as the sum o f all those o f which
it is composed. N o w , we have still to consider whether some one o f the simple
bodies is o f infinite magnitude or quantity. A n d this we shall show to be impossi­
ble. First, we shall present the argument with respect to the primary body, the
heavens, and after this we shall deal with the other simple bodies or elements.
10. In Chapter Ten he shows that it is impossible for a
body moved circularly to be infinite.
T . It will be clear from the following line o f reasoning that every body which
revolves in a circle is finite / (i7d) in the first place because, if infinite, each o f the
lines which issues forth from the center o f this motion and proceeds beyond will
be infinite. A nd with tw o such infinite lines the distance or space between the two
is infinite. Therefore, if this body m oved so that the line ab coincided with the line
ac [see Fig. 11], this line ab would have in that time passed through an infinite
space, and this is impossible.
a
Fig. 11
G . As appears in the sixth book o f the Physics.
T . Therefore, an infinite body cannot be moved in a circle. A n d we can observe
 100 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
io voions sensiblement que le ciel est meu circulairement et avons déterminé
par rayson que mouvement circulaire est naturel a aucun corps.
G . Ce fu ou quart chappitre et c ’est la premiere rayson en sentence.
Apres il met la seconde qui est en sentence telle.
T . Item, se de temps fini l’en oste partie finie, le résidu est finy. E t se
i5 le temps8 est finy le mouvement est finy, et l’espace passée est finie et les
autres choses semblablement. O r est le temps finy ouquel le ciel fait une
circulacion et donques chascune partie de cest temps est finie. // (18a)
O r mettons donques que le centre du mouvement soit .a. et que de ce centre
isse une ligne .age. qui soit infinie devers la partie de .e. E t apres ymaginon
20 une autre ligne en l’espace inmouvable qui soit decoste ceste et ne passe
pas par le centre, mais est équidistante a ceste et est infinie d’une part et
d’autre, et soit .bb. E t donques quant la ligne .age. tornera, elle passera
toute la ligne .bb. qui est infinie en une partie du temps en quoy elle fait
son circuite. E t c ’est impossible, comme dit est. E t donques un corps in-
25 fini ne puet faire circulacion ou estre meu circulairement, ne, par con­
sequent, le monde ne le ciel se il est infiny.
G . E t nous voions que il est ainsi meu et donques est il finy. Apres il
met la tierce rayson telle en sentence.
T . [Fig. 13] / (18b) Item, meton que .ii. lignes finies, .a. et .b., intersequent
30 une l’autre et que par mouvement une passe l’autre et se séparé9 de elle,
posé que une soit meue et l’autre non ou ambes .ii., car aussi tost ou plus
seroient elles separees par le mouvement d’une seulle se il estoit viste ou
isnel, comme par les mouvemens des .ii. se il estoient tardis. E t convient
que cest separation10 soit faite en temps fini, puisque les lignes sont finies.
35 E t donques se les lignes estoient infinies, ceste separacion ne pourrait
estre faite en temps finy, et, par consequant, c’est imposible que corps infiny
puisse estre meu en temps finy. E t le ciel fait un circute en temps finy.
G . Une de ces .ii. lignes est ou corps qui serait meu, et l’autre en l’espasce
qui est ymaginee inmouvable laquelle il trespasse par son mouvement.
40 Apres il met la quarte rayson.
8 D E corps. séparé.
9 D E mouvement une espace l’autre et je 10 B raison.
Book I, Chapter 10, fols. i8a-i8b | 101
with the senses that the heavens revolve in a circle, and we have established that
circular motion is the natural motion o f a certain body,
G . This was established in Chapter Four [see especially fol. 9d], and this is the
first o f the reasons to be argued. N ext he presents the second o f the reasons.
T . I f we take away from infinite time a finite portion, the remainder is finite; i f
the time is finite, the motion is finite, the distance traversed is finite, and everything
else also. N o w , the time in which the heavens revolve through one circuit is finite
and thus each part o f this time is finite. // (18a) L et us posit that the center o f the
motion is a and that from this center a straight line age is drawn infinite in the direc­
tion o f e [see Fig. 12]. Next, let us imagine another line bb drawn in the motionless
area parallel to age, not from the center but equidistant from it and infinite in either
direction. When line age turns, it will cut across the entire line bb, which is infinite,
in a portion o f the [finite] time in which it makes its circuit. A n d this is impossible,
as already stated. Therefore, an infinite body cannot revolve or be m oved in a cir­
cle, and, consequently, neither can the earth nor the heavens, i f they are infinite.
G . A n d we can see that the heavens are moved in this way, and therefore they
are finite. N ext he states the third argument which is as follows.
T . J (18b) N o w let us assume that two finite lines [see Fig. 13] a and b intersect
each other and that in motion one passes across the other and moves beyond, one
being moved and the other stationary, or both being m oved; for the separation
would be completed just as quickly if one line were moved rapidly or quickly, as
would happen i f both lines were moved, but more slowly. N o w this movement o f
passing across each other would have to be accomplished in finite time since the
lines are themselves finite. I f the lines were infinite, this separation could not be
carried out in finite time, and, consequently, it is impossible for an infinite body to
be moved in finite time ; and the heavens revolve in finite time.
G . One o f these lines is on the m oving body and the other is in the space assumed
to be motionless which the body traverses in its movement. N ext he states the
fourth argument.
 Book I, Chapter 10, fols. i8c-i9a 103
102 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Just as it is impossible that a straight line or JJ (18c) a length or a width having
T . Item, aussi comme c’est impossible que ligne droite ou // (18c) longi­
a limit should be infinite, just so is it impossible that any figure, for instance, a tri­
tude ou latitude qui a fins et termes soit infinie, semblablement est ce im-
angle, should be infinite, since it is enclosed and finished and limited in every direc­
posible que quelconque figure soit infinie, si comme seroit un triangle,
tion. Therefore, neither a circle nor a sphere can be infinite, and circular motion
quar il est comprins et finy et terminé de toutes pars. E t donques un cercle11
is natural only to a circular body. Thus, it is impossible that an infinite body, which
45 ne puet estre infini ne un<e>12 espere infinie et mouvement circulaire
n’est naturelment fors de corps circulaire. E t donques est ce impossible cannot be circular, be m oved in a circle.
G . However, if a body were infinite, it would be impossible to assign the middle
que un corps infini qui ne puet estre circulaire soit meu en circuite.
or center to one place rather than to another, for such a body would have no cir­
G . E t aveques ce, se un corps estoit infini, l’en ne pourroit dire ou assign­
er ou seroit le milieu ou le centre plus en un lieu que en autre, quar tel cumference. N o w , the fifth argument.
T . L et us suppose [see Fig. 14] that g is the center o f the motion from which the
5o corps n’aroit nulle circumference. Apres il met la quinte rayson.
line ^ p ro ce e d s, being infinite in the direction o f d; in the space / (i8d) posited
T . [Fig. 14] Item, posons que .g. soit le centre du mouvement et que de
.g. procédé la ligne .gd. qui soit infinie de la partie vers .d. ; et en l’espasse
qui / (i8d) est ymagynee inmouvable soit une ligne .ab. passante par le
centre et infinye d’une part et d’autre ; et hors le centre soit une autre ligne
55 .ez. traversaine et infinie et ymagynee inmovable; et que la ligne .gd.
soit meue circulairement tant que elle vienne au point .z. E t ainsi elle avra
passé de .e. jusques a .z.13 en certain temps, et passera une partie de la ligne
.ez. en un autre certain temps. E t ceste ligne .ez. est infinie, et donques
jamais ne sera passée. E t la ligne .dg. ne puet venir jusques a la ligne
as immovable, let the line ab, infinite in both directions, pass through the center
60 .ab. sanz passer toute la ligne .ez. et donques .dg. ne pourra faire tout son
and let us imagine another line e% drawn outside the center [that is, above ab ob­
tor ou circuite.
liquely] posited infinite and immovable ; let the line g d be m oved circularly until it
G . Apres il met la sixte rayson.
reaches the point Thus, it will have passed from e to % in a certain time and will
T . Item, se le ciel est infini et il est meu en circuite, une espasce infinie
pass over part o f the line e% in another period o f time. N o w this line e% is infinite,
sera passée en temps finy, quar le ciel passera une espasce equale a soy
and, therefore, can never be passed over, and dg can never reach ab without passing
65 ymaginee immouvable et en temps fini. E t autre foys fu dit que c ’est impos­
the whole line e%; thus, dg cannot complete its tour or circuit.
sible, quar l’en doit dire qu’il s’ensuit convertiblement que, se le temps de
G . Next, he states the sixth argument.
la revolucion est fini, l’espasse qui est passée est finie, et le corps qui la
T . Again, i f the heavens are infinite and revolve in a circle, an infinite distance
trespasce est equal a ceste espace, et donques est il fini. O r appert donques
will be traversed in finite time, for in a finite time the heavens would travel a dis­
que le corps qui est meu circulairement n’est pas sanz terme et infini, mes JJ
tance equal to themselves, posited as immovable. A n d we have already said that
70 (19a) a fin en sa quantité.14
this is impossible, for the converse could otherwise be claimed, namely, that, if the
G . Par aventure que ces raysons ne sont pas purement évidentes ne
time o f the revolution is finite, the distance traveled is finite, and the body which
simplement demonstratives sanz autre chose suppouser, quar nul movement
moves through this distance is equal to this space and is therefore finite also. Thus,
n’est si tardif que encor ne soit autre la moytié plus tardif et autre plus, et
it is clear that a body which moves in a circle is not endless and infinite but // (19a)
ainsi sanz fin oultre toute proporcion, si comme il appert des parties du
is quantitatively limited.
751 ciel en approchant vers la pole; or metons donques que un corps passast
G . Perhaps these reasons are not completely evident nor clearly demonstrable
en ce jour la moytié d’une estade et l’autre jour apres la moytié du demeu­
without positing something else. For no motion is so slow that there is not a m o­
rant de l’estade, et le tiers jour la moitié du demourant ou résidu, et ainsi
tion half as slow and again half as slow and so on toward infinity without end, as
procedast sanz fin en retardant son mouvement, jamais toute l’estade ne
can be observed o f those parts o f the heavens approaching the pole. N o w let us
imagine that a body traveled in this day half a stade, the next day half the remainder
11 B C D E F omit un cercle. jusques a .z. o f this stade, the third day half the remainder or portion remaining, and that this
12 A un. 14 F a fin sanz quantité en sa quantité. process went on endlessly slowing down the motion ; then the entire stade would
13 F omits Et ainsi elle avra passé de .e.
 104 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
seroit passée. E t donques en cest cas tel corps seroit meu par temps infini
80 sus une espasce finie. E t en .i. autre cas, se tel corps passoit en demyjour
toute l’estade, et en la moitié du résidu du jour une autre estade, et apres en
l’autre moytié de l’autre résidu une autre estade, et ainsi en procédant sanz fin
et en hastant son mouvement, cest corps en la fin du jour avroit passée une
espasce infinie et en temps fini; toutevoies l’en ne pourroit signer ou il
85 seroit en la fin du jour. E t Aristote es raysons devant mises / (19b) suspouse
le contraire de ce que appert par ces .ii. cas. E t jouste le secont, aucun pour­
roit dire que sus le ciel que nous voions est ou puet estre un autre ciel invi­
sible a nous qui est meu plus tost ou plus tart que le ciel qui est souz
luy, et dessus cest ciel est encore un autre et puis un autre, et ainsi sanz fin.
90 Je di donques que combien que les .ii. cas premiers soient possibles selonc
ymaginacion mathématique, toutesvoies ce ne puet estre naturelment,
quar les mouvemens des corps naturelz qui ne sont partie d ’autre sont
déterminés a certaine tardiveté, et touz generalment a certayne vélocité
ou ysnelleté, quar quant as corps qui sont partie d’autre l’en puet procéder
95 sanz fin vers tardiveté, si comme dit est des parties du ciel vers les poles.
Mais il n’est pas ainsi de vélocité ou d’ysneleté, aussi comme en magnitude
ou quantité le procès est infini en division ou diminucion, si comme il
fu dit ou premier chappitre, mais non pas en augmentacion ou acreissement.
E t quant est de mettre que un ciel est sus le ciel que nous voions et puis un
100 autre et encor un autre, etc., je di que telles ymaginacions sont faintes et
U (19c) sanz apparence. E t d’autre partie, tel procès infini est reprouvé
en plusseurs liex en philosophie.15
“ 11. En le .xi.e chappitre il monstre que nul <corps)1 mouvable
d<e>2 mouvement droit ne puet estre infini.3
T . O r convient encor monstrer que ne corps qui est meu au milieu ou au cen­
tre n’est infini, ne celuy qui est meu en soy esloingnant du milieu. Première­
ment, quar les mouvemens sont contraires dont un est en montant et l’autre
en descendant, et mouvemens contraires sont a lieux et a termes contraires ;
5 et de choses contraires, se une est determinee et finie, il convient que l ’autre
soit finie.4 O r est il ainsi que le milieu est déterminé et finy; c ’est le centre
de la terre qui est symplement bas et ce a quoy se areste toute chose qui
descent sanz passer plus loing.
IS E philosophie naturele. See Physicorum, 2 A du.
VIII.4 fl. and especially 5. 256a 28-29, and also 3 Guthrie, ch. 6.
Averroes, t.c. 27 ff. 4 A finiee.
1 A omits corps.
Book I, Chapter 10, fols. i9b-i9C | 10j
never be traversed. Thus, in this case, such a body would m ove through infinite
time over a finite distance. Another case : if a given body traveled an entire stade in
half a day, another stade in half the remainder o f the day, another stade in half the
remaining portion o f the day, and so on increasing its speed, this body would have
traveled at the end o f the day an infinite distance in finite time. However, w e could
not say where this body would be at day’s end. N o w , Aristotle, in the preceding
arguments, / (19b) assumes the contrary o f what happens in our tw o cases. A n d
with regard to the second case, one could say that above the heavens we can see
that there exists or could exist another heaven invisible to us, m oved faster or more
slowly than the heaven under it, and that above this heaven there is another heaven
and still another, without end. Therefore, I say that, although the tw o cases above
are possible to imagine mathematically, nevertheless these cases could not exist in
nature ; for the motion o f natural bodies which are integral and not part or parts
o f another body is fixed at a certain slowness and, in general, fixed at a certain
velocity or speed, because, with respect to bodies which are part o f other bodies
one can proceed endlessly toward reduction o f speed, as is the case with those parts
o f the heavens near the poles. But with velocity or speed the situation is different
from that with magnitude or quantity where the process o f division or diminution
is infinite, as was said in Chapter O ne [see fol. 3cd], but not the process o f increase
or growth. A n d as for the heaping o f one heaven above the one we can see, and
then adding another and another, etc., I say such imaginings are fantastic and //
(19c) quite unlikely. Moreover, such an infinite process is rejected in many aspects
o f philosophy.
11. In Chapter Eleven he shows that no body capable o f
rectilinear motion can be infinite.
T . N o w , we must still demonstrate that no body capable o f motion toward or
away from the middle or center can be an infinite body. First, because those m o­
tions are contrary motions o f which one is upward and the other downward, and
contrary motions are directed toward opposite places and limits; besides, if one
o f contrary pairs is determinate and finite, the other must be finite also. For the
center is determinate and finite ; it is the center o f the earth which is absolute bot­
tom, where all things stop without going farther in downward movement.
 106 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . E t va jusques la ou jusques a ce qu’elle soit conjointe au corps de
io quoy le milieu est ou centre du monde.
T . E t donques puisque le lieu de bas5 est ou milieu et déterminé, il
convient que le lieu qui est symplement haut soit déterminé et fini.
G . E t tel lieu est en la concavité du ciel emprés l’espere de la lune.
T . E t se les / (içd) lieux sont déterminés, il convient que les corps soient
i5 finis.
G . Quar un corps infini ne pourroit6 estre en un lieu déterminé et fini.
O r avons donques que l’element de la terre et celuy du feu sont corps
finis. Apres il monstre que les elemens moyens, c’est assavoir l’ yaue et l’air,
sont finis.
20 T . E t se le lieu qui est symplement bas et celuy qui est simplement haut
sont déterminés et finis, il convient que ce que est entre .ii. et moien soit
fini, quar se le moien estoit infini, le mouvement qui est entre .ii. termes se-
roitinfini; et nous avons monstré que c’est impossible.
G . O u chappitre precedent. Apres il met une autre rayson a monstrer
25 que les lieux extremes qui sont symplement haut et bas sont finis.
T . Mais il convient que le corps qui est meu en bas et celuy qui est meu
en haut puissent venir a<s>7 termes asquelz il tendent, quar l’un a inclina­
tion au milieu et l’autre au contraire.
G . E t autrement ces inclinations seroient pour noient, et Dieu et nature
30 ne font rien pour noient, si comme il fu dit ou .viii.e chappitre.
T . E t donques la distance de ces lieus et ces liex8 sont finis, et, par conse­
quent, les corps qui sont conmesurés as liex sont finis, et // (20a) par ce
s’ensuit que <nul>9tel corps n’est infini.
G . Apres il met une autre rayson.
35 T . Item, se pesanteur n’est infinie nul corps pesant n’est infini, quar il
convient par neccessité que la pesanteur du corps infini soit infinie. E t
aussi est il de corps legier, quar se pesanteur est infinie il convient que legiere-
té soit infinie10 se le corps qui est mouvable en haut est infini. E t ceste con-
sequance, c ’est a savoir se le corps pesant est infini sa pesanteur est infinie,
40 appert par ce que nous dirons. O r mettons donques que .ab. soit un corps
infini et que la pesanteur de cest corps soit .g. ; et pour grace de exemple,
je met que ce soient .iiii. livres. E t apres, prenons une porcion finie de cest
corps infini et soit .bd., et la pesanteur de ceste porcion soit .c.; et pour
grace d’exemple soit une livre, car il convient que elle soit mendre que la
45 pesanteur de son tout. E t donques se l’en prent de cest corps infini .iiii.
telles porcions, ce sera un corps fini pesant .iiii. livres ; et ainsi la pesanteur
d’un corps infini et celle d’un corps fini seront égalés, et c ’est impossible.
5 D E ca. 8 D E omit et ces liex.
pourroient. 9 A omits nul.
a. 10 B C D E F infinie, legiereté est infinie.
Book I, Chapter 11, fols. i9d-2oa 107
G . A n d it goes to that place or until it is conjoined with the body whose center
is at the center o f the earth.
T . Since the absolute bottom is fixed at the center and is determinate, the upper
place which is absolute height must also be determinate and finite.
G . A n d such a place is located in the concavity o f the heavens close to the lunar
sphere.
T . A nd if these / (i9d) places are fixed and established, the bodies must also be
limited and finite.
G . For an infinite body could not exist in a determinate and finite place. So we
have it that the element o f the earth and o f fire are finite bodies. Next, he shows
that the middle elements, water and air, are also finite.
T . I f absolute down and absolute up are determinate and finite, then whatever is
between these tw o and in the middle must be finite; for if the middle were infinite,
the motion between the two limits would be infinite, which we have shown to be
impossible.
G . In the preceding chapter [see fol. iycd]. Next, he finds another reason to
show that the extreme places, which are absolute up and down, are finite [and
determinate].
T . It is necessary that downward and upward m oving bodies be capable o f
reaching the limits to which they are m oving, for the former tend toward the cen­
ter and the latter toward the opposite.
G . Otherwise, these tendencies would be purposeless. A n d G o d and Nature do
nothing that is purposeless, as w e said in Chapter E igh t [see fol. 16b].
T . Thus, the distance from these places and the places themselves are finite.
Consequently, those bodies commensurate to these places are finite // (20a) from
which it follows that no such body is infinite.
G . N ext he presents another reason.
T . Also, if weight is not infinite, then no heavy body is infinite, for it necessarily
follows that the weight o f an infinite body be infinite. The same applies to light­
ness, for, if weight can be infinite, the lightness can also, i f the body capable o f up­
ward motion is infinite. A n d this consequence, namely, that if a heavy body is in­
finite, its weight is infinite, will appear in what we shall say hereafter. N o w let us
suppose ab to be an infinite body whose weight is g and, for example, I will suppose
it to be four pounds. N o w , let us take a finite part o f this infinite body, indicated as
bd, weighing c, equal to one pound, since it must be less than the weight o f the
whole body. Therefore, if we take four similar portions from this infinite body, it
will be a finite body weighing four pounds, so that the weight o f an infinite body
and that o f a finite body will be equal, which is impossible. For one could take
 io8 J Le Livre du ciel et du monde
E t encore porra l’en bien prendre en cest corps infini un corps fini pesant
plus de .iiii. livres. E t donques le poys d ’un corps / (20b) fini sera plus
50 grant que le poys d ’un corps infiny, et ce ne puet estre.11 E t donques est
ce impossible que la pesanteur d’un corps infiny soit finie.
G . Apres il exclude12 .ii. cavillacions.
T . E t se aucun disoit que la pesanteur du petit corps fini ne mesure pas
celle du grant corps fini, ce ne fait difference ne force, quar l’en puet tant
55 de foys rapüquer la petite que, se elle ne vient en égalité aveques la grande,
toutevoies elle la passe.
G . Si comme .iii. ne mesure pas .x. et ne puet estre tant de foys répliqué
que il face .x. précisément, mais se il est pris .iiii. foys c’est plus que .x.
Apres il oste une autre cavillacion ou response.
60 T . Item, se aucun disoit que posé que la pesanteur d ’une porcion de cest
corps soit une livre, il ne s’ensuit pas pour ce que la porcion qui est .iiii.
foys plus grande soit .iiii. livres pour ce que cest corps poise plus en une
partie de luy que en l’autre egalle, et est la pesanteur de luy diverse et des­
semblable en ses parties. Mais commencier a la quantité du corps ou a la
65 quantité du poys ne fait en ce difference, quar posé que un pié de ce corps
poise une livre, se un autre pié de ce corps ne poise une livre, si en prengne
l’en .ii. piéz ou tant // (20c) que il poise une livre et autant ou plus apres.
E t ainsi oultre tant comme l’en weult,13 pour ce que cest corps est infini.
E t pour ce, supousé que la pesanteur soit d’une maniéré et semblable
70 partout ou que elle soit difforme et dessemblable, ce ne fait difference a la
rayson devant dicte. O r appert donques par ce que dit est que de corps infini
la pesanteur n’est pas finie et donques elle seroit infinie. E t se ce est impo-
sible il s’ensuifique c’est impossible que aucun corps quelconque soit infini.
G . Mais il me semble que la rayson dessus mise n’est pas évidente sanz
75 suppouser autre chose. Quar selonc la seconde response, <je>14 met que un
corps soit infini et pren ou signe en ce corps une15 porcion finie qui soit
comme une espere et soit appellee .a. [Fig. 15 ].16 E t apres pren environ ceste
espere une autre qui soit aussi gran- / (2od) de et soit .b., et apres environ
ceste une autre aussi grande et 17 soit .c., et ainsi en procédant sanz fin.
80 E t selonc ce, en ce corps infini sont infinies porcions egalles .a. et .b. et
.c. et .d., et ainsi sanz fin.18 Apres ce, je pouse que en la partie ou porcion
11 A t this point in B (fol. 36c!, 1.11), the text 13 A weult quar pour ce.
continues at fol. 38a, 1. 2. The inserted pas­ 14 A il.
sage corresponds to the text from 2id, 1. 16, Is D pren en signe en cest corps une p. E
to 23c, 1. 3, in A . It would appear that the preng en cest corps en signe une p.
scribe o f B was following a manuscript with
16 B .eg.
a folio out o f sequence or that he inadvertently 17 B omits soit .b. et apres environ ceste
copied a folio in wrong sequence. une autre aussi grande et.
12 C excude. D E excuse.
B o o k I, C h a p te r 1 1 , fo ls. 2 o b - 2 o d | 109
from this infinite body another body weighing more than four pounds. Thus, the
weight o f a finite body / (20b) will be greater than the weight o f an infinite body,
which is impossible. Therefore, the weight o f an infinite body cannot be finite.
G . N ext he excludes tw o objections.
T . A n d if it be said that the weight o f the small finite body is not commensurate
with that o f the large finite body, this makes no difference, for the small body can
be applied to the larger so many times that, if it does not exactly equal the larger,
it will exceed it.
G . Just as 3 will not fit exactly into 10 and cannot be applied so as to equal 10
precisely, but, i f taken four times, it makes more than 10. N o w , he removes an­
other objection or reply.
T . I f someone supposes the weight o f a portion o f this body to be one pound, it
does not follow therefrom that a portion four times as great will weigh four pounds
because one part o f the body weighs more than another part o f equal size, for the
weight o f different portions o f the body is not uniform but, rather, unequal. But
whether we start with quantity or with weight makes no difference; for, assuming
that one foot o f this body weighs a pound, i f another foot does not weigh a pound,
then take two feet or as much as // (20c) will make a pound, and so on, as much as
you will; for this body is infinite, and whether the weight will be equal and identi­
cal in all parts or unequal and variable will make no difference, according to our
reasoning. It appears from what has been said that the weight o f an infinite body is
not finite and, therefore, would be infinite. N o w , i f this is impossible, it follows
that it is likewise impossible that any body whatsoever can be infinite.
G . But it seems to me that the reason given above is not evident without adding
another supposition. For, in accordance with the second reply, I assume a body to
be infinite [see Fig. 15 ], and I take or assign in this body a finite portion, spherical
in shape, called a. N ext I take another sphere b from the same section and o f the
same size / (2od) and then another sphere c, exactly like a and b, proceeding in this
manner without stopping. In this way, it appears there are in this infinite body in­
finite equal parts a, b, c, d, and so on without limit. N o w I posit that in the portion
18 A repeats et selonc ce en ce corps infini
sont infinies porcions from the line above.

appellee .a. soit egualment esparti le poys ou la pesanteur de demie-livre,
<et en la porcion .b. soit egualment espartie la moitié de l’autre demie-li­
v r e ) ,19 et en .c. la moytié du résidu et en .d. la moytié de l’autre résidu, ce
seroit la .xvi.e partie d’une livre; et ainsi en procédant oultre sanz fin.
E t en ce cas appert que tout ce cors infini ne pesera que une livre, et que .a.
pesera autretant conme tout le demourant, et toutevoies en ce corps ne
sera partie qui ne poise, combien que ce soit. E t donques Aristote ne re­
prove pas souffisanment la seconde response, se ainsi n’estoit que aveques
tout ce qu’il dit l’en supposast que pesanteur puet estre tant attenuee et
tant remisse que naturelment elle ne pourroit durer plus petite aussi comme
des autres choses naturelles. Mais ce n’est pas chose purement évidente.
12. Ou .xii.e chappitre1 il monstre que nulle pesanteur ne
puet estre infinie ne legiereté.2
T . Mais encor appert par ce que nous dirons // (21a) que c ’est imposible
que quelconque pesanteur soit infinie.
G . E t a ce prouver il met .iii. supposicions.
T . Quar se aucune pesanteur finie meut un corps par une espace en cer­
tain temps, une pesanteur plus grande movrra tel corps par tant d ’espasse
en mendre temps.
G . Quar la puissance qui est plus grande muet un corps plus isnelment
que ne fait celle qui est mendre quant les autres choses sont pareilles. Apres
il met la seconde supposicion.
T .3 Item, telle proporcion comme la grande puissance a ou resgart de la
petite, telle proporsion a le temps en quoy meut la petite au temps ouquel
meut la grande, si comme se une pesanteur meut par une espasce en une
heure, la pesanteur qui est plus grande au double movra en demie-heure.
G . Il veult dire que de tant comme la puissance motive est plus grande,
de tant meut elle en mendre temps et plus isnellement se les autres choses
sont pareilles. E t semblablement dit il ou .vii.e de P hi si que A Mais sauve
sa reverence, ce n’est pas bien dit, quar par ce il s’ensuiroit que une puissance
peust mouvoir resistence ou aveques resistance egalle a elle, et que quelle-
conque puissance, tant fust petite, peust movoir / (21b) quelconque resis­
tance, tant fust grande. E t je le monstre et prouve, posé que une puissance
esmeuve une resistance par certaine isneleté; et supouse qu’il est possible
que une puissance soit mendre telle que elle puet mouvoir ceste resistence
par isneleté sousdouble précisément, et une autre qui puet ce par isne­
leté subquadruble, et une autre par isneleté .viii. foys mendre, et ainsi
oultre. E t selon Aristote, ycy et ou .vii.e de P hi si que 3 la seconde puissance
A omits e t... livre. 1 B O u .xiii. c.
Book I, Chapter 12, fols. 2ia-2ib | m
called a there should be distributed the weight o f one half-pound, and in h there be
likewise distributed one-half o f another half-pound, and in c one-half o f the residue
o f a pound, and in d half o f this remainder, which would be one-sixteenth part o f
a pound, and so on without end. It appears then that the entire infinite body will
weigh only one pound, while a will weigh as much as all the other portions, how ­
ever many, taken together. Therefore, Aristotle does not answer adequately the
second objection unless we suppose, in addition to what he says, that weight can be
so attenuated and so feeble that no lesser weight could possibly exist in nature, as
is the case with other natural objects. However, this is not clearly evident.
12. In Chapter Twelve he shows that no heaviness or
lightness can be infinite.
T . A lso it appears from what we are about to state // (21a) that no weight can be
infinite.
G . T o prove this, he sets up three suppositions.
T . For, if any finite weight moves a body through a given distance in a given
time, a greater weight will m ove the same body the same distance in less time.
G . Because the greater force moves a body faster than a lesser when other things
are equal. N ext, he presents the second supposition.
T . Whatever the proportion o f the larger force to the lesser, this same propor­
tion will apply to the time in which the larger and the smaller bodies m ove ; for
example, i f a certain weight moves a certain distance in one hour, double this
weight will m ove the same distance in half an hour.
G . H e means that the larger the force, the more it moves in less time and faster,
if other things are equal. He makes this same statement in the seventh book o f the
Physics. But, with all due respect to him, this is not well said ; for from this it would
follow that a force could move a resistance or with a resistance equal to itself, and
then any force, however small, could move / (21b) any resistance however great.
A n d I shall show and prove it, positing that a force moves a resistance at a certain
speed and that a lesser force can m ove this resistance at exactly one-half this rate o f
speed, and another force at one-quarter, and another at one-eighth, and so on end­
lessly. According to Aristotle here and also in the seventh book o f the Physics, the
2 B C D E F omit ne legiereté; inserted in 4 Physicorum, V III. 5. 249b 30— 250a 9.
margin in A . 5 Ibid. B ou .viii ; D E ou ,viiie.
3 D G . E Glo.
 1 12 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
seroit subdouble a la premiere, et la tierce subquadruble a la premiere,
etc. E t ainsi quelconque puissance, tant fust petite, pourroit mouvoir ceste
resistence, mes la petite puissance m ovroit plus tardivement que la grande.
Si comme, en exemple, se une puissance est comme .viii. et la resistence
3o comme .iiii. et le temps du mouvement un jour; et donques selon Aristote,
la puissance qui pourroit faire tel mouvement précisément en .ii. jours seroit
.iiii. et seroit egalle a la resistance, et celle qui ce feroit en .iiii. jours seroit
.ii. et mendre que la resistence, et ainsi en procédant oultre. E t ce est incon­
venient et impossible. E t pour ce, la supposicion doit estre non pas que
35 l’acroissement ou apetissement de la isneleté ensuive l’acroissement ou ape-
tissement // (21c) de la puissance motive proporcionelment, mais ensuit
l’acroissement ou apetisement de la proporcion qu’a la puissance motive
ou resgart de la resistence. Si comme se une puissance est comme .iii.6
et la resistence comme .i.,7 c ’est proporcion treble, et donques la puissance
40 qui seroit comme .vi. ne movroit pas par insneleté double; mais ce feroit
la puissance qui est comme .ix., quar la <pro)porcion8 de .ix. a .i. est
doble a la <pro)porcion8 de .iii. a .i. Item, se .xviii. puet mouvoir .viii.
en un jour la puissance qui feroit ce mouvement en .ii. jours ne sera pas
.ix. mais sera .xii., et celle qui ce feroit en .iiii. jours seroit plus grande
45 que n’est .viii. en une proporcion qui n’est pas en nombres et est appellé
medietas9 sequialtere. E t la suspousition ainsi mise, la rayson qui est appres
procédé. Apres il met la tierce suppousicion.10
T . Item, toute pesanteur finie meut par espace finie et en aucun temps fini.
G . Mais contre ceste supposicion est une objection qui fu mise ou chap-
50 pitre precedent aveques sa response. Apres il forme sa rayson.
T . E t par ces supposicions il s’ensuit de neccessité, se une pesanteur
in fin ite )11 estoit, que elle mouvroit par telle isneleté comme feroit une pesan­
teur finie. /(2id) E t encore s’ensuit autre inconvenient, quar elle ne pourroit
movoir et la cause est quar il co<n)vient12 que les isneletés des mouvemens
55 soient selonc les proporcions des puissances as resistences, et que de tant
comme la proporcion est plus grande, l’isneleté soit plus grande et le temps
mendre. E t chascun temps fini a certaine proporcion a autre temps fini, et
de puissance finie a puissance infinie la proporcion est nulle. E t l’en ne peut
dire que aucun temps soit indivisible.
60 G . Si comme il appert ou sixte de Phtisique.11
T . E t pousé qu’il fust, encor seroit autre inconvenient, quar se la puissance
infinie m ouvoit en ce temps indivisible <et une puissance14 finie m ouvoit
en temps divisible),1* l’en pourroit prendre une autre puissance finie qui
6 B .iiii. This gloss is given in English by 7 E F .vii.
Clagett, Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages, 8 A porcion.
pp. 463-64; see explanation o f arithmetical 9 A mediatas. (Medietas sesquialtere equals
terms commonly used in Middle Ages, p. 464. here the square root o f i£).
Book I, Chapter 12, fols. 210-2id | 113
second force would be one-half the first, the third force one-quarter o f the first,
etc. Thus, any force, however small, could m ove this resistance, but the smaller
force would m ove more slowly than the greater; as, for example, i f we have a force
o f 8 with a resistance o f 4 and the time o f one day required to move a given distance,
according to Aristotle, the force which could complete this work in exactly two
days would be 4 and would be equal to the resistance ; and the force required to do
this work in four days would be 2, and would be less than the resistance, etc.,
which is out o f the question and impossible. Therefore, the hypothesis should be
not that the increase or decrease o f speed follows the increase or decrease j j (21c)
o f motive force proportionally, but follows rather the increase or decrease o f the
proportion o f the m otive power to the resistance. For example, i f a force is as 3
and resistance is as 1, and proportion is 3:1 or treble; thus a force o f 6 would not
move twice as fast, but a speed twice as fast would require a force o f 9, because a
proportion o f 9 :1 equals the double o f 3:1. So, i f 18 can move 8 in one day, the
force required to m ove 8 in tw o days would not be 9, but rather 12; and the force
required for four days would be greater than 8 in accordance with a proportion
which is not expressible in whole numbers called medietas sesquialtere [the square
root o f one and one-half]. With the proposition thus stated, the next argument
follows as the third supposition.
T . Every finite weight moves through finite distance in finite time.
G . But against the supposition there is an objection stated in the preceding
chapter with its refutation [see fol. 2oabc]. Then he formulates his argument.
T . From these assumptions, it necessarily follows that, if infinite weight existed,
it would move with the same speed as a finite weight. / (2id) A nd another difficul­
ty would follow, namely, that it would not be able to m ove at all, because the
speeds must be related to the proportions between forces and resistances and the
greater this proportion the greater the speed and the less the time. A n d any part o f
finite time has a certain proportion to any other part, and no finite force has any
proportional relation to any infinite force ; and we cannot hold that any time what­
soever is indivisible.
G . This accords with the statement in the sixth book o f the Physics.
T . Were we to admit such a thing, there would still exist another difficulty; for,
if the infinite force m oved in this indivisible time and a finite force m oved in a divi-
10 B omits Apres il met la tierce suppousi­ 13 Physicorum, V I.4. 235a 11-12.
cion. F omits infinie mouvoit en ce temps in­
11 A infini. divisible et une puissance.
12 A covient. 15 A B omit et une... divisible.
 114 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
seroit ou regart de ceste resistence en telle proporcion comme cest temps
65 fini est ou regart de ce temps indivisible.
G . 16 Quar < s)e17 temps fini estoit compost de momens18 indivisibles,
il convendroit que le temps divisible eust proporcion au temps indivisible
dont il est composé. Si comme se un temps estoit compost de .iiii. (m o­
m ens)19 indivisibles ce temps seroit ou regart d’un moment20 en propor-
70 cion quadruble. E t ainsi l ’en porroit tant acroistre une puissance // (22a)
finie qu’elle mouvroit en un moment.
T . E t donques la puissance finie mouvroit en egalle mesure comme celle
qui seroit infinie et c’est imposible, et donques est ce impossible que aucune
pesanteur soit infinie,21 et semblablement de legiereté ; et donques est ce
75 impossible que aucuns cors soient qui aient en eulz pesanteur infinie ou
legiereté infinie. O r appert donques en considérant les parties du monde que
nul corps ne puet estre infiny.
G . Quar il est monstré ou .ix.e chappitre que ce ne puet estre le ciel, et
es .ii. chapitres apres que ce ne puet estre nul des .iiii. elemens, quar il
80 convendroit que la pesanteur ou legiereté de cel corps fust infinie, si comme
il est monstré en le .xi.e chappitre; et c ’est imposible, si comme il appert
par le .xii.e.22
13. Ou .xiii.eI chappitre il monstre generalment que nul corps
ne puet estre infini par ray sons prinses
quant a mouvement local.
T . E t se nous voulons entendre a parler de ceste chose universelment,
nostre propos n’appert pas seullement par les raysons que nous avons
mises ou livre de Phisique2 ou nous avons dit des principes de nature, quar
ileuques nous avons déterminé devant de in- / (22b) fini universelment.
5 Mais nous déterminons de ce maintenant autrement.
G . Quar les raysons que il met en cest livre regardent plus en especial
mouvement local.
T . E t apres ce, pousé que tout le corps du monde ne soit pas infini,
encor entendrons nous a determiner se plusseurs mondes pueent estre, quar,
10 par aventure, aucun feroit doubte ou cuideroit que aussi comme ce monde
est constitué et fait que pluseurs autres telz fussent ou peussent estre, mais
non pas infinis.3
G . C ’est assavoir que nul de telz mondes ne fust infiny en quantité
16 B resumes at this point the text dropped 18 B C D E F mouvemens.
at fol. j6d, 1. 11. 19 A B C D E F mouvemens.
17 A ce. 20 B C D E F mouvement.
Book I, Chapters 12-13, fols. 22a-22b H J
sible time, we could still imagine another finite force in the same proportion to this
resistance as the proportion o f this finite time to the indivisible time.
G . For, if finite time were composed o f indivisible moments, divisible time
would o f necessity be proportional to the indivisible moments o f which it is com­
posed. For example: i f a given time contained 4 indivisible moments, this time
would be in the proportion o f 4 :1 with respect to one moment. Thus, we could
increase a finite power // (22a) so that it would move in one moment.
T . Therefore, the finite force would move the same distance in the same time as
the infinite force, which is impossible. Thus, it is impossible to have infinite weight
or infinite lightness, and likewise it is impossible that any bodies whatsoever exist
possessing infinite weight or infinite lightness. From this consideration o f the
parts o f the world, it appears that no body can be infinite.
G . For in Chapter N ine [see fol. 17c] he has shown that the heavens cannot be
infinite, and in the tw o following chapters [ten and eleven] that no one o f the four
elements can be infinite, for it would be necessary that such an infinite body have
either infinite weight or lightness, as he shows in Chapter Eleven; and this is im­
possible, as appears in Chapter Tw elve [see fol. 21a].
13. In Chapter Thirteen he argues broadly that no body
can be infinite, basing his reasons on
the rules governing local motion.
T . I f we intend to speak o f this matter in general or universal terms, our argu­
ments become clear not only from the reasons we set forth in the [third book o f the]
Physics, in which we spoke about the principles o f nature and determined in gene­
ral regarding the problem o f the infinite; / (22b) but now we are seeking to demon­
strate this matter in a different manner.
G . Hence the reasons he sets forth in this book are concerned more especially
with local movement.
T . Let us assume now that the whole body o f the world is not infinite; we shall
still need to discover whether there can be several worlds, because there are per­
haps some persons w ho may suspect or think that, just as this world is constituted
and made, several others have existed or could exist though they are not infinite.
G . That is to say, that no one o f such worlds is infinite, nor are they infinite in
21 D E omits et c’est impossible, et don- 1 B ou .x. c.
q ues...soit infinie. 2 Physicorum, III.5. 204a 8— 206a 8.
22 B omits si comme il appert par le .xii.; 3 B omits mais non pas infinis.
D E .xi .

ne touz ensemble infinis en nombre, mais fussent .ii. ou .iiii. ou en autre
nombre.
T . Mais or disons premièrement en general de infini. Je4 di donques que
tout corps par neccessité est fini ou infini. Item, se aucun corps est infiny,
il convient que ses parties soient dessemblables ou semblables.
G . Sy comme de yaue les parties so<n)t5 semblables et chascune est
yaue, mais d’une beste elles sont dessemblables.
T . Item, se corps infini estoit de parties dessemblables, ou elles seroient
de especes infinies ou de especes finies.
G . Apres il6 reprouve le premier membre.
T . E t il n’est pas possible // (22c) que elle<s>7 soient de especes infinies,
suppousees les choses devant mises, quar se les premiers movemens sont
finis, il convient par neccessité que les especes des simples soient finies pour
ce que de simple corps le mouvement est simple. E t les mouvemens simples
sont finis et il convient par neccessité que tout corps naturel ait mouve­
ment.
G . T o u t ce fu dit et desclairié ou secont et ou tiers chapittres. Apres il
reprouve par .iiii. raysons le secont membre de la distincion dessus mise.
T . Mais qui diroit que tel corps est un compost ou composé de parties
dessemblables finies selonc espesce si comme de .ii. espesces, ou de .iii.
ou de. iiii., il s’ensuir<oi)t8par neccessité que chascune de <c)es9 parties ou
espesces fust infinie ou aucune de elles, si comme l’yaue ou le feu dont tel
corps seroit compousé. E t nous avons monstré devant que pesanteur ou
legiereté infinie ne puet estre.
G . Ce fu monstré ou chappitre precedent. E t par consequent, nul corps
legier ou pesant, si comme feu ou terre, ne puet estre infiny, quar de corps
pesant infini la pesanteur seroit infinie si comme il appert par le .xi.e chap­
pitre.
T . Item, se les parties de tel corps estoient infini- / (2 2d) es en quantité,
il convendroit que les lieux fussent infinis10 et les distences infinies et que
les mouvemens fussent infinis. E t tout ce est imposible, supposé ce que nous
avons dit devant.
G . O u .xi.e chappitre.
T . Item, c ’est imposible que les distances soient infinies et que ce qui
descent en bas soit meu touz jours sanz fin, et ceste rayson meisme est de
ce qu’est meu en haut, quar c ’est imposible que une chose soit meue au
lieu ou jamais ne pourroit ataindre. E t semblablement en autres choses, si
comme se ce estoit impossible d’une chose que elle fust blanche ou que
elle fust de la quantité d’un coûte ou que elle fust en Egipte, le mouvement
ou la façon par quoy l’en tendroit a telle fin seroit impossible. E t donques
c’est impossible que une chose tende au terme ou elle ne pourroit venir.
4 Guthrie, ch. 7. * A sot.
Book I, Chapter 13, fols. 22C-22d | 117
number, but rather that there might be tw o or four worlds or some other number.
T . N o w , however, let us speak in general about the infinite, I say then that every
body is necessarily either finite or infinite. I f a body is infinite, its parts must be
either alike or dissimilar.
G . For example, the parts o f water are alike, each part being water, but the
parts o f an animal are dissimilar.
T . N o w , i f the infinite body is composed o f unlike parts, either these parts
would be o f infinite or o f finite kinds.
G . Next, he eliminates the first member.
T . A nd it is not possible // (22c) that these parts be composed o f infinite kinds,
assuming the conditions already established; for, if the primary motions are finite
in number, the various forms o f the simple bodies should be finite, because the
motion o f simple bodies is simple, and the simple motions are limited in number,
and every natural body must have movement.
G . This was clearly explained in the second and third chapters. N ext he refutes
with four reasons the second member o f the distinction made above.
T . But if anyone should say that such a body is a compound or is composed o f
formally different finite parts, for example o f two, three, or four kinds, it w ould
necessarily follow that each one o f the parts or kinds would be infinite or that such
bodies would be compounded o f some one o f the elements like water or fire. But
we have shown that neither weight nor lightness can be infinite.
G . This was shown in the preceding chapter [see fol. 21a]. Consequently, no
body light or heavy, like fire or earth, can be infinite, for the weight o f any infinite
heavy body would be infinite, as shown in Chapter Eleven [see fol. 20a].
T . For, if the parts o f such bodies were infinite / (22d) in quantity, the natural
places and distances and motions would have to be infinite, and all this is impossi­
ble, granting what we have previously said.
G . In Chapter Eleven [see fol. içcd].
T . It is impossible that the distances be infinite and that a falling object should
move to infinity, and this reason applies likewise to upward-moving objects; for it
is impossible for an object to be moved to a place which it can never reach. Like­
wise, with other objects, as, for example, if it were impossible that a thing be white,
or a cubit in length, or that it be in E gypt, the motion or manner b y which it would
tend toward such an end would be impossible. Therefore, it is impossible for a
thing to be m oving toward a terminus at which it cannot finally arrive.
6 C D E F je. 9 A ses.
7 A elle. 10 A infinies.
8 A sensuirent.
i l 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
55 G . N e elle ne sa semblable en espesce, quar nature selonc espesce ne
se efforce onques de faire chose qui ne peust estre, quar si comme il fu
dit en la fin du .viii.e chappitre, Dieu et nature ne font rien pour noyent.
E t donques la distance de haut en bas ne puet estre infinie et, par conse­
quent, corps dont le Heu naturel est haut ou bas // (23a) ne puet estre infini.
60 Apres il oste une response.
T . E t se aucun disoit que les parties de tel cors infini sont finies e<n>"
espesce et chascune finie en quantité, mes elles sont infinies en multitude,
qui diroit ainsi, nientmoins se telle multitude de parties estoient conjoin­
tes, ce seroit un corps infiny aussi comme un feu infini.
65 G . Apres il met la quarte rayson.
T . Item, comment pourroit ce estre que corps infini eust pluseurs parties
dessemblables et en certain nombre, car il convendroit que chascune ou
aucune de elles fust infinie et corps infini. E t tout corps est estendu de toutes
pars selonc .iii. dimensions.
70 G . Si comme il appert ou premier chappitre.
T . E t donques se un corps est infini, il est estendu de toutes pars sanz
fin et est infini de toutes pars et occupe tout, et par consequent, ( s e ) 12
une partie de corps infini est infinie, tel corps ne puet avoir autre partie
dessemblable.
75 G . E t ce ( e s t) 13 a entendre des parties intégrales; mais il me semble que
se un corps est infini, il ne s’ensuit pas que il soit infini de toutes pars et
semblablement de Hgne et de superfice, quar l’en puet ymaginer un corps
simplement infini et plus grant que quelcon- / (23 b) que corps fini oultre
toute proporcion. E t nientmoins tel cors ne sera infini fors en long et
80 d’une part seullement, et toutesvoies il ne sera pas mendre que celuy qui
seroit infini de totes pars [Fig. 16]. E t tel corps seroit un de quoy la premiere
partie .a. seroit d’un pié en touz sens, et l’autre apres .b. égalé et semblable a
.a., et l’autre .c., et ainsi sanz fin [Fig. 17]. E t jouste ce, je met par esbatement
telle ymaginacion, et pouse que .a. soit un corps de la quantité d’un pié
85 en touz sens et .b. un autre egual et semblable, et que la moitié de .b. soit
11 et.
13 A omits est.
12 A omits se.
Book I, Chapter 13, fols. 23a-23b | 119
G Neither the object nor its formal Hkeness in kind, for no natural species strives
to do the impossible, because, as was said at the end o f Chapter Eight, G o d and
Nature never do anything purposelessly [see fol. 16b]. Thus, the distance from up
to down cannot be infinite, and, consequently, a body whose natural place is up or
down J/ (23a) cannot be infinite. N o w he refutes a reply.
T . Should it be said that the parts o f such an infinite body are finite by nature and
each part finite in quantity but their aggregation is infinite, nevertheless such parts
joined together in a unit would be an infinite body, for example, an infinite fire.
G . Next he states the fourth reason.
T . But how could it happen that an infinite body be composed o f many dissimi­
lar parts o f a fixed number? For each or some o f the parts would have to be infinite
and, therefore, in actuafity an infinite body. A nd every body must have extension o f
all its parts in three dimensions.
G . Just as it appears in the first chapter [see fols. 3d-4a].
T . Therefore, if a body is infinite, it is extended in all directions endlessly, is in­
finite in all directions, and occupies the whole ; consequently, if a part o f an in­
finite body is infinite, such a body can have no dissimilar part.
G . A nd this appHes to the integral parts. But it seems to me that, if a body is in­
finite, it does not follow that it must be infinite in all its parts, and Hkewise in the
case o f a fine or an area; for one can imagine a body o f absolutely infinite size and
greater beyond any ratio than any / (2 3b) finite body. However, such a body will be
infinite in length in only one direction, and still it will not be less than a body infi­
nite in every direction [see Fig. 16]. Such a body would be one o f which the first
Fig. 16
part a would be one foot in every direction, and the next part b equal and Hke tf,
and the next c, and so on to infinity [see Fig. 17]. W ith this, I indulge my imagina­
tion and posit that a shall be a body measuring one foot in all directions and b an­
other body exactly the same, that one-half o f b be taken and made flat and round or
 120 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
prinse et faite plate et ronde ou circulaire, et soit le semydiametre de elle
d’un pié et que la moytié du résidu de .b. soit faite encore plus tenve en
tant que, quant elle sera ad- // (23 c) joustee aveques l’autre en figure cir­
culaire, elle soit aussi large comme le semydiametre de la premiere partie
90 ou moytié. E t semblablement soit fait de la moytié de l’autre résidu et
ainsi sanz fin. E t ce fait par ymaginacion, tout ce corps soit appellé .c.
Item, soit un corps infini tel, ne plus ne mains comme celuy qui fu mis en
l’ymagynacion precendente, qui estoit appellee .abed, etc., et soit ce corps
appellé .d. Je di donques que le corps appellé .c. est infiny en lonc et en lé
95 de toutes pars, mais non pas en parfont, et .d. n’est infini fors seullement
en lonc et d’une part. E t toutevoies, .c. est simplement finy1* et egual a .a.
qui n’est que d’un pié, et .d. est simplement infini et n’est pas mendre
que un corps infini de toutes pars et qui tout occuperoit. E t encor pourroit
l’en ceste ymagynacion efforcier et dilater et faire conclusions plus merveil-
100 leuses, mais ceci souffist quant a present. Apres il monstre que corps com-
pousé de parties semblables ne puet estre infiny.
T . Mais encore voulons nous monstrer que corps compost de parties
semblables ne puet estre infiny, premièrement quar il n’est mouvement sym-
ple quelconque fors ceulz / (23 d) qui sont devant mis.
io5 G . O u secont chappitre, et sont monter et descendre et mouvement cir­
culaire.
T . E t convendroit que tel cors infini eust un de ces mouvemens. E t se
ainsi estoit que tel corps infini fust mouvable en bas ou en haut, il s’en-
suiroit que aucune pesanteur ou legiereté fust infinie,
no G . Sy comme il appert par le .xi.e chappitre, et ce est imposible, si comme
il appert par le .xii.(e) chappitre.15
T . Mais encore n’est ce pas possible que corps meu en circuite soit infiny,
quar ce ne seroit autre chose a dire fors que le ciel est infiny, et c ’est im­
possible, si comme il est monstré devant.
115 G . Ce fu ou .ix.<e> chappitre.16 Apres il met une autre rayson.
T . Item, corps infiny ne pourroit estre meu comment que soit, quar
ou ce seroit selonc nature ou par violence; et se il povoit estre meu par vio ­
lence,1? il convendroit que le mouvement contraire fi fust naturel. E t don­
ques avroit tel corps un lieu infiny ou il seroit par violence et un autre lieu
I2o infini ou il seroit meu naturelment; et ce est impossible.
G . Quar il convendroit que ce lieu infiny auquel il seroit meu fust plain
d’un autre corps infiny et que ce corps le meist hors de ce lieu. E t ceste ray­
son procédé de mouvement droit // (24a) et il avoit monstré devant ou .ix.e
chappitre que corps infini ne puet estre meu circulairement.
14 F infini. 17 D E omit et se il povoit estre meu par
15 A .xii. D E ,xi.e violence.
16 A Àx.
Book I, Chapter 13, fols. 23c-24a | 121
circular, that the semidiameter o f b be made one foot, and that one-half the remain­
der o f b be made still more tenuous until when it is added // (23 c) to the circular
half o f b, it will be as wide as the semidiameter o f the first half. N o w , let half o f the
remaining portion o f b be treated in the same way, and so on to infinity. The result­
ant, imagined body let us call c. Then, let there be an infinite body neither greater
nor smaller than this body we have imagined, which we called abed, etc. ; and let us
call this infinite body d. I say, therefore, that c is infinite in length and breadth in
every direction, but not in depth, and that d is infinite only in one direction, that is,
in length. However, c is finite absolutely and equal to a which is only one foot in all
directions, while d\s infinite absolutely in all directions and not less than an infinite
body which would occupy all space. One could push this concept further and ex­
tend it and arrive at conclusions still more marvelous, but this will suffice for the
present. Next, he shows that a body composed o f identical parts cannot be infinite.
T . W e wish also to point out that a body composed o f similar parts cannot be
infinite, primarily because there are no simple movements, save only those / (23 d)
already noted above.
G . In Chapter T w o ; and these motions are up and down and circular [see fol.
7bc].
T . A n d an infinite body would have to have one o f these [three] motions. If
such an infinite body were capable o f upward and downward motion, it would fol­
low that some sort o f weight or lightness is infinite.
G . A s shown in Chapter Eleven [see fol. 20a] ; and this is impossible, as appears
in Chapter Tw elve [see fol. 21a].
T . Also it is impossible that a body whose motion is circular should be infinite,
for to admit this would amount to no less than to declare that the heavens are infi­
nite, and this is impossible, as shown above.
G . This was in Chapter Nine [see fol. 17c]. Afterwards he adds another reason.
T . Indeed, it is impossible for an infinite body to m ove in any way whatsoever,
either naturally or by violence ; and if it could be moved by violence, the opposite
motion would have to be its natural motion. Thus, this infinite body would have
an infinite place to which it would be moved by constraint and another infinite
place to which it could move naturally, and this is impossible.
G . For this infinite place to which the infinite body would be moved would have
to be occupied b y another infinite body, and the former body would have to move
the latter out o f this place. This line o f reasoning arises from the basic concept o f
rectilinear motion // (24a) and he had shown in Chapter Nine above [see fol. 17cd]
that an infinite body cannot be moved circularly.

14. Ou .xiiii.e chappitre il monstre que nul corps ne puet estre
infini par raysons prinses generalment quant
a tout mouvement ou action.
T '. Par ce que nous dirons sera manifeste que cors infini ne puet souffrir
mouvement ou action faicte par corps fini et aussi il ne puet faire action
en corps fini.
G . E t encor monstr<er)aI il apres que infini ne puet faire action en in­
fini.2
T . Premièrement quar se corps infini m ouvoit ou eschaufoit ou faisoit
quelconque action en corps fini, ce seroit en aucun temps certain si comme
en un jour. E t soit .a. infini et .b. fini. O r puet estre un autre corps fini men-
dre que .b., et soit .d. lequel fera telle action en un jour en un autre corps
fini qui soit .c. E t donques puisque ces .ii. corps .b. et d. oeuvrent d’une
vélocité, il convient que quelle proporcion a .d. ou regart de .c., que telle
proporcion ait .b. ou regart de .a. E t ce est impossible, quar de fini a in­
fini n’est quelconque <pro)porcion.3
G . [Fig. 18]4 / (24b) Se .d. estoit comme .i.s et .c. comme .iii. et .b. fust
comme .iiii., il convendroit que .a. fust comme .xii. E t donques .a. seroit
fini et il estoit mis infini. E t est a savoir que Aristote met ceste rayson et
celles d’apres en autres termes et plus obscurément. Apres il monstre que
corps infini ne peut faire action en corps fini.
T . Item, ce qui est infini ne pourroit movoir ce qu’est fini en quelconque
temps quar se .a. infini m ouvoit .b. fini en un jour, un autre corps fini puet
estre, et soit .c., qui mouvroit en un jour un autre corps fini et soit .d.
E t donques convient il que la proporcion qui est de .a. ou regart de .b.
soit telle comme est la proporcion qui est de .c. ou regart de .d., et que in-
finy et fini facent leur action en temps egual; et c’est imposible.
G . E t ce pourroit estre decleré en nombres aussi comme la rayson pre­
cedente. f l (24c) Apres il oste une cavillacion se aucun disoit que infini
meut fini en un jour et fini meut fini en temps infini, et pour ce il dit apres :
T . E t ne puet estre que une chose ait meu ou esté meue en temps infini
quar action et passion ont fin.
G . E t ce que il dit de mouvement est a entendre de mouvement qui est
X tu ^
monstra. 4 repeats glose,
fini. 5 b .vii.
porcion.
Book I, Chapter 14, fols. 24^-240 123
14. In Chapter Fourteen he shows that no body can be
infinite, using reasons based in general upon
all kinds o f motions or actions.
T . From what we are about to say, it will become clear that no infinite body can
undergo any movement or action caused by a finite body, nor can an infinite body
act upon a finite body.
G . He will also show afterwards that an infinity cannot act upon an infinity.
T . First o f all, if an infinite body moved, heated, or caused any action whatso­
ever in a finite body, this action would take place within a certain time, as, for
example, in a day. N o w let a be infinite and b finite [see Fig. 18]. There can be an­
F i g . 18
other finite body less than b, called dt which will perform such an act in one day
upon another finite body called c. N o w , since these tw o bodies b and^ act with the
same velocity, it follows that, whatever the proportion between d and c, this same
proportion will exist between b and a. A nd this is impossible because there can be
no proportion between finite and infinite [bodies].
G . I (24b) I f d equals 1 [see Fig. 18] and c equals 3 and b equals 4 then a must
equal 12 ; therefore, a would be finite and was set down as infinite. It should be ex­
plained here that Aristotle states this reason and those that follow in other terms
and rather obscurely. N ext he shows that an infinite body cannot act upon a finite
body.
T . Thus, the infinite body could not move the finite in any time, for i f infinite a
moved finite b in a day, another finite body c could m ove another finite body d in
one day. Therefore, the proportion between a and b must be the same as that
between c and d. A n d that infinite and finite should work in equal times is im­
possible.
G . This could be made clear by numbers, like the preceding reason. / (24c) Next
he refutes an objection that could be raised: namely, that, i f the infinite moves the
finite in one day, the finite could m ove the finite in infinite time. So he says :
T . It is impossible that a body should cause movement or itself be moved in in­
finite time, because action and passion have a limit.
G . What he says about motion is to be taken as that without circular movement
 124 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
par espasce6 finie sanz circulacion. Apres il monstre que infini ne puet faire
mouvement ou action en infini.
T . Item, infini ne puet rien faire de infini,7 quar se .a. infini est meu ou
altéré de .b. infini en .i. jour, une partie de .a. qui seroit finie pourra estre
35 meu par .b. infini en mendre temps, si comme en une heure; et soit telle
partie .c. O r puet l’en prendre une autre plus grande partie qui sera plus
forte a mouvoir que .c. en telle proporcion comme est la proporcion d’un
jour a une heure; et sera celle partie finie et soit .d. E t donques .b. infini
mouvra .a. infini et .d. fini en egual temps fini, et c’est impossible. E t par
40 consequant, infini ne puet mouvoir ou altérer infini en temps fini ne en temps
infini, quar jamais ne seroit fait.8 E t donques se tôt corps sensible ou qui
puet estre senti par quelconque sens naturel a en soy vertu active ou passi- /
(24d) v e ou touz les .ii....
G . L e ciel a en soy vertu active par quoy il altéré les choses de cybas,
45 mais il n’a pas vertu passive, quar il ne puet estre altéré de alteracion qui
dispouse a corrupcion, si comme il appert par le sixte chappitre. E t les
ellemens ont vertu active et passive.
T . E t puisque ainsi est, c ’est impossible que corps sensible soit infini.
G . Apres il oste une objection, quar, par aventure, aucun diroit que hors
50 le ciel est .i. infini insensible9 et pour ce dit il:
T . E t toutesvoies, touz cors qui occupent lieu sont sensibles, et donques
dehors le ciel ne a corps quelconque, ne infiny ne autre, quar se corps estoit
hors le ciel et il fust sensible, il seroit en temps. E t se il estoit intellectuel,
il seroit en lieu, quar hors et ens segnefient lieu. E t aussi tout cors sensible
55 est en lieu quar nul cors sensible n’est qui ne soit en lieu.
G . E t souvent est dit en philosophie que tout corps naturel est mouvable,
et toute chose mouvable est en aucun lieu.10
15. Ou .xv.e chappitre il monstre par autres raysons plus generales
et moins évidentes que nul cors ne puet estre infini.
T . Encor nous efforcerons nous de monstrer que il est ainsi comme dit
est par raysons // (25 a) provables. E t premièrement, ce n’est pas possible
que corps infini de parties semblables soit meu en circuite, quar tel corps
n’a point de milieu ou de centre, et tout ce qu’est meu en circuite a mi­
lieu.
^ ^ b
espece. 9 D E F sensible.
infinie. 10 See Physicorum, IV. 5. 212a 32 ff., especially
fait. Tiexte. Donques. i 7omits en temps 212b 29; and Averroes t.c .43 ff., especially
fini ne en temps infini. t.c. 47.
Book I, Chapters 14-15, fols. 24d-2 5a I 2J
or circulation in finite space. Next, he shows that the infinite cannot produce m o­
tion or action in anything infinite.
T . A n infinite cannot act upon an infinite; because if infinite a is m oved or acted
upon by infinite b in a day, a part o f a that is finite could be moved by infinite b in
less time, for example, in an hour; let us call this part c. N o w , we can take a larger
part harder to move than c in the same proportion o f one day to one hour, and
this larger finite part we will call d. Thus infinite b will m ove infinite a and finite
d in equal finite time. A n d this is impossible. Consequently, an infinite cannot
move or change an infinite in finite nor in infinite time; for [in the latter case], it
would never be accomplished. Therefore, i f all perceptible bodies or those which
can be perceived by any natural sense are innately capable o f action or receiving
action / (24d) or bo th ,...
G . The heavens have innate active capacities by which they change earthly
things, but they have no passive capacity since they cannot undergo change which
tends to corruption, as we have seen in Chapter Six [see fols. 1 3 d -14a]. But the ele­
ments have both active and passive powers.
T . Then it must be impossible that a perceptible body should be infinite.
G . N ext he refutes an objection because it could be argued, perhaps, that there
exists an imperceptible infinite beyond the heavens. So he says :
T . However, all bodies that occupy place are perceptible, and therefore there is
no body whatsoever, either finite or infinite, beyond the heavens ; for, if such body
existed and were perceptible, it would exist in time; if it were an object o f intelli­
gence, it would be in place, for hors (outside) and ens (inside) signify place. There­
fore, every perceptible body is in a place because no perceptible body exists which
is not in a place.
G . A n d in philosophy we often say that every natural body is movable and that
every movable thing is in some place.
15. In Chapter Fifteen he adduces other reasons more general
and less evident to show that there can be no infinite body.
T . We shall make still another effort to show by demonstrable reasons that what
has been said is as // (2 5a) here set forth. First, it is not possible that an infinite body
o f uniform parts should move circularly, for such a body has neither middle nor
center, and all bodies that move in a circle have a center.
 126 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . Par aventure, ceste rayson n’est pas purement évidente, quar l’en
pourroit dire que en tel corps est le milieu et le centre du mouvement,
10 mais non pas le milieu de sa quantité qui ne diroit que { d e ) 1 tel corps le
centre est partout et { la )2 circonférence nulle part. Apres il monstre {p ar)5
.vii. raysons que corps mouvable de mouvement droit ne puet estre infini.
T . Mais encore n’est ce pas possible que corps infini fust meu de mouve­
ment droit, quar il convendroit que un lieu infini fust auquel il seroit meu
i5 selonc nature, et un autre lieu infini ouquel il seroit hors nature.
G . Quar tôt mouvement droit qui n’est fait par ame est de lieu non-naturel
a lieu naturel, et c ’est impossible que .ii. lieus soient dont chascun soit in­
fini de toutes pars.
T . Item, pousé que tel corps fust meu de mouvement droit par nature
zo ou par violence, comment qu’il fust, il convendroit que la puissance qui le
mouvroit fust infinie. E t puissance qui est infinie est de corps infini, et
aussi de / (25 b) corps infini la vertu ou puissance est infinie. E t donques
seroit un autre corps mouvant infini.
G . Quar mouvement violent est fait par vertu qui est hors le cors meu,
25 et mouvement naturel droit suppouse autre puissance dehors laquelle a mis
ou tenu le cors meu hors son lieu naturel ou qui a esté obstacle ou empeesche-
ment qui tenoit tel corps hors son lieu naturel.4
T . E t nous avons monstré par rayson ou livre de Phisique5 que nul corps
fini n’a vertu infinie ne nul corps infini ne puet avoir vertu finie. E t donques
30 se corps infini6 estoit meu droit ou selonc nature ou hors nature, il conven­
droit que .ii. corps infinis fussent, un qui mouvroit et l’autre qui seroit
meu.
G . E t Aristote repute imposible que .ii. corps infinis7 fussent, quar il
suppouse que corps infini est infini8 de toutes pars; mais de ce fu dit ou
35 ,xiii.<e>9chappitre.
T . Item, se tel corps infini estoit, aucune chose le m ouvroit; et se il mou-
voit soy meisme, il avroit ame. E t comment seroit ce possible que une beste
ou chose qui ait ame fust infinie?
G . Ce ne pourroit estre, quar toute telle chose est figurée et corps infini
40 ne pourroit estre figuré.
T . E t se un autre corps m ouvoit ce corps // (25 c) infini, il convendroit
qu’il fust infini. E t donques seroient .ii. cors infinis differens selonc forme
et selonc vertu desquelz un mouvroit et l’autre seroit meu.
G . E t Aristote le repute impossible comme dit est, mais ce ne me semble
ba ^ ^ ^
omits de. and especially 266b 25-27.
omits la. 6 B C D E F fini,
que. 7 D E finiz.
omits ou qui a esté.. .lieu naturel. 8 B fini.
5 Pbysicorum, VIII. 10. 266a 10— 266b 27, 9 A omits superior e.
B o o k I, C h a p te r 1 5 , fo ls. 2 5 b -2 5 C | 12 7
G . Perhaps this reason is not absolutely clear, for one could say that in such a
body the middle is the center o f the movement, but not the middle o f its mass, un­
less we add that in such a body the center is everywhere and the circumference is
nowhere. N ext he offers seven reasons to show that a body capable o f rectilinear
motion cannot be infinite.
T . But it is also impossible that an infinite body be propelled by rectilinear mo­
tion, for it would be necessary that an infinite place exist to which it would be m ov­
ed naturally and another infinite place in which it would be contained unnaturally.
G . For all rectilinear motion, except that o f the soul, is from unnatural to natural
place, and it is impossible that there be two places both infinite in every direction.
T . Moreover, assuming such a body to be moved, whether by nature or by con­
straint, in rectilinear motion, the force that m oved it would have to be likewise
infinite. A n d infinite force belongs to an infinite body and also / (25 b) the force or
power o f an infinite body is infinite ; thus we should have another body m oving an
infinite body.
G . For violent motion arises from a force outside the moved body, and natural
rectilinear motion presupposes another force outside the body which has m oved or
held the body outside its proper place, or which has been an obstacle or hindrance
to the return o f the body to its natural place.
T . A n d we have shown by reason in the [eighth] book o f Physics that no finite
body has infinite force nor any infinite body any finite force. Therefore, if an infi­
nite body were m oved rectilinearly either naturally or by constraint, we should
have to posit the existence o f tw o infinite bodies, one causing motion and the other
being moved.
G . A n d Aristotle holds it to be impossible that there be two infinite bodies, as­
suming that they would be infinite in every direction ; but I have spoken on this
subject in Chapter Thirteen [see fol. 23a].
T . N o w , if there were an infinite body, something would move it ; if it m oved o f
itself, it would have a soul. A n d how could it be that an animal or an animate ob­
ject possessed o f a soul should be infinite?
G . This could not be, for all such things have definite shapes, and the outline o f
an infinite body could not be established.
T . A n d if another body moved this infinite body, // (25 c) it would have to be
infinite. Thus, there would be tw o infinite bodies different in form and power; one
o f them would move and the other would be moved.
G . And, as said above, Aristotle denies this to be possible. But it seems to me it
is no more impossible for two or three, etc., than for one, as was noted in Chapter
 128 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
45 pas plus impossible de .ii. ou de .iii. etc., que de un jouste ce qui fu dit ou
.xiii.e chapitre. Apres il met la quarte rayson contre aucuns anciens.10
T . Item, se tel corps infini n’estoit pas tout continu mais estoit devisé
par aucunes vacuitéz qui sont entre les parties indivisibles, si comme di­
soient Democritus et Leucippus, il convendroit par neccessité que un meis-
5o me mouvement fust de toutes ces parties indivisibles, quar, selonc ces
philosophes, ces parties different seullement en figure et sont toutes d’une
nature se elle estoient separees, si comme sont les parties d ’une masse d’or
dont chascune est or. E t est neccessité que de toutes soit un meisme m ouve­
ment, quar un petit de terre et toute la terre tendroient a un meisme lieu
55 et aussi une estincelle de feu et tout le feu. E t donques se totes telles par­
ties indivisibles et leur tout ont pesanteur et sont d’une nature, il s’ensuit
que rien ne soit legier; et se il sont le- / (23 d) gieres, que rien ne sera pesant.
G . E t nous voions le contraire, quar aucunes choses tendent en bas et
les autres en haut.
60 T . Item, pousé que tel cors ait pesanteur ou legiereté, donques convient
il que aucune extrémité ou circonférence de tôt ou aucun milieu soit.
G . Si comme il appert par le secont et par le tiers chappitre.
T . E t c’est impossible que en corps infini soit milieu ne fin ou circonférence.
Item, generalment la ou n’est milieu ne extrémité ou circunference, la ne
65 puet estre que aucune chose soit haut et l’autre bas.
G . Quar tôt est semblable quant a ce.
T . E t donques ne seroit nul lieu ou les corps fussent meus, quar, par nec­
cessité, il convient que eulz soient meus ou selonc nature ou hors nature
et par violence. E t telles choses sont determinees, parce que des liex,
70 les uns sont propres et naturelz as corps meus et les autres leur sont estran­
ges et desnaturelz.
G . Quar mouvement naturel est a lieu naturel et mouvement violent
a lieu estrange. E t en infini touz liex sont d’une maniéré.
T . Item, se aucun cors est arresté ou meu hors nature et par violence a
75 .i. lieu, il JJ (26a) convient que aucun autre corps soit arresté ou meu a ce
lieu selonc nature. E t ce nous est creable et appert par induction.
G . Quar nous voions que terre est haut par violence et est bas par nature,
et, au contraire, feu est bas par violence et haut par nature.
T . E t donques s’ensuit par neccessité que toutes choses n’ont pas pesanteur
80 ou toutes legiereté.
G . E t se un corps infini estoit, il seroit ou tout pesant ou tout legier et
ne seroit nul cors dehors cestuy, comme plusseurs foys est dit.
T . E t donques appert par ces raysons que nul corps n’est infini.
10 F omits Apres il met la quarte rayson contre aucuns anciens.
B o o k I, C h a p te r 1 5 , fo ls . 2 j d - 2 6 a | 129
Thirteen [see fol. 23abc]. Afterwards he states the fourth reason, refuting certain
ancient philosophers.
T . I f such an infinite body were not continuous but its parts were separated by a
few voids between the indivisible parts, as Democritus and Leucippus said, then the
motion o f all these indivisible parts would necessarily be one and the same; for, ac­
cording to these philosophers, the parts differ only in their shapes, but are o f one
nature when separated, just as in a mass o f gold, each part is gold. A n d it is neces
sary that each part have the same motion, just as a clod o f earth and the whole
earth itself and a spark o f fire and the fire itself tend toward the same place.Therefore
if all the indivisible parts and their whole mass have weight and are o f one kind,
it follows that nothing is light— or, if they are light, / (2 5d) then nothing is heavy.
G . And we can observe the contrary, for some things tend downward and others
upward.
T. So, assuming that such a body has weight or lightness, then it must have a
farther limit or circumference in which there is a center.
G . A s appears in the second and third chapters [see fol. 7b].
r . But in an infinite body there can be no center, end, or circumference. In gener­
al, where there can be no center, no farthest limit, or circumference, there can be
no up or down.
G . For all things are alike in this respect.
T . Therefore, there would be no place for the bodies to be moved, for, neces­
sarily, they must be moved naturally or by external force or violence. A n d such
things are fixed by nature, for there are places proper and natural to bodies that are
moved and other places strange and unnatural to them.
G . For natural motion is to a natural place and violent motion to an unnatural
or strange place. A n d in an infinite, all places are o f one kind.
T. I f a body is stopped or moved unnaturally or violently to a place, it // (26a)
must follow that some other body would be stopped at or be moved to this place
naturally. This is a fact we can believe, and it is apparent by induction.
G . For we can see that earth is up by violence and down by nature, while fire, on
the contrary, is down by violence and up by nature.
T . Therefore, it must be that not all things have weight, nor do all have light­
ness.
G . A nd if a body were infinite, it would be completely heavy or totally light, and
there would be no other body outside it, as we have stated several times.
T . From these reasons, then, it appears that there is no infinite body.
 IjO | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
16. Ou .xvi.e chappitre il propose a savoir mon se pluseurs
mondes sont ou pueent estre et preve que
non par .ii. raysons.1
T. O r disons que ce n’est pas possible que plusseurs cielz, c ’est a dire
plusseurs mondes, soient, quar nous avions promis a dire de ce.
G. O u ,xiii.e chappitre.
T. Quar, par aventure, aucun cuideroit que nous n’avons pas monstré
5 universelment estre impossible que hors le ciel soit aucun cors, mais avons
mises raysons a ce seullement de corps infini.
G. Quar il fu dit ou .xiiii.e2 chappitre generalment que hors le ciel n’est
quelconque corps, mais ce fu / (26b) prouvé seullement de corps infini.
E t puisque monstré est que cest monde est corps fini en quantité, tantost
10 l’ame est mue a penser se un autre monde est ou puet estre ou plusseurs.
E t Aristote monstre que non par plusseurs raysons. E t pour la premiere il
met .iii. suppousicions. Une est:
T. E t tout corps puet repouser par nature et par violence et estre meu
par nature et par violence.
15 G. C ’est a entendre des corps de cibas, quar le ciel ne repouse onques
et ne puet estre meu par violence. Mais les corps de cybas pueent estre
altérés et courrompus et mis hors de leurs lieux naturelz selonc tout ou se-
lonc partie.
T. Item, ou lieu ou aucuns corps repousent par nature, a ce lieu sont il
20 meus non pas par violence mais par nature; et la ou il sont meus par nature,
ileuques repousent par nature; et la ou il repousent par violence, yleuques
sont meus par violence; et la ou il sont meus par violence, yleuques re­
pousent par violence. Item, mouvement violent est contraire a mouvement
qui est selonc nature.
25 G. C ’est a entendre du meisme corps ou de semblables, quar le mouve­
ment naturel du feu et le violent de terre // (26c) ne sont pas contraires.
Apres il forme sa rayson.
T. O r disons donques se .ii. mondes estoient, il convendroit que en chas-
cun fust une terre, et se la terre qui est en l’autre monde estoit meue a ces-
30 tuy ou vers cestui, ce seroit ou par violence ou par nature. E t se ce estoit
par violence, le mouvement contraire qui seroit3 de ce monde vers l’autre
seroit naturel a terre, et ce ne puet estre. E t se la terre de l’autre monde es-
toyt meue a cestuy par nature, donques repouseroit elle en l’autre monde
par violence. E t se elle repouse en l’autre monde par violence, elle seroit
35 meue a cestui selonc nature.
G. E t tout ce appert par les suppousicions devant mises. Mais ceste rayson
1 Guthrie, ch. 8. 3 ^4 seroit qui.
2 B .xiii.
Book I, Chapter 16, fols. z6b-i6c \ ij i
16. In Chapter Sixteen he proposes to find out whether there are
or can be several worlds and by two arguments he
proves that there cannot.
T. N o w , we can say that it is not possible that several heavens or worlds should
exist, for we had promised to consider this matter.
G. In Chapter Thirteen [see fol. 22b].
T. Perhaps some may think that we have not demonstrated universally the im­
possibility that there can exist any body whatsoever outside or beyond the heavens
since we have considered this question only with regard to infinite bodies.
G. For in Chapter Fourteen [see fol. 24d] he made the general statement that
there is no body whatsoever outside the heavens, but he / (26b) proved this only for
infinite bodies. A n d since it is shown that this earth is a body o f limited size, the
mind is moved at once to wonder whether there is or can be another earth or wheth­
er several others may exist. Aristotle offers several reasons to show that this is not
so. A t the outset, he makes three assumptions ; the first follows :
T. A ll bodies may both rest and be moved by nature and by violence.
G. That is, all bodies here below; for the heavens never rest, nor can they be
moved by violence. But bodies here below can be changed and corrupted, and put
out o f their natural places in whole or in part.
T. Certain bodies are m oved not by constraint, but by nature to the place where
they rest naturally; and where these bodies are moved naturally, there they rest
naturally; where they rest under constraint, there they are constrained to m ove;
and where they are moved by violence, there they are constrained to remain. Thus,
violent motion is the opposite o f natural motion.
G. That is, with respect to the same or similar bodies ; for the natural motion o f
fire and the violent motion o f earth // (26c) are not opposites. N ext he formulates
his argument.
T. N o w therefore, let us say that, if two worlds existed, there would have to be
an earth in each; if the earth in the other world were m oved toward the earth in this
world, this would be either by violence or by nature. I f by violence, the contrary
motion, which would be from this world toward the other world, would be natur­
al to the earth, and this is impossible. I f the earth in the other world were moved
toward this world naturally, then it would follow that it was resting under con­
straint in the other world; and if it were resting under constraint in the other
world, it would be m oved naturally toward our earth in this world.
G. A ll this follows from the suppositions previously stated; but this reason is
i $2 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ne conclut pas de neccessité, si comme il sera dit apres. E t apres il met .iii.
suppousicions pour une autre rayson.
T. Item, se .ii. mondes estoient ou plusseurs, il convendroit par neccessité
40 que les corps ou les elemens de ces .ii. mondes fussent d’une maniéré et
semblables selonc nature. Item, il convendroit par neccessité que les corps
ou parties de ces .ii. mondes eussent une meisme vertu ou inclination, si
comme le feu et la terre et les autres elemens de ce monde et ceulz de l’autre
monde, / (2Ôd) quar se eulz estoient de diverses natures et de diverses incli-
45 nacions aussi comme se la terre de l’autre monde n’estoit pas pesante, ce
ne seroit pas proprement terre, ne le feu feu* se il n’estoit chaut. E t ainsi
tout tel autre monde ne seroit pas proprement monde. Item, par ce appert
donques que des ellemens de ces .ii. mondes, les uns sont enclins a soy
esloingnier du milieu ou du centre, et les autres a estre meus vers le milieu
50 ou centre, quar il sont d’une meisme espesce en un monde et en l’autre si
comme le feu de l’un et le feu de l’autre, et semblablement des autres elemens,
aussi comme en ce monde les parties du feu sont d’une espesce et d’une
nature. E t que ainsi soit de neccessité, il appert par les suppousicions que
nous avons faites devant quant as mouvemens, quar les mouvemens drois
55 simples sont finis en certain nombre et chascun ellement est mouvable
d’aucun tel mouvement. E t donques se les mouvemens sont d’une5 nature
partout, il convient par neccessité que les elemens soient d’une nature
partout.
G. Ce que il dit ycy des mouvemens symples fu déterminé et declairié
60 ou secont et ou tiers chappitre.67Apres il fait sa rayson.
T. E t donques les parties de la terre// (27a) de l’autre? monde sont enclines
a estre meues au milieu de ce monde et les parties du feu de l’autre monde
enclines a estre meues au lieu du feu de cest monde. Mais c’est impossible,
quar se ainsi estoit, il convendroit par neccessité que la terre de l’autre monde
65 montast en son propre monde et que le feu de l’autre monde fust meu vers
le milieu de ce monde pour ce que ces .ii. mondes seroient ainsi mis un ou
regart de l’autre, ou il convendroit mettre que les corps symples ou elle­
mens ne sont pas d’une meisme nature en plusseurs mondes.
G. E t ce est reprouvé devant.
70 T. O u se nous disons que il sont d’une nature, il convient dire que il
n’est que un milieu ne que une extermité ou circonférence de elemens.
G. A laquelle tent tout feu et au milieu toute terre.
T. E t se ainsi est, c’est impossible que plusseurs mondes soient.
G. E t apres il oste une cavillacion.
75 T. E t dire que de telz simples corps la nature ou inclination est autre
( e t ) 8 differente sellonc ce qu’il sont plus près ou plus loing de leurs pro­
pres liex, ...
4 B omits feu. 5 B C D E F d’autre nature.
Book I, C h a p te r 16 , fols. 2 6 d -2 7 a | 133
not necessarily conclusive, as we shall show hereinafter. Next, he presents three
assumptions for another argument.
T . N o w , if there were two or more worlds, the bodies or elements o f these
two worlds would necessarily have to be o f one kind and similar in nature. T h e
bodies or parts o f these tw o worlds would necessarily have to possess the same
potentialities or tendencies, such as fire and earth and the other elements o f our
world together with those o f the other world, / (z6d) for if they were o f different
natures and different tendencies— for example, if the earth o f the other world
were weightless— then this would not be genuine earth, nor would the fire
be genuine fire if not hot. Therefore, the other world taken as a whole would
not be a genuine world. Thus it appears that some o f the elements o f these two
worlds tend to m ove away from the middle or center and that others move toward
the center, for the elements are the same in both worlds ; for instance, fire in one
and fire in the other, and likewise for the other elements, just as in our world the
parts o f fire are identical in form and in nature. That this is necessarily so appears
from the suppositions we have previously set up concerning motion, for simple
rectilinear motions are limited in number and each element can move naturally in
accordance with only one particular motion. Therefore, if motion is everywhere o f
the same nature, the elements must be universally the same everywhere.
G. What he says here about the simple motions was established and explained in
the second and third chapters [see fols. 7a, 7cd]. Next, he states his reason.
T. Thus the parts o f the earth / / (27a) o f the other world tend to be m oved to the
center o f our earth, and the parts o f the fire o f the other world tend to be m oved
to the proper place o f fire in this world. But this is an impossibility, for, if these
motions were a fact, the earth in the other world would be forced to move up­
ward in its own world and the fire would be m oved toward the center o f its world,
because the two worlds would be set one against the other ; otherwise, we must
assume that the simple bodies or elements are not o f identical nature in the several
worlds.
G. A n d this has already been rejected.
T. For, if we say they are o f the same nature, we shall have to say there is only
one center or one upward limit or circumference for all the elements.
G. Toward which all fire tends, while all earth tends toward the center.
T. I f these latter suppositions are correct, then it is impossible that there are
more worlds than one.
G. N ext he refutes an objection.
T. T o assume that the nature or tendency o f such simple bodies is different, de­
pending upon their proximity or distance from their proper places,...
6 F omits Apres il fait sa rayson. 8 A omits et.
7 A terre et de l’autre.
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G . Si comme dire que la terre de l’autre monde est meue au centre de G . T o say, for example, that the earth in the other world is moved toward the
son monde pour ce qu’elle en est plus près, et s’elle estoit en cesti, elle center o f its world because it is nearer to it and that, i f the earth were in this world,
80 y- / (27b) roit au centre de cesty. it would m ove / (27b) to the center o f this w o rld ...
T . C ’est chose desraysonnable, quar la distance ne fait en rien difference T . ... is wholly unreasonable, for distance does not affect in any way the nature
en la nature ou espesce des choses. or form o f bodies.
G . Quar une porcion de terre ne mue en rien sa nature ou inclinacion pour G . A portion o f earth does not alter in any way its nature or tendency simply
ce seullement qu’elle est plus près ou plus loing du centre du monde. Mais because it is either nearer or farther from the center o f the earth. But earlier I ex­
85 je fis autrefoys un fort arguement contre ceste ray son [Fig. 19]. Suppousons pressed a strong disagreement with this principle. Let us imagine a portion o f the
par ymaginacion que ou centre de ce monde soit une porcion de l’element fiery element at the very center o f our world, so that one-half o f this portion lies on
du feu tellement que la moytié de elle soit d’une part du centre et l’autre one side o f the center and the other half lies on the other side. Let a be the center
moitié d’autre; et soit le centre .a., et une moytié .b. et l’autre .c. E t pouse [see Fig. 19] and b one half and c the other half. N o w I posit that everything which
ou met que tout ce soit osté qui pourroit empeeschier le mouvement naturel
90 de cest feu. E t donques convendroit il que chascun<e>9 de ces .ii. parties
montast en haut, chascune de sa part vers la circonférence, et se esloin-
gneroient l’une de l’autre et depar- // (27c) tiroient. Item, se ces .ii. parties
de feu estoient conjointes en une espere tellement que une partie ne se peust
séparer ou deviser de l’autre, et tout autre empeeschement fust hors, ceste
95 petite espere ou porcion de feu ne se mouvroit, quar l’en ne pourroit assi­
gner cause pourquoy elle se traisist plus a une partie de la circonférence
que a autre. Mais se elle estoit hors le milieu, elle yroit vers la partie de la
circonférence dont elle seroit plus près. E t tout cecy est a otrier selonc la
philosophie de Aristote. E t l’en pourroit dire semblablement que se une
would hinder the natural motion o f the fire should be removed. Each o f the tw o
100 porcion de terre estoit entre .ii. mondes par egalle distance et elle se peust
portions o f fire m ove upward toward opposite parts o f the circumference and will
deviser, une partie yroit au centre d’un monde et l’autre au centre de l’autre
separate // (27c) from each other. N o w , i f these tw o portions o f fire were joined
monde. E t se elle ne se povoit deviser, elle ne se mouvroit pour l’indiffe-
together in a sphere so that they could not be separated nor divided from each
rence et seroit aussi comme un fer entre .ii. aÿmans egalz et egualment.
other and all encumbrances were removed, this little sphere or portion o f fire would
E t se elle estoit plus près d ’un monde que de l’autre, elle tendroit vers le
not move, for there would be no reason for it to be m oved more to one part o f the
io5 centre du plus prochain. Je respon et di que ce n’est pas semblable, quar,
circumference than to the other. But if it were outside the center o f the earth, then
ou premier cas, les .ii. parties du feu, qui sont .b. et .c., tendent a un meisme
it would g o toward that part o f the circumference nearest to it. This is in full ac­
lieu, c’est a savoir a la circonférence qui est lieu de l’element du feu, et ten­
cord with Aristotle’s philosophy. In like manner, one could say that, i f a portion o f
dent a estre conjoin- / (27d) tes a un corps ou a un tout, c ’est a savoir a
earth were equidistant between two worlds and if it could be separated, one part
l’element du feu, combien que elles y tendent par diverses voies, aussi com-
would go to the center o f one world and the other portion to the center o f the other
110 me .ii. pierres descendent vers le centre de la terre par diverses voies. E t
world. I f the portion could not be divided, it would not m ove at all because o f the
lack o f inclination, being like a piece o f iron halfway between two magnets o f equal
strength. I f it were nearer one world than the other, it would move in the direction
o f the center o f the nearer world. [To these suppositions] I reply and say now that
the cases are not similar ; for in the first case the two portions o f fire b and c tend
toward the same places— that is, to the circumference which is the [natural] place
o f the element fire— tending to be united / (27d) with a body or a whole, that is to
say, with the element o f fire, although they m ove toward it by different ways, just
9 A chascun. as two stones go downward toward the center o f the earth by different paths. In the
f
 i $6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ou secont cas les parties de celle terre qui seroit entre deux mondes ne ten-
droient pas vers un lieu ne a estre conjointes a un corps. E t quant est d’une
chose qui est dicte ou premier cas, c ’est a savoir que une porcion de feu
seroit ou centre du monde sanz soy mouvoir, je cuide que ce soit vray se le
us cas estoit tel comme il est devant mis. Mais il ne pourroit par nature estre
tel et durer en tel estât pour les variacions ou alteracions ou autres mouvemens
qui sont de commun cours aussi comme une pesante espee ne pourroit
longuement estre en estant sus sa pointe, etc.
17. Ou .xvii.e chappitre il monstre par une autre rayson que
il ne puet estre fors un seul monde.
T. Mais encor convient par neccessité que ce elemens aient aucuns na-
turelz mouvemens, quar il nous appert que il sont meus et nous ne povons
dire que touz les mouvemens contraires dont il sont meus soient violens,
quar c ’est impossible que une chose soit meue par violence qui n’a quel-
5 conque inclinacion // (28a) a estre meue naturelment.
G. C ’est la premiere des .ii. suppousicions que il met pour la rayson qui
ensuit. E t apres il met la seconde.
T. E t puisque ainsi est que des ellemens est aucun mouvement selonc na­
ture, il convient par neccessité que le mouvement de ceulz qui sont d’une
10 espesce et de chascun de eulz soit a un meisme lieu selonc nombre, si com­
me a un seul milieu1 ou centre et a une seulle extrémité ou circonférence.
G. Apres il met une objection.
T. Mais aucun pourroit dire que le cors simple, qui est un singulier, est
meu a un lieu singulier en nombre, et plusseurs telz corps qui sont d’une
i5 espesce sont meus a plusseurs lieux lesquelz sont d ’une espesce et non
pas a un lieu singulier.
G. Apres il respont.
T. Mais se telz corps sont pluseurs sans estre differens en espesce, il
sont aussi comme parties d’un tout et, pour ce, une de telles parties ne est
20 pas meue a un lieu et autre a autre, mais toutes sont meues semblablement
a un lieu. E t ne sont pas differentes en espesce,2 mais sont differentes et
autres en nombre.
G. Quar une porcion de terre, <se> elle est haut,3 elle descent; et par celle
meisme voie descendroit une autre / (28b) porcion4 de terre quelconque.
25 E t donques toutes porcions de terre tendent a un seul lieu, c ’est assavoir
a milieu ou au centre du monde, quar se une porcion tendoit a un centre
et autre a autre, il convendroit mettre la multitude des centres selonc la
1 F lieu. 2 A especes.
B o o k I, C h a p te r 1 7 , fo ls . 2 8 a -2 8 b I37
second case, the portion o f earth posited between the tw o worlds would not tend
toward one place nor be joined with a body. And, regarding a matter mentioned in
the first case, namely, that a portion o f fire would stand at the center o f the world
motionless, I think this to be true i f as stated in the proposition above; but it could
not exist nor endure in this manner by nature because o f variations or changes or
other motions which commonly occur, as in the case o f a heavy sword, which
would not stand for any length o f time upright on its point, etc.
17. In Chapter Seventeen he shows b y another argument that
there can be only one world.
T. N o w , these elements must have some natural motions; for it seems clear to
us that they do move, and we cannot say that all the contrary motions in which
they are m oved are violent; for nothing can be m oved b y violence which has no
tendency whatsoever // (28a) to be moved naturally.
G. This is the first o f two suppositions presented to introduce the argument
which follows. N ext he presents the second supposition.
T. Since the elements have a certain natural motion, it is necessary that, because
they are o f the same type, each one o f them should be inclined toward the same
place, regardless o f their number— for instance, to one particular middle or center
or to one particular outer limit or circumference.
G. Then he states an objection.
T. But it could be argued that the simple body which is individually singular is
moved to a place likewise numerically singular, and several such bodies o f the
same type are moved to several places which are o f one type, and not to one in­
dividual place.
G. N ext he replies.
T. I f such bodies are numerous, showing no formal difference, they are like the
parts o f a whole; and, therefore, one o f these parts is not moved to one place and
another to another, but all are moved alike to one place. Undifferentiated in form,
they are numerically separarate and individual.
G. For, if a clod o f earth is up, it will come down; and in the same manner any
other clod o f earth will do likewise. / (28b) Thus, all clods o f earth tend toward a
single place, namely, the middle or center o f the earth; for, if one clod tended to­
ward one center and another to another center, we should have to assume a mul-
3 A terre celle est haut. par celle meisme voie descendroit une autre
4 D E omit (se) elle est haut, elle descent ; et porcion de terre.
 ij8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
multitude des parties ou porcions de terre. E t c ’est impossible, quar telles
parties sont infinies, si comme il appert par le premier chappitre, et le monde
30 ne puet avoir que .i. milieu ou centre. E t pour ce mieux entendre, je argue
contre ; premièrement, quar il dit que le milieu ou le centre est le lieu a quoy
les parties de terre tendent ou sont meues. E t tel centre, c ’est un point
indivisible qui ne puet rien contenir et ne puet estre égal a quelconque
corps. E t tout lieu contient le corps qui est en tel lieu et est egual a luy,
35 si comme il appert ou quart de P hi si que.s Item, il dit que toutes les parties
de terre tendent a un singulier lieu naturelment. E t nature n’entent onques
chose imposible, et c ’est impossible que plusseurs corps soient en un lieu,
quar ce seroit penetracion de dimensions, si comme il appert ou quart de
P hi si que.6 A u premier, je respon et di que lieu est dit de .ii.7 choses; une
40 est ce qui contient un corps et est égal // (28c) a cel corps aucunement, si
comme il appert ou quart de Phisique , 8 et en ceste maniéré un tonneau
selonc9 sa concavité est lieu du vin qui est dedens, et l ’yaue est en partie
lieu de la terre. Mais autrement, lieu est ce selonc quoy un corps est dit
estre bien apoint, assis en son propre lieu naturel, et en ceste maniéré le
45 centre du monde est le lieu de la terre et de toute la masse des choses pe­
santes, quar telle masse est la ou elle doit estre et en son propre lieu naturel,
parce que le centre de sa pesanteur est ou milieu du monde et que tel centre10
et le centre du monde sont un meisme point, combien que ceste masse soit
ou fust environnée et contenue de yaue ou de air ou de touz .ii. A u secont,
50 je di que plusseurs corps qui ne sont parties d’un corps ou parties un de
l’autre ne pueent estre en un lieu qui soit propre a chascun de eulz, meisme-
ment a pre(n )d reTI lieu en la premiere maniéré pour la chose qui contient.
Mais plusseurs cors dont un est tout et les autres sont parties de luy ont
un meisme lieu, si comme il appert ou quart de Phisique, 12 et meismement
55 a prendre lieu en la seconde maniéré. E t selonc ce, non pas seullement
les parties de terre, qui est element, mais toutes choses pesantes ten- / (i8d)
dent a un lieu tellement ( e t ) 1* affin que les choses soient conjointes et
uniees a toute la masse de pesanteur de laquelle le centre du monde soit mi­
lieu et centre. Quar les choses mixtes sont meues ^ selonc l’element qui
60 habonde et a signeurie en elles, si comme il fu dit ou tiers chappitre,
combien que en la masse dessus dicte aucunes choses mixtes aient certains
lieus sus terre convenables a leur espesce et que aucunes aient autre mouve­
ment par vertu d ’ame si comme ont les oysiaus et les poyssons et les bestes.
Apres il aplique a propos en formant sa rayson.
65 T . Je di donques que les parties de terre qui sont en ce monde et celles
qui sero(ie)n t15 en l’autre monde sont semblables quant a ce que dit est.
5 Physicorum, IV .4 .210b 34— 211a 2. 8 Physicorum, IV .4 .211a 1-3.
6 Ibid., I V .5. 212b 25. 9 A tonneau est selonc.
7 £ de troiz ch. 10 A que de tel centre.
Book I, Chapter 17, fols. 28c-28d | 139
titude o f centers proportional to the number o f clods o f earth. A nd this is impossi­
ble, for such clods are infinite, as appears in Chapter One, and the world can have
only one middle or center. T o illustrate this point better, I will argue against it.
First, when he says the middle or center is the place to which the clods o f earth tend
or are moved, such a center is an indivisible point which can contain nothing, nor
can it be equal to any body whatsoever. And every place contains and equals the
body which is in it, as shown in the fourth book o f the Physics. N o w he says that all
the clods o f earth naturally tend toward a single place. Nature never undertakes an
impossible thing, and it is impossible for several bodies to be in one place since this
would amount to a penetration o f dimensions, as appears in Book Four o f the
Physics. T o the first point above, I reply that place is used to mean tw o [different]
things ; one meaning is that which contains a body and is approximately equal //
(28c) to it, as stated in B ook Four o f the Physics. In this way a wine barrel by reason
o f its concavity is the place o f the wine which it contains, and water is likewise in
part the place o f the earth [which it surrounds]. But in its other sense, place is that
which defines the proper state o f a body seated in its unique natural location; in
this sense the center o f the world is the place natural and proper to the earth and
to all the multitude o f objects possessing weight, for there in this center where it
belongs is the proper, natural place o f this mass because the center o f its weight is
in the center o f the world, and this center and the center o f the earth are the same
identical point, even though this mass [the earth] is or was surrounded by and con­
tained in water or air or in both. T o the second point I say that a group o f bodies,
not parts o f one and the same body or parts o f one another, cannot be in one single
place proper and natural to them, even taking place in its first meaning to be a con­
tainer o f objects. But several bodies, o f which one is the whole and the others are
its parts, do have the same natural place, as stated in Book Four o f the Physics, and,
likewise, if we take place in the second meaning. Accordingly, not only the parti­
cles o f the element earth but all heavy objects tend / (28d) to one place in such a
way and so that the objects are joined together and united to the whole mass o f
heaviness o f which the center o f the world is the middle and center. For mixed or
compound bodies are moved in accordance with the element predominant in their
composition, as noted in Chapter Three [fol. 8a], even though in the multitude
o f bodies mentioned above, some mixed bodies have certain places suitable to their
form and some may have a different motion b y force o f spirit, as, for example,
birds, fish, and animals. Next he resumes his argument in conformity with his
reasoning.
T . Therefore, I maintain that the particles o f earth in this world and the particles
which may be in the other world are identical as far as our argument is concerned.12
3
11 A predre. 14 B mixtes.
12 Physicorum, I V .5.212b 11-13. 15 A seront.
13 A omits et.
 140 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
E t donques qui prendroit aucune chose de la terre qui est en cest monde,
elle ne différé en rien des parties de terre de l’autre monde ne celles de l’autre
monde ou resgart de celles de cestui, mais seroit semblablement des
70 un<es>16 comme des autres, quar elles ne different en rien en espesce.
G . E t par ce il s’ensuit que toute terre, ou que elle soit, tent a un lieu et
a un centre. Apres il conclut.
T . E t donques convient il par neccessité ou oster et neer ces supposi­
tions, ou oc- // (29a) trier que il n’est que un seul milieu auquel tendent
75 toutes choses pesantes ne que une seulle extermité ou circonférence a
laquelle tendent toutes choses legieres. E t puisque ainsi est, par cestes meis-
mes raysons et arguemens il s’ensuit par neccessité que il ne est que un seul
monde et ne sont pas plusseurs.
G . Toutevoies il sera monstré apres que 17 ces raysons ne les autres ne
80 concludent18 pas evidanment que plusseurs mondes ne puissent estre.
18. Ou .xviii.e chappitre il preuve1 que les ellemens sont meus
a certains lieux déterminés sanz ce que la distance
soit infinie. Et ce avoit il supposé devant.
T . E t que aucun lieu soit auquel la terre et l’yaue sont enclines a estre
meues il appert par inducion en autres choses, quar toutes choses qui sont
meues ou transmuées <sont transmuées)2 d’aucune chose en autre. E t celle
chose et l’autre different en espesce. E t toute transmutacion est finie et
5 terminée, si comme ce qui est en voie de guérir est transmué et vient de
enfermeté en santé, et ce qui crest vient de petitesce en grandeur. E t donques
ce qui est meu selonc lieu est fait ou transmué d’aucun lieu et en aucun lieu.
E t pour ce convient il que le lieu ou terme dont tel cors / (29b) est enclin
a partir et le lieu auquel il est enclin a estre meu different en espesce, et aussi
10 comme le cors qui garist n’est pas transmué a l’aventure en quelconque
chose ne la ou weult ce qui le meut indiffe<re)nment.3
G . Mais est transmué de enfermeté en santé et non pas en blancheur ne
en grandeur.
T . E t donques semblablement le feu ne la terre ne sont pas meus a une
15 chose infinie et indeterminee.
G . Sy comme disoit Dem oc<rit)us.4
T . Mais il sont meus a lieus et a termes opposites. E t le lieu qui est haut
ÎL ta k
uns- 2 A omits sont transmuées,
par. 3 A indiffenment.
concludrent. 4 Democircus.
1 B C D E F monstre.
Book I, Chapters 17-18, fols. 29a-29b | 141
Thus, if we consider any part o f the earth in our world, it does not differ in any way
from the particles o f earth in the other world, nor do those o f the other world with
respect to those o f this world, but all would be alike since in form they do not
differ at all.
G . From this it follows that all earth, wherever it may be, tends to one place and
to one center. N o w , he concludes.
T . Either these suppositions must be rejected or refuted, or we must admit //
(29a) that there is but one single center toward which all heavy things tend and one
outer limit or circumference to which all light things tend. This being proved, it
follows from these same reasons and arguments that there is but one single world
and not several.
G . However, we shall show later [see fols. 3 5c—39b] that neither these nor other
arguments offer final proof that several worlds could not exist.
18. In Chapter Eighteen he proves that the elements move to certain
definite places without the distance being infinite. And
this he had assumed before.
T . That a certain place exists to which earth and water tend to move naturally
can be shown inductively by reference to other m oving objects. For all things that
are moved or transmuted are changed from one thing into another. A n d this
thing differs in form from the other. A nd every transmutation is set within fixed
limits, just as one who is in the process o f being cured is changed and moves from
sickness to health or as anything growing moves from smallness to bigness. In this
way, anything moved locally is transferred from one place to another, and the start­
ing point from which and the end goal toward which the body / (29b) tends to
move must be formally different, just as the body being cured is not changed
haphazardly into something else nor necessarily in the direction or manner desired
by the mover.
G . Rather he is changed from sickness to health and not in whiteness nor in size.
T. In this same way, neither fire nor earth moves toward something infinite and
indeterminate.
G . A s Democritus held.
T . But they are moved toward opposite places and termini. A nd the place that is
 i4 2 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
est opposite a celuy qui est bas. E t donques ces lieux sont les termes et les
fins de telz mouvemens.
20 G . E t par consequent, ces mouvemens ne procèdent pas infiniement
sanz fin et sanz terme. Apres il oste une doubte, quar il semble par ce que
il a dit que tout mouvement soit entre termes opposites et contraires, et il
avoit dit ou .viii.e chappitre que mouvement circulaire n’a point de con­
traire.
25 T . E t le mouvement qui est en circuite a aucunement opposite selonc la
ligne de dyametre, mais tout ensemble il n’a point de contraire.
G . Se le ciel estoit meu tout d ’un lieu a autre, il convendroit que ces
lieux fussent distans et opposites ; mais le ciel tout est meu non pas de son
lieu, mes // (29c) en son lieu. E t pour ce, son mouvement n’a point de con-
30 traire. Mais ses parties, aucunes sont meues ou transportées d ’un lieu en
autre, si comme de orient en occident, et sont ces lieux distans et opposites
selonc dyametre.
T . E t donques de ces choses les mouvemens sont aucunement en choses
opposites et qui sont finies.
35 G . E t en especial, que mouvement droit ne puisse touzjours procéder
oultre sanz fin. Ce prove il apres par signe.5
T . E t que les choses pesantes et les legieres ne aient pas inclinacion a estre
meues touzjours sanz fin, l’en puet de ce prendre arguement par signe, car
la terre, quant elle descent, tant plus descent6 et elle est meue plus isnelle-
40 ment; et le feu, tant plus monte et il est meu plus isnelement. E t donques
se tel mouvement procedoit sanz fin, la vélocité ou isneleté seroit infinie.
G . Ceste consequance n’est pas simplement neccessaire, quar se une is­
neleté estoit en un jour intense ou forte ou grande comme .ii., et ou jour
ens<u)iant7 l’en adjoustast un et fust forte comme .iii., et l ’autre jour apres
45 l’en adjoustast la moytié de un, et l ’autre apres la moytié moins, et que ainsi
touzjours sanz fin l’adiccion fust selonc proporcionna- / (29d) leté sub­
double, jamais perpetuelment la vélocité ou isneleté ne vendroit a ce qu’elle
fust plus grande au double ; et puet apparoir par une ymagynacion presque
semblable mise en glose vers la fin du .ix.e chappitre. Mes se l’ysneleté
50 cressoit en précédant et seurmontant oultre toute proporcion, ce seroit
infiniement.
T . E t se l’isneleté estoit infinie, il convendroit que la pesanteur fust in­
finie, et ainsi de la legiereté, quar tant plus descent la chose pesante, tant
est l ’isneleté plus grande, et de tant est la pesanteur plus grande. E t e con-
55 verso, tant est la pesanteur plus grande8 et l ’isneleté est plus grande. E t don­
ques se l’addicion de la pesanteur est infinie, l’addicion de l’isneleté sera
infinie.
G . E t e converso, et il fu dit ou .xi.e chappitre que pesanteur infinie ne
5 B apres sanz fin. 6 F omits tant plus descent.
Book I, C h a p te r 18 , fols, | 143
up is the opposite o f the place that is down, so that these places mark the limits and
extremes o f such motions.
G . Consequently, these motions cannot proceed infinitely without end or limit.
Next he rejects a doubt, for it would seem from what he has said that all motion is
between opposed limits or contraries, and in Chapter E igh t [see fol. i4d] he had
said that circular motion definitely has no contrary.
T . Circular motion has an opposite in a sense, along the line o f the diameter, but
as a whole the motion has no opposite.
G . I f the heavens were moved in toto from one place to another these tw o places
would have to be distant and opposite each other; but the heavens as a whole are
moved not from their place, but // (29c) in their place. Therefore, its motion has no
contrary. However, some o f its parts are moved or transferred from one place to
another, as from east to west, and these places are distant and opposite to each oth­
er along the diameter.
T . In a sense, therefore, these motions are comparable to that o f things m oving
between opposites, which are finite.
G . Particularly since rectilinear motion cannot always proceed outward end­
lessly. N ext he proves this by an observation.
T . That heavy and light bodies have no tendency to be m oved eternally and
endlessly can be shown by an observation; for, when the earth falls downward,
the farther the fall the greater the velocity; likewise the higher fire ascends the
faster it moves. Thus, if such movements continued without end, the velocity or
speed would become infinite.
G . This consequence is not absolutely necessary. For i f a daily velocity was as
strong or intense as 2 and was increased by 1 to 3 the following day, and the next
day by half o f 1, and the next by half o f that, and were continually increased in this
way without ceasing, the addition per day would be in the proportion / (29d) o f
one-half or subdouble \ and, though maintained perpetually, the speed or velocity
would never be greater than double. This becomes clear in connection with a
nearly similar supposition placed in the gloss near the end o f Chapter Nine [see fol.
i9abcd]. But if the velocity increased at a rate outside or beyond this proportion,
then it would become infinitely great.
T . I f the velocity were infinite, the weight would have to be infinite also, and the
same for lightness; for the farther a heavy object descends the greater its speed and
the greater its weight. A n d the converse is also true : the heavier the weight the
greater the speed. Therefore, i f the increase in weight is infinite, the increase in
speed will be infinite.
G . Th e converse is also true, and in Chapter Eleven [see fol. 2oab] it was stated
7 A ensiant. pesanteur plus grande.
8 B C D E F omit E t e converso, tant est la
 1 44 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
puet estre. Mais yci est a noter premièrement que l’isneleté du mouvement
60 de la chose pesante ne crest pas touzjours en descendant, quar se le moien
par quoy il est fait estoit plus espés ou plus fort a diviser en bas que en
haut, ce pourroit estre tellement que il seroit plus tardif en la fin que au
commencement, et tellement que l ’isneleté seroit touzjours egualle. Item,
de ce que il dit que la // (30a) pesanteur est plus grande de tant comme l’is-
65 neleté est plus grande, ce n’est pas a entendre de pesanteur a prendre la
pour qualité naturelle qui encline en bas. Quar se une pierre d’une livre
descendoit d ’une lieue de haut et que le mouvement fust grandement plus
isnel en la fin que au commencement, nientmoins la pierre n’avroit plus de
pesanteur naturelle pour ce une foys que autre. Mais l’en doit entendre
70 par ceste pesanteur qui crest en descendant une qualité accidentele laquelle
est cause<e>9 par renforcement10 de l ’acressement < d e)u l ’isneleté, si
comme j’ay autrefoys declarié ou .vii.e de P hi si que.11 E t ceste qualité puet
estre appellee impétuosité. E t n’est pas proprement pesanteur, quar se un
pertuis estoit de ci jusques au centre de la terre et encor oultre, et une chose
75 pesante descendoit par ce pertuis ou treu, quant elle vendroit ou centre,
elle passeroit oultre et monteroit par ceste qualité accidentelle et aquise
et puis redescendroit et yroit et vendroit plusseurs foys en la maniéré
que nous voions d’une chose pesante qui pent a un tref par une longue
corde. E t donques n’est ce pas proprement pesanteur puisqu’elle fet monter
80 en haut. E t telle qua- / (30b) lité est en tout mouvement et naturel et violent
toute foys que l’isneleté va en cressant, fors ou mouvement du ciel. E t telle
qualité*13 est cause du mouvement14 des choses jetees quant elles sont hors
de la main ou de l’instrument, si comme je < ay)IS monstré autrefoys sus le
.vii.e de Phisique. 16
19. O u .xix.e chappitre il repreuve les oppinions contraires
a ce que dit est ou chappitre precedent.
T . Mais encore ne puet l’en dire que des elemens un soit meu en haut
et l’autre en bas par aucune autre chose dehors.
G . Quant une chose pesante est engendree hors de son lieu naturel, ce
9 A cause. which he touches upon without naming in
10 B omits par renforcement. Questio 9, Bk. V II, fol. 78d, lines 40-45 :
11 v4 et. “ conceditur quod grave non velocitaret mo-
12 This is the first o f five references in D u tum suum; dicendum quod vero quia non
d e l to Oresme’s Questiones super septem libros continue cum equale potentia. Vero quando
Physicorum, his recently discovered (1962) velocitatur in fine, tunc licet gravitas celere
“ commentary” on Aristotle’s Physics. Here non augeatur, tamen ibi est additio virtutis mo­
Oresme is referring to the “ impetus theory” tive aut propter impetum acquisitum aut propter
Book I, Chapter 18, fols. 3oa-3ob | 14j
that weight cannot be infinite. But here we should note, first o f all, that the veloci­
ty o f the heavy body does not always continue to increase as it descends, for, i f the
medium through which the body moves were more dense or more resistant at the
lower than at the higher level, this could produce the effect o f reducing the speed
at the end o f the movement to a lower velocity than at the beginning, even to the
point at which the speed would be uniform throughout. When he says that the //
(30a) weight increases in proportion to the speed, this is not to be understood to
mean the natural weight which tends downward. For i f a stone weighing one
pound fell from the height o f one league and the motion were very much faster at
the end than at the beginning, nevertheless, the stone would not have greater na­
tural weight at one time than at another. B y this kind o f weight, which increases
as the object falls, we are to understand an accidental property which is caused by
the increase in speed, as I have explained earlier in my Questions on the seventh
book o f the Physics. A n d this property or quality may be called impetuosity, and it
is not properly called weight or heaviness. For i f an opening were made from here
to the center o f the earth and beyond and a heavy object fell through this opening
or hole, upon reaching the center it would pass beyond and begin to go upward by
reason o f this accidental and acquired property ; then it would fall back again and
come and g o several times just as we can observe in the case o f a heavy object
hanging from a beam by a long cord. Therefore, since this property causes a
heavy body to m ove upward, it is definitely not the same as weight or heaviness.
A nd such a property /(30b) is present in all motion, both natural and violent, when­
ever the speed is increased, save only in the motion o f the heavens. This particular
property is the cause o f the movement o f objects thrown from the hand or an
instrument, as I showed earlier in explaining the seventh book o f the Physics.
19. In Chapter Nineteen he refutes the opinions contrary
to that which is stated in the preceding chapter.
T . Moreover, it cannot be said that one o f the elements is moved upward and
the other downward by some external agent.
G . When a heavy body is created or generated outside its natural place, the
aerem in sequentem coadjuvantem motum.” Grundprobleme, pp. 243—49, where the discus-
13 D quantité. E quaitite. sion o f impetus in Oresme s Questiones super
I+ B C D E F omit du mouvement. de celo is compared to the treatment o f the
15 A B C F omit ay. problem in D u d e l.
16 See fn. 15 above; cf. A . Maier, Zwei
 B o o k I, C h a p te r 19 , fo ls . 3 o c -3 o d | 14J
146 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde

qui l’engendre H donne, partie apres autre, forme substancielle et pesan- cause o f its generation provides one part after the other with substantial form,

5 teur et lieu. E t selonc ce, dit l’en que ce qui l’engendre la meut; mais quant weight, and natural place. And, accordingly, we say that it is moved by that which

elle est toute formée et elle est hors de son lieu, elle se meut de soy meisme creates it. But when it is completely formed and is outside its proper place, it moves
o f its own accord by its weight. A n d the cause which frees it from all that held it
par sa pesanteur. E t la chose qui oste tout ce qui la tenoit hors son lieu la
meut par accident, et semblablement de la chose legiere. outside its natural place moves it b y accident, and the same holds for light objects.
T . One cannot say that such a body is thus m oved by force, as some have said,
T . E t ne puet l’en dire que telle chose soit ainsi meue par violence, si
10 comme aucuns disoient que ce estoit par trusion ou deboutement. by extrusion or by casting out.
G . There were some who said that the heavens cast out heavy bodies and cause
G . Il disoient que le ciel débouté les choses pesantes et les fait assembler
them to gather together in the // (30c) center and that the heavens cause the light
ou U (30c) milieu, et les legieres monter en haut par la force de son mouve­
bodies to rise up by the strength o f their motion and by violence. Aristotle rejects
ment et par violence. E t ce reprouve Aristote par .iii. raysons.
T . Quar se ainsi estoit, le feu qui est plus grant seroit meu en haut plus this theory for three reasons.
T . I f this were so, a larger fire would move upward more slowly than a smaller,
15 tardivement que le petit, et aussi de la terre en bas. E t le contraire est touz-
and the same would apply to the earth, which would m ove downward faster in
jours, quar le plus grant feu est meu plus isnellement a son lieu, et aussi
de la terre. smaller rather than in larger quantities. A nd the contrary always happens, for the
larger fire moves faster to its proper place, and likewise with the earth.
G . E t une chose meue par violence, tant est plus grande1 et elle est plus
G . Th e larger an object m oved by constraint, the more difficult it is to m ove and
forte a mouvoir et est meue plus tardivement, se les autres choses sont pa-
it moves more slowly, other things being equal. A n d this reason counters the opi­
20 reilles. E t ceste rayson est contre l’opinion de ceulz qui disoient que le
nion o f those who said that the center moves and attracts heavy things toward it­
centre meut et atrait a soy les choses pesantes, aussi comme l’aÿmant atrait
self, just as the magnet attracts iron. But the center is nothing but an imaginary
le fer. Mais le centre n’est rien fors un point ymaginé, qui ne diroit que ou
point, unless we consider that the center is a material thing possessing within itself
centre est aucune chose materielle qui a en soy telle vertu actractive. E t
this power o f attraction. I f this is so, it would attract more easily and more rapidly
donques atrairoit elle plus legierement et plus isnelement la petite terre que
the smaller rather than the larger quantity o f earth. But we can observe that the
25 la plus grande. E t nous voions sensiblement que la plus grande descent
plus isnellement. larger body falls the faster.
T . A heavy body would not be moved faster at the end o f a movement than at
T . Item, une chose pesante ne seroit pas meue plus isnellement en la fin
the beginning if it were moved by force or extrusion, for / (3od) all objects moved
du mouvement que au commencement se elle estoit meue par violence
violently m ove more slowly the farther they are from the mover.
et par trusion, quar / (3od) toutes choses meues par violence sont meues
G . That is, toward the end o f the movement, for near the beginning their speed
30 plus tardivement quant elles sont plus loing.
increases, like that o f a dart or vireton while it is moved by force and while there is
G . C ’est a savoir vers la fin du mouvement, quar vers le commencement
a certain distance in which the speed is highest ; and at this part o f the movement
leur isnelleté va en cressant, si comme d’un dart ou d’un vireton, tant com­
there would be the strongest force. Afterwards the speed diminishes. I f someone
me il est meu par violence, et est une distance certaine ou l’isnelleté est la
objects to what is said here, that the iron is m oved toward the magnet by violence
plus grande,2 et yleuques seroit le plus fort coup. E t apres l’isneleté va en
and that it nevertheless moves faster at the end o f the movement when it is closer
35 appetisant. E t se aucun obiçoit3 contre ce que dit est, quar le fer est meu
to the magnet, I reply that the situations are not parallel ; for the power o f the mag­
vers l’aÿmant par violence et toutevoies, il est meu plus isnellement en la
net is greater and exercises a greater attraction near the magnet than farther away
fin du mouvement quant il approche de l’aÿmant, je respon que les choses
from it, and for this reason it attracts the iron faster when near than when farther
autres ne sont pas parelles, quar la vertu de l’aymant est plus grande et
oeuvre plus fort près de l’aÿmant que loing, et pour ce, elle attrait le fer away.
40 plus tost de près que de loing. T . N o body is moved by violence toward a place whence it would be moved by

T . Item, nul corps n’est meu par violence au lieu dont il seroit osté par violence.
violence.

1 E omits grande. 3 A obeiçoit.

2 B certaine en l’isnelté la plus grande.
 148 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . E t la terre est ostee de bas et meue en haut par violence, et donques
est elle meue au contraire et en bas par sa nature.
20. Ou .xx.e chappitre il monstre encor par .ii. raysons que
il ne puet estre que .i. seul monde.
T . Encor puet l’en monstrer que il n’est que .i. seul // (31a) monde par
raysons prinses de la premiere philosophie, c’est a savoir de methaphisique,
et prinses du mouvement qui est en circuite; c ’est le mouvement du ciel
lequel est pardurable par neccessité en ce monde et seroit semblablement
5 aus autres mondes se il estoient.
G . Il appert par le .viii.e de Phtisique12 et ou .xii.e de Methaphisique2 que
touz mouvemens sont réduis a un qui est perpétuel et premier, et est le
premier mouvement du ciel, et que ce qui le fait est chose inmaterielle et
esperituelle de laquelle tout depent et est cause premiere. E t dit Ave<r>-
10 roÿs3 que ce est impossible que en une espesce soient .ii. ou plusseurs telles
choses inmaterielles et que une telle chose ne puet faire fors un seul m ouve­
ment. E t donques, se un autre monde estoit, il convendroit que le premier
mouvement de ce monde fust fait par une autre intelligence et d ’autre espesce
que celle qui fait le premier mouvement de cest monde. E t ainsi il conven-
i5 droit que ces .ii. mondes fussent de diverses especes. E t ce fu reprouvé
ou .xvi.e chappitre. C ’est en <s)entence4 la rayson d ’Aristote selonc Ave<r>-
roïs.5 Mais que ceste rayson ne conclude pas je le monstre par les dis meismes
d’Ave<r>roïs,/ (31b) quar il dist plusseurs foys apres, ou secont livre ex­
pressément6, que la lune et les autres pianettes et estoilles sont d ’une meisme
20 espesce, et non pas seullement d’un gerre si comme cuidoit Avicenne.7
E t les intelligences qui les mouvent sont plusseurs selonc Aver<r>roïs8
et appert ou .xii.e de Methaphisique .9 E t donques convient il dire par necces­
sité selonc A ve< r)roïs10 ou que ces intelligences inmaterielles sont plusseurs
en une espesce differentes en nombre, ou que plusseurs intelligences de
25 diverses espesces meuvent pluseurs corps qui sont d’une espesce. E t pour
ce, selonc la vérité, il est possible que d’une espesce esperituelle et inmate­
rielle soient plusseurs supposts, si comme sont plusseurs âmes humaines
et plusseurs angelz. E t est possible que plusseurs corps premiers et pluseurs
1 Physicorum, V III.6, passim, especially 259b 4 A centense.
32— 260a 1; also 8.261b 27-28. s A C Avenroïs. Cf. Juntas, t.c. 90.
2 Metaphysicorum, Lambda, 7. 1072a 21-26; 6 A C Avenroïs. Cf. Juntas, II, t.c. 41, 42,
8. 1073a 22-34. and especially, t.c. 49, 59.
3 A Avenroÿs. C Avenroïz. Cf. Juntas, t.c. 7 See Avicennae metaphysica (Venice, 1308),
90. fol. 104V, and Die Metaphysik Avicennas ent-
B o o k I, C h a p te r 20, fo ls. 3 i a ~ 3 i b ] 149
G . A n d the earth is raised from below and m oved upward by violence; there­
fore, it moves in the opposite direction downward b y its own nature.
20. In Chapter T w en ty he shows again b y tw o reasons that
there can be only one world.
T . Again, it can be demonstrated that there is but one //(31a) world from rea­
sons supplied by the primary philosophy, metaphysics, and b y the analysis o f cir­
cular or heavenly motion. Th e movement o f the heavens is o f necessity eternal for
our world and would be the same for other worlds if these existed.
G . From Book E igh t o f Physics and Book Tw elve o f Metaphysics, it appears that
all motions are reduced to one which is perpetual and primary, and this primary
motion is the movement o f the heavens ; what causes it is something immaterial
and spiritual upon which all else depends, and it is the first cause. Averroes says
that it is impossible that there should be tw o or more such immaterial things in one
form and, further, that such a thing can have but one movement. Thus, if another
such world existed, it would require that the primary motion o f this world be
operated by another intelligence and another form than the one which performs
the primary movement o f our world. Consequently, these two worlds would have
to have different forms. A n d this idea was disproved in Chapter Sixteen [see fols.
26c-27d], According to Averroes, this was in brief the reason intended b y Aristot­
le. But that this reason is not conclusive I will show from the very statements o f
Averroes. / (31b) For he says several times after this passage, expressly in B o o k
T w o , that the moon and the other planets and stars are formally the same, not
merely o f the same genus, as Avicenna thought. And, according to Averroes, the
intelligences that m ove these planets and stars must be many in number, and so it
appears in B ook Tw elve o f Metaphysics. Following Averroes, then, we must say
either that these immaterial intelligences are formally identical but plural in num­
ber or that several intelligences o f various forms m ove several bodies which are
formally identical. Therefore, in truth it is possible that there may be several sub­
stantial bodies o f one spiritual and immaterial form, just as there are many human
souls and many angels. It is also possible that several primary bodies [elements]
8 A Avenroïs. C Avenroïz.
haltend die Metaphysik, Théologie, Kosmologie und
9 Aristotelis Metaphysicorum libri X I I I I cum
Ethik, tr. and exp. by M. Horten (Halle, 1907),
Averrois commentariis, Juntas, vol. 8 (1574), t.c.
IX .6, p. 595. See also Averrois Corduhensis
opera, Sermo de substantia orbis, Juntas, vol. 8 42, 43 -
10 A Avenroïs. C Avenroïz.
( T574), ch. 7, especially 14F.
IJO Le Livre du ciel et du monde
mouvemens premiers soient en plusseurs mondes, et que les choses qui
30 meuvent ces premiers corps soient d’une espesce ou de plusseurs nonob­
stant que les corps ou mondes soient d’une espesce, et que tous ces mondes
et ceulz qui les meuvent soient souz un souverain créateur qui est commen­
cement et fin de toutes choses. E t Aristote ne A v e (r ) r o ïs " ne monstre-
rent onques evidenment le contraire, si comme il // (31c) appert et sera de-
35 clairié encore apres plus a plain. Apres il met la seconde rayson.
T . Item, que de neccessité soit un seul monde il appert a ceulz qui enten­
dent a ce qui s’ensuit, car comme .iii. elemens corporelz soient, il convient
que ces elemens12 aient .iii. Hex, c’est a savoir .i. qui est dessouz et qui est
vers le mifieu, et l’autre qui est du corps meu circulairement qui est sus
40 tout le derrenier, et le tiers est moien entre ces .ii. et est le lieu du corps moien
entre ces .ii.
G . Par un de ces .iii. elemens il entent toute la masse des choses pesantes
qui a son Heu vers le centre ou au centre du monde ; et par l’autre il entent
le ciel, qui est element pour ce que c ’est une des principals et la premiere
45 partie corporelle du monde ; et par le tiers il entent les choses legieres dont
le Heu est moien entre le ciel et les choses pesantes. Apres il forme sa rayson.
T . E t est neccessaire que toute chose qui monte ou tent en haut soit
en ce Heu, quar se non, il convendroit que aucune teUe chose fust dehors.
Mais c’est imposible que chose legiere soit par dessus cest Heu et hors du
50 monde, quar ce qui est pesant est au plus bas et ne puet estre / (3 id) Heu plus
bas que le -(centre)13 et le miHeu la ou est la chose pesante. E t donques
ne puet estre Heu qui soit naturel a chose legiere plus haut qu’est le Heu moi­
en dessus dit et qui est souz le ciel. E t l’en ne puet dire que chose legiere
soit en l ’autre monde hors nature, quar il convendroit que cel Heu fust
55 naturel a aucun autre corps.
G . Il veult dire que aussi comme nuHe chose pesante ne puet estre plus
bas qu’est le centre qui est le Heu de la terre, semblablement nulle chose
legiere ne puet estre plus haut que est la concavité du ciel laquelle est le
Heu du feu. Mais ceste rayson ne conclude pas, quar se Dieu faisoit un autre
60 monde, tel monde ne le feu de tel monde’ ne seroit plus haut ne plus bas
que cestuy monde, si comme il sera declairé apres.
T . E t nous dirons apres de cest eHement moien queües sont les differences
de luy.
G . Ce sera ou tiers Hvre et ou quart ou il dira comment l’element legier
65 est divisé en air et en feu, etc.14
T . E t ainsi par les choses devant dites nous appert des elemens corporelz
quelz il sont et en quel nombre, et de chascun quel est son Heu, et univer-
selment ou generalment de leurs Heux quans il sont. //
11 Ibid. 13 A lieu.
12 B C D E F ces .iii. elemens. 14 III.9 .i7od -i72b; IV.7. iç jb - ^ ô b .
B o o k I , C h a p te r 20, fo ls. 3 i c ~ 3 i d | ij i
and several primary motions exist in several worlds and that the forces which
move these primary bodies are formally aHke or, perhaps, o f numerous forms, in
spite o f the fact that the bodies or worlds are uniform in species and that all these
worlds and those forces which move them are under a sovereign Creator who is the
beginning and the end o f all things. Neither Aristotle nor Averroes has ever shown
the contrary to be true, as will be // (31c) clearly stated more fully hereinafter [see
Book II, Ch. 16, fols. i2o b-i22c]. Next, he states his second reason.
T . That there is necessarily only one world will appear to those who follow closely
the ensuing argument. Since there are three corporeal elements, there must be three
places for these elements : first, one which is underneath and near the center ; an­
other to accommodate the body which moves in a circle situated above the other
two and is the outermost, and the third which is between these two and accommo­
dates the body between the other two.
G . B y one o f these three elements he means the whole multitude o f heavy things
whose place is near or at the center o f the w orld; and by the other he means the
heavens, which are an element and one o f the principal elements and the primary
corporeal part o f the world; and by the third element he refers to those light ob­
jects whose place is halfway between the heavens and the heavy objects. N o w , he
formulates his argument.
T . And, o f necessity, all things which rise up or tend upward must be in this
middle region; otherwise, it would follow that something was outside our world.
But it is impossible that a light object should rise above this place and outside the
sublunar world; for heavy things are at the bottom and there can be / (3id) no
place lower than the center and middle where heavy things naturally are. Therefore,
there can be no natural place for Hght objects above the middle region just men­
tioned, which is immediately beneath the heavens. N or can we say that the Hght
object is in the other world unnaturaHy; for it must be that this is the natural place
o f some other body.
G . He means that just as no heavy thing can be lower than the center o f the
world which is the place o f the earth, in the same way no Hght thing can rise higher
than the concave arch o f the heavens which is the region o f fire. But this reason is
not convincing since, if G o d were to make another world, this other world and its
fire would be neither higher nor lower than our world, as wiü be explained herein­
after.
T . W e shall speak later o f this middle or intermediate element, stating its charac­
teristics.
G . This will be in the third and fourth books where he will explain how the Hght
element is divided into air and fire, etc.
T . Thus, from what we have said above, we can comprehend the nature o f the
corporeal elements, what their number is, what the natural place o f each is, and,
in general, how many places there are. //
 i j2 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
(32a) 21. O u .xxi.e chappitre il propose une rayson par laquelle
aucuns cuidoient que plusseurs mondes peussent estre.1
T . E t nous disons non pas seullement que il n’est que <un>2 seul monde,
mais disons que c’est impossible que plusseurs mondes soient. E t encor
dirons nous que ce monde est incorruptible et que il ne fu onques engendré
ne fait. E t premièrement nous traiterons une dobte que l’en fait de luy.
5 G . C ’est la doubte et la rayson que faisoie<n)t3 aucuns anciens pour la­
quelle il met une suppousicion.
T . Quar il sembleroit a ceulz qui entendroient a la rayson qui s’ensuit
et la creroient que c’est impossible que un seul monde soit ou que plusseurs
ne puissent estre. Quar en toutes choses qui sont par nature et en celles qui
10 sont par art et en celles qui sont engendrees et faites de nouvel, la fourme de
elles est autre, considérée selonc elle et selonc ce qu’elle est mixte ou con­
jointe a la matière, si comme de espere, autre chose e<s)t4 dire l’espece et
autre chose est dire espere d’or ou de arein. E t aussi de cercle, autre chose5
est considérer la fourme et autre chose est considérer cercle de arein ou de
i5 fust, quar quant nous disons / (32b) “ Q u o y est espere?” ou “ Q u o y est
cercle?” nous ne disons pas en sa diffinicion que espere ou cercle est d’or
ou d’arain, aussi comme se or et arain ne fussent pas de la substance d’es-
pere ou de cercle. E t c ’est vérité, pousé que la chose fust telle que nous ne
peussons entendre ne prendre la forme ou l’espece sanz le singulier suppost
20 et sanz la matière, quar ce puet bien6 estre.
G . Si comme l’en ne puet entendre honme sanz char et os ne charnus
sanz neis, mais l’en entent et ymagine bien cercle ou telles choses mathe-
mathiques sanz matière entendre.
T . Sy comme qui diroit cercle, autre chose est considérer en universel
25 et autre en particulier ou en singulier en disant “ Cestuy cercle,” quar un
est considérer l’espece absoluement et l’autre est considérer l’espesce en
matière et en singulier.
G . Briefment, combien que honme en universel ne soit autre chose fors
cestuy et cestuy, toutevoies la consideracion et l’intencion ou conceve-
30 ment de l’entendement est autre de honme en espece et <de>7 cestuy ou de
cestuy, quar le premier est general et commun a plusseurs et ne représente
plus un que l’autre, mais le secont est propre a cestuy ou a cel autre. Apres
il aplique a propos.//
(32c) T . E t donques, puisque le monde est chose sensible, c’est une chose
35 singulière, quar toute chose8 singulière est en matière et, par 'consequant,
singulière. E t se il est chose singulière, donques dire monde simplement
1 Guthrie, ch. 9. 4 A et.
omits un. 5 D E aussi de telle autre chose,
faisoiet. 6 E ce ne peut bien estre.
Book I, Chapter 21, fols. 322-320 !J 3
(32a) 21. In Chapter Twenty-one he advances a reason why some
have thought that there could be several worlds.
T . N o t only do we say that there is only one single world, but we say also that it
is impossible for other worlds to exist. A n d we say, further, that our world cannot
be impaired nor diminished in physical substance and that it was not generated nor
created. First o f all, we shall discuss a problem in this connection.
G . This is the problem and the argument that several ancient thinkers proposed,
for which he suggests a hypothesis.
T . T o those who accept and believe the follow ing reason, it would appear im­
possible that only one world exists and that other worlds cannot be. For in all natur­
al formations and all products o f art and all created things and new growths o f all
kinds, there is a distinction to be made between the form o f the object or thing con­
ceived [abstractly] as a shape and the thing conceived [concretely] as a combination
o f form and matter. For example: there is a difference between the [abstract] form
o f a sphere and a sphere o f gold or bronze material. In the same way there is a dif­
ference when we consider the form o f a circle or when we consider a bronze or
wooden circle. For, when we say, / (32b) “ What is a sphere?” or “ What is a circle?”
we do not give as our definition that a sphere or circle is golden or bronze, just as
though gold and bronze did not belong to the substance o f the sphere or circle.
And this is true, provided the thing is such that its form or species cannot be con­
ceived apart from the concrete or material individual object. This often happens.
G . Just as we cannot imagine a man without flesh and bones nor a pu g nose
without a nose ; but we can easily apperceive or imagine a circle or such mathema­
tical objects without the help o f material adjuncts.
T . A s when one says a circle, it depends whether we im ply a universal, a parti­
cular, or a singular meaning, as “ this circle;” for one use o f circle considers the
form absolutely, and the other considers the form mingled with material and as a
single object.
G . Briefly, although man in the universal sense is nothing more than this or that
man, nevertheless, the consideration and intention or understanding o f the term
are different when we speak o f man formally or as this or that individual and par­
ticular man; for, in the first case, the term is general and common to many, not
referring more to one than to another, but the second use is proper to the indivi­
dual and particular man. N ext he draws his conclusion.//
(32c) T . Therefore, since the world is perceptible, it must be a particular thing,
for all perceptible particular things are material things, and, consequently, all par­
ticulars are material. A n d if the world is a particular thing, then when we say
7 A omits de. chose.
8 B repeats une cho se singulière, quar toute
1J4 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
et universelment est une chose, et dire ce monde singulièrement est autre
chose, quar une est comme espece et forme et l’autre est comme chose mixte
et mise en matière.
40 G . Quar monde, c’est un nom universel, et ce monde, c’est un non singu­
lier. Apres il fourme la ray son des anciens.
T . E t de toutes choses dont l’en puet considérer, aucune forme selonc
elle et aucune espece de telle chose sont de fait plusseurs supposts singuliers
ou pueent estre. E t pousé que l’espesce soit une chose separee ou une ydee,
45 si comme aucuns dient, ou pousé qu’il ne soit nulle telle chose separee, nient-
moins il est neccessaire que il soit ainsi comme dit est, quar nous voions
en toutes choses qui ont substance ou forme en matière sensible que plus­
seurs supposts et innombrables sont en une meisme espece.
G . Si comme il est des honmes et des bestes et des arbres, etc.
50 T . E t donques, ou plusseurs mondes sont ou il est possible que il soient
pluseurs. E t par ce que dit est / (3 2d) cuideroit aucun que plusseurs mondes
soient ou puissent estre.
22. Ou .xxii.e chappitre il met solucion a la rayson dessus
dicte en confermant son propos.
T . O r convient derechief considérer des choses devant dictes ce qui
est bien dit, et ce qui est non bien dit,1 quar dire que la rayson de la forme2
qui est considérée sanz matière est autre que n’est celle qui est considérée
en matière— ce est bien dit et est vérité.
5 G . Quar, comme dit est, le concevement3 universel, comme seroit dire
soleil ou monde, est commun et indifferent a plusseurs supposts qui sont
ou qui pourroient estre. Mais le con<cev)m ent4 particulier, comme dire
ce solleil ou ce monde, est propre et ne pourroit represanter autre solleil,
pousé que il fust, ne autre monde.
10 T . Mais nientmoins, il n’est pas pour ce neccessaire que plusseurs mondes
soient ou puissent estre se ce monde est de toute la matière de quoy5 l’en
porroit faire mondes ; et il est ainsi.
G . E t ce declaire il apres par exemples.
T . E t, par aventure, ce que dit est sera fait plus manifeste en ceste maniéré :
i5 quar se camuseté est courveté6 en neis ou en char, et char est la matière de
camuseté, se de toutes les chars qui sont et qui pueent estre, estoit // (33a)
1 B C D E F omit et ce qui est non bien dit. 4 A B F commencement.
2 B C D E F omit de la forme. 5 A matière que de quoy.
3 B F commencement. 6 B commueté. C corvereté. D E F courté.
B o o k I , C h a p te r s 2 1 - 2 2 , fo ls . $2<i-33a | ///
world simply and universally, it has one meaning ; and when we speak o f this world
particularly, it has quite another meaning ; for one refers to form and kind, and the
other means the world as compounded or composed o f matter.
G . For the world means the universal concept, but this world is a particular, the
name o f a material body. Next, he formulates the argument o f the earlier philoso­
phers.
T . O f all things that can be conceived, the form and shape o f each consist o f a
number o f particulars, or can be such. N o w , even if the shape is separable from
the object or is merely an idea, as some would say, what we have said— that there
can be no such separated thing— must nevertheless be true, for we can see in all
things which have substance or form in perceptible matter that there are many
individual, even innumerable, examples o f particular specimina.
G . For example, o f men and animals and trees, etc.
T . Therefore, either several worlds do exist or it is possible that they can exist.
And from what has been said above / (3 2d) one might actually think that the exist­
ence o f several worlds is a possibility.
22. In Chapter Twenty-two he finds an answer to the argument
above, thus confirming his opinion.
T . N o w we must turn again to consider what is true and what is false in the
above statements ; for there is truth in the argument which distinguishes between
two conceptions o f form— form without matter being different from form consid­
ered joined with matter. This distinction is well taken and is indeed truth.
G . For, as we have said, the universal concept, for example, sun or world, is
equally applicable to several basic concepts which exist or could exist; but the
particular concept, this sun or this world, is properly unique and could represent
neither another sun— if there were such— nor anothei world.
T . Nonetheless, it is not, therefore, necessary that several worlds should or
could exist, if this world contains all the material substance from which worlds can
be made. A n d this is actually the fact.
G . This he explains with examples.
T . Perhaps what has been said can be made clearer in this way: if a pug nose re­
presents a curving o f the nose or o f the flesh, if flesh is the substance or matter pro­
per to the pug nose, and if it were a fact that from all the flesh which is or could
exist there was // (33a) made one mass o f flesh and it was a pug-nosed thing or ob-
 ip6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
faite une char et elle fust une chose camuse, nulle autre chose camuse ne
seroit ou pourroit estre. Semblablement se char <et>? os sont la matière
de honme, et se de toute la char et de touz les os8 qui sont et qui pueent
20 estre, estoit fait un honme lequel ne puet estre dissolut ou courrompu,
pour certain nul autre honme ne pourroit estre. E t semblablement en autres
choses, quar generalment de toutes choses dont la substance ou forme est en
matière subjecte, rien ne puet estre fet qui n’a aucune matière.
G . Quar c’est impossible naturelment de fere aucune chose de nient.
25 E t selonc Aristote, la multiplicacion des supposts en une espece est selonc
la multitude des porcions de la matière dont sont telz supposts.9 Apres
il applique a propos.10
T . O r est le monde une chose singulière et de celles qui sont en ma­
tières.
30 G . Pousé que le ciel n’ait pas matière— a prendre matière proprement
ou telle comme est la matière des elemens— toutesvoies a prendre matière
largement, les parties intégrales du monde sont matière de luy comme sont
le ciel, les elemens et les choses mixtes.
T . E t se ainsi est, comme si est, que ce monde n’est pas d ’une partie de
35 la matière de quoy / (33 b) monde puet estre, mais est de tote, c ’est bien
vérité que autre chose est considérer ou dire monde et dire ce monde.
Mais pour ce ne convient il pas que un autre monde soit ne que plusseurs
mondes puissent estre. E t la cause est pour ce que toute la matière de quoy
monde puet estre est comprinse en cestuy. O r demeure donques a monstrer
40 que cest monde est composé de tout corps naturel et sensible.
23. Ou .xxiii.e chappitre il monstre que hors ce monde ne puet
estre corps sensible quelconque, et ce avoit il
supposé ou chappitre precedent.
T . N ous dirons premièrement en quantes maniérés ciel est dit afin que ce
que nous querons soit plus manifeste.
G . Aristote met ycy une distinction qui avoit lieu en language grec,
mais elle n’a pas du tout lieu en latin ne en françoys, quar les Grecs appe-
loient tout le monde et le ciel par un nom et nous n’appelons pas le monde
ciel.
T . Quar en une maniéré ou signification nous disons que le ciel est la
ou. 9 Metaphysicorum, V .6 .io i6 b 32; X .9.1058a
omits sont de la matière de honme, et 37; X II.8.1074a 34.
se de toute la char et de touz les os. 10 B omits Apres il applique a propos.
B o o k I , C h a p te r 22, fo l. 3 3 b | 1/7
ject, then there neither would nor could be any other pug-nosed object. Likewise,
if flesh and bone constitute the material substance o f a man and i f from all the flesh
and all the bones in existence or potentially in existence we make a man who cannot
be reduced to his original components or destroyed, then certainly no other man
could exist. A n d similarly with other things ; for, in general, with all things basical­
ly composed o f matter or form, nothing can be done which does not involve mat­
ter.
G . For it is naturally impossible to make something from nothing. A n d Aristot­
le maintains that the multiplication o f typical individuals according to the same
shape or form depends upon the multitude o f parts o f the mass o f which they are
the derivatives. N ext he applies these examples to his arguments.
T . N o w , the world belongs in the class o f particulars— o f those composed o f
matter.
G . Assuming the heavens to be immaterial— in the sense that they are not o f the
same matter as the elements— and taking matter in its general sense, the integral
parts o f the world constitute its matter, as, for example, the heavens, the elements,
and the compound elements.
T . Since it is a fact that this world is not a portion o f the matter from which /
(3 3b) a world can be made but is indeed the whole sum o f such matter, it is very
true that we must distinguish between world and this world. But this is not to ad­
mit that there can be another or several other worlds. A n d the reason is that all the
matter from which a world could be made is contained in this world. N o w it re­
mains for us to demonstrate that this world is composed o f the sum total o f natural
and perceptible bodies.
23. In Chapter Twenty-three he shows that no living body can
exist outside o f this world, and this he had
assumed in the preceding chapter.
T . A t the outset, we shall enumerate the different meanings o f d e l [the heavens]
so that what we want to show may be clearer.
G . Here Aristotle discusses the distinction between meanings o f the word [où-
pavoç] in Greek, but such meanings do not exist in Latin or in French. For the
Greeks called the whole world and the heavens by the same name, but we do not
call the world the heavens.
T . For in one meaning we say that the heavens are the substance or the outer
 i j 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
substance ou circonférence derreniere de tout ce qui est meu circulaire­
ment, ou le corps naturel qui est en la circonférence de tout,
io G . Le ciel en ceste signification, c’est le derrenier ciel qui est suz tous //
(33c) les autres, ou la circonférence de ce ciel qui contient tout.
T . Quar nous avons acoustumé a appeller ciel le derrenier corps qui est
en haut sus tout autre et ouquel nous disons estre toute chose devine com­
me en son lieu. Item, en autre maniéré nous appelions ciel toute la masse
i5 qui est meue circulairement et contenue en la desreniere circonférence.
E t ainsi nous disons estre ou ciel le solleil et la lune et les autres estoilles.
Item, encor appelions nous ciel tout le corps contenu en la derreniere
circonférence, quar nous avons acoustumé a appeller ciel toute la masse de
touz les corps qui sont.
20 G . C ’est tout le monde qu’il appelloient en grec par tel nom comme le
ciel. Apres il descent a propos.
T . E t donques comme ciel soit dit en .iii. maniérés, a prendre le en la
tierce maniéré pour tout ce qui est contenu en la desreniere et souveraine
circonférence, c ’est le monde. Je di que il convient par neccessité que il
25 soit compousé de tout corps naturel et sensible pour ce que hors ce monde
n’est et ne puet estre quelconque corps, quar se hors celle derreniere cir­
conférence estoit aucun corps naturel, il convendroit par neccessité que
tel corps / (33 d) fust simple ou compost, et que il fust la dehors selonc
nature ou hors nature. Or, ne puet ce estre un des corps simples quelconques,
30 quar le corps simple qui est meu circulairement ne puet muer son lieu, si
comme autrefoys est monstré.
G . C ’est a savoir ou sixte de P hisique,1 quar le ciel est meu en son lieu
et non pas de son lieu. E t se un autre ciel estoit hors de ce monde, son lieu
seroit naturel au ciel de ce monde aussi bien comme a l’autre ciel, quar les
35 .ii. seroient d’une espece et d’une nature, si comme il appert par le .xvi.e
chappitre. E t donques le ciel de ce monde seroit enclin a estre meu vers l’au­
tre ciel et a issir de son lieu contre ce que dit est.
T . Mais des autres corps simples, c ’est a savoir des ellemens, il n’est pas
possible que quelconque ellement qui est meu en haut ne quelconque
40 qui est meu en bas vers le milieu soit hors de ce monde, ne quelconque
chose semblable, quar telz corps ne seroient pas la dehors selonc nature
pour ce qu’il ont autres lieus propres a leur nature. E t se telz corps estoient
yleuques hors nature et par violence, il2 convendroit que ce lieu, qui est
hors ce monde, fust selonc nature ou naturel a un autre corps, quar, par
45 neccessité, // (34a) il convient que le lieu qui est hors nature ou violent
a un corps soit selonc nature ou naturel a .i. autre corps. E t il n’est quel­
conque corps simple fors les dessus dis, c ’est a savoir le ciel et les elemens,
si comme il est dit devant.
1 Physicorum, V I.9 .240a 29— 240b 9. 2 D E violence, se il convendroit.
B o o k I, Chapter 23, fo ls. 3 3 C -3 4 a U9
circumference o f all that is moved circularly or the natural body which is at the
outermost circumference o f the whole world.
G . In this meaning, it is the farthest heavens which are above all // (33 c) the rest
or the circumference o f this outer heaven which contains everything.
T . For it is customary to use heavens to mean the uppermost region above all
others in which we say that all divine things have their proper place. In another
sense, we call heavens the whole mass which moves with circular motion and is
contained within the outermost circumference. In this sense, we say that the sun,
the moon, and the other stars are in the heavens. [In a third sense], we apply this
word heavens to the entire body contained within the outer circumference, for we
commonly call the entire mass o f all existing bodies, the heavens.
G . That is, the whole world, called by the name in Greek equivalent to heavens.
Next, he returns to his argument.
T . Thus, since heavens is used in three meanings, if we take it in the third sense
to mean everything contained within the outermost and sovereign circumference,
it is equivalent to the world. I say that the heavens must be composed o f the sum
total o f perceptible natural bodies, for outside this world there is not nor can be
any other body whatsoever; if there were any natural body beyond this outermost
circumference, it must needs be either /(33 d) simple or mixed, and it must be out­
side either naturally or unnaturally. N o w , it cannot be any one o f the simple bodies,
for the simple body with circular motion cannot change its place, as we have already
shown.
G . That is, in the sixth book o f Physics. For the heavens move in their natural
place and not away from it. I f another heaven existed outside this world, its natur­
al place would be the same as the heaven o f our world, for the two heavens would
be o f the same form and the same nature, as was said in Chapter Sixteen [see fols.
26c-27b], Thus, the heavens o f our world would tend to move toward the heavens
o f the other world and to m ove out o f their natural place, contrary to what he has
stated to be possible.
T . It is not possible that any one o f the simple bodies, the elements, which is
moved upward or downward toward the center, should be outside this world, nor
any other similar body whatsoever ; for such bodies would not be outside naturally
since there are other places proper to their nature. A n d if such bodies existed there
contrary to their nature and by constraint, then it would be necessary that the place
itself, being outside this world, belong by nature to another body ; for, necessarily,
II (34a) a place unnatural or violent to one body must be natural to another body.
N ow , there are no simple bodies whatsoever except those we have listed above,
that is to say, the heavens and the elements, as has been stated before.
i6o | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . O u secont et ou .xvi.e et en plusseurs autres chappitres.
5o T . E t donques n’est il pas possible que aucun des corps symples soit
dehors ce monde. E t se nul corps symple n’y est, nul corps mixte n’y est,
quar il est neccessaire que les3 corps simples y soient se le corps mixte y est.
G . Quar se les <corps>4*simples sont ou mixte en propre forme, il sont
la ou est le mixte; et se il ne sont ou mixte en propre nature, toutevoies
55 le mixte et le simple qui a domination ou mixte tendent naturelment a un
lieu, si comme il appert par le tiers chappitre. E t donques hors le ciel ou
hors le monde n ’est de present ou de fait corps naturel quelconque.
T . Mais encor ne puet l’en dire que corps < y )s puisse estre, quar se il
estoit possible, ou il seroit la selonc nature ou hors nature et par violence,
60 et convendroit que il fust ou symple ou mixte. E t revendroit derechief
la rayson dessus mise, quar il ne différé en rien se corps y est de present ou
/ (34b) se il est possible que il y soit fait.
G . Quant a la rayson dessus mise et aus autres, par lesquelles l’en puet
conclure non pas seullement que nul corps n’est hors le ciel défait, mais que
65 c’est impossible.
T . O r appert donques par les choses devant dictes, que hors le ciel n’est
et6 ne puet estre corps pour ce que tout ce monde est de toute sa matière
et qui li est propre, quar la matière de luy est corps naturel et sensible comme
dit est. E t donques maintenant ne sont pas plusseurs mondes et onques ne
70 furent et ne pourroient estre plusseurs, mes un seullement, et est ce monde
qui est un seul et est parfait.
24. Ou .xxiiii.e chappitre il monstre que hors ce monde n’est
chose qui appartiengne a corps se<n>sible.1
T . Aveques ce puet apparoir que hors le ciel ou hors ce monde n’est
lieu ne vieu ne temps, quar en tout lieu puet estre corps. E t ceulz qui dient
que vieu puet estre, dient que vieu est la ou n’est quelconque corps. E t
est possible que aucun corps y soit.
G . E t hors le ciel ne peut2 estre corps, si comme il appert par le chappitre
precedent. E t donques hors le ciel n’est lieu ne plain ne vieu.
T . E t temps // (34c) est nombre et mesure de mouvement.
3 B C D E F que se les corps. 6 B omits n’est et.
4 A omits corps. 1 A semsible.
3 A B C D F il. 2 A peeut.
B o o k I , C h a p te r 23, fo ls . 3 4 ^ 3 4 0 | 161
G . Mentioned in the second, the sixteenth, and several other chapters [see fols.
6d, 26a].
T . Therefore, it is impossible that any one o f the simple bodies should exist
outside this world. A n d if there is no simple body out there, neither can there be
any composite body; for simple bodies must be there if the mixed bodies are there.
G . Because, i f the simple bodies exist in their own form in mixed bodies, they
are found wherever there is a mixed body; and i f not in composite bodies in their
proper nature, nevertheless the mixed body and the simple body which predomi­
nates in it tend naturally to one place, as indicated in Chapter Three [see fol. 8a].
Accordingly, there is not actually nor in fact any natural body whatsoever beyond
the heavens or outside our world.
T . Another reason w hy it is impossible to say that a body can be outside our
world is this : that if it were possible, it would be so either naturally or contrary to
nature and by constraint, and it would have to be either a simple or a composite
body. T h e same reason as that above would contradict this, for it makes no dif­
ference whether a body is there at present or / (34b) whethei one could be made
there in the future.
G . From the reason above and the other reasons given, we may conclude not
only that there is in fact no body beyond the heavens, but that this would be im­
possible.
T . Therefore, it is now clear from what has been said that beyond the heavens
there is not nor can there be any body, because our world is composed o f all the
existent matter which properly belongs to it; for this matter is a natural and per­
ceptible body, as we have stated. Therefore, there are not several worlds at present,
nor were there such in the past, nor will there be in the future; for this our world is
unique, solitary, and complete.
24. In Chapter Twenty-four he shows there is nothing outside this
world that pertains to a living body.
T . In addition, it is clear that beyond the heavens or beyond our world there
exists neither place, nor void, nor time, for in every place there can be a body. A n d
those who say there can be a void say that a void is where there is no body whatso­
ever. A n d it is possible that a body could be there.
G . Outside the heavens there can be no body, as stated in the preceding chapter
[see fol. 34a]. Consequently, outside the heavens there is no place, no plenum, and
no void.
T . Tim e // (34c) is the number and measure o f motion.
1 62 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Book I, Chpater 24, fols. 34d~35a | 163
G . Sy comme il appert ou quart de Phisique.3
G . As stated in the fourth book o f Physics.
T . E t mouvement n’est pas sanz corps naturel, et il est monstré devant
T . There can be no motion without a natural body, and we have already shown
io que hors le ciel n’est et ne puet estre quelconque corps. E t donques appert
that there is and can be absolutely no body and, therefore, no place, no void, and
il que hors le ciel n’est lieu ne vieu ne temps. E t pour ce, les choses qui
no time outside the heavens. For this reason, the things outside the heavens are not
sont yleuques ne sont pas habiles a estre en lieu, ne temps ne les fait enviel-
capable o f being in a place and time does not age them, for there can be no change
lir, quar nulle transmutacion ne puet estre de quelconque des choses qui
in any o f the things which are beyond that which is m oved in an orderly manner.
sont sus ce qui est meu ordeneement.
G . That is, beyond the outermost circumference o f the heavens, which have reg­
is G . C ’est a savoir sus le ciel derrenier lequel est meu reguüerement. E t
ular motion. In saying “ the things which are above the heavens,” Aristotle refers
par les choses qui sont lasus le ciel, Aristote entent les intelligences et
to the intelligences and principally to the first o f these, that is to say, to G od. This
principalment <la premiere),4 c ’est a savoir Dieu. E t c ’est selonc l’Escrip-
corresponds to the scriptural passage: For with Him there is no change.
ture qui dit : Q uod apud eum non est transmutacio.5
T . But these things are changeless and impassive and enjoy the good life, being
T . Mais <c)es6 choses sont sanz alteracion et impassibles et ont vie
self-sufficient and complete in themselves, and this life for them endures forever.
so très bonne, et par soy très sufisante et parfaite, et l’ont en tôt le temps
This word pardurable [everlasting, sempiternal] was first uttered by our forefathers
pardurable. Quar cest nom pardurable fu par les anciens enoncié et appro­
and attributed by them to the D eity or to things divine, because the limit which
prié a la divinité ou aus choses divines pour ce que la fin qui contient le
circumscribes the life span o f anything— that time which in nature cannot be ex­
temps de la vie de quelconque chose, duquel temps rien de ceste chose
ceeded— they called / (34d) everlasting, the eternity or the eon o f the thing. A c ­
n’est hors selonc nature, il l’ap- / (34d) pelloient le pardurable ou l ’eternité7
cordingly, the limit o f the whole world and o f all time and its completion in infin­
25 ou siecle de celle chose. E t selonc ceste rayson, la fin de tout le monde et
ity constitutes the eon [pardurableté\, and it takes this name or is thus expressed
tout le temps et la perfection qui contient infinité est pardurableté, et
because it is a thing everlasting and divine [asl zivoa].
prent sa d<en)ominacion8 ou est ainsi dicte de ce qu’il est chose inmortelle
G . This is G od, as appears from what follows. In order to understand what is
et divine.
said here, we should know that the ancients used to call the age o f a living thing
G . C ’est Dieu, si comme il appert par ce qui s’ensuit. E t pour entendre
its perpetuity or its life span.
30 ce que dit est, l’en doit savoir que les anciens appelloient l’aage d’une chose
But, more specifically, duration without beginning or end is properly called per­
vive sa perpétuité ou son siecle. Mais, par excellence, la duracion qui est
petuity, and we shall explain siecle [life span] later [see Book II, Ch. 1, fol. 65b].
sanz commencement et sanz fin est proprement dicte perpétuité, et de siecle
Generally speaking, with regard to the duration o f things, one kind o f duration is
sera dit apres. Item, des duracions des choses, a parler generalment, aucune
successive or one part after another, concerning things which are actually in the
est succe<ss)ive9 et partie apres autre et des choses qui de fait sont en trans-
process o f change, and this kind o f duration is called time. Another type o f dura­
35 mutacion, et ceste est appellee temps. Autre est successive de choses trans-
tion is successive with respect to things capable o f motion which are not actually
muables et qui de fait ne sont pas en transmutacion, si comme pueent estre
undergoing change, for example, certain incorporeal creatures. This kind o f dura­
aucunes creatures incorporelles. E t ceste duracion n’a pas nom aproprié
tion has no special name, but in Latin may be called aevum. Th e third type o f du­
fors que en latin puet estre dicte evum. La tierce est non pas successive
ration is not successive, but refers to the continuity o f everything together and to
mais toute ensemble, et de choses qui ne pueent estre transmuées et est
things which cannot be altered; it is called eternity. The first type can be such that it
40 appellee éternité. E t la premiere puet estre telle qu’elle a fin et commence­
has a beginning and an end like the age o f a man, and it can be imagined // (3 5a) to
ment, si comme est l’aage d’un honme, et puet estre yma- // (35 a) ginee
be without commencement but not without end, or to be without end but with
telle que elle seroit sanz commencement et non pas sanz fin, ou telle qu’elle
beginning. This is indeed perpetuity, and such is the duration o f the soul. O r du­
est sanz fin et non pas sanz commencement. E t c ’est perpétuité et telle
ration can be o f such nature that it has no beginning and no end, and such is the
est la duracion d’une ame. O u duracion puet estre telle qu’elle seroit sanz
duration o f the movement o f the heavens, according to Aristotle. One can also
45 commencement et sanz fin, et telle est la duracion du mouvement du ciel
imagine in the second type o f duration all these same differences. A n d o f necessity,
selonc Aristote.10 Item, l’en puet ymaginer en la seconde maniéré de du-
3 Physicorum, IV. 1 1.219b 1-2; 12, passim, 5 Cf. Jac. 1 :1 7 — Descendens a Pâtre lumi-
7 B D E F la trinité. 10 De caelo, 11.4.287a 24; De generation et
especially 221b 7. num, apud quem non est transmutatio.
8 A dominacion. corruption, II.11.338a 18.
4 A omits la premiere. 6 A ses.
9 A C succeive. D E surceive.
 164 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
racion totes ces differences. E t la tierce est par neccessité sanz commence­
ment et sanz fin et sanz quelconque succession, mais est toute ensemble
et est la duracion de D ieu si comme dit l’Escripture: Dominus excelsus
50 et sublimis habitans eternitatem.11 E t est Dieu meisme duquel dit l’Escrip-
ture: Q uod apud eum non est vicias si )tudinis12 obumbracio.13 E t est sanz
preterit et sanz futur, toute de present: Quia nec preteritorum momenta
deficiunt nec14 ulla super15 est expectacio futurorum,16 et est appellee mo­
ment de éternité. Mais pour ce que nostre pensee ne puet estre sanz trans-
55 mutacion, nous ne povons comprendre ne proprement entendre ou yma-
giner ceste chose, et nientmoins rayson naturelle nous enseingne que telle
chose est, et elle contient / (35 b) toute autre duracion possible et est cause
de tout. E t pour ce dit Aristote apres :
T . E t de ce est as autres choses communiqué et dirivé estre et vivre, as
60 unes plus clerement et as autres plus obscurément.
G. Sy comme estre et vivre est communiqué et donné de Dieu aus hon-
mes plus clerement et plus parfaitement que aus bestes. Apres il desclaire
une chose qu’il avoit dicte devant.
T . Quar si comme il est mainte foys déclaré par raysons es livres des
65 choses divines, ce qui est divin et premier et souverain est intransmuable
par neccessité et ne peut estre transmué. E t ce que il est en ceste maniéré
donne testimonie aus choses devant dictes.
G. Apres il conferme son dit par .ii. raysons.
T . Quar se telle chose estoit transmuée ou meue, celle qui la mouvroit
70 seroit meilleur et plus devine. E t rien n’est meilleur de la chose dessus dicte.
G. Quar c’est Dieu le souverain.
T . Item, il n’a en soy rien de mal ne defaut1 de quelconque bien.
G. E t ce qui est meu <est m e u )18 pour acquérir miex ou pour la conser­
vation de son bien. E t Dieu ne puet miex avoir et n’a mestier d’estre meu
75 pour guarder son bien.
T . E t donques s’ensuit il par rayson que il moeve // (3 5c) le ciel par mou­
vement qui onques ne cesse, quar toutes choses qui sont meues et cessent
de leur mouvement et repousent, c’est quant elles sont venues en leur propre
lieu.
80 G. Par mouvement naturel et du lieu qui ne leur estoit pas naturel.
T . E t du cors qui est meu circulairem<en)t,1° le lieu est un meisme et
dont il commence et la ou il fine.20
G. Quant a parler proprement, il n’a fin ne commencement fors par sig-
nacion voluntaire, si comme nous disons que il commence en orie<n)t21
11 Cf. Isai. 57:15— Quia haec dicit Excelsus, mutatio, nec vicissitudinis obumbratio.
et Sublimis habitans eternitatem. 14 D ne.
12 A C D E F vicitudinis. 15 D E omit super.
13 Cf. Jac. 1 :1 7 — Apud quem non est trans- 16 Unidentified.
B o o k I, C h a p te r 24, fo ls . 3513—350 j 16 j
the third type is without beginning or end and without succession, but is at once
complete as a whole ; and this is the duration o f G od, as the Scripture states : G o d
the exalted and sublime, that inhabiteth eternity. And the Scripture speaks thus o f
G o d Himself: For with Him there is no shadow o f mutability. G o d is without
past or future, completely in the present: Because neither any moment o f past
time is lost nor any anticipation o f the future. A n d this is called the moment o f
eternitv. But because our thought cannot last without changing, we cannot
properly understand nor grasp or imagine this concept; nevertheless, our natural
reason teaches us that such a thing does exist and that it contains / (35 b) all
other duration possible and is the cause o f all. Thus Aristotle says next:
T . From this there is communicated and derived existence and life, to some more
clearly and to others more obscurely.
G . For example, existence and life are communicated and given by G o d to men
more clearly and completely than to animals. N ext he explains something he had
said before.
T For, as it is declared by sound argument many times in books dealing with
divine matters, that which is divine, primary, and sovereign is intransmutable by
necessity and cannot be altered. This fact bears witness to what has been said here
already.
G . N o w he confirms his statement with two arguments.
T . For, if such a thing were transmutable or moved, that which moved it would
be better and more divine. A n d nothing is better than that which we have stated
above.
G . For that is the sovereign God.
T . He has in Him nothing evil nor any lack o f any good thing whatsoever.
G . What is m oved is moved in order to acquire something better or for the
preservation o f its own goodness. A n d G o d cannot have anything better, nor does
H e need to be moved in order to preserve His goodness.
T . Therefore, it follows logically that He moves // (35 c) the heavens by a cease­
less motion, for all things which can move and stop m oving and remain at rest do
so when they have reached their natural place.
G . B y natural motion and from the place which was not proper to them.
T . The place o f the body which moves circularly is the same where it begins as
where it ends.
G . Properly speaking, the heavens have neither beginning nor end save by ar­
bitrary signs, as when we say that it begins in the east o f our horizon and ends there
17 A de faute. 20 B et donques il commence la ou il fine.
18 A omits est meu. 21 A oriet.
19 A circulairemt.
 i6 6 Le Livre du ciel et du monde B o o k I, C h a p te r 24, fo ls . 3 5d —36 b | i6 y

85 de nostre ozizon et ileuques fine et recommence, et ainsy touzjours sanz

and begins again each day endlessly, as already said. Thus, this movement is per­
cesser, comme dit est. E t donques ce mouvement est perpétuel quant est
petual with respect to the body being moved, but it can quite well stop at the will
de la rayson du corps meu, mais il peut bien cesser par la voulenté du pre­
o f the prime mover, although this will is immutable.
mier mouvant, nonobstant que celle voulenté soit inmuable.
N o w we have finished the chapters in which Aristotle undertook to prove that a
O r sont finés les chapitres ou Aristote entendoit prouver que c ’est im-
plurality o f worlds is impossible, and it is good to consider the truth o f this matter
90 possible que plus d’un monde soit. E t est bon de considérer selonc vérité
without considering the authority o f any human but only that o f pure reason. I say
ce que l’en puet dire en ceste matière sanz regarder a auctorité de honme,
that, for the present, it seems to me that one can / (3 5d) imagine the existence o f
mais seullement a pure rayson. Je di que, quant a present, il me semble
several worlds in three ways. O ne way is that one world would follow another in
que l’en puet y- / (3 5d) maginer plusseurs mondes estre en .iii. maniérés.
succession o f time, as certain ancient thinkers held that this world had a beginning
Une est que un monde soit apres un autre par succession de temps, si
because previous to this all was a confused mass without order, form, or shape.
95 comme aucuns anciens cuiderent que ce monde eust commencement parce
Thereafter, b y love or concord, this mass was disentangled, formed, and ordered,
que tout estoit devant en une masse confuse sanz ordre, sanz forme et sanz
and thus was the world created. A n d finally after a long time this world will be
figure. E t apres ce, par amour ou par concorde, ceste masse fu desmelee
destroyed by discord and will return to the same confused mass, and again, through
et formée et ordenee, et ainsi fu fait ce monde. E t apres un grant temps,
concord, another world will then be made. Such a process will take place in the
finablement ce monde sera deffait par discorde et retournera en telle masse
future an infinite number o f times, and it has been thus in the past. But this opinion
100 confuse, et derechief apres par concorde sera fait un autre monde. E t tel
is not touched upon here and was reproved by Aristotle in several places in his
procès sera ou temps avenir sanz fin par foys innombrables, et semblable­
philosophical works. It cannot happen in this way naturally, although G o d could
ment a esté ou temps passé. Mais ceste opinion n’est pas yci touchiee et est ré­
do it and could have done it in the past by His own omnipotence, or He could an­
prouvée par Aristote en plusseurs lieus de philosophie,22 et ne puet ainsi
nihilate this world and create another thereafter. And, according to St. Jerome,
estre naturelment, combien que D ieu pourroit faire, et peust avoir fait
Origen used to say that G o d will do this innumerable times. //
105 tellement de sa toute-puissance ou du tout anichiler ce monde et apres creer
(36a) Another speculation can be offered which I should like to toy with as a
un autre. E t Origenes disoit, si comme re<c)ite23 saint Jerome,24 que ainsi
mental exercise. This is the assumption that at one and the same time one world is
fera Dieu par foys innombrables. //
inside another so that inside and beneath the circumference o f this world there was
(36a) Une autre ymaginacion puet estre laquelle je weul traitier par es-
another world similar but smaller. A lthough this is not in fact the case, nor is it at
batement et pour exercitacion de engin, c’est a savoir que en un meisme
all likely, nevertheless, it seems to me that it would not be possible to establish the
110 temps un monde fut dedens un autre monde,[si comme se dedens et dessouz25
contrary by logical argument; for the strongest arguments against it would, it
cest monde estoit contenu un autre monde semblable et mendre. E t com­
seems to me, be the follow ing or similar ones. First, i f there were another world
bien que ce ne soit pas voir ne vraysemblable, toutevoies il me semble qu’il
inside our world, it would follow that our earth is where it is by constraint, because
n’appert pas evidenment par rayson que ce soit impossible, quar les plus
inside this earth and beneath its circumference toward its center would be another
fortes raysons au contraire, si comme il me semble, seroient cestes ou sem-
heaven and other elements, etc. Also, the earth o f the second world would be ab­
n5 blables. Premièrement se ainsi estoit, il s’ensuiroit que la terre de ce monde
solutely massive and at the center o f both worlds ; and the earth o f our world
fu la ou elle est par violence, puisque dedens elle et souz elle vers le centre
would be empty and concave and neither the whole earth nor any part o f it would
seroit un autre ciel et autres ellemens, etc. Item, la terre du monde desouz
be at the center. Thus, since their natural places are different, it follows from what
seroit toute masseice et ou centre des mondes, et la terre de cestuy seroit
is said in Chapter Seventeen [see fol. 28a] that these two worlds are o f different form
creuse et concave et ne seroit pas ou centre ne toute ne partie de elle.
so that the world beneath us and this our world would be dissimilar, etc. Also,
120 E t donques, puisque leurs liex sont differens, il s’ensuit par ce qui fu dit
all natural bodies /(36b) are limited in bigness and smallness, for the size o f a man
ou .xvii.e26 chappitre que ces .ii. terres different en espece. E t donques, le
could diminish or grow so much that he would no longer be a man, and the same
monde dessouz nous et cesti seroient des semblables, etc. Item, toutes choses
naturel- / (36b) les sont determinees en grandeur et en petitesce, quar la
quantité d’un honme pourroit tant appeticier ou tant crestre que ce ne seroit
24 SanctiEusebii Hieronymi epistulae, C X X IV , 25 D E dessus,
22 e.g. Plato, Timaeus, 30A ff. ; and for 12— 280b 1. ad Avitum, ed. Isidorus Hilberg (Vienna, 26 D .xvi.e
Empedocles, etc., cf. De caelo, 1.10.279b 23 A résisté. 1918), pp. 101, 107. F Gereoesme.
 1 68 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
125 pas honme, et ainsi des autres choses. E t donques le monde qui seroit faint
estre en cestuy et souz cestuy seroit si très petit que ce ne seroit pas monde,
quar le solleil de cestuy seroit plus de .ii.m foys plus grant que le solleil
de celuy, et chascune estoille de cestuy plus grande que tout celuy. Item,
se ainsi estoit, l’en pourroit fouir en terre si en parfont que l’ en vendroit
130 ou ataindroit jusques a l’autre monde qui seroit la desouz. E t c ’est une
absurdité inopinable. Item, il convendroit mettre .ii. diex, un en ce monde
et autre en l’autre, etc. Item, par semblable pourroit l’en dire que dedens
la lune ou autre estoille est un monde tel comme cestuy, etc. Item, par sem­
blable pourroit estre un autre monde sus cestuy et un autre souz28 celuy
i35 qui est souz cestuy, etc. Pour monstrer que ces raysons et semblables ne
concluent pas que telle chose soit simplement impossible, je supouse pre­
mièrement que tout corps est divisible en partie<s ) 28 touzjours divisibles
sanz fin; et ce // (36c) appert par le premier chappitre. Item, que grant
et p e tit sont nons relatis di<s>2° en comparoyson et non pas absoluement,
140 quar chascune chose, tant soit petite, est grande ou regart de la .m.e partie
de elle, et quelconque chose, tant soit grande, seroit petite au regart d’une
plus grande; ne la grande n’a pas plus de parties qu’a la petite, quar de
chascun corps les parties sont infinies en multitude.30 Item, par ce s’ensuit
que se le monde estoit fait entre cy et demain plus grant ou plus petit .C.
145 foys ou .M. foys que il n’est maintenant, et toutes ses parties estoient
creues ou apeticiees proporcionnelment, toutes choses apparoistroient
demain tout aussi comme maintenant aussi comme se rien ne fust mué.
Item, se <en>31 une pierre qui est en une carrière estoit un petit pertuis
ou une concavité plaine de ayr, il ne convient pas pour ce dire que celle
i5o pierre soit hors de son lieu naturel. E t par semblable, se ou centre de la
terre estoit une concavité plaine d’air du grant d’une pomme, il ne s’en-
suiroit pas pour ce que la terre fust hors de son lieu naturel, ne qu’elle
fust la ou elle est par violence. Item, se telle concavité estoit un pou plus
grande et apres plus grande / Q6d) et ainsi tant que elle fust bien grande,
155 l’en ne pourroit signer terme en ceste cressance ou l’en peust dire que la
terre fust myse hors de son lieu naturel, meismement car grant et petit
sont nomz relatis, si comme dit est. E t donques a ce que la terre soit en
son lieu naturel, il souffist que le centre de sa pesanteur soit le centre du
monde— quelconque concavité soit dedens elle fors que elle se tienne ferme-
160 m <en)t32 ensemble. E t par ce appert la response au premier arguement,
quar se un monde estoit enclos en une concavité dedens la terre de cestuy
monde, nientmoins ceste terre seroit en son lieu naturel, puisque le mylieu
du monde seroit le milieu et le centre de sa pesanteur. E t jouste ce, je dis
oultre que selonc l’Escripture, yaue est sus le ciel ou sus le firmament:
165 unde33 in psalmo: Qui extendis celum, etc. Q ui tegis aquis superiora eius;34
27 D E foiz. 28 A partie.
Book I, Chapter 24, fols. 36c-36d | 169
with all bodies. So, the world we have imagined inside our own world and beneath
its circumference would be so small that it would not be a world at all, for our sun
would be more than 2,000 times the size o f the other and each o f our stars would
be larger than this imaginary world. T o pursue our thought, one could dig in the
ground deep enough to reach the earth o f the other world beneath ours. This is an
untenable absurdity. Also, we should have to posit two Gods, one for each world,
etc. Likewise, we might assume another world like our own to exist in the moon or
some other star, etc. O r we could imagine another world above and another be­
neath the one which is under our world, etc. T o show that these and similar specu­
lations do not preclude the possibility o f such a thing, I will posit, first o f all, that
every body is divisible into parts themselves endlessly divisible, as // (36c) ap­
pears in Chapter One [see fols. 3C-4a] ; and I point out that large and sm all are
relative, and not absolute, terms used in comparisons. For each body, however
small, is large with respect to the thousandth part o f itself, and any body whatso­
ever, however large, would be small with respect to a larger body. N o r does the
larger body have more parts than the smaller, for the parts o f each are infinite in
number. Also from this it follows that, were the world to be made between now
and tomorrow 100 or 1,000 times larger or smaller than it is at present, all its parts
being enlarged or diminished proportionally, everything would appear tomorrow
exactly as now, just as though nothing had been changed. And, if a stone in a quar­
ry had a small opening in it or a concavity full o f air, it is not necessary to say that
this stone is outside its natural place. Likewise, if there were a concavity the size
o f an apple full o f air at the earth’s center, it would not follow that the earth was
out o f its natural place nor that it was there by violence. Also, if such concavity
were to become a bit larger and then still larger / Q6d) until it became very large,
we could not place a limit upon this growth at which point one could say the earth
would be out o f its natural place, precisely because large and small are relative
terms, as we have already said. Therefore, for the earth to be in its natural place, it
is enough that the center o f its weight should be the center o f the world, regardless
o f the concavity inside the earth, provided that it be held firmly together. A n d this
is the answer to the first argument; for, if a world were enclosed within a concavity
inside our earth, nevertheless our earth would be in its natural place since the cen­
ter o f the world would be the middle or center o f its weight. A propos, I say fur­
ther that, according to Scripture, water is above the heavens or the firmament;
whence the psalm says : W ho stretchest out the heavens, etc., Who coverest these
29 A dit. 33 B un. F unus.
30 D E d’une plus grande ne pas plus de 34 Ps. 103:2-3— Amictus lumine sicut vesti-
parties en multitude. mento. Extendens caelum sicut pellem, qui
31 A omits en. tegis aquis superiora ejus.
32 A fermemt.
 ijo | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
et alibi, Bénédicité, aque que super celos sunt, Dom ino.35 E t se ceste yaue
n’estoit pesante <en substance combien que non de fait)36 ce ne seroit pas
yaue. E t pour ce dit l’en qu’elle est ferme et aussi comme congeliee ou
engelee et est appellee celum glaciale ou celum cristallinum. E t selonc ce
170 que dit est, cest ciel ou ceste yaue est en son lieu naturel non- // (37a) ob-
stant que touz les autres cielz et elemens soient enclos en la concavité de
cestuy; quar il est ferme, et le centre de sa pesanteur est le centre du monde.
A u secont arguement, je di que nonobstant que ceste terre fust creuse et
<con)cave,37 nientmoins elle seroit ou center du monde ou des mondes
175 comme en son propre lieu, a prendre lieu selonc le secont membre de la dis-
<ti)ncion38 qui fu mise ou ,xvii.e chappitre39 en la response d’un arguement.
E t par ce appert que ceste terre et la terre de l’autre monde qui seroit souz
cestuy seroient en un meisme lieu. A u tiers, ou fu dit que les choses natu­
relles sont determinees en quantité, je di que elles sont en ce monde deter-
180 minee<s>40 a une quantité ou a aucuns termes, et en un autre monde elles
seroient determinees a autres ; quar grant et petit, comme dit est, sont nons
relatis et ne sont pas variacion ou difference en espesce. E t selonc ce nous
voions que honmes qui sont d ’une espesce sont plus grans en une region
et plus petis en autre. A u quart, ou il fu dit que l’en pourroit foïr si avant en
185 terre, etc., je di que nature ne pourroit souffrir, aussi comme l’en ne pour­
roit par nature approchier du ciel tant que / (37b) l’en y touchast. A u quint,
ou fu dit que .ii. diex seroient, il ne s’ensuit pas ; quar un seul dieu souverain
gouverneroit touz telz mondes, mais il pourroit44 estre que autres intelligen­
ces mouvroient les cielx d ’un monde et autres les cielz de l’autre. A u
190 sixte, ou fu dit que par semblable pourroit l’en dire que dedens la lune
est un monde, et au .vii.e, ou fu dit que pluseurs mondes sont dedens
cestuy et plusseurs dehors ou dessus qui le contiennent, etc., je di que le
contraire ne puet estre evidenment monstré ne par rayson ne par experience.
Mais aussi que telz mondes soient, il ne appert ne par rayson ne par ex-
195 perience ne autrem<en)t.42 E t donques l’en ne doit pas pour noient et
sanz cause adeviner ne mettre une chose estre qui appert aucunement, ne
soustenir un oppinion dont le contraire est vraysemblable, mais il est bon
d’avoir considéré se ce est impossible.
La tierce maniéré de mettre plusseurs mondes est que un soit du tout
200 hors de l’autre en une espasce43 ymaginee, si comme cuida Anaxagoras.
E t ceste seulle maniéré repreuve ycy Aristote et comme impossible. Mais
il me sem- // (37c) ble que ses raysons ne concludent pas evidanment, quar
la premiere et44 la plus principalle est que se plusseurs telz mondes estoient,
35 Cf. Dan. 3 :60— Bénédicité, aquae omnes 38 A discension.
quae super caelos sunt, Domino. 39 B .xxvi.
36 A omits en substance... de fait. 40 A determinee. B C D E F terminées.
37 A comme cave. 41 B il ne pourroit.
Book I, Chapter 24, fols. 37a—37c: I7 I
heavens with water. And, elsewhere: Bless the Lord, ye waters that are above the
heavens. A n d if this water were not heavy in substance if not in fact, then it would
not be water. For this reason it is said to be solid and as though frozen or solidified
and is called the glacial or the crystalline heavens. Accordingly, this heaven or this
water is in its natural place, // (37a) in spite o f the fact that all the other heavenly
spheres and elements are enclosed within the concavity o f this sphere, for it is solid
and the center o f its weight is the center o f the world. T o the second argument I
reply that, even if this earth were hollow and concave, nevertheless it would be in
the center o f the world or worlds, just as though this were its proper place, taking
place in the sense o f the second member o f the distinction made in reply to an argu­
ment in Chapter Seventeen [see fols. 28b-29a]. From this it appears that our earth
and the earth o f the other world within it would be in the same place. T o the third
argument, which stated that all natural bodies are limited in quantity, I say that in
this world they are limited to one quantity or size and that in another world they
would be fixed at other limits, for large and small, as we have said, are relative
terms which do not mean variation or difference in form. Accordingly, we see men
— all o f the same form— larger in one region and smaller in another. T o the fourth
argument, where it was stated that one could dig deep enough into the earth, etc.,
I answer that nature would not permit this, any more than one could naturally
approach the sky close enough / (37b) to touch it. T o the fifth argument, regarding
the possibility o f two Gods, it does not follow ; for one sovereign G o d would
govern all such worlds, but it is possible that additional intelligences would m ove
the heavenly bodies o f one world and other intelligences the heavens o f the other
world. T o the sixth argument, where it was said that by analogy one could say
there is another world inside the moon, and to the seventh, where it was posited
that there are several worlds within our own and several outside or beyond which
contain it, etc., I say that the contrary cannot be proved by reason nor by evidence
from experience, but also I submit that there is no proof from reason or experience
or otherwise that such worlds do exist. Therefore, we should not guess nor make
a statement that something is thus and so for no reason or cause whatsoever against
all appearances ; nor should we support an opinion whose contrary is probable ;
however, it is good to have considered whether such opinion is impossible.
The third manner o f speculating about the possibility o f several worlds is that
one world should be [conceived] entirely outside the other in space imagined to
exist, as Anaxagoras held. This solitary type o f other world is refuted here by
Aristotle as impossible. But it seems to me // (3 7c) that his arguments are not clear­
ly conclusive, for his first and principal argument states that, i f several worlds exis-
42 A autremt. 44 A est.
43 E espesce.
 172 Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 24, fols. | 173
il s’ensuiroit que la terre de l’autre monde fust encline a estre meue au
ted, it would follow that the earth in the other world w ould tend to be m oved to
205 centre de cesti et e converso, etc., sy comme il a desclairié diffusément ou
the center o f our world and conversely, etc., as he has loosely explained in Chap­
.xvi.e et ou .xvii.e chappitres. Pour monstrer que ceste consequance n’est
ters Sixteen and Seventeen [see fols. 28a-29b]. T o show that this consequence is
pas neccessaire, je di premièrement que combien que haut et bas soient dis
not necessary, I say in the first place that, although up and down are said with sever­
en plusseurs maniérés, si comme il sera dit ou secont livre, toutesvoies
al meanings, as will be stated in B ook II [see Ch. 4, fol. 70ab], with respect to the
quant au propos present, il sont dis en une maniéré ou reguart de nous,
present subject, however, they are used with regard to us, as when we say that
210 si comme nous disons que une moytié ou partie du ciel est haut sus nous
one-half or part o f the heavens is up above us and the other half is down beneath
et l’autre est bas sous nous. Mais autrement sont dis haut et bas ou regart
us. But up and down are used otherwise with respect to heavy and light objects, as
des choses pesantes et des legieres, si comme nous disons que <l)es45 pe­
when we say the heavy bodies tend downward and the light tend upward. There­
santes tendent en bas et les legieres en haut. Je dy donques que haut et bas
fore, I say that up and down in this second usage indicate nothing more than the
en ceste seconde maniéré ne sont autre chose fors l’ordenance naturelle
natural law concerning heavy and light bodies, which is that all the heavy bodies so
215 des choses pesantes et des legieres, laquelle est telle que toutes les pesantes,
far as possible are located in the middle o f the light bodies without setting up for
selonc ce qu’il est possible, so ie n t ou milieu des legieres sanz determiner
them / (37d) any other motionless or natural place. This can be understood from a
a elles au- / (37d) tre lieu inmob<i)le.46 E t ce puet l’en entendre par ce qui
later statement and from an explanation in the fourth chapter [see fol. ioab], where
sera dit apres et par une consideracion qui fu mise ou quart chappitre ou
it was shown how a portion o f air could rise up naturally from the center o f the
il fu monstré comment une porcion de air pourroit monter naturelment
earth to the heavens and could descend naturally from the heavens to the center o f
220 du centre jusques au ciel et descendre naturelment du ciel jusques au centre.47
the earth. Therefore, I say that a heavy body to which no light body is attached
Je dy donques que la ou seroit une chose pesante et que nulle legiere ne
would not m ove o f itself ; for in such a place as that in which this heavy body is
fust conjointe a elle ou a son tout, celle chose pesante ne se mouvroit,
resting, there would be neither up nor down because, in this case, the natural law
quar en tel lieu ne seroit ne haut ne bas pour ce que, tel cas estant, l’or­
stated above would not operate and, consequently, there would not be any up or
denance dessus dicte ne seroit pas, ne, par consequant, bas ne hautneseroi-
down in that place. This can be clarified by what Aristotle says in Book Four o f the
225 ent pas yleuques. Item, ce peut48 apparoir par ce que dit Aristote ou quart
Physics, namely, that in a void there is no difference o f place with respect to up or
de Phisique,49 c ’est assavoir, que en lieu qui seroit simplement v<i)euso
down. Therefore, Aristotle says that a body in a vacuum would not m ove o f itself.
ne a quelconque difference, c ’est a dire difference de lieu, si comme sont
In the eleventh chapter o f this first book [see fol. 19c] it appears, according to Aris­
haut et bas. E t pour ce dit Aristote que la chose qui seroit en vieu ne se
totle, that, since nothing is lower than the center o f the earth, nothing is or can be
mouvroit. Item, par le .xi.e chappitre de ce premier livre appert selonc Aris-
higher than the circumference or the concavity o f the lunar sphere, // (38a) the
230 tote que aussi comme rien n’est plus bas que le centre, semblablement
place proper to fire, as we have often said. Thus, taking up in the second sense
en ce monde rien n’est ne puet estre plus haut que la circonférence ou
above, beyond or outside o f this circumference or heaven there is no up nor down.
concavité de l’espere // (38a) de la lune la ou est le lieu du feu comme sou­
From this it follows clearly that, if G o d in His infinite power created a portion o f
vent est dit. E t donques a prendre haut en la seconde maniéré dessus mise,
earth and set it in the heavens where the stars are or beyond the heavens, this earth
oultre ou hors ceste circonférence ou ciel n’est haut ne bas. E t par ce, s’ensuit
would have no tendency whatsoever to be moved toward the center o f our world.
235 clerement que se Dieu par sa puissance creet une porcion de terre et la
So it appears that the consequence stated above by Aristotle is not necessary. I say,
mettoit ou ciel ou sont les estoilles ou hors le ciel, ceste terre n’avroit rather, that, if G o d created another world like our own, the earth and the other
quelconque inclinacion a estre meue vers le centre de ce monde. E t ainsi
elements o f this other world would be present there just as they are in our own
appert que la consequance d’Aristote devant recitee n’est pas neccessaire. world. But Aristotle confirms his conclusion by another argument in Chapter
Apres je di que se Dieu creet un autre monde semblable a cestuy,la terre
Seventeen [see fols. 28d-29a] and it is briefly this : all parts o f the earth tend toward
240 et les ellemens de cel autre monde seroient en luy si comme sont en cestui a single natural place, one in number; therefore, the earth o f the other world would
les ellemens de luy. Mais Aristote conferme sa consequance par une autre tend toward the center o f this world. I answer that this argument has little ap-
rayson ou .xvii.e chappitre, et est telle en sentence; quar toutes parties de
terre tendent a un seul lieu qui est un selonc nombre, et donques la terre
de l’autre monde tendroit au centre de cestui. Je respon que ceste rayson
47 B omits et descendre... au centre. 49 Pbysicorum, IV .8.2i5a 6-14.
45 A des. 46 s i b înmoble.
48 E ce ne puet. 50 A veu.
 iy 4 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
245 a peu d’apparance, considéré ce que dit est maintenant et ce qui fut dit
ou .xvii.e chappitre, quar vérité est qu’en ce monde une partie de terre ne
tent pas vers un centre et l’autre vers / (38b) un autre centre, mais toutes les
choses pesantes de ce monde tendent a estre conjointes en une masse telle­
ment que le centre de la pesanteur de celle masse soit ou centres 1 de cest
250 monde, et toutes sont un corps selonc nombre.52 E t pour ce ont elles un
lieu selonc nombre. E t se une partie de la terre de l’autre monde estoit
en cestuy, elle tendroit au centre de cesti e t 55 a estre conjointe a celle masse,
et e converso. Mais pour ce ne s’ensuit il pas que les parties de la terre ou
les choses pesantes de l’autre monde, se il estoit, tendissent au centre de
255 cestuy, quar en leur monde, elles feroient une masse qui seroit un corps
selonc nombre et qui avroit un lieu selonc nombre et seroit ordenee selonc
haut et bas en la maniéré dessus dicte, aussi comme est la masse des choses
pesantes en cestuy. E t5* seroient ces .ii. corps ou masses d ’une espece
et ces .ii. lieus d’une espece55 et ces .ii. mondes aussi. Item, Aristote touche
260 une autre ray son ou .xx.e chappitre de ce qui en Methaphisique est dit comment
il ne puet estre fors un dieu et par ce semble qu’il ne puet estre fors un mon­
de.56 Je respon que Dieu est infiny par son inmensité et se plusseurs //
(38c) mondes estoient, nul de eulz ne pourroit estre hors de luy ne hors de
sa puissance, mais bien pourroit estre que autres in<t>eligences57 seroient
265 en un monde et autres en l’autre, si comme il est dit devant. E t l’acomplisse-
ment de la response a ceste rayson appert plus a plein ou .xx.e chappitre.
Item, il fet une autre rayson ou .xxii.e et ou .xxiii.e chappitre laquelle en
briefment touchant le moien est telle : quar ce monde est composé de toute
la matière de quoy monde puet estre, ne hors ce monde ne puet estre corps
270 ou matière quelconque. E t donques est ce impossible que autre monde soit.
Je respons et di premièrement que <posé>58 que toute matière qui onques
fu et qui est de present fust comprinse en ce monde, toutesvoies selonc
vérité Dieu pourroit creer de noient nouvelle matière et faire un autre mon­
de. Mais ce ne octroiroit pas Aristote. E t pour ce, je dy secondement que
275 pousé que rien ne peust estre fait fors de matière precedente, nientmoins,
considérées les responses devant mises aus premieres raysons que Aristote
fait a ce propos et desquelles il répété la substance et se aide en ceste rayson,
il ne preuve / (3 8d) pas que un autre monde ou plusseurs hors cestuy ne
puissent estre et avoir esté perpetuelment, tout aussi comme il met ce monde
280 y cy durer sanz commencement et sanz fin. Item, il fait une autre rayson
ou .xxiiii.e chappitre,59 quar hors ce monde n’est lieu <ne>60 plein ne w it ne
temps, mes il le preuve parce que hors ce monde ne puet estre corps, si
comme il a monstré par les raysons dessus mises asquelles j’ay respondu,
51 D E omit de la pesanteur de celle masse 53 B C D E F omit au centre de cesti et.
soit ou centre. 54B C D E F des choses dessus dictes. Et.
52 A corps et selonc nombre. ss b omits et ces .ii. lieus d’une espesce.
Book I, Chapter 24, fols. 38b—38d | 77/
pearance o f truth, considering what is now said and what was said in Chapter Sev­
enteen [see fol. 28bcd]. For the truth is that in this world a part o f the earth does not
tend toward one center and another part toward / (38b) another center, but all
heavy bodies in this world tend to be united in one mass such that the center o f the
weight o f this mass is at the center o f this world, and all the parts constitute one
body, numerically speaking. Therefore, they have one single place. A n d if some
part o f the earth in the other world were in this world, it would tend toward the
center o f this world and become united with the mass, and conversely. But it does
not have to follow that the portions o f earth or o f the heavy bodies o f the other
world, if it existed, would tend to the center o f this world because in their world
they would form a single mass possessed o f a single place and would be arranged
in up and down order, as we have indicated, just like the mass o f heavy bodies in
this world. A n d these tw o bodies or masses would be o f one kind, their natural
places would be formally identical, and likewise the two worlds. In Chapter T w en ­
ty [see fol. 31b] Aristotle mentions another argument from what was said in the
Metaphysics— namely, that there cannot be more than one G o d and, therefore, it
seems there can be only one world. I reply that G o d is infinite in His immensity,
and, if several // (38c) worlds existed, no one o f them would be outside Him nor
outside His power; but surely other intelligences would exist in one world and
others in the other world, as already stated. A n d my reply to this argument is given
more fully in Chapter Twenty. He argues again in Chapters Tw enty-tw o and T w en­
ty-three [see fols. 32d—34b] o f which the purport is briefly this : this world is com­
posed o f all the matter available for the constitution o f a world, and outside this
world there can be no body or matter whatsoever. So it is impossible that another
world exists. In reply, I say in the fir si place, that, assuming that all the matter now
existing or that has ever existed is comprised in our world, nevertheless, in truth,
G od could create e x nihilo new matter and make another world. But Aristotle would
not admit this. Thus, I say, secondly, that, assuming that nothing could be made
save from matter already existing and considering the replies we have given to
Aristotle’s first arguments regarding this problem— arguments whose substance
he repeats and employs here in the present case— nonetheless he does not prove
/ (3 8d) that another or more than one world besides our own could not now exist
or may not always have existed, just as he states this world o f ours to exist without
beginning or end. He argues again in Chapter Twenty-four [see fol. 34bc] that out­
side this world there is no place or plenum, no void, and no time; but he proves
this statement by saying that outside this world there can be no body, as he has
shown by the reasoning above to which I have replied; so it is unnecessary to an-
56 Metaphysicorum, Lambda, 7 .1072a 21-26; 58 A pour ce.
8.1074a 31-38. 59 A .xxiiii.
57 A indeligences. 60 A omits ne.
 ij 6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
et donques ne convient il autre a ceste respondre. Mais ceste rayson pour-
285 roit estre confremee ou formée autrement, quar se .ii. mondes estoient
un hors de l’autre, il convendroit que entre les .ii. eust vieu pour ce qu’il
seroient de fïigure sperique, et ce est impossible que rien soit vieu, si comme
Aristote preuve ou quart de PhisiqueP 1 Je respon, et me semble première­
ment, que entendement humain aussi comme naturelment se consent que
290 hors le ciel et hors le monde qui n’est pas infiny est aucune espace quelle
que elle soit, et ne puet bonnement concevoir le contraire. E t semble
que ainsi soit par rayson, premièrement, quar se le derrenier ciel estoit
par dehors de figure autre que de sperique et qu’il eust aucune superemi-
nence de- // (39a) hors en maniéré <de>62 angle ou de boce et il fust meu
295 si comme il est circulairement, il convendroit que cele boce passast par
une espace qui seroit wide quant celle boce en seroit hors. E t pousé63
que le ciel ne soit pas de telle figure et que nature ne le pourroit faire, toute-
voyes est ce chose ymaginable sanz contradicion et que Dieu pourroit
faire. Item, pousé que l’espere des ellemens ou touz les corps corruptibles
300 qui sont dedens la concavité du ciel ou de l’espere de la lune fussent ad-
nichilés et que le ciel demourast tel comme il est, il convendroit par néces­
sité que en ceste concavité eust une distance et une espasce wide. E t telle
chose est ymaginable sanz contradicion et symplement possible, ja soit
ce que ce ne pourroit estre fait par vertu purement naturelle, si comme il
305 appert par les raysons d ’Aristote ou quart de P hi si queJ * lesquelles ne conclu­
ent pas que ce soit impossible autrement, si comme il puet apparoir legiere-
ment par ce que dit est. E t donques hors le ciel est une espasce wide incor­
porelle d’autre maniéré que n’est quelconque espace pleine et corporelle,
tout aussi comme la duracion appellee éternité est d’autre maniéré que n’est
310 / (39b) duracion temporelle, meismes qui seroit perpétuelle, si comme il
appert par ce qui est dit devant en ce chappitre. Item, ceste espasse dessus
dicte est infinie6
65 et indivisible et est le inmensité de Dieu et est Dieu66
4 have already declared in this chapter that, since our thinking cannot exist without
meismes, aussi comme la duration6? de Dieu appellee éternité est infinie
et indivisible et Dieu meisme, s i 68 comme il est dit devant en cest chappitre.
315 Item, en ce chappitre est dit devant que pour ce que nostre pensee ne puet
estre sanz transmutacion, nous ne povons comprendre ne proprement
entendre qu’est éternité, et nientmoins rayson naturelle nous enseingne
que elle est. <Et de ce peut estre entendue l’Escripture qui dit de Dieu:
Job. .xxvi.e: Q ui extendit69 aquilonem70 super vacuum .)71 Semblablement,
320 pour ce que la congnoissance de nostre entendement depent de noz senz
qui sont corporelz, nous ne povons comprendre ne proprement entendre
quelle est ceste espasce incorporelle qui est hors le ciel. E t toutevoies ray­
son et vérité nous fait congnoistre que elle est. Je conclu donques que Dieu
61 Physicorum, IV .8, especially 214b 12-13; 62 ^ omits de.
216b 20-21 ; IV .9, especially 217b 20-22. 63 D E Et pour ce que.
Book I, Chapter 24, fols. 39a~39b I 77 7
swer this argument again. But my position could be strengthened or restated other­
wise; for, if two worlds existed, one outside the other, there would have to be a
vacuum between them for they would be spherical in shape ; and it is impossible
that anything be void, as Aristotle proves in the fourth book o f the Physics. It
seems to me and I reply that, in the first place, the human mind consents naturally,
as it were, to the idea that beyond the heavens and outside the world, which is not
infinite, there exists some space whatever it may be, and we cannot easily conceive
the contrary. It seems that this is a reasonable opinion, first o f all, because, if the
farthest heaven on the outer limits o f our world were other than spherical in shape
and possessed some high elevation //(3 9a) on its outer surface similar to an angle
or a hump and if it were moved circularly, as it is, this hump would have to pass
through space which would be empty— a void— when the hump moved out o f it.
N ow , if we assumed that the outermost heaven was not thus shaped or that nature
could not make it thus, nevertheless, it is certainly possible to imagine this and
certain that G o d could bring it about. From the assumption that the sphere o f the
elements or o f all bodies subject to change contained within the arch o f the heavens
or within the sphere o f the moon were destroyed while the heavens remained as
they are, it would necessarily follow that in this concavity there would be a great
expanse and empty space. Such a situation can surely be imagined and is definitely
possible although it could not arise from purely natural causes, as Aristotle shows
in his arguments in the fourth book o f the Physics, which do not settle the matter
conclusively, as we can easily see by what is said here. Thus, outside the heavens,
then, is an empty incorporeal space quite differeni from any other plenum or cor­
poreal space, just as the extent o f this time called eternity is o f a different sort than /
(39b) temporal duration, even if the latter were perpetual, as has been stated earlier
in this chapter. N o w this space o f which we are talking is infinite and indivisible,
and is the immensity o f G o d and G o d Himself, just as the duration o f G o d called
eternity is infinite, indivisible, and G o d Himself, as already stated above. Also, we
the concept o f transmutation, we cannot properly comprehend what eternity im­
plies ; but, nevertheless, natural reason teaches us that it does exist. In this way the
Scriptural passage, Job 26 J7], which speaks about G o d can be understood: W ho
stretchest out the north over the empty place. Likewise, since apperception o f our
understanding depends upon our corporeal senses, we cannot comprehend nor
conceive this incorporeal space which exists beyond the heavens. Reason and truth,
however, inform us that it exists. Therefore, I conclude that G o d can and could in
64 Physicorum, IV .8, and 9.215b 12— 217b 68 A si si comme.
28. 69 B extendis.
65 A infinible. 70 D E aquilam.
66 B omits et est Dieu. 71 Job 26:7. A omits E t de ce p e u t...v a ­
67 D E la divinacion. cuum.
17 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
puet et pourroit faire par toute sa puissance un autre monde que cestuy ou
325 plusseurs semblables ou des <(s>emblables,72 et Aristote ne autre ne prouva
onques souffisanment le contraire; mais onques de fait ne fu et ja ne sera
I l (39 e) f ° rs que un seul monde corporel, si comme il est dit devant.
25. O u .xxv.e chappitre il commence a enquérir se le m onde est
par durable, et met les oppinions des autres anciens.1
T . Apres ce que ces choses sont determinees, or disons a savoir mon se
le monde fu touz jours sanz estre engendré et sanz estre fet, ou se il fu en­
gendré et fait, et se il est incorruptible ou se il est corruptible.2
G. Il a devant déterminé que le monde est finy en quantité ou extension
5 et que il est un seul en nombre. O r entent maintenant a monstrer qu’il est
infiny en duracion.
T . E t premièrement en passant nous traiterons les susposicions3 ou oppi­
nions des autres ...
G. Apres il met .iii. causes pour quoy c ’est bien de traitier les oppinions
10 des autres.
T . Quar les doubtes des opinions contraires sont probacions des vrays
opinions.
G. Quar si comme il appert ou tiers4 de A l et haphisi que, 5 la solucion des
doubtes fait trouver la vérité.
i5 T . Item, les choses que nous dirons seront miex creables quant elles se­
ront justefiees par les solucions ou responses des doubtes et des raysons
contraires. Item, quant nous avons / (39d) respondu aus raysons des oppi­
nions contraires, il ne semblera pas que nous condempnons ces oppinions
de voulenté et sanz cause, quar il convient que ceulz qui enquierent la
20 vérité jugent souffisanment et non pas comme anemis et adversaires des
oppinions contraires.
G. Sy comme aucuns qui sont si affichiéz et si ahurtéz a leurs oppinions
que il heent et leur desplest et ne veullent oïr raysons au contraire. E t c’est
un grant empeeschement de congnoissance de vérité, et telles gens ne sont
25 pas habilles a ce. Apres il recite les oppinions anciens.
T . Touz les anciens dient que le monde fu engendré et fait; mais les uns
dient que il durera touzjours sanz fin, et les autres dient qu’il est corrupti­
ble sanz retour aussi comme quelconques des autres choses constituées
72 A descenblables. 4 B C D E F quart.
1 Guthrie, ch. 10. 5 Metaphysicorum, III.8, especially 1012a 29
2 D E omit ou se il est corruptible. — 1012b 22.
3 B C D E F suspicions.
Book I, Chapters 24-25, fols. 39C-39d 179
His omnipotence make another world besides this one or several like or unlike it.
N or will Aristotle or anyone else be able to prove completely the contrary. But, o f
course, there has never been nor will there be // (39c) more than one corporeal
world, as was stated above.
25. In Chapter Twenty-five he begins to inquire whether the world
is eternal, and reviews the opinions o f other ancient thinkers.
T . N o w that these things have been established, let us next discuss the question
whether this world has always existed without any beginning or creation, whether
on the contrary it had a genesis and an origin, and whether the world is inde­
structible or destructible.
G . Earlier he established that the world is finite in quantity or extension and that
it is unique, the only one o f its kind. N o w he is about to demonstrate that it is
timeless, infinite in duration.
T . A t the outset, let us consider briefly the theories and opinions o f others...
G . N ext he gives three reasons w h y it is well to examine the opinions o f others.
T . For the doubts raised by contrary opinions furnish the proofs o f true judg­
ments.
G . Because, as it appears in the third book of Metaphysics, the resolving o f
doubts leads to the discovery o f truth.
T . The things we are about to say will become more credible when they have
been justified by the solutions or answers to the doubts and when the contrary
arguments have been presented. Thus, when we have / (39d) replied to the argu­
ments and opinions o f our opponents, it will not seem that we have condemned
them wilfully and without good cause ; for those who will seek the truth must judge
with equanimity and not as enemies and adversaries o f those who hold contrary
opinions.
G . Like certain people who are so puffed up and so obsessed with their own
opinions that they hate and are offended and are unwilling to hear arguments op­
posed to their own reasoning. This is indeed a great hindrance to knowledge o f the
truth, and such persons are not suited to its pursuit. N ext he relates the opinions o f
the ancient thinkers.
T . A ll the older thinkers hold that this world was created and made. But some
say that it will last forever, while others say that it is perishable beyond recovery,
like some o f the mixed bodies composed o f several elements. Others maintain it
will be destroyed and then remade, and again destroyed, and so on continually
180 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
et compousees de plusseurs. E t les autres dient que il sera corrompu et
30 apres refait et apres corrompu et ainsi touzjours sanz fin; une foys sera et
autre non, si comme disoient Empedocles qui fu de Frague,6 et Eraclitus
qui fu de Ephese.
G . D e ceste question l’en puet ymaginer .iiii. oppinions dont le tiers se-
roit IJ (40a) devisé en .ii., et ainsi, seroient .v. oppinions. Un est que le
35 monde est pardurable sanz commencement et7 sanz fin; et dit A ve<r)roÿs8
que <Aristote fu le premier)9 des philosophes de Gresce qui y mist ceste
opinion, et que ce tenoit la loy encienne de ceulz de Caldee.10 L ’autre est
que le monde eust commencement mais touzjours durera sanz fin, et ce
disoit Plato et ceulz qui l’ensuient. La tierce est que le monde eust commen-
40 cernent et avra fin, mes les uns dient qu’il finera sanz plus recommencier ;
et dit Averroÿs11 que ce fu l’oppinion de Anaxagoras, et que ce tiennent
.iii. loys qui sont maintenant, c’est a savoir des Maures et des Crestiens
et des Juis. Les autres disoient que le monde finera et recommencera et
puis finera, etc., par foys infinies ou temps avenir, et ainsi a esté12 ou temps
45 passé. E t ce disoient Empedocles et Eraclitus comme dit est. La quinte
ymaginacion seroit que le monde eust touzjours duré u temps passé sanz
commencement et qu’il finast et fust corrompu ou temps avenir; et nul
ne mist onques ceste oppinion. E t Aristote tient la premiere et pour ce,
il repreuve seullement les .iii.13 moyennes.
26. Ou. .xxvi.e chappitre il repreuve l’oppinion de Plato. /
(40b) T . Dire que le monde ait esté fait et que il durera perpetuelment
c’est une chose impossible.
G . E t ce preuve il par .ii. raysons.
T . Quar raysonnablement, nous devons mettre les choses seullement
5 que nous voions estre vraies ou en plusseurs choses ou en toutes. E t le
contraire est quant a ce qu’il dient, quar l’en voit que toutes choses engen-
drees ont esté ou seront corrompues.
G . Se Aristote entendoit cecy ainsi generalement, je monstreray apres
par rayson naturelle et par philosophie que l’opposite est vray et que une
10 chose puet avoir commencement qui onques n’avra fin. Apres il met la se­
conde rayson qui est telle en sentence :
T . Item, par touz les siècles infinis passés esquelz ces choses avroient esté
îk to
6 B Strague. F Sirigue. 10 Juntas, t.c. 102, fol. 70D.
7 A est. 11 Ibid.
8 A C Avenroÿs. 12 A estre.
9 A omits Aristote fu le premier. 13 D E .ii.
Book I, Chapters 25-26, fols. 4oa-4ob | 181
without end. A t one time it will exist, and at another it will not exist, as Em pedo­
cles o f Acragas and Heraclitus o f Ephesus used to argue.
G . Regarding this question, one can imagine four opinions, o f which the third
would be // (40a) divided into tw o parts, making five opinions in all. One opinion
holds that the world is eternal, without beginning or end, and Averroes says that
Aristotle was the first o f the Greek philosophers to hold this opinion and that this
was the ancient law o f the Chaldeans. The second opinion holds that the world had
beginning but will last forever, and this was Plato’s theory and that o f his followers.
The third opinion holds that the world had a beginning and will have an end, but
there are some who say it will end never to begin again. Averroes says that Anaxa­
goras thought this to be so and that three religious sects o f the present day, the
Moors, the Christians, and the Jews, accept this theory. Others said that the world
will end, begin again, end again, etc., through infinite repetitions in future time;
and they hold it was thus in past time. These last things were maintained by E m ­
pedocles and by Heraclitus, as we have stated. T h e fifth speculation would be that
the world had always existed in times past without a beginning and that it will end
and be finally destroyed in future time. But no one has ever held this opinion.
Aristotle supports the first theory, therefore refuting only the three in the middle
[that is, two, three, and four].
26. In Chapter Twenty-six he refutes Plato’s opinion. /
(40b) T . Th e statement that the world had a beginning and will last forever is
impossible to maintain.
G . This he proves by tw o arguments.
T . Reason demands that we should propose for serious consideration only those
things which we can see to be true, either with regard to several things or to all. In
this instance the contrary o f what they say is obvious, for we can see that every­
thing created has had or will come to an end.
G . I f Aristotle intended this to be understood universally, I shall show herein­
after [see fols. 44b~45c] that both our natural reason and philosophy indicate that
the opposite is true and that a thing can have a beginning which will never have an
end. N ext he states his second reason which is briefly this :
T . Through all the infinite centuries o f past time in which these elements have
182 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
des <ce q u e )1 le monde avroit esté fait, ou ces choses povoient estre alterees
et avoir soy autrement ou non; et se non, donques estoit ce impossible que
i5 de elles fust fait ce monde; et se elles povoient estre alterees et transmuées,
donques encor sont elles a<l)terables2 et transmuables et pueent soy avoir
autrement. E t par consequant, le monde qui est constitué de elles puet estre
corrompu et deffait. // (40c) D ’autre partie, l’en ne pourroit assigner cause
pourquoy le monde n’avroit onques esté par touz les siècles precedens
20 infinis et pourquoy il avroit eu commencement lors plus que autrefoys.
G . C ’est la substance de ceste rayson; et quant a la premiere partie,
elle ne fait rien contre ceulz qui diroient que le monde avroit esté créé
de noient. E t quant a l’autre, il sera declairé apres comment une chose
puet estre qui onques ne fu et qui jamais ne cessera. Apres il recite une res-
25 ponse que aucuns faisoient a sa rayson.
T . E t l’aide ou l’excusacion a ceste rayson que aucuns s’efforcent de
mettre n’est pas vraie, quar il dient que le monde est incorruptible, et
qu’il sera tous] ours sanz fin. E t par ce que dit est, il n’entendent pas qu’il
<ait)3 esté fait, quar quant il parlent de la generacion du monde, il ne veul-
30 lent pas dire que il fu aucune foys engendré apres ce que onques n’avoit
esté— quar il a esté touz temps perpetuelment— mais il mettent telle chose
par maniéré de doctrine aussi comme es descripcions de geometrie. Posé
que un triangle soit pardurable, toutevoies, par maniéré de doctrine, l’en
met qu’il est compousé de lignes et de angles aussi / (4od) comme de choses
35 qui sont premieres avant que triangle.
G . Apres il reprouve ceste response.
T . Mais ce ne puet estre une rayson ne semblable, quar en telle descrip-
cion ou en tel triangle une chose n’est pas avant que l’autre selonc temps,
mais seullement par ymaginacion; et les choses que yl dient de la generacion
40 du monde sont subcontraires, c ’est a dire incomp<(a>ssibles,4 et convient
que une soit avant l’autre selonc temps, quar il dient que les ellemens
qui estoient desordenés furent ordenés de Dieu, et de ce et ainsi fu fait
le monde. E t c ’est impossible que une chose soit ensemble desordenee
et ordenee mais est nécessité que la generacion soit separee du temps de
45 la desordenance. E t es descripcions mathématiques, il n’y a rien séparé
en temps. E t donques est ce impossible que le monde soit pardurable
et que il soit fait.
G . Il semble que ceste repproche ne soit pas contre l’intencion de Plato
ne des siens, mais seullement contre la maniéré de parler, quar l’en diroit
5o qu’il n’entendoient5 pas que absoluement et de ffait les ellemens du monde
eussent esté aucunes foys confus et desordenés et par temps apres eussent
!k !k !k
desquelles le monde. 4 A incompossibles. B C D E F impossibles,
aterables. 5 A n’entendroient. B ne entenderoit.
est.
Book I, Chapter 26, fols. 4oc-4od | 183
existed since the world is presumed to have been created, either these elements
could be changed and become otherwise or not; and, if not, then it was impossible
that the world should have been made from them. A n d if they could be changed
and transmuted, then they are still capable o f change and alteration and can be
otherwise than they are. Consequently, the world which is compounded o f these
elements can be destroyed and demolished. // (40c) Moreover, it is impossible to
discover any cause w hy the world did not exist through all these infinite past cen­
turies and w hy it should have begun precisely at one time rather than at another.
G . This is the substance o f this argument, and, as for the first part, it does not
refute those who hold that the world could have been created from nothing. A s for
the other part, it will be explained later how a thing can be which never was before
and will never cease to be. N ext he relates an answer which certain persons used to
offer against his argument.
T . A n d the support or excuse for this argument offered by certain persons is not
valid, for they say that the world is indestructible and will last forever. From what
we have said it is obvious that they do not mean that the world was created [in
time], for when they speak o f the generation o f the world, they do not mean that it
was created at some time after it had not been in existence— for it has always exist­
ed— but they expound this as though it were a teaching device in the manner o f a
geometrical diagram. Assuming a triangle to be eternal, nevertheless, they tell us
by way o f instruction that the figure is composed o f lines and angles just / (4od) as
though these existed before any triangle.
G . Next he reproves this answer.
T . But neither this argument nor any like it can be maintained, for in such a dia­
gram or triangle one thing does not precede another in time, but only in the im­
agination; and the statements made about the creation o f the world are subcon­
traries [or contradictions], that is, they are incompatible with each other; for one
thing must come before another thing in time, but they say that the elements which
were in chaos were set in order by G o d and that in this manner was the world
created. It is impossible, however, that anything be at one and the same time in
order and in disorder, and the process o f creation must be separated from the time
o f disorder. But in mathematical figures there is no element o f separation by time.
Therefore, it is impossible that the world should last forever and also have had a
beginning.
G . It appears that this reproach is not directed against the opinion o f Plato and
his followers, but merely against their manner o f exposition; for it could be as­
sumed that they did not mean that the elements o f world had been absolutely and in
fact confused and in disorder at one time after which they were put in order; what
 184 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
esté mis en ordenance, mais il entendoient // (41a) que le monde n’ <eust>6
onques commencement selonc temps et que condicionnelment, se Dieu ne
maintenoit les ellemens et les parties du monde en ordre, eulz seroient
55 desordenés quant est de leur nature. E t ainsi ceste priorité est selonc nature
et non pas selonc temps, aussi comme l’en diroit que le soleil mist ou met
le ciel de tenebres en lumière, pousé que le solleil et la lumière de luy fus­
sent perpétuels sanz commencement de temps. C ’est ce que diroient les
Platoniens, mais Aristote fu très affaictueus contre les oppinions de Plato,
60 si comme il appert par ce que dist Eustrace sus le premier d"E thiques.1
27. O u .xxvii.e chappitre il reprove les oppinions
d’Empedocles et de Anaxagoras.
T . E t dire que alternativement le monde est une foys et autre foys est des-
truit et apres refait, ce n’est autre chose fors affermer qu’il est pardurable
mais il transmue sa forme.
G . Quar Enped<o)clesI disoit que la substance et les parties du monde
5 sont touzjours unes meismes, mais par amisté ou concorde elles sont mises
en bonne disposicion et ainsi est fait le monde, et par discorde elles sont apres
mises en autre disposicion et ainsi est le monde depecié.
T . Aussi comme se l’en / (41b) disoit que d’un enfant est fait .i. honme
et apres que cel honme redevenist enfant, et que l’en cuidast que pour ce il
10 fust aucune fois corrompu et aucune fois fust en estre, mais nientmoins ce
seroit touzjours un meisme. Semblablement quant les ellemens se acordent
et conviennent ensemble par amystié selonc cel oppinion, c ’est une consti­
tution ou disposicion autre que devant ; mais nientmoins les ellemens seroi-
i5 ent touzjours un meisme. Item, encor appert autrement, quar <s>elonc2 ceulz
qui mistrent cest oppinion, la contrariété de concorde et de discorde est cause
de l ’une et de l ’autre disposicion.3 E t donques se tout le cors continu, c’est a
savoir toute la masse des ellemens, est une foys dispousee en une maniéré
et autre foys en autre, et toute ceste masse c ’est le monde, donques s’ensuit
il que le monde n’est onques engendré ne corrompu, mais seullement les dis-
20 positions4 de luy.
G . Quar selonc leur oppinion ceste masse est perpétuelle et c’est le monde,
se il ne vouloient dire que ceste masse est une foys monde et autre foys non.
6 A n’est onques eu commencement. lis et anonyma in Ethica Nichomachea commentaries,
7 See Le Livre de éthiques, p. 113, where 1.6 , Oresme repeats the same reference to
Oresme cites the commentary o f Eustrathios Eustrathios at the end o f B ook I (fol. 62d).
concerning Aristotle’s criticism o f Plato’s 1 A Enpedecles.
Ideas. For the original, see Eustratii et Michae- 2 A celonc.
Book I, Chapters 26-27, fols. 4ia~4ib | 18/
they probably meant // (41a) was that the world had no commencement in time
and that, as a result, had G o d not maintained the elements and parts o f the world
in order, they would have become disordered with respect to their nature. This
priority is in accordance with nature but not with time, just as we might say that
the light o f the sun drove or drives the shadows from the sky, assuming the sun
and its light to be perpetual, without beginning in time. This is what the Platonists
would say; but Aristotle was highly prejudiced against the opinions o f Plato, as
Eustrathios pointed out in his commentary upon the first book o f the Nicom achean
E th ics.
27. In Chapter Twenty-seven he refutes the opinions
o f Empedocles and Anaxagoras.
T . T o state alternately that the world exists at one time, is destroyed at another,
and is afterwards recreated is equivalent to saying that the world is eternal but that
it changes its form or shape.
G . For Empedocles held that the substance and the parts o f the world are al­
ways the same, but that through the power o f love or peace these are endowed
with a good feeling toward one another, and thus the world is created ; afterward,
by hatred and discord they are set against one another, and the world is thereby
torn to pieces.
T . A s though we were / (41b) to say that from a child a man was made and after­
ward this man became a child again so that we thought that the man was at one
time destroyed and at another in existence, but all the time we held this, neverthe­
less, to be the same person. In the same way, when the elements are in harmonious
accord and come together in amicable fashion, this opinion holds that the constitu­
tion or arrangement is different from before, but that the elements are always essen­
tially the same. Further support o f this opinion is found by its proponents in the
assumption that the contrariety between harmony and discord provides the cause
o f each arrangement or disposition o f the elements. Thus, i f the whole continuum,
that is, the entire mass o f the elements which constitutes a body, is ordered first in
one way and then in another, and all this mass is the world, then it follows that the
world as a whole is never created or destroyed, but only [its arrangement or] the
disposition o f its parts.
G . For, according to their opinion, this mass is eternal and is the world, unless
they meant to say that this mass is at one time the world and at another time not.
3 B opinion. 4 B C D E F les parties de luy.
1 86 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
E t donques monde seroit un nom accidentel et conn<o>tatifs et ce est faulz.
Apres il repreuve Top- // (41c) pinion quetindrent Anaxagoras et Dem<o>-
25 critus.6
T . E t dire que le monde fu fait et qu’il sera corrompu a touzjours mais
sanz retourner, ce est du tout impossible, quar avant que il fust fait, il con-
venoit que aucune consistence ou matière fust de quoy il fu fait. E t donques
ou ce n’estoit pas possible que ceste matière fust transmuée; et se ainsi est,
30 le monde ne povoit7 estre fait de elle. E t se elle povoit estre transmuée, don­
ques quant le monde sera corrompu, elle pourra estre semblablement trans­
muée et sera refait un monde. E t ainsi se pourroit plus soustenir l’opinion
de ceulz qui mettent que les mondes seront infinis un apres l’autre par sub­
cession.
35 G . En reprouvant cest opinion, il supouse que c’est impossible de faire
aucune chose de noient. Apres il propouse ce de quoy il entent a determiner.
T . Mais par ce que nous dirons apres sera manifeste se ce qui s’ensuit est
impossible ou possible, car aucuns sont a qui il semble que aucune chose qui
onques ne fu engendree mais touzjours a esté sanz commencement puisse
40 estre corrompue, et que aucune chose qui a esté engendree et faite de / (4id)
nouvel soit incorruptible8 et puisse touzjours durer sanz fin, si comme il est
escript in Thjm eo,9 c’est a dire en un livre que fist Plato, quar yleuques est dit
que le ciel ou le monde fu fait et que il durera d’ore en avant en temps pa dura­
ble. E t nous avons dit de ceste chose seullement quant au ciel et naturelment,
45 c’est a savoir par raysons de science naturelle.
G . Ce fu ou sixte chappitre, ou il fu monstré que le ciel est perpétuel.
T . Mais maintenant nous volons quant a ce dire de tout et monstrer nostre
propos universelment.
G . C ’est a dire, de toutes choses et par raysons plus generalles que celles
50 qui sont prinses de philosophie naturelle. E t mon entencion est de les reciter
loialment et examiner diligeanment en monstrant les deffautes d ’aucunes de
elles en rayson naturelle, pour oster occasions d’aucunes grandes erreurs en
la foy catholique.
28. Ou .xxviii.e chappitre il met distinctions d’aucuns termes
dont il entent user en cest propos.1
T . Il convient premièrement deviser comment nous disons aucunes cho­
ses estre ingenerables et generables et corruptibles et incorruptibles, quar
quant les termes ou paroles ont pluseurs // (42a) significations, adonques
5 A connetatif. 8 D E corruptible.
6 A C D Demecritus. 9 Timaeus, 3ia-3ib.
7 B pourroit. 1 Guthrie, ch. n .
Book I, Chapters 27-28, fols. 410-422 | 187
Thus, m r ld would be an accidental and connotative name, which is false. N ext he
refutes the opinion // (41c) held by Anaxagoras and Democritus.
T . T o say that the world was created and will be later destroyed irrevocably for
all time is altogether impossible, for before its inception there must have been some
prior substance or material from which it was made. Thus, either it was impossible
that this material be transmuted, in which case the world could not have been
created from it; or, i f it could be transmuted, then when the world was destroyed,
it could be similarly transmuted into another and new world. Rather, this would
support those who maintain that worlds will be infinite in number, one after the
other in succession.
G . In refuting this opinion, he assumes that it is impossible to make something
out o f nothing. N o w he states what he intends to prove.
T . From what we say hereinafter it will become manifest whether what follows
is impossible or possible. There are some people who accept the theory that a body
which was never created but has always existed without beginning can be destroy­
ed, while a body that was created and then / (4id) renewed becomes indestructible
and can last forever, as it is written in Tim aeus, a book by Plato ; for there it is stated
that the heaven or the world was generated and that it will endure henceforth and
forever. W e have thus far discussed this theory only with regard to the heavens and
to the nature o f the world generally, that is with arguments taken from natural
science.
G . This was in Chapter Six [see fol. ija b ], where he declared the heavens to be
eternal.
T . But now we wish to generalize our speculations and make a comprehensive
statement o f our theory.
G . That is to say, concerning all problems and with arguments more general
than those taken from natuial philosophy. I intend to enumerate them faithfully
and to examine them diligently, pointing out the faults o f some o f them in the light
o f natural reason, to dispel any occasion for major errors in the Catholic faith.
28. In Chapter Twenty-eight he distinguishes precisely the various
meanings o f certain terms which he will use in this exposition.
T . It behooves us, first o f all, to define clearly what we mean when we say that
certain things are ungenerated and generated or destructible and indestructible;
for when terms or words have several // (42a) possible meanings, although this
 i88 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
pousé que ce ne face difference quant au parler, toutesvoies convient il par
5 neccessité que l’en ait confusément l’entendement des choses se l’en use de
ce quiest dit en pluseurs maniérés, aussi comme de chose non-devisee, quar lors
il n’appert pas selonc quelle signification ce doit estre entendu.
G . Quant les parolles sont equivoques ou doubles, l’en doit declairer leurs
significations ou sens afin que l’en ne preingne un sens pour l’autre. Apres il
10 disti<n)gue2 mos dont aucuns n’ont pas proprement equivalent en françoys,
mais je passer<ai>3 en mettant la sentence. Un est en latin ingenitum.
T . Ingenitum est dit en une maniéré de chose qui a eu commencement, mais
non pas par generacion ne par transmutacion, si comme est mouvement.
G . Quar se mouvement estoit mis en estre par mouvement et mutacion,
I5 et celuy par un autre, etc., <c)e4 seroit procès infiny, si comme il appert ou
quint de P h isiq u eï E t ingenitum en ceste maniéré puet estre appellé ingenerable.
T . Item, ingenitum est dit d’une chose qui puet estre et n’est pas.
G . Si comme Antecrist et en ceste maniéré ingenitum c ’est non-engendrê.
T . Item, inge- f (42b) nitum est dit de ce qui est simplement impossible que
20 il soit fait et que aucune foys soit en estre et aucune foys non.
G . E t ce puet estre en une maniéré pour ce que c ’est chose simplement
neccessaire, et ainsi disons nous D ieu le Pere estre ingenitum ou ingenerable,
ou en autre maniéré pour ce que c’est chose simplement impossible6 et est
dicte ingenerable, si comme l’en met exemple de chymera.
25 T . E t im possible est dit en .ii. maniérés. Une est de ce qui ne puet estre com­
ment qui soit.
G . Si comme que Dieu pechast.
T . Item, de ce qui puet estre, mais non pas legierement ou non pas tost, ou
non pas bien.
30 G . Si comme eschaper d’une forte maladie.7
T . E t semblablement genitum ou engendré en une maniéré est dit de quel­
conque chose qui est de nouvel, pousé que elle soit faite par generacion ou
sanz generacion.
G . Sy comme une beste est faite par generacion et un mouvement sanz ge-
35 neracion.
T . Item, generable est dit de ce qui n’est pas et qui est possible comment que
soit, ou qui puet estre de legier. Item, de ce qui est de present ou puet estre de
futur par generacion ou transmutacion, et corruptible et incorruptible JJ
(42c) semblablement, quar corruptible est dit de ce qui est et apres cesse par
4o transmutacion ou sanz transmutacion. Item, ce qui n’est pas mais sera ou
puet estre est dit corruptible. Item, ce qui est et puet estre de legier corrompu
2 A distigue. 6 B est simplement chose impossible.
3 A B C D passere. 7 B omits Si comme eschaper d’une forte
4 A E se. maladie.
5 Physicorum, V .2.2 2jb 32— 226a 6.
Book I, Chapter 28, fols. 42^-420 189
does not affect a verbal discussion, nevertheless, our understanding is confused if
we use the same term in several meanings, for instance, when we use the expression
undivided, since it is not clear which o f its meanings is to be understood.
G . When words have a double or doubtful meaning, we have to clarify their
signification or sense, lest we take one meaning for another. N ext he defines pre­
cisely words some o f which have no exact equivalent in French, but I shall, how ­
ever, proceed to give his definitions. One is Latin ingenitum.
T . Ingenitum y [ungenerated], is used in one sense to mean a thing which had a
beginning, but not by the process o f generation or change [from a former state] ;
for example, motion.
G . For, if motion came about by movement and change, and this were repeated
many times, this process would be infinite, as is explained in B ook Five o f the
Physics. In this usage ingenitum means approximately ingenerable.
T . Ingenitum is also said o f a thing which could exist but does not.
G . Like Antichrist, and in this sense ingenitum means noty e t generated, [but may
yet be generated].
T . Ingenitum / (42b) is used to mean that which is simply impossible to conceive
as having existence [or as coming-to-be] or as existing at one time and not at an­
other.
G . A n d this could happen in one way, that is, because something is an absolute
necessity, and in that sense we say G o d the Father is ingenitum or ingenerable ; or in
another way something might be called ingenerable because it is absolutely impos­
sible, as for example chimera.
T . Im possible is used in tw o ways ; one usage signifies a thing which cannot be or
exist under any circumstance whatsoever.
G . For example : that G o d should sin.
T . Im possible may also mean what can be, but not easily or readily or not per­
fectly.
G . For example, to escape a serious sickness.
T . Likewise, genitum or generated in one sense refers to something which comes
to exist for the first time, assuming that it has been made either by generation or
without it.
G . A s an animal is made by generation and a motion is made without generation.
T . Also, generable is said o f what is not, but is somehow possible or could
easily be ; and, too, o f that which now exists or can exist in future time by genera­
tion or change and is either destructible or indestructible, / / (42c) for corruptible is
said o f that which exists but will later cease to exist by transmutation or without
change. What is not, but will be or may be and, likewise, that which is and can
190 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
est dit corruptible. E t de incorruptible est une meisme rayson, quar ou c ’est
chose qui est aucune foys et aucune foys8 non sanz corrupcion ou transmu­
tation, si comme est mouvement, ou c ’est une chose laquelle c ’est impossi-
45 ble9 que elle ne soit. O u il est dit de chose qui ne puet estre et donques ne la
puet l’en courrompre. Mais il est dit meismement proprement de ce qui est
et ne puet estre corrompu ne cesser.
G . Sy comme Dieu.
T . E t finablement, incorruptible e<s>t10 dit de chose qui puet estre corrom-
5o pue, mais non pas legierement ou aisiement. E t se ces choses se ont comme
dit est, il convendra co<n)siderer11 apres comment nous disons une chose
estre possible et comment impossible, quar une chose est dicte très propre­
ment incorruptible12 pour ce que elle ne puet estre corrompue ne estre au­
cune foys et aucune foys non. E t ingenitum en latin est dit de ce que / (42d) est
55 impossible et ne puet estre fait ou avenir en telle maniéré que premièrement
il ne soit pas, et puis, qu’il soit apres, sy comme <q u e )13 le dyamettre d’un
quarré soit comme<n)surable14 au costé de celuy quarré.
G . C ’est une conclusion de geometrie qui dit telle chose estre impossible
et donques ingenitum est une chose non faisable. Mais ingenitum est dit autre-
60 ment de chose15 simplement neccessaire et pardurable comme devant est dit,
et ceste signification est la plus propre.
29. O u .xxix.e chappitre il determine de ce qui est possible
ou impossible ou resgart d’aucune puissance.
T . Se une chose a puissance de soy mouvoir ou de lever aucun poys, nous
disons et déterminons touzjours celle puissance au plus que elle puet, si com­
me en disant que elle puet lever .c. livres ou qu’elle puet aler .c. lieues. Quar
combien qu’elle puisse faire les parties, c ’est a dire ce qu’est moins ou men-
5 dre, totevoies elle est nommee et difïinee ou determinee par la superabon-
dence et par la vertu de son excellence, pour ce que se elle puet selonc son
excellence tant, elle puet tout ce qui est moins ; si comme se elle puet lever .c.
li-// (43a) vres, elle puet lever .ii. livres, et se elle puet passer .c. estades, elle
puet passer .ii. estades, quar vertu est touzjours noctifiee par l’excellence de
10 elle.
G . Apres il monstre comment l’ympossibleté d’une puissance est deter­
minee.
T . E t se aucune chose est impossible a une puissance, ceste impossible-
té sera dicte et determinee au plus près de l’excellence de la vertu en disant
8 B omits et aucune foys. 11 A cosiderer.
9 D E c’est possible. 12 B corruptible.
10 A et. 13 A F omit que.
Book I, Chapters 28-29, fols. 42d-43a ( 191
easily be altered is said to be corruptible. A n d the meanings o f incorruptible are also
multiple. Either it is a thing which at one time exists and at another time does not,
without undergoing any process o f change or destruction, like motion, for exam­
ple; or it means a thing which simply must exist; or again it is said o f a thing which
cannot exist and therefore cannot be destroyed. However, its most proper sense
is that which is and cannot be destroyed nor cease to be.
G . For instance, G od.
T . Finally, incorruptible is said o f a thing which can be altered or destroyed,
though not readily or easily. I f these distinctions are valid as stated, we must turn
next to the question o f how to express the idea that something is possible or im­
possible; for a thing is said quite correctly to be incorruptible because it cannot
be changed, nor exist at one time and not at another. A n d ingenitum in Latin is said
o f what / (42d) is impossible and o f what cannot be such that it could pass at some
future time from non-existence to existence later on, just as though the diagonal o f
a square were to become commensurate with one o f its sides.
G . This is a geometrical postulate which states that such is impossible ; there­
fore, ingenitum is used to mean something which cannot be accomplished. But in­
genitum is used otherwise to mean something absolutely necessary and lasting, as
stated above, and this meaning is the most proper.
29. In Chapter Twenty-nine he solves the problem o f the possible
or impossible with respect to a given force.
T . If something has the power to move itself or to lift a certain weight, we are
accustomed to measure this power with reference to the maximum that it can do ;
for example, we say that it can lift one hundred pounds or that it can g o one hun­
dred leagues. For, although it can perform any part— that is, less than this maxi­
mum— we give it the name and we define and measure it in accordance with its
maximum capacity, since, if it can attain such capacity, it can reach any lesser
amount; so that i f something can lift one hundred pounds, // (43a) it can lift two
pounds ; and if it can m ove one hundred stades, it can exceed tw o stades, for power
is always reckoned b y its upper limit.
G . N ext he shows how the upper limit o f a given power is determined.
T . I f some action is beyond the capacity o f a given power, this incapacity will be
expressed and measured with respect to its maximum potential, indicating that the
13 A choses.
14 A commesurable.
 1<)2 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
t5 qu’elle peut1 ce et que tout ce qui est plus ly est impossible, si comme se elle
ne puet passer mil estades, elle ne puet passer mil et une estade.
G . Quant la chose en quoy la puissance finie puet ou a quoy elle est com­
parée est designee2 par nombre, si comme en disant3 .c. livres ou cent onces,
ou en disant .c. lieues ou <cent) 4 estades, adonques est un nombre le très
20 plus grant de touz ceulz en quoy elle puet. E t par cest nombre est determinee
et diffinee5 la possibilité de elle, quar elle puet en ce nombre et en touz ceulz
de dessouz ; et par le plus grant nombre apres est determinee l’ympossibili-
té de ceste puissance, quar en cely ne puet elle ne en quelconque plus grant.
E t pour ce, cest nombre est le premier et le très plus petit de touz ceulz en
25 quoy elle ne peut. E t ainsi dirions nous que / (43b) la possibilité portative
d’aucun honme est determinee par .c. livres et son impossibilité par .c. et une
livre, quar cent livres est le plus grant poys que il puisse porter, et .c. et une
livre est le plus petit de touz ceulz que il ne puet6 porter. Mais ceste determi­
nation qui est par nombre ne puet estre precise ne propre quant au poys que
30 l’en puet lever ou porter, quar quiconque puet porter .c. livres, il puet porter
plus, et ainsi de chascun poys. E t pour ce di je que toute puissance ou resgart
de sa resistance e<s)t7 determinee précisément par la resistence8 qui est egu-
alle a elle en vertu de résister, tellement que c ’est la plus très petite resistence
de toutes celles en quoy ceste puissance ne puet, et puet en toute mendre sauf
35 ce qui sera dit assés tost apres. E t de celles en quoy la puissance <peut>,9 l’en
ne porroit assigner la plus grande, quar quelconque signee en quoy elle puet,
l’en puet donner une moienne entre ceste signee et celle qui est egualle a ceste
puissance. E t en l’autre cas que Aristote met ou regart de l’espasce qui est en
mouvement local, la puissance est determinee par la très plus grande espasce
40 que elle puet passer. Mais moult d’autres cas sont selonc diverses choses as-
quelles // (43c) pueent estre comparées les puissances, si comme de la disten-
ce a laquelle une puissance puet altérer ou faire son action, quar puet estre
qu’elle est determinee absoluement par la très plus petite distance de toutes
celles asquelles elle ne puet estendre son action, si comme un feu puet es-
45 chaufer ou illuminer jusques a une distance a laquelle il ne puet ne oultre,
mais puet a toute mendre, ceteris parib<us ) . 1° E t par aventure, une puissance
autre est telle qu’elle11 ne puet pas estre ainsi determinee absoluement, mais
requiert distance moderee en grandeur et en petitesse. E t est determinee a la
très plus petite de celles ou elle ne puet, pour ce que elles sont trop grandes
50 et trop loing ; et a la très plus grande de celles ou elle ne puet, pour ce que
elles sont trop petites et trop près, si comme est la puissance d ’une chose vi­
sible. Item, aucunes puissances actives pueent estre comparées ou a l’effit que
elles pueent faire, ou a la vélocité ou isneleté de leur action ou mouvement,
1 A elle ne peut. 4 A omits cent.
2 D E comparée ou designee. 5 B C D E F diffinie.
3 A comme est en disant. 6 E omits ne.
Book I, Chapter 29, fols. 4 3 B -4 3 C | 19 $
power is capable o f a precise amount o f force and that any additional demand upon
it is impossible, as, for example, if it can move 1,000 stades, it cannot m ove 1,001
stades.
G . When the objective toward which the power is directed or to which it is com­
pared is designated numerically, as in saying 100 pounds or 100 ounces, or 100
leagues or 100 stades, then the number represents the maximum capacity o f the
power. This number measures or defines the upper working limit o f the power,
for it can accomplish the amount indicated by the number and any lesser amount;
and this larger number determines also the insufficiency o f the power since it can­
not exceed this indicated amount. Therefore, this number is the first and smallest
o f those representing the amounts beyond the power’s maximum capacity. In this
way, we can say that / (43 b) the carrying power o f a certain man is 100 pounds, and
the point o f his inability is 101 pounds, for 100 pounds is the greatest w eight he
can carry, and 101 pounds is the smallest o f all the loads he cannot carry. But this
numerical determination cannot be precise nor exact with respect to the weight one
can lift or carry, because whoever can carry 100 pounds can also carry more, and
this applies to any weight whatsoever. I say, accordingly, that any force, with res­
pect to its resistance, is measured precisely by the resistance which equals that force,
so that it represents the smallest resistance o f all those which this power cannot
overcome; but it can overcome any lesser resistance, except the one which will be
stated very soon. A n d o f all the resistances which the force can match, we cannot
assign any larger, for whatever the number that represents its capacity, we can find
a mean between it and the one equal to this force. In the other case which Aristotle
mentions regarding the distance which exists in local motion, the force is deter-
minded by the greatest distance it can travel. There are many other cases dealing
with various other things to which // (43 c) the amounts o f force can be compared,
such as the distance at which a force can change or perform its action, for it can be
that it is determined absolutely b y the smallest distance o f all those to which it is
unable to extend its action, as a fire can shed heat or light up to a certain distance
beyond which it can do no more; but it can do any lesser distance, other things
being equal. Perhaps another force may be such that it cannot be absolutely mea­
sured, but requires a distance moderate in size ; it is limited to the smallest distance
which it cannot reach— for the other distances are too great and too far— and to
the largest o f those which it cannot reach, because the objects are too small or too
near, as in the case o f the force o f visible objects. Thus, certain active forces can be
compared either to the effect o f their accomplishment or to the velocity or speed o f
7 A et. 9 A omits peut.
8 D E omit e(s)t determinee précisément par 10 A paribi.
la resistence. 11 B omits autre est telle qu’elle.
194 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ou au temps ouquel elles pueent ouvrer, ou a autres choses et en moult de
55 maniérés selonc diverses circonstances. E t selonc ce pueent estre / (43d)
plusseurs belles consideracions dont je ay autrefoys traitié, et m ’en passe pour
ce qu’elles ne sont pas propres a nostre principal propos. Apres il traite de la
possibilité et de l’impossibilité de puissance passive en metant et ostant une
objection contre ce que dit est.
60 T . E t pour ce que nous avons dit que {possibilité)12 est proprement deter­
m in e ^ ) ^ par l’excellence de la puissance, ce que aucun porroit dire ne nous
doit mouvoir, quar, par avanture, aucun feroit instance de ce que se un puet
veoir une grande chose, il neconvient pas pour ce que il peust veoir toutes
les choses qui sont plus petites. Mais le contraire est plus vray, quar qui puet
65 veoir une petite chose, il puet1* veoir une plus grande ; et qui puet oÿr un pe­
tit son, il puet oïr un plus grant son.
G . Apres il respont.
T . Mais ce que tek diraient ne fait difference a la rayson ou conclusion
que nous avons mise, quar nostre dit est veritable generalment, pousé que
70 l’excellence soit ou resgart de la chose dehors ou en la vertu, c’est a dire en la
puissance, quar le voiement qui puet veoir la mendre chose est plus puissant
que celuy qui ne // (44a) puet veoir si petite chose, et la puissance qui puet
mouvoir par plus grande isneleté est la plus grande.
G . Il weult ycy mettre convenience et difference entre puissance active et
75 puissance passive, et est la convenience telle que une et l’autre sont détermi­
nées par leur excellence et par le plus fort de leur vertu, si comme il est dit
devant generalment sanz distinction. Mais ceste excellence est prinse diffe-
renment en une et en l’autre, quar la puissance active qui puet en plus gran­
des choses est la plus grande ou la plus active, et la puissance passive qui puet
80 souffrir de mendre chose est la plus passive ou la plus grande en son gerre
passif.14
15 E t donques la puissance active est determinee par la très plus petite
des choses ou elle ne puet ouvrer pour ce qu’il16 sont trop grandes, et la pas­
sive est determinee par la très plus grande de celles dont elle ne puet souffrir
pour leur trop petitesce et puet souffrir de chascune plus grande. E t pour ce,
85 voiement et telz sens sont puissances passives. E t une chose est si petite que
oeil17 ne la puet veoir ne autre chose mendre, et puet veoir tote chose plus
grande, tant soit / (44b) grande, se les autres choses sont propor(cio)nel-
ment18 dispousees selonc ce qu’il appartient, si comme sont le moien et la
distance, etc. Quar se le solleil estoit mil foys plus grant qu’il n’est et il fust
90 plus loing et le moien fust plus cler, et tout selonc proporcion convenable, le
solleil apparoistroit du tout si comme il appert maintenant.
Apres ces choses, Aristote s’efforce de prouver que toute chose, soit sub­
stance ou accident ou quelconque disposicion qui avra eu commencement,
avra fin et cessera par neccessité et ne puet perpetuelment durer, et que sem-
12 A impossible. B C F possible. 13 A B C F déterminé.
Book I, Chapter 29, fols. 43d-44b | 19 j
their motion or to the time it takes them to act or to other things in many ways ac­
cording to varying circumstances. In this regard there can be / (43d) many wonder­
ful considerations which I have previously dealt with ; I pass over these now since
they are not pertinent to our principal subject matter. N ext he treats the problem
o f the capacity and incapacity o f passive force, raising and resolving an objection
to what has been said.
T . Because we have stated that capacity is properly measured by the maximum
attainable, we must not be disturbed b y what others maintain for, possibly, some­
one might object that, i f w e can see a large object, it does not follow that we can
see all the smaller objects. But the contrary is nearer the truth, because whoever
can see a small object can see a larger one, and whoever can hear a faint sound can
hear a louder sound.
G . N o w he replies.
T . But the objection o f such persons makes no difference to our statement or to
the conclusion we have drawn, for what we have said is true in general, assuming
that the maximum can be either in the object or in the power, that is, in the force,
for the vision strong enough to see the smallest dot is more powerful than that
which I/ (44a) cannot see so small a thing, while the power that can move at the
fastest speed is the greatest.
G . Here he wants to indicate the agreement and the difference between active
and passive power. The agreement is such that both are determined by their maxi­
mum and greatest force, as said above in general, without distinguishing between
active and passive power. But the maximum is reckoned differently in each case,
for the active power which affects the largest objects is the greatest or most active,
and the passive power which can affect the smallest object is the most passive or the
largest in the passive class. Thus, the active power is limited by the very smallest
o f the objects with which it cannot function because they are too large; and the
passive power is limited b y the very largest o f those objects which it cannot tole­
rate because they are too small, but it can tolerate all larger objects. Sight and such
senses, thus, are passive powers. A thing is so small that the eye cannot see it nor
any lesser thing, but it can see everything larger however / (44b) big, other things
being disposed proportionally as they would normally be, such as medium and dis­
tance, etc. For, i f the sun were a thousand times larger and if it were farther and the
intervening medium were clearer, with everything in proper proportion, the sun
would then appear exactly as it does now.
Afterwards Aristotle tries to prove that everything, whether substance or acci­
dent or any tendency whatsoever which had a beginning, will have an end and will
cease o f necessity and cannot possibly last forever ; and that it is likewise impossi-
14 E il ne peut. 16 A qui.
15 D E omit et la puissance passive... en son 17 B C D E F on.
gerre passif. 18 A propornelment,
 196 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
95 blablement c ’est impossible que19 chose qui avra fin ait touzjours duré sanz
commencement. E t pour ce que ce n’est pas vérité et que c ’est contre la foy
quant a la premiere partie, je viel monstre<r>20 l’opposite selonc philosophie
naturelle et mathématique. E t par ce et autrement apparoistra que les raysons
d’Aristote ne concludent21 pas. E t premièrement je pouse aveques Aristote,
ioo combien que ce soit faulz, que le monde et les mouvemens du ciel sont par-
durables par neccesité, sanz commencement et sanz fin. Apres je suppose
comme chose possible que aucuns // (44c) des mouvemens du ciel simples et
réguliers sont inconmensurables, et est aussi comme l’en diroit que c’est pos­
sible que le nombre total des estoilles soit nomper. E t aussi comme l’en ne
105 puet savoir certainement ne evidenment se le nombre de toutes les estoilles
e<s)t22 per ou nomper,23 semblablement touz les honmes mortelz qui furent
et qui seront ne pourroient en lumière naturelle trouver ne savoir de certain
se touz les mouvemens du ciel sont conmensurables ou se aucuns d’eulz sont
inconmensurables,24 quar par une partie de mouvement laquelle seroit insen-
11o sible et imperceptible, pousé qu’el<le>25 fust .c. mile foys plus grande, .ii.
mouvemens quelconques du ciel ou autres seroient inconmensurables qui
sembleroient estre conmensurables. E t cecy est tout noctoire ou manifeste a
ceulz qui sont exercités en geometrie. E t doit l’en savoir que les choses sont
conmensurables quant telle proporcion comme une a <a>26 l’autre puet estre
115 trouvée en nombres. E t quant elle ne puet, les choses sont inconmensura­
bles. E t que aucuns des mouvemens du ciel soient inconmensurables, ce est
plus vraysemblable que / (44d) n’est l’opposite, si comme je monstray jadys
par plusseurs persuasions en un traitié intitulé D e commensurabilitate vel incom-
m ensurabilitate motuum celi.21 O r suppousons donques comme chose possible
120 et vraysemblable, combien que elle ne soit pas certainne, que aucuns mouve­
mens du ciel sont inconmensurables. E t pousons pour cause d ’exemple que
.iii. corps du ciel, si comme sont Saturne et Jupiter et Mars [Fig. 20], soient
meus de .iii. ou de plusseurs mouvemens en quelconque nombre desquelz un
soit seul inconmensurable as autres, et que les centres de ces .iii. cors soient
125 conjoins précisément en aucun point ou ligne ou lieu, je di que c ’est impos­
sible que ces .iii. corps fussent onques ne que jamais soient en tout le temps
pardurable tellement conjoins ne en cest lieu ne en autre. E t ainsi est il de
19 B C D E F durer, et semblablement que 24 B C D E F omit ou se aucuns d’eulz sont
chose. inconmensurables.
20 A monstre. 25 A pouse quel fust.
21 A concludrent. 26 A E F une a lautre.
22 A et.
27 Edward Grant is preparing an edition o f
23 F omits Et aussi comme l’en ne peut... this important work.
per ou nomper.
Book I, Chapter 29, fols. 44c~44d | iy j
ble that anything which will ultimately perish can always have been there without
a beginning. Since this is not true and is, in its first part, against the faith, I want to
demonstrate the opposite according to natural philosophy and mathematics. In this
way it will become clear that Aristotle’s arguments ate not conclusive. In the first
place, I posit with Aristotle, although it is false, that the world and the motions o f
the heavens are eternal by necessity, without beginning or end. Next, I assume it
to be possible that some // (44c) o f the simple and regular motions o f the heavens
are incommensurable and that it is also possible that the total number o f stars is an
uneven number. N o w , since it is impossible to know absolutely whether the num­
ber o f all the stars is even or odd, in the same w ay the mortal men in the world,
dead or alive or to be, could not discover nor know by their natural lights for
certain whether all the movements o f the heavens are commensurable or incom­
mensurable, for by the part o f a movement which would be imperceptible to the
senses, even if it were a hundred thousand times larger, two such movements or
similar motions could be incommensurable and yet could appear to be commen­
surable. This is a fact well known and quite manifest to those versed in geometry.
It is a fact that things are commensurable when the proportion o f one thing to
another can be found in rational numbers, and, when the proportion cannot be
thus stated, the things are incommensurable. That some o f the movements o f the
heavens should be incommensurable is far more likely than / (44d) the opposite, as
I have previously demonstrated with several proofs in a treatise entitled O n the
Comm ensurability or Incommensurability o f the Movements o f the Heavens. N o w , although
it is not proved, let us suppose as possible or credible that certain movements o f the
heavens are incommensurable. A n d let us assume as an example, that three heavenly
bodies, say Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars [see Fig. 20], are all moved by three or more
different motions o f whatever number, o f which one single motion is incommen­
surable with the others, and that the centers o f these three bodies are fixed upon
some point, line, or place ; I say it is impossible for these three bodies ever again to
be joined thus or to be everlastingly joined together in this or in any other place.
 19 S | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
opposicion et de quelconque autre resgart ou dispocision. E t semblablement,
se un meisme corps du ciel estoit meu de .iii. ou de plusseurs mouvemens,
130 pousé que un seul de <c)es28 mouvemens fust inconmensurable as autres, je
di que, ce posé ce corps est touz- //(45 a) jours en nouvelle disposicion et son
centre en tel endroit ou en tel point inmobile ou onques mes ne fu ne jamais
ne sera, et descript touzjours nouvelle ligne et fera perpetuelement. E t pour ce
que le solleil est meu de .iii. ou de pluseurs mouvemens et est possible et
135 vraysemblable, comme dit est, que aucun de ces mouvemens soit inconmen­
surable as autres, il s’ensuit par neccessité que en chascun movement29 le cen­
tre du corps du solleil est en nouveau point ou onques ne fu, et la pointe de
l’ombre de la terre continuelment en aucun endroit ou point ou onques ne fu
et jamais ne sera. E t par consequant, aucune lumière ou ciel cesse estre se-
140 lonc soy toute ou cesse estre toute laquelle n’eust onques commencement, et
aucune qui jamés ne cessera. Item, tant est le solleil plus loing de la terre, de
tant est l’ombre de la terre plus grant et entre plus avant ou ciel. E t par l’in-
conmensurableté desus dicte, puet estre que le solleil en un merid<(i)an30 est
si loing de la terre que onques ne puet ne ja ne porra estre autrefoys si loing
145 en cest meridian. E t donques l ’ombre de la terre est si longue et si en parfont
ou ciel en celle partie que / (45b) onques ne fu tant ne jamais ne sera. E t par
consequant, une lumière cesse que onques ne commença, et une commence
qui ja ne cessera. E t l’inconmensurableté qui pourroit estre es mouvemens
du ciel de la lune la ou est ceste ombre fait encor ceste conclusion estre plus
i5o vraysemblable. Item, se telle chose estant, il avenoit que en ce meridian la
lune estoit le plus près de terre que elle puisse estre quant elle est eclipsee et
qu’elle fust droitement opposite au solleil ou point appellé N a d a ir solis,i l si
comme il est possible, il seroit adonques la plus très grande eclipse de lune
qui peust estre. E t se aucuns des mouvemens de la lune ou du solleil <ou de
155 la lune et du soleil)32 sont inconmensurables,33 si comme dit est, et c ’est vray­
semblable, ce seroit impossible que autrefoys eust esté ou // (45c) fust ou
temps avenir si grande eclipse de lunne. Item, posons que la lune soit le plus
loing du solleil que elle puisse estre sanz estre eclipsee, et pour l’inconmen-
surableté desus dicte qui est vraysemblable, il s’ensuit que le solleil et la lune
160 luisant ne furent onques si loing l’un de l’autre ne jamais ne seront. E t don­
ques convient il que l’ombre de la lune soit ou ciel plus grant et plus loing34
que onques ne fu et que jamais ne puet estre, quar la lune fait ou ciel plus
grant umbre de tant comme elle est plus loing du solleil. E t par consequant,
aucune lumière cesse ou ciel qui onques n’ost commencement et aucune
j65 commence qui ja ne finera.O r avons donques .iii. cas ou telle chose est pos-
28 A C D E F ses. B.N ., Ms. fr. 1350, fol. 35c: “ Pour ce que la
29 B C moment. terre est moult plus petite que le soleil, son
30 A meridan. umbre procédé derrière soy, et va en appeti-
31 See Oresme’s Traitié de l'espere, ch. 48, sant et en agrelissant, si comme il fu dit de
Book I, Chapter 29, fols. 45a~45C 199
This is due to their opposition and different aspects or dispositions. Likewise, if
the same heavenly body were moved by three or more motions, one assumed to be
incommensurable with the others, I say that under this condition this body is con­
tinually JJ (45 a) in a new disposition and its center in such a spot or motionless
point as it never was in before nor will be again, describing a new line forever and
perpetually. A n d because the sun is moved by three or more motions and it is pos­
sible and likely, as we have said, that one o f these motions is incommensurable
with the others, it follows necessarily that in each movement the center o f the sun
is in a new position where it never was previously and that the apex o f the earth’ s
shadow shifts continually to some place or point where it had never been before
and will never be again. Consequently, some light in the sky ceases to exist as such
or ceases entirely, which light never had a beginning, while some light begins
which will never cease. N o w , the farther the sun is from the earth, the larger the
earth’s shadow and the more it advances in the heavens. Because o f the incommen­
surability noted above, it may be that the sun on one meridian is so far from the
earth that it never can nor will be again so far distant on this meridian. Thus the
shadow o f the earth is so long and so deep in the sky in this region that it / (45 b)
never was nor will ever again be such. Consequently, a light ceases that never be­
gan, and one begins which will never end. A n d the incommensurability which
could exist in the movements o f the lunar heavens where this shadow appears
causes this conclusion to be the more credible. For, i f this were the case and i f it
happened that on this meridian the moon were the nearest to the earth that it can
be when in eclipse and were directly opposite the sun in the position called N a d ir
solis, which is quite possible, then there would be the most complete eclipse o f the
moon that is possible [see Fig. 21]. A n d if, as said above, some o f the motions o f
the moon or the sun or o f the moon and the sun are incommensurable, and this is
quite likely, it would be impossible that there could have been or // (45 c) would in
future time be such a complete eclipse o f the moon. N o w , let us posit that the
moon is the farthest possible distance from the sun without being in eclipse ; be­
cause o f the aforesaid incommensurability, which is likely, it follows that the
shining sun and moon were never so far distant from each other nor ever will be
again. Thus, the shadow o f the moon will necessarily be greater and deeper in the
sky than it had ever been before or can be in the future, for the moon makes a big­
ger shadow in the sky the farther it is from the sun. Therefore, some light stops in
the sky which never began, and some begins which will never end. N o w we have
three cases in which such a thing is possible with respect to some light in the sky.
l’ombre de la lune ou chapitre precedent. Et 32 A omits ou de la lune et du soleil,
est tous)ours la pointe et le bout de cil umbre 33 D E inmensurables.
a l’opposite du soleil. E t cil point opposite du 34 B C D E F long,
soleil est appellé Nadir Solis.”
 200 Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 29, fols. 460.-46}^ 201

sible d ’aucune lumière du c ie l. E t tout ce que dit est qui touche l’inconmen- A ll that is stated here concerning the above-mentioned incommensurability is
surableté dessus dicte est evidenment declairé par demonstracions géomé­ clearly demonstrated geometrically in the previously mentioned treatise O n the
triques ou traytié dessus dit, D e commensurabilitate vel incommensurabilitate mo- Com m ensurability or Incom m ensurability o f the M otions o f the Heavens, or follows from
tm m celi, ou s’ensuit de ce que est en ce traitié par telles demonstracions.35 what is stated in this treatise in accordance with such demonstrations. /
170 (46a) O r weul je monstrer apres que c’est chose possible, quant est de soy (46a) N o w , I should like to show next that it is possible both in fact and in un-
et a ymagynacion sanz contradiction, que aucun mouvement ait36commence­ contradictable theory that some motion has a beginning and lasts forever. First,
ment et dure sanz fin. E t premièrement de mouvement circulaire: je pouse
Aux 5ol is
que une roue de quelconque mateire soit aussi comme la roe d’une horloge et
soit signee par .a. en son centre et soit appellee .a. [Fig. 22]. / (46b) Item, soit
175 une autre mendre roe fichiee en la premiere aussi comme en un epicicle et soit
signee par .b. en son centre et soit appellee .b. Item, soit une tierce roe fichiee
en la seconde et ait son centre en la circonférence de la seconde, aussi comme
la lune est en son epicicle, et soit signee par .c. Item, soit la quart<e>37 hors
ces .iii. et soit ainssi dispousee que la roe .c. puisse touchier a elle et soit si-
180 gnee en son centre par .d. Item, je pouse que la roe .a. soit meue environ son
centre et que .b.38 soit meue au mouvement de .a. en quoy elle est fichiee, et
aveques ce que .b. soit meue de son propre mouvement environ son centre,
et que .c. n’ait aucun mouvement propre mais soit meue au mouvement de
.a. et au mouvement de .b. E t en ceste maniéré est la lune en son epicicle.
185 Item, je pouse <que>39 la roe appellee .d. soit tellement atiutee ou dispousee
par contrepoys et autrement que elle soit encline a estre meue, et que elle ne
soit meue jusques a tant qu’elle soit touchiee par la roe .c. et que par ce tou-
chement soit osté40 l’empeeschement, et que .d. commence estre meu<e>41

with regard to circular motion: I assume that a wheel o f any kind o f material is like
the wheel o f a clock [see Fig. 22] ; this we will designate as a and will call its center
a. I (46b) Let us next set in a another wheel b smaller than the first, in the manner o f
an epicycle, with its center labeled b. L et us add a third wheel set on the second,
having its center on the circumference o f the second like the moon on its epicycle,
and let us call this third wheel c. N o w let us place a fourth wheel outside these
three so fixed that c can touch it, and let its center be marked d. Then, I posit that
a be moved around its center, that b be moved with the motion o f a on which it is
set, and, with this, that b be moved also with its proper motion around its center,
while c has no proper motion but is moved with the motion o f a and b. This is the
35 45 d is entirely occupied by Fig. 21. 39 A a.
tn ^ to

ou. way the moon moves in its epicycle. N o w I posit that d be so adjusted or controlled
40 B soit compté.
quarta. 41 A D E meu. by counterweights and otherwise that it is inclined to move but is not m oved until
c. touched by c; this contact removes the hindrance and d begins to m ove regularly.
 202 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 29, fols. 460-46(1 203

regulierement. E t semblable chose ou près pourroit estre faite artificialment Something o f this sort or similar to it could be performed artificially or by skilled
ou par art. Item, je pouse que les .ii. mouvemens de .a. et de .b. // (46c) soient craftsmanship. Next, I posit that the two motions o f a and b [[ (46c) should be in­
inconmensurables et réguliers et perpétuels. Maistelle perpétuité de mouve­ commensurable, regular, and perpetual. Such perpetual motion could not be cre­
ment ne porroit estre faite par art se la fantaisie d’aucuns n’estoit vraye qui ated by any skill i f the idea o f certain persons, w ho at one time have conceived and
ont aucune foys tempté et cuidié faire une chose appellee rota viva A2 Item, je attempted to make something called the rota viva, were not true. A t this present
pouse que maintenant en ce present moment^ la roe .c. touche la roe .d. et di moment, I posit that the wheel c touches wheel d, and I say that it is impossible
que c’est impossible que elle ait touchié ou touche autre foys la roe de .d., that it should have touched it previously or should touch it again, for it can touch
quar elle ne la puet touchier fors quant les centres, b. et .c. et .d. sont en con-
joncion précisément en une ligne. E t ce ne puet avoir esté en tout le temps
passé ne autre foys avenir, si comme il appert par demonstracion geometrice
en la premiere conclusion de la seconde partie du traytey D e commensurabili-
tate vel incommensurabilitate motuum celi.44 E t par ce, il s’ensuit de neccessité
que la roe .d. commenceroit maintenant a estre meue et jamais ne cesseroit.
E t combien que telle chose ne puet estre faite par nature ne par art de matière
ou en matière corruptible ne tant longuement durer, toutevoies ce ne enclôt
ou implique quelconque contradiction ne aucune repugnance quant est de
soy, mais est possible selonc la nature des mouvemens, et toute / (4Ôd) la re­
pugnance est par rayson de la matière ou d’autre chose dehors. Apres je weul

42 A C D E bina, B F viva. Could it be that has performed the experiment o f keeping a

Oresme had in mind the celebrated descrip­
tion and drawing depicting a supposedly per­
petual motion device in the Sketch Book o f
Villard de Honnecourt (plate 62), based upon
a system o f metal mallets, nine or more in
number, containing within each hollow mallet
a heavy weight or quicksilver {vif argent),
joined at handled end by bolts or rivets to the
circumference o f a wheel ? The mallets are so
arranged that those on the underside o f the
wheel hang freely down, but if the wheel is
turned, the weights on the ascending side
come to rest on the circumference o f the
wheel, being carried over the highest part o f
the wheel, and downwards on the descending
side when the weights in the descending
mallets cause these to fall endlessly in series,
thus theoretically using the ineluctable enemy,
gravitation, to defeat itself. (Description from
H. Dircks, Perpetuum mobile, pp. 1-4. A variant
o f this device is described in an anonymous
late 14th century treatise cited by Thorndike,
Hist, of Magic and Experimental Science, vol. 3,
568-84): “ The possibility o f perpetual motion
is discussed. If we do not experience it in
nature in inanimate objects, nevertheless many
say it has been invented artificially. Our author
wheel filled with quicksilver rotating by ap­
plying heat to the lower part; he understands
the reason— that mercury rises with heat__ It
does not seem to occur to him that the device
might be used as a thermometer, or that it is
not really perpetual motion” (p. 578). A . Maier
notes (.Metaphysische Hintergriinde, p. 31) the
skeptical reference o f Oresme to this perpetual Fig. 22
motion device ; possibly she exaggerates some­
what in declaring {ibid., pp. 268-69) that “ die it only when the centers b, c, and d are in conjunction exactly in one line; and this
Naturphilosophen des 14. Jahrhunderts nie- cannot have happened before nor again in future time, as appears from geometri­
mals nach einem perpetuum mobile gesucht cal demonstration in the first conclusion o f the second part o f the treatise O n the
haben, sie wussten genau, dass so etwas nicht Com m ensurability and Incom m ensurability o f the M otions o f the H eavens. From this it
moglich ist, denn vires infatigabiles gibt es
follows necessarily that wheel d would now begin to m ove and will never stop;
nicht im Bereich des irdischen Geschehens.”
However, her citations from Oresme, Buridan, and, although such a series o f events cannot occur in nature, nor be shown b y ma­
et al. {ibid., p. 366, n. 26) imply a modicum o f terial art or in destructible matter, nor endure so long [as forever], nevertheless, it
interest in the invention o f perpetual motion contains or implies no contradiction whatever, nor is it within its own frame o f
devices artifialment, in spite o f the doctrine reference incongruous to reason, but it is possible if we grant the nature o f the mo­
that nullum violentum est eternum. There is ap­
tions. A ll / (46d) the incongruity arises b y reason o f the material or from some­
parently no systematic historical study o f the
thing outside the frame o f reference. Next, I wish to speak about rectilinear motion.
concept o f perpetual motion in antiquity or
prior to Villard’s Sketch Book. The biblio­
graphy in Frida Ichak’s Das Perpetuum mobile
is useful; J. Michel, Mouvements perpétuels is a
popular aperçu. In Geschichte der Technik Hans 43 mouvement.
tua mobilia und Wasserhebemaschinen bei den
Schmeller has examined “ Formen der Perpe- 44 See note 27.
Arabern,” pp. 1-35.
 204 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 29, fol. 47a | 20j

dire de mouvement droit et pouse que une chose pesante, et soit .a., doie I posit that a heavy body a must descend through a medium or distance bc and that
descendre par un moien ou espasce qui soit .bc., et que ce moien soit plus the medium is more resistant and more difficult to traverse or divide at the bottom
re<(s)istant45 et plus fort a passer ou a diviser en bas que en haut, et <que)46 than at the top and that the resistance o f the medium to the motive force is so ar­
210 la resistence de luy ou resgart de la vertu m otyve soit tellement dispousee qu e ranged that a in one day passes through half the distance bc, that on the second
.a. passe en un jour la moytié de l’espasce .bc., et ou secont jour apres que il day it passes through half the remainder, that on the third day one-half o f the rest,
passe <la)47 moytié du résidu, et ou tiers jour apres la moytié de l’autre rési­ and thus in the same manner forever. A s a result, its motion will be slower b y half
du, et ainsi touzjours. E t pour ce, sera son mouvement plus tardif au double on the second day than on the first, and half as fast on the third as on the second,
ou secont jour que ou premier, et plus tardif au double ou tiers que au se- and thus [in the same proportion] forever. Therefore, I say that this motion would
215 cont, et ainsi ensuienment. Je di donques que ce mouvement avroit commen­ have a beginning but would have no end. Such a hypothetical case was presented
cement et jamais ne fineroit. E t telle ymagynacion fu mise ou .ix.e chappitre.
ba
E t tout ce quant est de soy n’enclot48 quelconque repugnance ou im- // (47a)
p o ssib ilité ).40 O r avons donques monstré evidenment comment c’est pos­
sible50 que aucuns mouvemens commencent sanz finer, combien que par
220 vertu naturelle en matière corruptible ce ne puet estre fait [Fig. 23]. E t estoit a
dit devant d ’aucunes lumières du ciel comment ce n’est pas seullement pos­ a
a
sible que elles aient commencent sanz avoir fin, mais est vraysemblable a
que il soit ainsi de fait. E t Aristote et Averroÿs cuident prouver par raysons a
que ce est simplement impossible de toutes choses universelment, soit sub- c
225 stance ou quelconque accident. E t pour ce que le contraire de leur conclusion Fig. 23
est monstré par evidence comme dit est, il appert assés que leurs raysons ne
pourroient valoir, pousé que je ne sceuse monstrer la deffaute de elles ou que in Chapter Nine [see Ch. 10, fol. iqab]. A ll this theorizing presents no incongruity
je ne les peusse entendre; si comme qui me argueroit d’un honme51 en prou­ or // (47a) impossibility within its own frame o f reference. Thus, we have now
vant que il fust asne et je ne savoie respondre aus sophi(s)mes,52 “ Nient- shown clearly how it is possible that certain motions begin but do not end, al­
230 moins Birria semper homo.” 55 though natural forces w orking on destructible matter cannot accomplish it [see
Fig. 23]. A n d we said above, concerning certain lights in the sky, that it is not only
45 A recistant. translation has been edited by Etienne Guilhou
46 A omits que. possible but actually probable that they have a beginning but no end. Both Aristot­
in G. Cohen, La Comédie latine en France au
47 A omits la. X lle siecle (Paris, 1931), vol. 1, 1-57. The lines le and Averroes believe they have proved by their arguments that this is absolutely
48 B E t tout ce quant est enclôt. pertinent to Oresme’s reference are the fol­ impossible with all bodies universally, whether substance or accident. Because the
49 A impossible. lowing : contrary to their conclusion is shown, as we have said, it seems evident that their
50 B impossible.
arguments have no value, even i f I could not demonstrate their errors or i f I could
51 D E omit d’un honme. Geta. Sed precium pene miranda sophismata
52 A D E sophimes. not understand them, just as i f someone might argue with me about a man, trying
porto ;
53 In his commentary in Le Livre de éthiques, to prove the man was a donkey, and I was unable to reply to his sophisms other­
Iamque probare scio quod sit asellus homo.
p. 36S, Oresme refers to “ la fable de Birria,” Dum mihi me reddent patine, focus uncta wise than: “ Nevertheless, Birria is still a man.”
which was often given as the title o f the Latin popina,
comedia written about 1160 by Vital de Blois, Hos asinos, illos esse probabo boves.
best known as Geta. The play, the most popu­ Sum logicus ; faciam quevis animalis cunctos ;
lar o f the mediaeval comediae, is based upon Birria qui nimis est lentus asellus erit.
Plautus’s Amphitryon, with a somewhat dif­
ferent denouement; it was frequently attribu­ Birria. Birria sic secum: “ Quid? Birria fiet
ted to O vid and was translated into French by asellus ?
Eustache Deschamps, “ Un Traictié de Geta The passage presents a telling satire against seems to assume that the lay reader would
Quod natura dedit auferet ille mihi?”
et d’Amphitrion mis de latin en françois,” the misuse o f the syllogism, likely enough to recognize the reference without explanation,
Birria sic Gete, quecumque problemata vo-
Œuvres complètes, (Paris: Didot, 1878-1903), luat, impress Oresme as a follower o f Ockhamite merely by the mention o f Birria’ s name.
vol. 8, 211-46. The Latin text with French Respondebit: “ Erit Birria semper homo.” distrust o f the uses o f formal logic, and he
206 Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 30, fols. 47^-47^ I 207

30. In Chapter Thirty he asserts and begins to prove that everything

30. Ou .xxx.e chappitre il entent et commence a prouver que toute
that has had a beginning and all things subject to change will
chose qui a eu commencement et toute chose corruptible
have an end, and also that everything that will end
avra fin, et que toute chose qui ara fin
has had or will have a beginning. /
a eu ou avra commencement.1 /

(47b) T . Having reached these conclusions, we must proceed with our discus­
(47b) T . Apres ce que <c)es2 choses sont determinees, nous avons a dire ce
qui s’ensuit. sion.
G . It seems to me that the text which follows on this subject is obscure; perhaps
G . Il me semble que le texte qui s’ensuit en ceste mattiere est obscur. E t
the texts in Greek were corrupt in several passages or perhaps the translators did
puet estre que les textes en grec estoient corrompus en plusseurs lieux, ou
not understand them well. However, it has already been made clear in part, and
5 que les translateurs ne les entendirent pas bien. Mais nientmoins, il est ja des-
will become more so, that, whatever the intent which Aristotle or Averroes may
clairié en partie et sera encor plus a plain que quelconque intencion Ari<s>-
have had in this matter, their arguments are inconclusive. N ext Aristotle proposes
tote3 ou Averroïz peussent avoir eu<e>4 en ceste matière, leurs raysons ne
for discussion four suppositions.
concluent pas. Apres Aristote met pour son propos .iiii. suppousicions.
T . If it is possible for certain things to exist or not exist, then some time must be
T . E t donques se aucunes choses sont possibles quant a estre et non-estre,
fixed as the limit o f their being and likewise o f their non-being. I am referring to
10 il convient par neccessité que aucun temps soit déterminé quant au plus que
the possibility o f being or non-being as applied to all the categories— for example,
elles pueent estre, et quant au plus qu’elles pueent5 non-estre. E t je di et en­
in such instances as being or not being man, being or not being white, or being
tent ceste possibilité de estre et de non-estre selonc quelconque predicacion
three cubits tall, and other such predicates.
ou predicament, si comme de estre et non-estre honme, et de estre et non-
G . According to Averroes, things which are to come will begin to exist by
estre blanc, ou du grant de .iii. coûtes ou de quelconque autre de telles de-
reason o f the potentialities that were intended to produce their beginning. A n d //
i5 nominacions.
(47c) present things which have begun to exist perfect their existence by reason o f
G . Selonc Ave<r)roÿs,6 les choses qui sont a venir commenceront a estre
the potentialities they possess to this end, and they will perish from a lack o f these
par les puissances qui estoient a ce que elles commençaissent. E t // (47c) les
potentialities, just as a man has the potentiality to live one hundred years, or a
choses présentes qui ont commencié a estre sont par les puissances qu’il ont a
quality, or something o f this sort. Thus, since active and passive potentialities are
estre et seront corrompues par la deffaute de ces puissances, si comme un
based upon certain quantities in the manner shown in the preceding chapter, simi­
20 honme a puissances de durer cent ans, ou une qualité, ou quelconque chose.
larly the potentialities o f things, with respect to their being or non-being, are
E t donques aussi comme les puissances actives et passives sont determinees a
measured according to certain quantities o f time. But I shall show later that this
certaines quantités en la maniéré decleree ou chappitre precedent, semblable­
supposition is not universally true; nevertheless, this is the meaning o f Aristotle’s
ment les puissance des choses, quant a estre et quant a non-estre, sont deter­
argument, according to Averroes.
minees a certainnes quantités de temps. Mais je monstreray apres que ceste
T . For, if time were not limited in the length or brevity o f its duration, but,
25 suppousicion n’est pas vraie universelment, et toutevoies est ce l’entente
whatever the given time, i f one could always take more and then more without
d’Aristote selonc l’exposicion d’Ave<r)roÿs.7
limit, it would necessarily follow that the time in which the same thing could exist
T . Quar se le temps n’estoit déterminé quant a grandeur et quant a pe-
would be infinite and that the contrary— the time o f its non-existence— would also
titesce mais que, quelconque temps donné, l’en peust touzjours prendre plus
be infinite. A n d this is impossible.
grant et plus grant et ainsi sanz fin, il convendroit que de une meisme chose
G . Aristotle holds it as impossible that two infinite bodies could exist, and the
30 le temps en quoy elle est possible a estre fust infini et que un autre temps fust
contrary is true considered imaginatively and within its own frame o f reference, /
infini8 en quoy elle est possible a non-estre. E t c’est impossible.
(4 7 e!) as we said in Chapter Thirteen [see fol. 22abc]. He also holds, it appears, that
G . Aristote repute impossible que .ii. corps infinis soient ; et le contraire
est vray quant a ymaginacion et selonc soy, / (47d) si comme il fu dit ou

1 Guthrie, ch. 12. 4 A eu.

ses. 5 B elles ne pevent. 8 F omits et que un autre temps fust infini.
7 A C Avenroys.
Aritote. 6 A C Avenroys. Cf. Juntas, t.c. 1x8.
 208 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
.xiii.e chappitre.9 E t par aventure, il repute semblablement impossible que
35 .ii. temps infinis soient, et le contraire appert clerement selonc sa philosophie,
car tout le temps passé est infiny et le temps avenir infiny, et est un infiny
d’une part et autre infiny d’autre. Mais que .ii. temps soient infinis chascun de
toutes pars, c ’est impossible. E t a propos, Plato disoit10 que les intelligences
ou angelz eurent conmencement et sont de leur nature corruptibles ou ad-
40 nichilables, mais la bonne voulenté de Dieu les maintendra touzjours en
estre perpetuelment. E t ainsi la possiblité que il orent a estre11 avant leur
creacion ot fin et fu sanz commencement, et la possibilité que il ont a non-
estre durera sanz fin. E t selonc la philosophie d’Aristote, qui met que le
monde fu sanz commencement et sera sanz fin, il convient octroier chose
45 semblable, quar par la glose12 du chappitre precedent appert que aucune
lumière ou ciel puet commencier qui onques ne fu et ja ne finera, et si est cor­
ruptible de sa nature, quar semblable sera ou ciel corrompue, si comme il
appert par la glose dessus dicte. // (48a) Item, par celle meisme glose appert
que une conjonction de .iii. planettez puet estre et est vraysemblable que
50 elle soit aucune foys de laquelle la possibilité inevitable par nature avra fin et
avra duré sanz commencement, et l’impossibilité de telle conjonction et de
semblable13 avra conmencement et durera sanz fin. Apres il met une autre
supposicion.
T . Item, un autre principe est que im possible et fal% n’ont pas une si-
55 gnificacion,14 quar possible et im possible et fal% et veir sont .iiii. intencions. E t
aucune chose est impossible par supposicion, si comme que triangle ait .ii.
angles drois se telle chose ou telle est, et que le dyametre du quarré soit con-
mensurable a son costé se telle chose est.
G . E t le triangle qui contient la quarte partie de la superfice de demie-es-
60 pere, il a .iii.15 angles drois ; mais a parler de triangle en plaine superfice et de
lignes droites, c ’est simplement impossible qu’il ait .ii. angles drois. E t aussi
est ce simplement impossible que le dyametre du quarré soit conmensurable
a son costé. Mais Aristote met ces choses par maniéré d’exemple, et pour ce
que aucuns disoient ainsi ou pourroient dire. Apres il met / (48b) les autres
65 membres.
T . Mais aucunes choses sont simplement possibles et aucunes simplement
impossibles, et aucunes simplement falses et aucunes simplement vraies. E t
estre simplement fais et estre simplement impossible n’est pas une chose, quar
quant tu n’es pas en estant, se l’en dit que tu te estes, c ’est falz mais ce n’est
70 pas impossible. O u quant tu ne chantes pas, dire que tu chantes est fais et non
pas impossible. Mes toy ester et seer ensemble, ou que le dyamettre du quar-
9 D E .xii.e A . Mullachius (Paris, 1867), vol. 2, 169 or,
10 Timaeus, 41A.5— 41B.6. Oresme here is perhaps, the paraphrase o f St. Augustine:
likely following the translation o f Chalcidius, “ Vos quidem immortales esse non potestis,
in Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum, ed. G. sed mea voluntate immortales eritis” (De
Book I, Chapter 30, fols. 48a-48b | 209
it is impossible that tw o infinite times could exist, while the contrary is evident ac­
cording to his own system o f philosophy; for the past is infinite and the future like­
wise, and in both past and future there is infinity. But that two times, both infinite,
should exist, each being both past and future, is impossible. O n this subject Plato
used to say that the intelligences or angels had a beginning and are by nature per­
ishable or destructible, but that G o d ’s good will can maintain their existence for­
ever. Thus, the potentiality for existing which they had before their creation had
an end and was without beginning, and their potentiality for] nonexistence will
last forever. According to Aristotelian philosophy, which teaches that the world
had no beginning and will endure forever, we must allow this supposition, for,
according to the gloss in the preceding chapter [see fol. 45b], it appears that a cer­
tain light in the sky can begin which never existed and which will never end and is,
at the same time, perishable by nature ; for such a light would perish in the sky,
as stated above. // (48a) Also, in this same gloss it appears that a conjunction o f
three planets could happen and it is quite possible that it may happen at some time ;
while the possibility, ineluctable in nature, will end and will have lasted without
having had a beginning, and the impossibility o f such conjunction or a similar one
will have a beginning and will last forever. N ext he presents another supposition.
T . W e can start with the declaration that im possible and fa lse do not mean the
same ; for possible and im possible and fa lse and true represent four intensities or shades
o f meaning. For example, a thing is impossible by hypothesis, as that a triangle has
two right angles, if there is such a thing; or that the diameter or diagonal o f a
square is commensurable with its side, if there is such a thing.
G . A nd the triangle which contains the quarter part o f the area o f a hemisphere
has three right angles. But speaking o f a triangle on a plane surface and with
straight lines, it is utterly impossible that it have two right angles ; also, it is utterly
impossible that the diagonal o f a square be commensurable to its side. But Aristot­
le uses these items by way o f example and because certain persons said them or
might say them. Next, he proceeds with / (48b) the other members [of his proof].
T . There are some things which are possible and others simply impossible, some
absolutely false and others entirely true. T o be false is not the same as to be im­
possible, for when you are not standing up and someone says that you are standing,
this is false, but not impossible; or, if you are not singing, to say that you are sing­
ing is false, but not impossible. But to be standing and sitting at one and the same
civitateDei, X X II.26). Both differ textually from tent a estre.
Cicero’s translation and the accepted text. See 12 B D E chose
A . E. Taylor, A Commentary on Plato's Timaeus 13 E et dessemblable avra.
(Oxford, 1928), pp. 250—52. 14 B C D E F supposicion.
11 F E t ainsi que la possibilité que il en­ 15 B .iiii.
210 L e L iv r e du c ie l e t du monde
Book I, Chapter 30, fols. 48c-~48d | 211
ré16 est conmensurable a son costé, ce n’est pas seulement falz mais est im­
time or to say that the diagonal o f a square should be commensurable with its side
possible. E t donques n’est ce pas tout un suppouser une chose false et la
is not only false, but also impossible. Therefore, it is not the same thing to assume
suppouser impossible.17
that falsity and impossibility are one and the same.
75 G . Il me semble selon vérité que im possible est dit generalment selonc .iii.
G . Generally, it seems to me that impossible is actually said in three meanings.
significations. Premièrement, il est dit de impossible simplement et ce qui
First, it is used in an absolute sense, indicating that which contains a contradiction
contient ou enclôt en soy contradiction. E t puet18 estre en .iii. maniérés. Une
within its own frame o f reference. This can happen in three ways. O ne is when the
est quant la contradiction est expliquée et formée, si comme toy seoir et non
contradiction is explicit and formal, as to be seated and not seated at the same time
seoir ensemble ou telle chose. Autre est quant la contradiction est impliquée
or some such thing. Another case is when the contradiction is implicit but follows
80 et s’ensuit evidanment ou clerement, si comme toy seoir et toy ester en- //
obviously and clearly, as to be seated and standing at the same time, // (48c) or as
(48c) semble ou si comme l’en dit de ceste proposition:19 tantum pater est.
we say o f the proposition : tantum pater est. Another meaning is when the contra­
Autre est quant ia contradiction est impliquée obscurément et n’appar<ç)oit20
diction is implied obscurely and one cannot readily see the consequence, as when
l’en pas legierment la consequance, si comme que le dyamettre du quarré
we say the diagonal o f the square is commensurate with its side. In this third in­
est conmensurable a son costé. E t en ceste tierce maniéré est difference selonc
stance, there exists a difference according as the obscurity is great or small, so that
85 ce que l’obscurté est grande ou petite en tant que aucune foys est doubte se la
there is sometimes doubt whether the proposition implies contradiction or not, as,
proposition21 implique contradiction ou non, si comme, par aventure, de
for example, in this statement : Aristotle never existed. A n d thus to be impossible
ceste proposition:22 Aristote ne fu onques. E t tôt impossible simplement est
absolutely is such that it cannot be realized in fact or in existence or verified by any
tel que il ne puet estre mis en fait ou en estre ou vérifié par quelconque vertu
force or power whether finite or infinite. Secondly, impossible may be used in a
ou puissance soit finie ou infinie. Secondement est dit impossible non pas
non-absolute sense not with reference to itself nor because it contains some con­
90 simplement et de soy ne pour ce qu’il encloie en soy contradiction, mes pour
tradiction, but simply because it cannot exist naturally. This usage has three
ce qu’il ne puet estre naturelment. E t est dit en .iii. maniérés. Une est pour
separate subdivisions. One arises from the lack o f both the subject and the active
deffaute de subjet et de puissance active ensemble, si comme que un autre
force, for example, that another world exists outside this world. Another case is
monde soit hors cestuy. Autre est pour la repugnance du subjet, si comme
that o f the incongruity o f the subject, for instance, that the heavens are at rest or that
que le ciel repouse ou qu’il soit devisé. Autre est pour deffaute de vertu ac-
the heavens are divided. Another is that o f the lack o f an active force which can
95 tive qui ce puisce faire, si comme que la terre soit perciee23 tout oultre parmy
perform a given task, as when the earth should be pierced completely through the
le centre ou qu’elle soit meue de / (48d) son lieu. Tiercement est dit impos­
center to the outer circumference or moved out o f / (48d) its natural place. Thirdly,
sible sou<s>24 condicion de present temps, si comme, pour cause d’exemple,
impossible is used conditionally in speaking o f present time, as, for example, we
l’en diroit que, se le nombre des estoilles est per, c’est impossible que fust
might say that, if the number o f stars is even, it cannot possibly become uneven;
nomper, quar selonc Aristote, 23 l’en ne puet ou ciel adj ouster ne oster. Je di
for, according to Aristotle, nothing can be added to or taken from the heavens.
100 apres que possible est dit quant a propos en .iii. maniérés. Premièrement, ge­
N ow , I say that possible is said correctly in three ways. First, it is used generally to
neralment de tout ce qui est possible en quelconque maniéré, soit neccessaire
mean all that is possible in any way whatever, necessarily or contingently, however
ou contingent, comme que soit. Secondement, possible est dit de ce qui
it may be. Secondly, possible is said o f something that can be imagined without
pourroit estre selonc ymagynacion sanz contradiction, combien que ce ne
contradiction, even though it could not exist naturally. Thus, it is possible that
puisse estre mis en estre naturelment. E t ainsi est possible que un autre mon-
there is another world and that there is a complete void, or that the earth rests or
105 de soit et que un lieu soit du tout vieu ou que le ciel repouse ou que la terre
moves and is put out o f its proper place, or that it could be pierced through so that
soit meue et mise hors de son lieu, ou que elle soit <perciee>26 et que l’en
one can see from the other side, and other such things. Thirdly, possible is said o f
voie de l’autre part et telles choses. Tiercement, possible est dit de ce qui est
that which is not clearly true or false, necessary or impossible ; and so we say that
doubteus ou en doubte et n’appert pas <s>e27 c ’est vray ou faulz, neccessaire

16 B C D E F omit du quarté. 19 C D E F proporcion.

17 B impossible. Et donques ne est ce pas 20 A n’apparoit.
seulement falz mez est inpossible et donques 21 D E est doubteuse la prop.
ne est ce pas tout un. 22 C proporcion.
18 A pueent. 23 B D E F partie. 24 A sou. 26 A B F partie.
25 De caelo, 1.3.270a 12-25; II.6. 288a 34. 27 A ce.
212 j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ou impossible, et ainsi disons nous estre possible que le nombre des estoilles
i io est nomper, et toutevoies selonc Aristote, ou c'est neccessaire ou c’est impos­
sible selonc ce que dit est. E t semblablement diroit l’en que c ’est // (49a)
possible que aucuns des mouvemens du ciel sont inconmensurables, et toutes-
voies, selonc la philosophie d’Aristote, c’est neccessaire ou impossible— a
prendre impossible selonc aucune autre des significations devant mises. E t
115 par ygnorance de ceste dist<inct>ion,28 aucuns ont cuidé faire nouvelles dé­
monstrations a prouver que D iex est par sophisme telz, si comme qui vou-
droit prover que les estoilles sont nomper en ceste maniéré. Il est possible
que les estoilles soient nomper et ne enclôt quelconque contradicion, et don-
ques se ce est mis en estre, il ne s’ensuit quelconque impossible. O r pousons
120 donques que aucune foys elles29 soient nomper, et d’autre partie, selonc
Aristote, c ’est impossible que ou ciel soit faite addicion ou substraction d’au­
cune estoille.30 E t donques est ce chose perpetuelment neccessaire que elles
soient nomper et ne puet estre autrement. Mais l’en puet veoir clerement que
cest arguement est sophistique, quar, par semblable l’en prouveroit que elles
125 sont per, et semblablement de la conmensurableté ou inconmensurableté des
mouvemens du ciel. E t la deffaute de tel arguement est quar quant l’en dit
que c’est possible, se l’en prent / (49b) possible selonc la premiere ou seconde
signification, ce ne seroit pas a octroier selonc Aristote, mais est a doubter;
et donques la conclusion seroit doubteuse. E t se possible est prins en la tierce
130 maniéré, premisses et conclusion— tôt demoure en doubte. Apres il met la
tierce suspousicion.
T . Item, impossible31 s’ensuit de impossible.
G . Impossible ne s’ensuit onques de possible ne de moins impossible, quar
le consequant n’est onques plus impossible que l’antecedent. Apres il met la
135 quarte susposicion.
T . Item, un honme a ensemble la vertu ou puissance de soy seoir <et>32 de
soy ester, quar aucune foys il a l’une et l’autre puissance, mais non pas a ce
que il se sieche et se este ensemble,33 mais a ce qu’il se sieche en un temps et
este en autre.
140 G . A ver<r)oÿs34 met autrement et dit en sentence que aussi comme fais
oppositez ne pueent estre ensemble en un temps mais un apres l’autre, sem­
blablement les puissances ou possibilitéz a fais oppositez ne pueent estre en­
semble en un temps,35 quar aussi comme ceste chose estre et ceste meisme
non-estre ne pueent // (49c) estre en un temps, semblablement ceste chose
145 povoir estre et povoir <non)-estre36 par neccessité sont en divers temps.
Quar avant que la chose soit, elle a puissance a estre; et quant elle est, elle
n’a plus puissance a estre, mais a puissance a non-estre. C ’est selonc A ver-
roÿs, et semble qu’il avoit oublié ce qu’il a dit tantost devant en cest chap-
distrtion. 30 gee note 25.
foys elle elles soient. 3i E possible.
Book I, Chapter 30, fols. 49a~49b | 213
the number o f the stars is possibly an uneven number, although, according to
Aristotle, either it is necessary or it is impossible, depending upon what is said.
Likewise, one would say it is // (49a) possible that some o f the motions o f the heav­
ens are incommensurable, and, according to the philosophy o f Aristotle, this is
necessary or impossible— taking impossible in another sense explained above.
Through ignorance o f this distinction, some have thought to set forth new demon­
strations proving that G o d exists, using sophisms o f the sort used to prove that
the stars are uneven in number. It is possible that the stars are uneven in number
and this does not involve any contradiction, and, if it is actually so, it is not im­
possible. L et us suppose, now, that sometimes they are odd in number and that, as
Aristotle says, it is impossible to add any star to or subtract any from the heavens.
Then, it becomes forever necessary that the stars are odd in number, and it cannot
be otherwise. But anyone can plainly see that this argument is sophistical; for,
using the same method, one could prove that they are even in number, and, like­
wise, regarding the commensurability or incommensurability o f the motions o f the
heavens. The fallacy o f such an argument is that, when it is said to be possible, if
we take / (49b) possible in the first or second meaning, the statement would not
be allowed by Aristotle, but would be doubtful; therefore, the conclusion would
be doubtful. I f we take possible in the third meaning, all premises and conclusions
remain in doubt. N ext he states his third supposition.
T . Impossible follows from impossible.
G . Impossible never follows from possible nor from the least impossible, for the
consequent is never more impossible than the antecedent. Next, he states his fourth
supposition.
T . A man has at once the force or power to sit down and to stand up, for at a
certain time he has one or the other power, but not so that he can sit down and
stand at the same time, but so he can sit down at one time and stand at another.
G . Averroes puts it otherwise and says simply that, since contraries cannot exist
together at one time but only in succession, in the same way the powers or poten­
tials for opposites cannot exist at one time; for just as being and non-being cannot
// (49c) exist in the same thing at the same time, likewise the power to be and the
power not to be ate necessarily in different times. For, before a thing exists, it has
the potential to exist; and when it exists, it no longer has potential to exist, but it
has power not to exist. This is according to Averroes, and it appears as though he
had forgotten what he said just before in this same chapter— namely, that a thing,
32 A omits et. 81A.
33 D E omit a ce que il se sieche et se este 35 A repeats mes un apres... en un temps,
ensemble, mais. 36 A et non povoir estre.
34 A Avenroÿs. See Juntas, t.c. 119, fol.
 214 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book I, Chapter 30, fols. 49d-5oa | 21 j

pitre, c’est assavoir que une chose qui est dure par la puissance qu’elle a a which endures by its potential to exist and turns to non-being from lack o f that

i5o estre, et vient en non-estre par la deffaute de ceste puissance et donques a elle power, has, therefore, potentiality to be when it exists. A n d the possibility o f exist­

puissance a estre quant elle est. E t sont ensemble en un temps possibilité a ence and nonexistence are present at the same time in the same thing. I f someone
wished to comment saying that above he meant power joined with act, and that
estre et possibilité a non-estre de une meisme chose. E t se aucun le vouloit
gloser en disant qu’il entendoit devant de puissance conjointe au fait, et yci here he means power apart from act, it would seem inappropriate that this change
o f meaning should occur in this proposition. O n the other hand, to say that a thing
il entent de puissance separee du fait, il appert assés que ceste variacion n’es-
lacks the power to exist when it does exist seems inconsistent. Aristotle then pre­
155 toit pas a faire en ce propos. D ’autre partie, dire que une chose n’ <ait>37 pas
sents his argument and wishes to show that it is absolutely impossible that a per­
puissance a estre quant elle est, <c)e38 semble inconvenient. Apres Aristote
fait sa rayson et veult monstrer que c’est simplement impossible que une ishable thing should be everlasting.
chose corruptible soit perpétuelle. T . Therefore, if someone were to pretend or say that one thing could have this
potential / (49d) or possibility for several contrary states and that these possibilities
T . E t donques <se>39 aucun <fe>ignoit40 ou disoit que une chose eust puis-
would last through infinite time, it could not be that one potential was realized in
160 sance/ (49d) ou possibilité a plusseurs choses oppositez et que ces puissances
one time and the other in another, but they would have to be together.
duraissent par temps infiny, ce ne pourroit estre que une de ces possibilitéz
G . For each potential would exist or last to infinity, because, according to the
fust en un temps et autre en autre, mais convendroit que elle fussent ensem­
ble. first hypothesis, it appears that it is impossible for two different times to be infinite.
But I have shown before in what way this hypothesis is false, both in reality and in
G . Puisque chascune seroit ou dureroit par temps infiny, quar par la pre-
philosophy. Thus, the argument is not conclusive and even errs in other ways.
165 miere susposission appert que c ’est impossible que .ii. temps soient infinis.
T . Consequently, i f something remains in existence for an infinite time and is
Mais j’ay monstré devant comment celle suspousicion est false simplement
destructible, it has the power not to be. I f a thing exists through infinite time, a
et selonc philosophie. E t donques ceste rayson ne conclude pas et encor
defaut elle autrement. thing which is capable o f not being, then it would follow that the thing w ould in
fact both exist and not exist. Accordingly, a false conclusion follows a false prem­
T . E t pour ce, se aucune chose est durante en estre par temps infini et elle
ise, but, if the false premise were not impossible, then that which followed— the
170 est corruptible, elle a puissance a non-estre. E t donques, se une chose est
ainsi en estre par temps infiny laquelle puet non estre, il s’ensuiroit que de conclusion— would not be impossible.
G . A n d it is impossible, because the consequent contains an obvious contra­
fait elle seroit et ne seroit pas. E t donques s’ensuit faulz de ce qui estoit mis
diction, which followed from the fact that it was assumed that a perpetual thing is
faulz. Mes se ce que estoit mis faulz ne fust impossible, ce que s’ensuit ne
fust pas impossible.41 destructible.
T . Therefore, any perpetual thing is // ( 50a) imperishable.
175 G . E t si est, quar le consequant enclôt contradiction apperte, et il s’en-
G . This argument fails because it states that, i f a thing lasts forever although it
suioit42 de ce que l’en metoit que la chose qui est perpétuelle fust corruptible.
cannot be, it follows that it exists and does not exist [at one and the same time].
T . E t donques toute chose qui est touzjours //(50a) est incorruptible.
A nd it seems that he wishes to prove this consequence because, if that which is
G . C ’est arguement deffaut en ce que il dit que se une chose dure par temps
possible is put to the act or comes to be, no impossibility results. N o w , since this
infiny laquelle puet non estre, il s’ensuit que elle seroit et ne seroit pas. E t
thing cannot be, let us say that it does not exist. O n the other hand, it is stated that
180 semble que <il>43 weille prouver ceste consequance, parce que se ce qui est
the thing will last perpetually; thus, it might be and might not be at the same time.
possible est mis en fait ou en estre, il ne s’ensuit quelconque impossible. E t
I say that this solves nothing, for, by saying or positing that the thing is not, we
donques puisque ceste chose puet non estre, meton qu’elle ne soit pas. E t
deny the contrary, namely, that it will always be; therefore, it is contingent that it
d’autre partie, il est dit que elle sera touzjours, et ainsi elle seroit et ne seroit
exist forever and also that at a certain time the thing should not exist, and yet it
pas. Je di quar ce ne vault, quar en mettant ou pousant que elle ne soit pas,
may come to pass that, in truth, it will always be and also will not be ; accordingly,
185 l’en depouse le contradictoire, c’est assavoir qu’elle sera touzjours et pour ce44,
est ce chose contingente que elle soit43 touzjours; et aussi que aucune foys
qu’elle ne soit pas, et puet estre qu’elle sera touzjours et est vérité, et puet
n’est. 40 a signoit. 42 F contradiction et par ce il s’ensuioit. pour ce.
43 A. omits il. 45 D E elle ne soit.
ïk

se. 41 F omits ce que s’ensuit ne fust pas im-

omits se. possible. 44 B tousjours, et ainsi que aucune foiz
 2i6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
estre que non sera; et pour ce, est elle dicte corruptible. Mais par aventure,
aucun diroit que Aristote suppouse que toute chose pardurable durera touz-
190 jours et de neccessité. E t je di donques que il ne46 convenist ja faire telz ar-
guemens comme il fait, mais souffisist dire seullement ceste chose est necces-
saire, et donques elle / (50b) ne puet non-estre et, par consequant, elle est in­
corruptible. Mais qui argueroit ainsi, je diroie que la suspousicion est false
et que la chose durera perpetuelment et non pas de neccessité. Encor pour-
195 roit aucun dire que Aristote entent que se une chose est corruptible, il con­
vient qu’elle ait puissance a non-estre. E t D ieu et nature ne font rien pour
noient, si comme il fu dit ou .viii.e chappitre. E t donques convient il ’par nec­
cessité que ceste puissance soit aucune foys réduite a fait et que la chose cor­
ruptible soit aucune foys corrompue. Je respon et di premièrement que pos-
200 sibilité a non-estre n’est pas chose positive et ne s’ensuit pas se elle ne vient en
fait que Dieu ou nature aient rien fait pour noient ; si comme, par aventure,
c’est possible que aucun honme soit aveillé, 47 et toutevoies se jamais honme
n’estoit aveillié48 nature n’avroit fait nulle chose pour noient. Item, aucune
lumière ou ciel causée du soiled est perpétuelle, et nientmoins, quant est de
205 soy, elle est corruptible, quar continuelment aucune semblable est corrom­
pue ou ciel par l’ombre de la terre et par l’ombre de la lune. // (5 oc) E t pour
ce diroit l’en que celle lumière qui est perpétuelle et corruptible de soy est
m a in te n u e )4’ en estre perpétuel par la presence du solleyl et de sa clarté. E t
semblablement, les angelz et le monde quant est de soy seroient réduis ou
2ro tourneroient en rien se eulz n’estoient maintenus en estre par l’influance de
D ieu duquel est aus autres choses dirivé et communiqué estre et vivre, as unes
plus clerement et as autres plus obscurément, si comme dit Aristote ou
.xxiiii.e chappitre. E t pour ceste similitude est il appellé en l’Escripture “ Pere
de Lumières” : Om ne datum, etc., descendens50 a pâtre luminum.51 Apres il
215 veult prouver que chose qui durera sanz fin a esté touzjours sanz commence­
ment.
T . Semblablement il convient par neccessité que to u rte )52 chose qui sera
touzjours ait esté sanz conmencement, quar se une chose qui touzjours sera
avoit eu commencement en aucun temps, il s’ensuiroit qu’elle eust eu en
220 aucun temps possibilité a non-estre.
G . Aristote repute impossible que chose perpétuelle ait de present ou ait
eu autrefoys possibilité a non-estre, si comme il cuide avoir monstré devant.
Apres il monstre encor que / (5od) chose corruptible ne puet touzjours durer.
T . E t chose corruptible est telle qu’elle a premièrement estre et apres elle
225 n’est pas, ou puet estre que apres elle ne sera pas. E t chose qui a eu commen­
cement est ce que eut53 premièrement non-estre. Mais de ce qui est touzjours,
l’en ne puet donner temps ouquel il soit possible que ce ne soit pas, soit temps
fini ou infiny, quar se ce peut non estre en temps infiny, ce puet non estre en
46 B omits ne. 47 F aveuglé.
Book I, Chapter 30, fols. 5ob-5od | 217
it is termed perishable. Possibly someone may say that Aristotle assumes that every
imperishable object will o f necessity last forever. I say that he does not need to
make such arguments, for it would suffice to say simply that this thing is necessary,
and consequently it / (50b) cannot not-be and so is imperishable. T o those who
would argue thus I would say that the assumption is false and that the thing will
last forever and not from necessity. Again, someone could say that Aristotle means
that, if a thing is perishable, it must have the power o f non-being. Both G o d and
Nature never do anything without purpose, as was stated in Chapter E igh t [see fol.
16b]. Necessarily then this power must at some time be reduced to act so that the
perishable thing should eventually perish. T o this I reply, first, that the possibility
not to be is not a positive thing, and it does not follow that G o d and Nature have
done something to no purpose if a potential power is not exercised. For example, a
certain man may be awake, but, nevertheless, if men were not awake, Nature
would have done nothing without purpose. Likewise, a certain ray o f light in the
sky caused b y the sun is perpetual; nevertheless, within its own natural frame o f
reference, it is perishable because another similar ray is continually destroyed in
the sky by the shadow o f the earth or o f the moon. // (50c) Thus, one might say
that this light, perpetual and perishable by nature, is maintained in perpetual exist­
ence b y the presence o f the sun and its light. Similarly, the angels and the world
would be reduced or would turn to nothing if they were not maintained in exist­
ence by the influence o f G od, from whom life and being are derived and communi­
cated, to some things more clearly, to others more obscurely, as Aristotle says in
Chapter Twenty-four. Because o f this similitude with the sun, G o d is called in
Scripture “ Father o f Lights” : E very good gift, etc., cometh down from the Father
o f Lights. Next, he wishes to prove that a thing which will last 'forever has always
existed without a beginning.
T . In like manner it is necessary that all things which will always exist should
have no beginning; for, i f anything which will always exist had a beginning in
time, it would follow that it would have had at some time the possibility o f non-
being.
G . Aristotle holds it impossible that any perpetual thing should have now or
should have had in the past the possiblity o f non-being, as he believes he has shown
above. Next, he shows again that / (jod) a perishable thing cannot last forever.
T . It is the nature o f any perishable thing that it first exists and afterward does
not exist or, perhaps, will not exist. Whatever has had a beginning has had a pre­
vious state o f not-being. But, with regard to that which lasts forever, we cannot
fix a time, either finite or infinite, when it was possible that it might not be ; for,
48 B n’estoit nays; C enveillé; F aveuglé. 51 Jac. 1:17.
49 A maintenant. 52 A touz.
50 B omits descendens. 53 F\.B eust; D E F omit.
 2 i8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
temps finy. E t ce est «(im)possible54 que une chose puisse touzjours estre et
230 puis55 non estre ou selonc negacion devant mise en disant non touzj ours estre.
G . Sy comme il est monstré devant, quar selon Averroÿs,56 c’est impos­
sible que de une meisme chose la puissance a estre et la puissance a non-estre
soient ensemble a un temps. Item, selonc Aristote c ’est impossible de mettre
.ii. temps infinis; et donques est ce impossible que une chose puisse avoir
235 non-estre57 par temps infiny et que elle puisse estre ou durer par temps in-
finy. Mais j’ay monstré devant que ces .ii. suppousicions sont falses; et pour
ce, la conclusion d’Aristote est false, qui est telle.
T . E t donques est ce impossible que une chose soit // (51a) touzjours la­
quelle est corruptible.
240 G . Apres il retourne a monstrer que ce qui durera sanz fin ne puet avoir
eu commencement.
T . Semblablement chose ne peut avoir eu commencement <qui>58 sera
touzjours, quar .ii. termes sont, c’est assavoir commencement et fin . E t <s)e59
c’est impossible que fin soit de ce qui durera touzjours, donques est ce im-
245 possible que l’autre terme soit et que telle chose ait eu commencement. E t
donques se ce qui est touzjours ne puet aucune foys non-estre, et c ’est impos­
sible que ce ait eu commencement.
G . Il me semble que ceste rayson a petite apparence, quar bien est vray que
c’est impossible que une chose dure touzjours et qu’elle<ait)6° fin; mais
250 deviseement c ’est possible que une chose dure tousjours et si est possible
qu’elle ait fin, quar chascune de ces .ii. proposicions par soy est possible, et la
coupulative des .ii. est impossible, si comme de ceste : tu iras demain a Paris,
tu n’yras pas demain a Paris.61 E t ce scevent les enfanz qui apprennent logy-
que. Item, se une chose dure sanz fin, Aristote ne prouve en rien que elle ait
255 duré sanz commencement par neccessité, mais le contraire fu monstré devant
ce chappitre. Item Ave<r)roÿs62 veult / (5 ib ) ycy prouver estre impossible
que une chose ait fin laquelle n’a eu commencement parce que de ces .ii. ter­
mes, fin et commencement, un ne puet estre sanz ce que l’autre soit ou ait
esté.63 E t je respon que la conclusion est vraye, quar D ieu seullement est
260 sanz commencement et ne puet avoir fin. Mais la probacion de Averroÿs est
nulle, et le contraire de la conclusion seroit vray se le monde estoit pardura-
ble sanz commencement, si comme j’ay monstré devant ce chappitre.
54 A possible. 60 A est.
ss A B F puisse. 61 B omits tu n’yras pas demain a Paris.
56 Juntas, t.c. 121. 62 A C Avenroÿs. See Juntas, t.c. 121, fol.
57 B C D E F non esté. 82D.
58 A omits qui. 63 E estre.
59 A E ce.
Book I, Chapter 30, fols. 5ia-5 ib 219
if it could not be in infinite time, it cannot be in finite time. A n d it is impossible
that a thing can be forever and then afterward not be; nor can it contradict or
negate its own power, which we have previously stated, namely, the power not-to-
be forever.
G . A s shown before, for, according to Averroes, it is impossible that the power
to be and not-to-be should exist together in the same thing at one and the same
time. Y e t Aristotle finds it impossible to admit two infinite times; thus, it is im­
possible that a thing can have non-being through infinite time and exist or endure
through infinite time. But I have already shown these two hypotheses to be false,
and so Aristotle’ s conclusion, which follows, is false.
T . Therefore, it is impossible that a thing which is perishable // (51a) should
last forever.
G . Next, he turns back again to show that a thing which will last forever cannot
have had a beginning.
T . Likewise, it is impossible for a thing to have had a beginning i f it will last
forever, for there are two opposite terms, beginning and end; and, i f it is impossible
that what lasts forever should have an end, then it is also impossible that the other
term can be true, namely, that the thing had a beginning. So, i f that which exists
always can at no time not exist, then it is impossible that it has had a beginning.
G . It seems to me that this argument is far from convincing. For it is quite true
that it is impossible for a perpetual thing to have an end, but by division it is pos­
sible for a thing to last forever and for it to have an end. For each o f these tw o pro­
positions is in itself possible, but the copulative o f the tw o is impossible. For exam­
ple: you will go to Paris tomorrow; you will not go to Paris tomorrow. Children
learning logic know this. Thus, i f anything lasts forever, Aristotle does not prove
in any way that it has necessarily existed without beginning, but the contrary was
demonstrated in a previous chapter [see Ch. 29, fol. 44b]. Averroes tries / (5 ib) to
prove here that it is impossible for a thing to have an end if it had no commence­
ment, because neither o f these tw o terms, beginning and end, can exist without the
other existing or having existed. I reply that this conclusion is true, for G o d alone
is without beginning or end. But the proof offered b y Averroes is worthless, and
the contrary o f the conclusion would be true i f the world were everlasting and
without a beginning, as I have shown in an earlier chapter.
 220 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
31. Ou. .xxxi.e chappitre il veult monstrer universelment que chose qui
n’est pas sanz commencement n’est pas sanz fin, et se elle n’est
sanz fin, elle n’est pas sanz commencement; et que chose
qui est sanz commencement est sanz fin, et se elle est
sanz fin, elle est sanz commencement [Fig. 24]
T . D e ce qui est touzjours possible estre, la negation1 contradictoire est
non touzjours possible estre et son contraire // (51c) est touzjours possible
non-estre, et de cecy la contradictoire est non touzjours possible non-estre.
G . E t pour ce miex entendre, je le desclaire en une figure presque sembla-
5 ble a une que l’en fait pour la premiere introducion des enfans en logique.
T . E t pour ce convient par neccessité que les negacions des .ii. c o n t r a ­
dictoires),2 c’est assavoir les .ii. subcontraires, soient dictes d’une meisme
chose et que celle chose soit moienne entre touzjours estre et touzjours non-
estre. E t est la chose qui est possible estre et possible non-estre, quar chas-
10 cune des .ii. negacions, qui sont subcontraires, sera vraie aucune foys, pousé
que ce ne soit pas touzjours. E t pour ce, la chose3 qui n’est pas touzjours en
non-estre sera aucune foys en estre et aucune foys non, et ne puet estre en­
semble aveques ce que dit est que telle chose soit touzjours possible sanz
estre, mais elle sera aucune foys en estre, et donques sera elle aucune foys en
i5 non-estre. E t donques une meisme chose sera possible estre et possible non-
estre.
G . E t seront ces .ii. possibilitéz en divers temps et non pas ensemble.
T . E t c’est ce qui est moien des .ii., c ’est assavoir de touz- / (5id) jours
povoir estre et de touzjours povoir non-estre.
20 G . Il semble que il weille dire que tout ce qui est possible est aucune foys
en estre et l’opposite est certain, quar moult de choses sont possibles4 qui on-
ques ne furent et ja ne seront. Apres il met ce que dit est en termes generaux,
1 D E Se ce qui est touziours possible estre 3 A chosose.
a negacion. * B C D E F omit possibles.
2 A contraires.
Book I, Chapter 31, fols. 5 ic-5 id 221
31. In Chapter Thirty-one he seeks to demonstrate as a universal
law that whatever is not without a beginning is not without an
end and, if it is not without an end, then it is not without a
beginning; also that what has no beginning is everlasting
and, if it is everlasting, it is without a beginning.
T . The contradictory o f that which is always capable o f being is that which can­
not possibly always be, and its contrary // (5 ic) is that which is always capable o f
not being ; the contradictory o f this latter is that which is not always capable o f
not being.
G . In order to illustrate this, I clarify it by means o f a figure very similar to that
used to introduce children to logic [see Fig. 24].
T . Therefore, it is necessary that the two negations o f the two contradictories,
— that is, the two subcontraries— be said o f the same identical thing and that this
thing should be intermediate between always being and always not being. It is
what is capable o f being and o f not being, for each o f the tw o subcontraries will
sometimes be true, but not always so. Consequently, whatever is not always in a
state o f not being will sometimes exist and sometimes not; this cannot be confused
with what has been stated— that such a thing is always possible without existing,
but will sometimes exist and sometimes not exist. So, the same thing will be capable
o f existing and o f not existing.
G . These two possibilities will exist at different times and not together.
T . A n d what is intermediate between the tw o is the power always to be / (5 id)
and the power always not-to-be.
G . Apparently he means that everything that is possible is sometimes in exist­
ence, and the contrary is certainly true ; for many things are possible which never
were and never will be. Then he states in general terms what has been said so that
222 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
affin que ce soit entendu universellement de toute chose, soit substance ou
quelconque accident.
25 T . E t afin que nostre rayson soit universelle nous dirons ainsi et mettrons
que .a. et .b., qui sont contraires, ne pueent estre dis d’une meisme chose; et
de toute chose pueent estre dis .a., ou .g. et .d., ou .d.5 E t par ce s’ensuit de
neccessité que de la chose de quoy .a. ne puet estre dit ne .b., que de celle
chose soit dit .gd. Or, pousons donques que .e. soit une chose moienne entre
30 .a. et .b., c ’est assavoir par abnegacion, et que de celle chose ne soit dit .a. ne
.b., quar ce qu’est autre6 et neutre entre .ii. contraires est moien entre eulz.
E t donques convient il par neccessité que de cest moien soient dis touz ces
.ii., c’est assavoir .g. et .d. E t ce appert quar de toute chose est dit ou .g. ou
.a.
35 G . Quar il sont contradictores.
T . E t donques un ou l’autre est dit de .e. // (5 2a) E t pour ce que c ’est im­
possible que .a. soit dit de .e__
G . Pour ce qu’il est moien par abnegacion entre les .ii. contraires.
T . Donques .g. sera dit de .e. E t par ceste meisme rayson l’en puet prou-
40 ver que .d. est dit de .e.
G . Il me semble que Aristote et Ave<r>roÿs,7 en cest chappitre et en celuy
qui s’ensuit, envelopent cest propos en paroles obscures et font arguemens
sophistiques. E t premièrement, je pren to u jo u r s possible estre et tousjourspos­
sible non-estre et dy que <s)e8 possibilité de non-estre est prinse pour possi-
45 bilité qui est quant la chose n’est pas, les .ii. choses dessus dictes ne sont pas
contraires, quar l ’en diroit que Antecrist est touzjours possible estre et touz-
jours possible non-estre. E t se ceste possibilité est prinse tellement que la
chose ne puisse non estre fors quant elle est et que elle ne puisse estre fors
quant9 elle n’est pas et puet estre, donques to u jo u r s possible estre e<s)tIO/o ^ -
50 jo u rs non-estre et to u jo u rsp o ssib le non-estre est to u jo u r s estre. O r est assavoir que
ce mot touzjours est dit en .ii. maniérés. Une est sanz commencement et sanz
fin. E t ainsi, to u jo u r s si et to u jo u r s non sont contraires./(5 2b) Mais touzjours
est autrement dit “ sanz commencement” seulement ou “ sanz fin” seulement,
si comme l’en diroit d’une chose qui touzjours a esté et jamés ne sera ou qui
55 touzjours sera et onques mes ne fu. E t en ceste maniéré, to u jo u r s si et tou%-
jo u rs non pueent estre subcontraires. Semblablement aucune jo y s est dit en .ii.
maniérés. Une est par temps fini de toutes pars, si comme est .i. jour ou un
an. Autre est par temps finy d’une part seulement, si comme se une chose
avoit commencement sanz fin, l’en diroit que aucune foys est et aucune foys
60 ne fu pas. E t ce m ot touzjours en la seconde segneficacion et ce mot aucune
foys en11 ceste seconde sont une meisme chose. E t pour ce, se Aristote vou-
5 D E dis ou .g. ou .d. et .d. ou .d. 8 A ce.
6 D E car c’est en autre. 9 F omits elle est et que elle ne puisse estre
7 A C Avenroÿs. See Juntas, t.c. 123. fors quant.
Book I, Chapter 31, fols. 52a~5 2b 223
it may be universally understood o f all things, whether o f substance or o f any ac­
cident whatsoever.
T . T o present our argument in general terms, we will state it thus. W e will as­
sume that a and b, which are contraries, can never be said o f one identical thing,
while o f anything whatsoever we can say a, or g and d, or d. From this it must fol­
low that the thing about which we can say neither a nor b we can call gd. Let us pos­
it now that e is the intermediate between a and b, that is, by abnegation since it is
neither o f these but is in between ; then o f e we cannot say either a or b, for what is
neutral between tw o contraries is intermediate between them. Therefore, it fol­
lows necessarily that both g and d can be said o f this intermediate e. This is so be­
cause all things can be described b y either g or a.
G . Because these are contradictories.
T . Then either can be said o f e. // (52a) A n d because it is impossible that a be
said o f e . . .
G . Because it is intermediate and independent between the two contraries.
T . Consequently, g will be said o f e. A n d by this same argument we can prove
that d is said o f e.
G . It seems to me that in this and the following chapter Aristotle and Averroes
surround this discussion with obscure words and sophistical arguments. First o f all
I consider the expressions alw ays-possible-to-exist and ahvays-possible-not-to-exist, and I
say that, if the possiblity-not-to-be is taken as a possibility which is, even when the
thing itself is not, then the two things above are not contraries ; for we could say
that Antichrist is always capable o f existing and o f not existing. I f this possibility
is so understood that the thing cannot not-be— except when it exists— and cannot
be— except when it is not, but can be— then always-possible-to-be is equivalent to
always-not-being, and always-possible-not-to-be is equivalent to always-being.
N o w the word always can have two meanings. O ne meaning is : without beginning
or end. Thus always-yes and always-no are contraries. /(52b) But always can also
mean “ without beginning” or the opposite “ without end” — each phrase alone and
separate— as in case we should speak o f a thing which has always been but will
never be, or which will always be but never was. In this way, always-yes and al­
ways-no can be subcontraries. Similarly, some tim e is said in two ways. One way
means through finite time in every direction, as in the case o f a day or a year. The
other way, some time means through time finite in one direction only; as, for ex­
ample, i f a thing were to have a beginning without any end, we should then say
that sometimes it exists and sometimes it did not exist. N o w the words always
and some time are the same thing in their second meaning. Therefore, if Aristotle
10 A et. 11 D E cest mot meismes en.
224 j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
loit par cest arguement devant mis reprover to u jo u r s estre en la seconde si­
gnification, il peche par equivocation.12 Apres il conclut.
T . E t donques ce qui est touzjours n’a pas eu commencement et ja n’avra
65 fin, et n’est pas touzjours en non-estre. E t ce appert quar se telle chose avoit
eu commencement ou (se>13 elle estoit corruptible et avoit fin, elle ne seroit
pas pardurable.
G . Ce est certain, a prendre pardurable pour ce qui est touzjours en la
premiere segneficacion. Mais apres // (52c) il répété une autre probacion
70 mise ou chappitre precedent qui se extent contre la seconde segneficacion.
T . Quar il s’ensuiroit que elle eust ensemble possibilité de touzjours estre
et possibilité de non touzjours estre, et c ’est impossible. E t que ce soit im­
possible, il est monstré devant.
G . O u chappitre precedent. Mais j’ai declar(é)14 comment celle rayson
75 deffailloit en .ii. poins principaulz. Apres il met que toute chose qui n’a eu
commencement est pardurable et que toute chose incorruptible fu sanz com­
mencement.
T . E t donques se aucune chose n’a eu commencement et elle est en estre,
il convient par neccessité que elle soit pardurable sanz fin, et semblablement
80 se elle est incorruptible et est en estre.
G . La premiere partie n’est pas vraie, si comme j’ay monstré devant. A -
pres il expouse les termes dont il use.
T . E t je pren ingenitum et incorruptible qui sont dis proprement, c ’est assa­
voir que ingenitum est ce qui est maintenant et onques devant ne fu vray dire
85 que il n’est pas. E t incorruptible est ce qui est maintenant et onques apres ne
sera vray dire que il n’est pas.
G . Briefment, il prent genitum generalment pour / (5 2d) toute chose qui a
eu commencement et ingenitum pour ce qui est et n’eust onques commence­
ment, quelconque chose ce soit ou substance ou accident, et corruptible pour
90 ce qui avra fin, etc. Apres il met la consequence d’aucuns termes lesquelz sont
convertibles selonc son oppinion.
T . E t ces choses s’ensuient une a l’autre ensemble, c’est a savoir que ce qui
est sanz commencement est sanz fin, et ce qui est sanz fin est sanz commence­
ment par neccessité. E t estre pardurable s’ensuit a un et a l’autre, quar se au-
95 cune chose est sanz commencement, elle est (sans fin ),15 et se une chose est
sanz fin, elle est pardurable.
k k CH
envocacion. E desclaireray.
ou celle estoit. 15 A est pardurable et.
declaray. B declarere. C D F declarerey.
Book I, Chapter 31, fols. 520-5 2d | 22 j
intended in the preceding argument to disprove always-to-be in the second mean­
ing, he sins by equivocation. Next, he concludes.
T . Thus, that which always is has had no beginning and will have no end and is
not always in non-being. This is clear because if such a thing had had a beginning
or if it were perishable and had an end, it would not be everlasting.
G . This is certain if we take everlasting in the first sense to mean that which al­
ways is. But afterwards // (52c) he repeats another example from the preceding
chapter which is obtruded against the second meaning.
T . For it would follow that this thing was capable o f always existing and o f not
always existing, which is impossible as shown earlier.
G . In the preceding chapter [see fol. 5od]. But I have explained how this argu­
ment failed on two principal points. N o w , he states that everything which had no
beginning is eternal and that all imperishable things had no beginning.
T . So, if anything has had no beginning and exists, necessarily it must be eternal
and the same holds i f it is imperishable and exists.
G . Th e first element is not true, as I have already shown [see fol. 50a]. N ext he
explains the terms he uses.
T . I use ungenerated and im perishable in their proper sense to mean as follows : un­
generated is that which now exists, but never could be truly said in the past not to
exist; imperishable is that which now is and never hereafter can be truly said not to
exist.
G . Briefly, he defines generated in general to mean / (5 2d) anything which has
had a beginning and ungenerated as that which exists but never had a beginning,
whatever the thing may be, whether substance or accident; and perishable he
defines as that which will come to an end, etc. N ext, he sets down the consequences
o f certain terms which, in his opinion, are convertible.
T . These things follow one another simultaneously; for example, that which is
without beginning is also without end, and that which is without end is necessarily
without beginning. Being eternal is the necessary pendant o f both cases, for, if
anything is without beginning, it is without end ; and i f a thing has no end, it is
eternal.
226 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
32. Ou .xxxii.e chappitre il monstre comment des termes de ceste
matière aucuns ensuient un l’autre convertiblement.
T . E t ce qui est dit appert par la determinacion des termes dessus dis,1
quar il convient par neccessité se une chose a fin qu’elle ait commencement,
quar ou elle fu sanz commencement ou elle ot commencement, et se elle fu
sanz commencement, elle sera sanz fin, si comme nous avons devant supposé.
5 G . Aristote a touzjours cecy supposé et onques ne l’a souffisanmentprové,
si comme souvent est dit.
T . Item, se elle // (5 3a) eust commencement, il est neccessaire que elle ait
fin, car ou elle ara fin ou non, et se non, donques n’ot elle onques commence­
ment, si comme nous suppousons.
10 G . Ceste consequance n’est pas bonne, si comme il appert par la glose
apres le .xxix.e chappitre, quar se le monde avoit duré sanz commencement,
aucune lumière du ciel avroit fin qui onques n’avroit eu commencement.
T . E t se estre sanz fin et estre sanz commencement ne s’ensuient un a l’au­
tre convertiblement, il n’est pas neccessaire que ce qui est sanz commence-
i5 ment soit pardurable ne ce qui est sanz fin. Mais que il soit neccessaire que
ces choses ensuient une l’autre convertiblement il appert, quar avoir com­
mencement et avoir fin ensuient l’un l’autre convertiblement. E t ce appert
par ce qui est dit devant, quar de ce qui est tousjours existent et de ce qui est
touzjours non existent,2 une chose est moienne laquelle ne s’ensuit a l’un ne
20 a l’autre. E t c’est ce qui a commencement et qui a fin.
G . Aristote laisse .ii. autres moiens, c’est a savoir ce qui a commencement
sanz fin et ce qui a fin sanz commencement. Mais par aventure, il veult re­
prouver telz moiens par ce qui s’ensuit.
T . Quar chascune de ces .ii. / (5 3b) choses est par temps déterminé, c ’est
25 assavoir possibilité a estre et possibilité a non-estre, et semblablement estre
et non-estre sont déterminés a certain temps.
G . Il veult dire que chose qui a commencement ne puet durer fors par
temps finy, mais il ne le prove pas. E t le contraire fu monstré apres le .xxviii.6
chappitre.3
30 T . E t donques se aucune chose a eu commencement ou doit avoir fin, il
convient par neccessité qu’elle soit moienne entre to u jo u r s estre et to u jo u r s
non-estre.
G . Apres il met ce que il a dit en termes generalz.
T . O r mettons donques que to u jo u r s estre soit .a. et to u jo u r s non-estre soit
35 .b. et avoir commencement soit .g. et avoir fin soit .d. E t ce posé, il convient par
neccessité que .g. soit moien entre .a. et .b., quar le temps de .a. ne celuy de
termes es dessus dis. istent.
ta k
omits de ce qui est touzjours non ex- 3 F .xxix.
Book I, Chapter 32, fols. 53a—53b | 227
32. In Chapter Thirty-two he shows how certain terms used in
this field o f study are convertible.
T . What we have said is clear from the definition o f the terms mentioned above.
For it is necessary that, if a thing has an end, it must have a beginning, because
either it had no beginning or it had a beginning; and, i f it had no beginning, it will
have no end, as we have assumed above.
G . Aristotle has always assumed this, but never has he proved it sufficiently, as
we have often pointed out.
T . If a thing //(53a) had a beginning, it must have an end; for either it will have
an end or it will not; and, i f not, then it never had a beginning, just as we assume.
G . This consequence is not sound, as appears from the gloss at the end o f the
twenty-ninth chapter [see fol. 46abcd]. For, i f the world had gone on without a
beginning, a certain ray o f light from the sky would have an end which never
would have had a beginning.
T . A n d if to be without an end and to be without beginning do not imply one
another, then it is not necessary that either the thing without beginning or the
thing without end should be eternal. But that these things must imply one another
is clear, because to begin and to end imply each other. This is apparent from our
previous statement; for between what always exists and what never exists is an
intermediate something— that which has both beginning and end— which is depen­
dent upon neither one nor the other.
G . Aristotle leaves out o f consideration two other intermediates: 1) that which
has a beginning but no end, and 2) that which has an end but no beginning. But
possibly he wishes to disprove such intermediates by what follows.
T . Each o f these tw o /(53b) events happens within limited time, that is, the pos­
sibility to be and the possibility not-to-be ; and, likewise, being and non-being are
set within time that is limted.
G . He means that which has a b eginning cannot last beyond a finite time, but he
does not prove it. A n d we have shown the contrary at the end o f Chapter Tw enty-
eight.
T . Therefore, i f anything has had a b eginning or must have an end, it follows
necessarily that it stands intermediate between always-being and always-not-being.
G . N ext he summarizes in general terms.
T . Let us assume [see Fig. 25] that always-being is a and always-not-being is
b, having-a-beg inning is g and having-an-end is d. W ith this assumption, g wifi
necessarily be intermediate between a and b, for neither past nor future times o f a
228 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
.b. n’ont point de terme, ne en preterit* ne en futur. E t ne puet l’en dire de .a.
que aucune foys n’ait esté et que aucune foys ne sera, ne aussi de .b. Mais ce
qui a eu commencement, il convient par neccessité que son temps soit déter­
miné et d’une part et d’autre et qu’il ait fin de fait ou de puissance telle qui sera
mise en fait. E t le temps de .a. ne celuy de .b.4
5 n’a <point d e )6 terme d’une
part // (53c) ne d’autre. E t donques .g. sera en estre7 par une quantité de
temps déterminé, et derechief, .g. ne sera pas; et semblablement e<s>t8 il de
.d. E t donques chascun des .ii., c ’est a savoir de .g. et de .d., est chose qui a
commencement et fin. E t donques avoir commencement et avoir fin s’en-
suient l’un a l’autre convertiblement, c’est a dire que toute chose qui a com­
mencement a fin et toute chose qui a fin a eu commencement.
G . En ceste rayson sont .ii. defautes. Une est quar il prent ce mot tous-
jours tant seullement pour ce qui est sanz commencement et sanz fin. E t
il est dit encor autrement, si comme il appert par le chappitre precedent.
Autre deffaute est quar il suppose que toute chose qui a eu commencement
avra fin, et ce deust il prover. E t aussi l’opposite est vray, si comme souvent
est dit. Apres il met en termes [Fig. 25] /(53d) generaux comment estre sam£
55 commencement et estre san^fin s’ensuient l’un a l’autre convertiblement.
T . Item, pousons que .e. soit estre san% commencement et que .z. soit avoir
commencement et que .i. soit estre san^fin et que .t. soit avoir fin [Fig. 26]. O r est
monstré devant que .z. et .t. ensuient l’un l’autre convertiblement.
G . Quar .z. et .t. sont .g. et .d. de l’autre figure, et il est dit devant que .d.
60 et .g. sont convertibles.
T . E t donques quant .z. et .t. sont ainsi mis, comme consequens, chascun
a chascun convertiblement, et vérité est que .e. et .z. ne pueent estre dis de
une meisme chose, mais de chascune chose est dit l’un ou l’autre.
G . Quar il sont contradictoires.
65 T . E t semblablement est de .i. et .t. Donques convient il par neccessité que
.i. et .e. s’ensuient // (54a) chascun a chascun convertiblement, quar se .i. et
.e. ne ensuient ainsi l’un l’autre, il convendroit que .z. peust ester en vérité
aveucques9 .i., c’est a dire que une chose peust avoir commencement et estre
sanz fin, quar de toute chose puet estre dit .e. ou .z., c’est a savoir estre sanz
70 commencement ou avoir commencement. E t d’autre partie de quelconque
chose est dit .z., de celle est dit .t., et donques .t. seroit dit de .i. E t c ’est im­
possible. E t donques convient il que .e. soit consequant a .i. E t par ceste
4 B point déterminé en preterit.
7 A en une estre.
5 F omits ne celuy de .b. 8 A et.
6 A omits point de. 9 B C F onques. D E ou que,
Book I, Chapter 32, fols. 53C-54a 229
and b have a limit. A n d we cannot say o f a that it has not existed at some time
and will not exist at some time ; and the same holds for b. But that which had a be­
ginning must have a time limit as to both beginning and end, and it must have an
end in actual fact or potentially so that it will become a fact. N o w the time o f a and
o f b has no past or future limit. // (5 3c) Consequently, g will exist through a limited
period o f time, and then it will not exist; the same is true o f d. Thus, g and d have
both beginning and end, the one implying the other; that is, everything having a
beginning has an end, and everything having an end has had a beginning.
G . There are two errors in this argument. One : when he limits the word always
to mean “ without beginning” and “ without end;” elsewhere it is given a different
meaning, as is shown in the preceding chapter. Another error is his supposition
that whatever has had a beginning will have an end, and this he was to prove. Also,
cofiTmencement in—
Fig. 25
the opposite is true, as we have often pointed out. N ext he states in general terms /
(53d) how being-without-beginning and being-without-endimply each other.
T . Let us posit that e represents being-without-beginning and ^ having-a-begin-
ning, while t represents being-without-end and t having-an-end. N o w , we have
shown above that % and t imply each other.
G . For ^ and t are g and d o f the other figure [see Fig. 26], and we said before
that d and^ are convertible.
T . Thus, ^ and t are consequents, being mutually convertible; and it is true that
e and ^ cannot be said o f the same thing, but either one or the other can be said o f
each thing.
G . For they are contradictories.
T . The same holds for i and t. It follows, then, that i and e must // (54a) imply
each other ; for, if i and e do not imply each other convertibly, then ^ would have to
imply i ; that is, a thing would have a beginning but no end, while e or the thing
which has or has not a beginning, can be said o f anything whatsoever. O n the other
hand, when we can say ^ about anything, we can also say t; therefore, / would be
said o f /, which is impossible. Thus e must be the consequent o f i, and by this same
 Book I, Chapter 33, fol. 54b | 251
2jO Le Livre du ciel et du monde
line o f reasoning, i is the consequent o f e because e (without-beginning) stands to £
meisme rayson, .i. est consequant a .e., quar tel resgart a .e. qui est sanz com­
(with-beginning) in the same relation as i (endless) stands to / (having-an-end).
mencement a .z. qui est avoir commencement comme .i. qui est sanz fin a
G . Briefly, he can say this : t and ^ are convertible [or imply each other], as said
a .t. qui est avoir fin.
above. Thus e and i are convertible, for, otherwise, one thing could be without
75 G . Briefment, il peust ainsi dire : .t. et .z. sont convertibles, si comme de­
vant est dit. E t donques .e. et .i. sont convertibles, quar autrement une chose ^iârim ence me nt*
pourroit estre sanz commencement et avoir fin, ou sanz fin et avoir commen­
cement. E t donques .t. et .z. ne seroient pas convertibles. <Et l’opposite est
supposé, ce est assavoir que il sunt convertible.)10Mais ceste susposicion sus
80 quoy il se fonde n’est pas prouvée et est false comme souvent dit est.

avoi r la v o ir
fin — commencement

Fig. 26

beginning and still have an end or without an end and yet have a beginning, so
that t and ^ would not be convertible. A n d the opposite— namely, that they are
convertible— is assumed. But this supposition upon which he builds his case is not
proved and is false, as we have often stated.

33. In Chapter Thirty-three he endeavors once more to prove that, o f

33. Ou .xxxiii.e chappitre il s’efforce encore de prouver que par
necessity, everything which had a beginning will have an end,
neccessité toute chose qui eut commencement avra fin, et
and that whatever will have an end has had a beginning. /
qui avra fin eut commencement.1 /
(54b) T . T o say that a thing can be generated for the first time and that it is im­
(54b) T . Dire que c’est possible que une chose soit faite de nouvel et que perishable or perpetual, or that a th in g which has existed without a beginning was
elle soit incorruptible2 ou perpétuelle et que une chose qui a duré sanz con- afterward destroyed— [in other words], that a thing could have generation at some
mencement soit apres corrompue, ainsi que une chose ait une foys genera- time without destruction, or that another thing could perish without having been
cion sans avoir corrupcion ou que une autre ait une foiz corrupcion sans born— are all statements which would demolish several o f the premises which we
5 avoir <eu>3 generacion, ce dire est interimer aucunes des4choses devant sup- have so far assumed. Because all things have the capacity to act or to be acted upon,
pousees. Quar toutes choses peuent et faire et souffrir et estre et non-estre to be or not to be through infinite or limited time o f definite duration. A n d what­
par temps infiny ou par un temps déterminé de certaine quantité. E t ce qui a ever has power for an infinite time is limited to a certain degree since there can be
puissance <a>5 temps infiny est déterminé aucunement parce que rien n’est
no greater time.
plus.
G . A ll the time which can have existed or can exist in the future and is posited
10 G . Quar tout le temps qui puet avoir esté et qui puet estre a venir et qui
infinite in both directions is so great that none can be greater.
est infiny d’une part et d’autre est si grant que nul ne puet estre plus grant.
10 A omits E t l’opposite.. .convertibles. 3 A omits eu.
1 B et qui a fin avra commencement. 4 B interimer au termez des.
2 E corruptible. 5 A et.
 232 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Mais ce qui est infiny d’une part n’est pas simplement infiny ne déter­
miné.
G . Quar le temps infini seullement en futur et a venir puet estre commencié
i5 hui ou demain ou de cy a mil ans. Il me semble que Aristote implique ycy .ii.
raysons assés obscurément. Une est que se aucune chose avoit commencement
et elle durast apres sanz fin, ce seroit contre ce6 qui fu dit ou .xxx.e chappitre,
c’est a savoir que toute chose dure en estre par la // (54c) puissance que elle a
a durer. E t donques se elle duroit par temps infiny a venir, il s’ensuiroit que
ao elle eust puissance infinie. A ce je respon et di que quelconque chose, pousé
que elle ait eu commencement ou que elle ait esté sanz commencement, ne
requiert pour durer autre puissance ou vertu que sa substance ou son essence,
se n’estoit pour résister a ses contraires qui la pourroient corrompre. E t
pour ce, il ne convient pas que le ciel ou une estoille qui tous jours durera ait
25 en soy une qualité ou puissance infinie. Item, une lumière est ou puet estre
ou ciel qui eut commencement et durera sanz fin, si comme il fu monstré ou
.xxviii.e chappitre.7 E t ne convient pas pour ce que ceste lumière ait vertu
infinie. E t briefment a dire, quelconque chose est sanz avoir contraire, soit
accident ou substance, si comme est l’ame intellective, ne requiert telle
30 qualité ou puissance en soy pour durer, nonobstant que telle chose ait eu
conmencement. Mais la vertu qui la maintient et conserve en estre, c ’est l’in­
fluence de Dieu, aussi comme le solleil conserve et garde en estre la lumière
du ciel. Item, les parties des ellemens simples qui ont contraire es {quelles)8
leur contraire ne fet / (54d) aucune action, n’ont mestier de telle qualité ou
35 puissance pour durer, si comme les parties de terre qui sont vers le centre et
les parties du feu qui sont près du ciel, quar se9 touzjours10 estoient la ou il
sont et aucune chose contraire ne approchast de elles, elles dureroient par
temps infini sanz aquerir autre puissance que <c)elle11 que elles ont, qui n’est
pas infinye. Mes les choses mixtes et compostes de contraires et qui ont con-
40 trarieté dedens elles et dehors elles, telles choses ont mestier quant a leur
duracion de puissance par quoy elles résistent as contraires. E t ceste puis­
sance est en leur complexion ou composicion ou commixcion de leurs quali­
tés. E t telle puissance ou qualité est finie. E t pour ce, telles choses ne pueent
touzjours durer par nature ne passer certains termes, si comme de honme est
45 escript: Posuisti terminos eius qui preteriri non poterunt,12 se ainsi n’estoit
que l’action des contraires fust suspendue ou naturelment et a temps par au­
cune reclusion, si comme l’en dit de ceulz qui dormirent en Sardine dont est
faite mencion ou quart de Phisique, 13 et semblable chose est recitee en Y Y stoire
des Lom bars;1* ou //(55a) par devin miracle, si comme es cors glorifiés. Une
50 autre rayson ou une autre forme de la rayson Aristote selonc Averroÿs est
^ ba ^
cen. 9 A ses.
.xxx. C ,xxviiii.e F .xxixe. 10 F et les parties qui sont du feu qui sont
qualitez. vers le centre près du ciel, car se tousjours.
Book I, Chapter 33, fols. 54C-5 5 * I 233
T . But that which is infinite in one direction is not truly infinite nor limited.
G . For only infinite time in the future can begin today or tomorrow or a thou­
sand years from now. It seems to me that Aristotle employs here tw o arguments
rather obscurely. One argument is to the effect that, if something had a beginning
and lasted forever thereafter, this would be contrary to what is stated in Chapter
Thirty, namely, that everything remains in existence by reason o f/ / (54c) its poten­
tial to endure. Therefore, if it lasted through infinite future time, it would follow
that the thing had infinite power. T o this statement I reply by saying that anything
whatsoever, assuming it had or had not a beginning, requires only the power or
force o f its own substance or essence to endure, were it not for the resistance o f its
contraries which could destroy it. So, it is not necessary that the heavens and stars,
which will endure forever, have within themselves the property o f infinite power.
For example, a ray o f light, which had a beginning and will last forever, exists or
can exist in the sky, as was shown in Chapter Tw enty-eight [sic. See Ch. 29, fol.
45 a]. But to do so, it is not necessary that this ray o f ligh t have infinite power.
Briefly, whatever thing has no contrary— either substance or accident, as, for in­
stance, the intellective soul— requires no such property or power within itself in
order to endure in spite o f the fact that it did have a beginning. But the power
which maintains and preserves its being is the influence o f G od, just as the sun
preserves and keeps the light o f the heavens burning. Those parts o f the simple
elements which have a contrary, in which their contrary takes / (54d) no action, do
not need such a property or power to endure, as, for example, the parts o f the earth
near the center and the parts o f fire near the heavens ; for, i f they have always been
where they are and something contrary never comes near them, they would last
eternally without acquiring any power in addition to what they have, which is not
infinite. But mixed bodies and bodies compounded o f contrary elements and which
have contrariety both inside and outside themselves require for their continuity
some power with which to resist their contraries. This power resides in their con­
stitution or composition, or in the mixture o f their several qualities. N o w , such
power or quality is finite and thus such bodies cannot naturally last forever nor
endure beyond a certain limit, as it is written o f man himself: Th ou hast set bounds
for him which he cannot pass; that is, unless the action o f contraries is suspended
either by nature and the temporary suspension o f natural law (as it is said o f those
who slept in Sardinia, mentioned in Book I V o f the Physics, and a similar occurrence
is also related in the H istory o f the Lom bards) or // (5 5a) by divine miracle, as in the
case o f the glorified bodies [of the saints]. Another explanation or exposition o f
11 A elle. 13 Physicorum, I V .1 1.218b 21-27.
12 Cf. Job 14:5— Constituisti terminos eius, 14 Pauli historia Langobardum, 1.4, ed. G .
qui praeteriri non poterunt. E potept. Waitz (Hanover, 1878), p. 54.
 Book I, Chapter 33, fol. 55b | 23j
234 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde

telle en sentence:15 ce qui est infiny est si grant que rien ne puet estre plus Aristotle’s argument, according to Averroes, is briefly this : the infinite is so great
that nothing can be greater ; therefore, the infinite in time has no beginning nor end ;
grant. E t donques infini en duracion est sanz commencement et sanz fin,
so, i f some time were endless and had a beginning, we could not say that it is finite,
quar se aucune duracion estoit sanz fin et non pas sanz commencement, l’en
ne pourroit dire que elle fust finie, quar elle est sanz fin, ne que elle fust in- because it is endless ; nor could we say it is infinite, because what has no beginning
nor end is greater and nothing is greater than the infinite. But Averroes objects that
55 finie pour ce que celle qui est sanz commencement et sanz fin est plus grande.
future time beginning now is infinite in only one direction and that all past time end­
E t rien n’est plus grant que infini. Mais Averoÿs obice encontre quar le temps
in g now is or has been infinite in one direction only. T o this he replies briefly that it
a venir qui commence maintenant est infini d’une part seullement, et tout le
is an accident that past time ends now and that future time begins now, for time is
temps passé qui fine maintenant est ou a esté infini d’une part seullement. A
a continuum which is never wholly present in fact or in actuality. But i f a permanent
ce il respont, en sentence, quar c’est par accident que le temps preterit ou
thing had a beginning and the capacity to last forever, it w ould necessarily follow
60 passé fine maintenant et que celi a venir commence, quar temps est une chose
that this capacity is presently infinite, and the capacity to endure without either be­
successive qui n’est pas toute présentement de fait ou en fait. Mais se une
ginning or /(55b) end would be greater. N o w , it is impossible for anything to be
chose permanente avoit commencement et puissance de durer sanz fin, il con-
greater than infinity, and so Averroes concludes that everything lasts forever with­
vendroit que ceste puissance fust présentement infinie, et la puissance de
out beginning or end, or through finite time in every direction. But his argument
durer sanz commencement et sanz / (5 5b) fin seroit plus grande. E t c’est im-
and reply are wrong on three points ; for anything which lasts through infinite time
65 possible que rien soit plus grant d’infiny, et pour ce Averoïs conclut que
does not require o f itself the possession o f infinite capacity in force, as I have al­
toute chose dure pardurablement sanz commencement et sanz fin ou par
ready stated [see fol. 46c]. Also, he assumes here and elsewhere that every infinity
temps fini de toutes pars. Mais sa rayson <et>16 sa response défaillent en .iii.
is or would be infinite in every direction, and the contrary was shown in Chapter
poins : quar chose qui dure par temps infini ne requiert pas en soy puissance
infinie en vertu, si comme je ay declairé devant. Item, il suppouse ycy et ail-
70 leurs que tout infini est ou seroit infini de toutes pars, et le contraire fu mons-
tré ou .xiii.e chappitre de; infini en quantité permanente ; et semblable est de
chose successive, si conme temps ou mouvment. Item, il suppouse que ce
qui seroit infini de toutes pars fust plus grant que ce qui seroit infini non pas
de toutes pars, et je ay autrefoys monstré la contraire17 et puet apparoir assés
75 legierement. Quar pousé que .a. soit un corps infini de totes pars et que .b.
soit un autre corps d’un pié de lé et d’un pié de parfont et infiny en lo n g18

15 Juntas, t.c. 133, fol. 91 A. See also t.c. 124,
fol. 84D.
16 A ou.
17 The sphere-wrapping experiment that fol­
lows appears in Questio 12, Bk. I ll, fol. 38a
o f O ’s Questions on the Physics, to which “ autre­
foys” may refer; it occurs also in Oresme’s
Latin De caelo and in his De configuratione and
was apparently first conceived by Bradwardine
in his De proportionibus. It is accessory to the
problem o f infinite series; John Murdoch has
defined it clearly: “ It is possible to transform
two infinite bodies A and B so that they will
become equal. Let A be an infinite sphere and
B a foot-square column terminated at one
end, but extending infinitely in the opposite
direction. Then beginning at B ’s finite end,
chop off one cubic foot and form it like a lump
o f wax into a sphere ; next, cut the second foot
and wrap around the first and continue to do
this, placing them as shells round the ever
growing sphere ad infinitum (where this in­
finite operation is timed step by step), accord­
ing to the infinity o f decreasing proportional Fig. 27
parts in an hour. A t end o f hour, B equals A . ”
See Murdoch, “ Review o f Busard’s Edition o f
Thirteen [see fol. 23abc] with respect to infinity in a permanent quantity; the same
Oresme’s Questiones super geometriam EuelidisA
is true o f a continuum o f successive states like time or motion. He supposes, too,
In this review, Murdoch discusses at length
Oresme’s application o f mathematics to the that what is infinite in all directions would be greater than that which is not infinite
problems o f infinity, especially his use o f in­ in every direction, and I have previously shown the contrary [see fol. 23c], which
finite series, divergent and convergent, pp. is readily apparent. Let us posit [see Fig. 27] a as a body infinite in every direction
67-91. For a broader study o f these intriguing and b as a body one foot in width and one foot in depth and infinitely long in only
problems and especially for the history o f their
medieval development, cf. John Murdoch,
Rationes mathematice.
18 A loing.
 236 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
seullement d’une part et soit vers destre; et ou commencement de .b. soit
prins une porcion de la quantité d’un pié et soit signee par .c.} et l’autre apres
eguale soit signee par .d. // (5 5c) et [Fig. 27] l’autre apres par .e. et l’autre par
80 et ainsi touzjours en procédant sanz fin vers destre. Item, je pouse ou met
que par les parties d’une heure appellees p<ro>po<r>cioneles,10 en la pre­
miere soit prins .c. et soit fait ou formé de figure sperique ou ronde, et en la
seconde de ces parties de heure soit prins .d. et soit adjousté a .c. et tout en­
semble soit fait un corps tout ront ou de figure sperique. E t en la tierce de
85 ces parties de heure soit adjousté .e. semblablement, et ainsi en procédant par
ces / (5 5d) parties de heure20 qui sont infinies, en prenant et adjoustant les
porcions21 de .b. en la maniéré dicte, lesquelles sont infinies. Je di que il s’en­
suit par neccessité que touzjours devant la fin de l’eure estoit en ce cas un
corps sperique par telle addiccion, et passée l’eure, .b. qui a ainsi esté ordené
90 ne sera sperique ne de quelconque figure, mes sera un corps infini de toutes
pars. E t donques n’est pas .b. mendre que .a. ne .a. plus grant que .b.,
et toutevoies a .b. ou en .b. n’a esté rien adjousté. E t donques .b. n’est pas
plus grant que il estoit devant et donques .b., qui estoit devant infini seule­
ment en lonc et seulement d’une part, n’estoit pas plus petit que .a. qui
95 estoit infini de toutes pars. E t donques une quantité infinie n’est pas plus
grande ne plus petite que une autre infinie. Item, soit .b. infini seullement
d’une part selonc le premier cas et soient prinses la seconde porcion22 de luy
et la quarte, c’est a savoir .d., et .£, et la sixte et la .viii.e et <la>25 .x.e et ainsi
en oultre de celles qui sont dénommées par nombre per, et soient conjointes
100 ensemble en figure sperique par la // (56a) maniéré devant mise. Item, sanz
muer la figure des autres porcions qui sont denomees par nombre nomper,
et sanz mouvoir2* la premiere soit la tierce adjoincte a la premiere, c ’est a sa­
voir .e. a .c., et la quinte a la tierce et ainsi des autres, etc. Je di que l’eure
passée, un cors sera fait infini25 de toutes pars, et demourera26 un autre corps
105 tel comme estoit .b. et non pas plus petit, et tout avra esté fait de .b. sanz
rien adjouster et sanz rien prendre ailleurs. Item, encore pourroit l’en faire
une chose semblable de ce corps qui est demouré tel comme estoit .b., et ainsi
tant de foys comme l’en pourroit ymaginer. E t donques l’en pourroit pren­
dre en .b. cent mille et <cent>27 mille corps dont chascun seroit infini de
110 toutes pars, et demoureroit un corps qui ne seroit pas mendre que .b. estoit
et sanz rien avoir adjousté. O r appert donques clerement que de plusseurs
quantités infinies, combien que elles soient dessemblablement infinies, une
n’est pas plus grande ne plus petite que l’autre; et est vérité, pousé que les
quantités soient permanentes et successives, quar une meisme rayson est des
115 unes et / (56b) <des>28 autres. E t donques tout le temps infiny passé et a ve­
nir n’est pas plus grant que le temps infini seullement a venir. Item encor,
porpocionales. 21 d j z proportions,
heures. 22 77 proportion.
B o okI, Chapter 33, fols. 55c—56b | 237
one direction— namely, toward the right; now let us take from the beginning o f b
a section one foot in length called c, then another equal section called d, Jf (5 5c) and
then another called e, and then / , and continuing without stopping in a direction
toward the right. N o w , I posit or assume that the parts o f an hour are taken pro­
portionally and in the first part we take c and let it be made a sphere or a round figure
and in the second [proportional] part we take d and add it to c so that the tw o to­
gether be made into a completely round or spherical body. Then, in the third part
let us add e in the same manner and continue thus through all the /( 5 5d) parts o f the
hours, which are infinite, adding in the same way the sections o f b, which are also
infinite. I say that, by such addition, before the end o f an hour there would have to
be a spherical body and that, after the hour, b, which has been treated thus, will not
be spherical nor o f any special figure, but will be a body infinite in every direction.
Therefore, b is not less than a, nor a greater than b, although nothing has been ad­
ded in any way to b. So b is no greater than before, and b, infinite before only in
length and in only one direction, was not less than a, which was infinite in every di­
rection. Accordingly, one infinite quantity is neither greater nor less than another
infinite quantity. N o w let b be infinite in only one direction as before and let us
take the second and fourth sections o f b, that is d and f , then the sixth, eighth,
tenth, and so on, picking all the even-numbered parts ; let these parts be taken
together and made into spherical shape // (5 6a) as was done above. W ithout
changing the shape o f the other odd-numbered portions and without m oving the
first section, let us add the third to it, that is, e to c, the fifth to the third, and so on.
I say that at the end o f the hour there will be one body infinite in every direction
and that there will remain another body exactly like b, and not smaller, which will
have been made entirely from b with no addition from any other source. Th e same
could be done with the body which has become the twin o f b, and it could be
done as many times as one can imagine. Therefore, we could make out o f b one
hundred thousand and another hundred thousand bodies each o f which would
be infinite in every direction, and there would still remain a body not smaller
than b without having added anything to it. Thus, it is clear that, although several
infinite bodies may be infinite in different ways, one is not greater or less than another.
This is true, assuming the quantities to be permanent and successive, for the same
reason applies to each /(56b) and every one. Therefore, all past and future infinite
time is not greater than the infinite time to come only in the future. I have already
23 A omits la. 26 B C E demoura.
24 B nommer. 27 A contre.
25 A infinie. 28 A omits des.
 2 jS | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Book I, Chapter 34, fols. 560—56d | 299
monstray je autrefoys que .ii. infinis ne sont pas egualz,29 mais il souffist a
shown that two infinites are not equal [see fols. 5 5a ffi], but for the purpose o f the
present a cest propos ce que dit est contre Averoÿs.30
present discussion what has-been said will suffice to refute Averroes.

34. Ou .xxxiiii.e chappitre il argue encore a ce meisme propos.

34. In Chapter Thirty-four he argues further this same problem.
T . Derechief, se une chose avoit touzjours esté ou temps infini passé,
T . Again, if something had always existed in infinite past time, w h y should it be
pourquoy seroit elle corrompue et mise en non-estre maintenant en cest si­
destroyed and become non-existent now at this point in time rather than at another ;
gne ou moment plus que en un autre; ou se une chose avoit esté en non-estre
or, if something had never existed through all infinite past time, w hy should it be
par tout le temps infini passé, pourquoy seroit elle faite et mise en estre main-
generated and begin to exist now at this point in time rather than at another?
5 tenant en cest signe ou moment plus que en un autre?
G . I f we were to take the case o f an animal which never existed in all infinite past
G . E t se aucun faisoit instance de ce que une beste qui onques ne fu par tôt
time and now begins to live, and [if we assume] that the power or possibility which
le temps passé infiny commence maintenant estre, et la puissance ou possi­
existed to this end has lasted through all the infinite past and now ceases, to this we
bilité qui estoit a ce que elle fust a duré par tout le temps infini passé et cesse
should reply, according to Averroes in Chapter Thirty, that such animal or such
maintenant, a ce l’en respondroit selonc Averoÿs ou .xxx.e chappitre que
thing begins by accident and ends the same way by reason o f the proximate power
10 telle beste ou telle chose commence par accident et fine,1 et aussi est il de la
that it had to exist. // (56c) A n d remote or long-distance power has neither begin­
puissance proceine2 que elle avoit a estre. // (56c) E t la puissance remote ou
ning nor end and is prime matter, and one cannot say that a thing which will last
lointene est sanz commancement et sanz fin et est la3 matière premiere, et
forever begins by accident or that a thing which has always existed ceases accident­
l’en ne puet dire que une chose commence par accident qui touzjours durera,
ally or by chance. N ext he pursues his argument.
ou que ce cesse par accident et a l ’aventure qui touzjours a duré. Apres il
T . Therefore, if no cause can be assigned w hy such a thing should begin or end
i5 poursuit sa rayson.
now rather than at some other point in time, for such points have been and will be
T . E t donques se cause ne puet estre assignee pourquoy telle chose com-
infinite, it follows that something was generable and could have had its beginning
menceroit ou fineroit maintenant plus que en autre signe, et telz signes ont
in infinite past time.
esté et seront infinis, il s’ensuit que aucune chose ait esté generable et puet
G . That is, something which would have a beginning and would last forever.
avoir eu commencement par temps infiny.
T . Also, that something had been perishable through infinite time.
20 G . C ’est a savoir ce qui avroit commencement et durerait sanz fin.
G . That is, something which would end and would have lasted without having
T . E t que aucune chose ait esté corruptible par temps infiny.
had a beginning. Certain other texts read imperishable, but it should be perishable,
G . C ’est a savoir ce qui fineroit et avroit duré sanz commencement. A u ­
as appears in that which follows.
cuns autres textes ont yci incorruptibile, mais ce doit estre corruptibile, si com­
T . Consequently, such a thing can not-be through infinite time, having both the
me il appert par ce qui s’ensuit.
capacity or power not-to-be and to be; that is, at first to be, if it is perishable and
25 T . E t donques telle chose puet non estre par temps infiny, et donques elle
can stop being ; and afterward to be, if it is generable or capable o f beginning to
a vertu ou puissance ensemble de non estre et de estre, c ’est asavoir de estre
exist. So, if / (5 6d) we assume its capacity to act to be realized, it follows that two
premièrement se elle est corruptible et puisse cesser, et d ’estre4 apres se elle
opposites will exist within it together at the same time.
est generable ou puisse conmencier a estre. E t donques se / (5 6d) nous met­
G . That is to say that two contradictories may both together be true and that we
tons que les choses soient en fait qui peuent estre, il s’ensuit que choses op-
can say o f a thing that it is and that it is not. This is absolutely impossible. It seems
30 posites soient ensemble.
G . C ’est a dire que .ii. contradictoires soient vrais ensemble et que l’en
puisse dire d ’une chose que elle est et que elle n’est pas. E t ce est simple-
29 See note 17 above. 133, fol. 91 A.
30 D E omits ce que dit est contre Averoÿs. 2 B puissance remote ou loingtene prochai-
1 See Juntas, t.c. 120, fol. 81D-82A and t.c. ne.
3 D E et aussi la matière. 4 B omits et d’estre.
240 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
m <en)t5 <im)possible.6 Il me semble que selonc Aristote et A veroÿs7 la
cause de ceste consequance est telle: quar se une chose avoit aucune foys
35 <eu>8 commencement et elle durast sanz fin, l’en ne pourroit assigner cause
ne rayson pourquoy elle eust commencement en un moment plus que en
autre de touz les momens du temps infini devant et apres. Donques s’ensuit
il que son estre et son non-estre resgardent egalment tout le temps infini pas­
sé et a venir. E t donques est ce possible que la chose qui avroit commence-
40 ment et dureroit sanz fin ait esté en estre par tout le temps infiny passé. O r
pousons que ce soit voir, donques il s’ensuit que ceste chose avra eu estre et
non-estre ensemble par tout le temps infiny passé et semblablement pour­
roit l’en dire de la chose qui avroit fin sanz commencement. Ce me semble
l’intencion d’Aristote. Mais ceste rayson deffaut en .ii. poins. U n est quar de
45 tote // (5 7a) chose a venir contingente, indifferenment l’en puet dire que son
estre et son non-estre regardent egalment aucun temps, si comme seroit de la
leçon que je pourroie lire demain. E t toutevoies, il ne s’ensuit pas que telle
chose puisse avoir estre et non-estre ensemble, quar en me<tt>ant9 en voir
un des contradictores, l’en depouse l’autre; mais elle a bien ensemble pos-
50 sibilité a estre et a non-estre, <et>1° non pas ensemble. Item, l’estre et le non-
estre de la chose qui a esté ou temps passé ne regarde pas egualment tout le
temps passé, pousé que telle chose ait eu commencement ou non, quar puis­
que elle a esté, c’est impossible que elle ne ait esté. Une autre deffaute prin­
cip als est en ceste rayson, quar Aristote suppouse que l’en ne pourroit assign-
55 er cause pourquoy une chose qui eust touzjours duré cessast en aucun mo­
ment plus que en un autre ne aussi pourquoy une chose qui touzjours durera
commenceroit estre en un moment plus que en autre. E t le contraire appert
evidanment en rayson naturele par ce qui fut dit ou .xxviii.e 11 chappitre en
plusseurs instances, par lesquelles ceste rayson d ’Aristote est faussée et tout
60 son propos principal/ (57b) en ceste partie. Premièrement quar pousé que
les mouvemens du ciel soient pardurables sanz conmencement et sanz fin, il
est possible que .iii. pianettes soient conjointes précisément en un meridiain12
ou corporelment, et est vraysemblable que onques ne puet estre et ne pourra
plus estre telle conjonccion par nature. E t nientmoins par touz les siècles in-
65 finis qui ont esté et devant touz temps finis tant soient ymaginés grans, ceste
conjoncion estoit a venir et a estre en cest moment et non en autre et par nec-
cessité naturele. E t la nature ou qualité et ordenance des mouvemens du ciel
est la cause neccessaire naturelment de ceste conjoncion et de ce que elle est
en cest moment et de ce que en tout le temps infini13 passé et a venir n’a peu
et1* ne puet estre conjonction semblable. E t ne convient quérir ne assigner
autre cause de ce, se ce ne sont les intelligences qui meuvent les cielz. O r ap­
pert donques que la suspousicion sus quoy Aristote fondoit sa rayson est
simplemt. 7 See Juntas, t.c. 134.
possible. 8 A omits eu.
Book I, Chapter 34, fols. 57a~57b | 241
to me that, according to Aristotle and Averroes, the cause o f this result is the fol­
lowing : if a thing had at some time had a beginning and lasted forever, we could
not assign a cause or reason w h y it began at one moment rather than at another o f
all the moments in infinite time before and after. Thus, i f follows that its being and
non-being are related equally to all infinite past and future time. Thus it is possible
that the thing having a beginning and lasting forever has been in existence through
all infinite past time. I f we assume this to be true, it follows that this thing will have
had being and non-being both together through all infinite past time; and one
could say the same o f a thing which will end but has had no beginning. This ap­
pears to me to be Aristotle’s intention. But this argument is wrong on two points.
One is that o f every //(57a) future contingent we can say indifferently that its being
and non-being are related equally to a certain time, as the lesson which I could read
tomorrow would be. However, it does not follow that such a thing could be and
not be at the same time because in revealing one contradictory we do away with
the other; but this thing certainly has the possibility both to be and not to be, but
not both together. Thus, the existence or non-existence o f the thing which has
been in past time does not concern equally all past time, whether the thing had a
beginning or not, for, since it has been , it is impossible that it has not been. A n ­
other major error resides in Aristotle’ s supposition that no cause could be assigned
w hy the thing which m ight have lasted forever should stop at one moment rather
than at another, nor w hy a thing which will last forever should begin at one m o­
ment rather than at another. Th e contrary is evident in natural reason from what we
said in Chapter Tw enty-eight in several instances [sic. See Ch. 29, fols. 44b-47a],
showing that Aristotle’s reasoning there and throughout his major argument in
this section is quite mistaken. / (57b) In the first place, even i f we assume that the
motions o f the heavenly spheres are everlasting, without beginning or end, it is
possible that three planets could be situated together on the same meridian or in
bodily contact, though it is probable that such a conjunction never can nor will
happen naturally. Nevertheless, through all the infinite centuries which have been
and before all the finite time that can be imagined, this conjunction was to happen
and was to be at this moment and not at another by natural necessity. Th e nature or
quality and the orderly arrangement o f the motions o f the heavenly bodies is the
necessary natural cause o f this conjunction and o f the fact that it happens at this
time and also o f the fact that in all o f infinite past and future time neither was there
nor can there be another conjunction like this one. N o other cause for this need be
sought, save in the power o f the intelligences which move the heavenly spheres.
N o w , it appears that the hypothesis upon which Aristotle based his argument is
9 A menant. 12 D E omit meridiain.
10 A omits et. !3 E fini.
11 B F .xxix. C .xxviiii.e B ne a point et ne.
 242 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
fausse. Item, le solleil et la lune et les estoilles par la concurrence et configu­
ration de leurs lumières et de leurs influences sont causes des choses de cy
75 bas. f l (5 7c) E t donques une conjonction de telz corps du ciel15 telle que on-
ques ne fu semblable puet estre cause d ’aucune qualité ou substance telle que
onques ne fu semblable, et estre commencement d ’une espesce nouvelle qui
onques mes ne fu et touzjours sera. Item, ce puet estre couleuré par ce que dit
Plinius ou commence<me)nt16 du .xxvi.e livre de V Ystoire naturelle : Sensit17
80 et facies hominum no vos omnique18 evo priore incognitos19 universe pro-
pe Europe morbos.20 Il dit que en un temps commencèrent maladies qui
onques devant n’avoient esté en une des grans parties du monde. Item, il est
provable que nature, qui onques ne deffaut en choses neccessaires, pour-
voist en tel cas et feist aucunes nouvelles espesces de herbe ou d’autre chose
85 en remede contre telles maladies. Item, en retournant as i<n)stances212
3 sary examples in which there can be no mistake, we showed in Chapter Tw enty-
demonstrables ou neccessaires et lesquelles l’en ne pourroit fausser, il fu
monstre ou .xxviii.e22 chappitre comment c’est possible et vraysemblable
que ou ciel cesse une lumière qui onques ne commença et que une commence
qui ja ne finera, et tout par neccessité inevitable naturelment. E t de ce que
90 une telle lumière commence a telle heure / (57d) et non a autre ou fine, la dis­
position et proporcion des mouvemens du ciel est cause naturelment nec-
cessaire, si comme devant dit est de la conjoncion de .iii. estoilles. Item, en
celuy .xxviii.e 23 chappitre fu dit comment un mouvement circulaire puet
commencier qui jamais ne cesseroit quant est de soy, et aussi fu dit de move-
95 ment droit. E t donques par ces instances et par semblables appert clere-
ment que dire que une chose puisse avoir commencement et durer sanz fin
n’est pas impossible simplement et qui contiengne ou implique contradiction.
Quar pousé que les instances devant mises ne fussent pas vraies ou ne fussent
pas vraysemblables ou non-possibles24 a vertu naturelle <ne)2S si comme l’en
100 ne pourroit faire une tour qui ataingnist ou ciel: Turrim construxit que ce-
lum tangere possit fabula est,26 toutevoies27 il appert par démonstration évi­
dente et par rayson neccessaire en lumière naturelle que les instances devant
mises sont possibles quant est de soy sanz impliquer <contra)diction.28 E t
selonc vérité, le consequant d’une consequance n’est pas plus impossible que
son antescedant. E t donques a la conclusion // (5 8a) que Aristote improve ne
105 s’ensuit pas contradiction, si comme il cuide. E t nientmoins, les instances
devant mises, aucunes sont vraysemblables, si comme fu dit ou .xxviii.e 29
chappitre. Item, pousé que tout le temps passé et a venir fust infini de toutes
15 A telz corps ou du ciel. ed. D. Detlefsen, vol. 4 (Berlin, 1871), 106:
16 A commencent. “ Sensit facies hominum et novos omnique
17 D E naturelle s’ensuit et. aevo priore incognitos non Italiae modo ve-
18 D E novos quod omni evo. rum etiam universae prope Europae morbos.”
19 D E recognitos. (The face o f man has also been afflicted with
20 C . Plinii Secundi naturalis historia, X X V I. 1, new diseases, unknown in past years, not only
Book I, Chapter 34, fols. 57C-j8a *43
wrong. Th e sun, moon, and stars, b y the concurrence and configuration o f their
lights and their influences, are the causes o f events here below. // (5 7c) Thus, a con­
junction o f such heavenly bodies, o f a kind unlike any previous conjunction, can
be the cause o f some quality or substance never before existing and can become the
beginning o f a new species which has never been known before and which will con­
tinue forever. This idea can be elucidated by Pliny’ s statement at the beginning o f
Book 26 o f his N a tu ra l H isto ry . “ Sensit et facies hominum novos omnique evo
priore incognitos universe prope Europe morbos.” He says that at some time in
the past there began types o f sickness which had never before been known in a large
part o f the world. It is probable that nature, which never fails to supply the things
necessary for life, provided in such case by creating new species o f herbs or other
kinds o f remedies against such maladies. Returning now to demonstrable or neces­
eight [see fol. 45c] how it is possible and probable for a light in the sky to cease,
one which had no beginning, while another light can begin that will never end—
all by inevitable natural necessity. Th e fact that such a light will begin or end at one
time / (5 7d) and not at another is explained by the disposition and proportion o f
heavenly movements, a necessary and natural cause, as we said above concerning
the conjunction o f three stars [see fol. 44d]. In the same Chapter Tw enty-eight [see
fol. 46abcd] it was explained how a circular movement can begin that will never
end b y itself, and the same with respect to rectilinear motion. Therefore, b y these
and similar examples, w e have shown clearly that it is not absolutely impossible to
say that a thing can begin and last forever, nor does it contain or imply contradic­
tion. For, assuming that the illustrations above were not true, not probable, and
not possible to natural forces, like the impossibility o f building a tower to reach the
sky (it is a fable that he built a tower that could reach the heavens), nevertheless, we
have clearly shown that by proper reasoning in accord with natural lights they are
possible within their frame o f reference without fear o f contradiction. N o w , it is
true that the consequent o f a conclusion is not more impossible than its antecedent.
Consequently, in the conclusion //(58a) that Aristotle rejects there is no contradic­
tion, as he assumes. Nevertheless, some o f the examples given above are probable,
as stated in Chapter Twenty-eight [see fol. 46abcd]. N o w , assuming that all past
and all future time were infinite in every direction, it is explained how a thing can
in Italy but also to almost the whole o f Euro­ 26 Doubtless a reference to the Tow er o f
pe). Babylon, but the citation has not been identi­
fied.
21 A istances.
27 A et toutevoies.
22 B .xxix. C F .xxviiii.e
28 A quadiction.
23 B .xxix. C .xxviiii.e F .xxiiii.
29 B C D E F .xxix.e
24 B possible.
25 A omits ne.
 244 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
pars, il est dit comment une chose puet commencier et durer sanz fin et com-
iio ment il ne convient autre cause quérir pourquoy elle commence en tel mo­
ment fors la disposicion perpétuelle des mouvemens precedens. E t ou .xxiiii.e
chappitre fu faite mencion que une duracion est successive et temporelle et
puet estre ymagynee infinie, et l’autre est permanente toute ensemble infinie
et est dicte éternité. E t donques se en duracion successive temporele nature
ii5 puet commencier une chose qui touzjours mais sera, nul ne devroit doub­
ter que en duracion permanente, qui est éternité, Dieu ne puisse commencier
et creer une chose qui touzjours durera. E t aussi comme il ne convient met­
tre cause pourquoy nature commence ceste chose en un moment plus que en
autre de tout le temps infini fors la disposicion des mouvemens du ciel, sem-
120 / (5 8b) blablement de ce que Dieu créa le monde ou <que il)30 créé une ame
quant il li plest et non plus tost ne plus tart en son éternité, il ne convient
quérir autre cause fors la voulenté devine inmuable etpardurable en son éter­
nité permanente sanz succession. E t ceste éternité est Dieu, si comme il fu dit
ou .xxiiii.e chappitre. Apres Aristote met une autre rayson.
125 T . Item, ceste chose qui a touzjours esté et a fin ou ceste qui sera touzjours
et a commencement est touzjours semblablement en tôt signe ou moment,
c’est a dire que son estre et son non-estre regardent semblablement chascun
moment. E t donques s’ensuit il que en temps infini elle avra vertu ou possi­
bilité de ce qui est estre et non-estre. E t nous avons monstré devant que c ’est
130 impossible.
G . Il suppouse que de celle chose l’estre et le non-estre resgardent sem­
blablement et egualment ou indifferenment chascun moment de tout le
temps infini, et c ’est faulz comme dit est. E t ceste rayson coincide et est sem­
blable a celle qui est devant mise et puet estre semblablement destruite. Apres
135 il met une autre rayson.
T . Item, se en tout le temps devant passé une chose a esté de fait en estre
I l (5 8c) et sanz commencement ou ingenerable ou se une chose a esté en non-
estre par le temps infini passé et touzjours a esté possible que elle fust faite31
et mise en estre, donques s’ensuit il que quant ceste chose n’estoit pas elle
i4o avoit vertu ou possibilité a <estre et avecques ce l’autre quant elle estoit
avoit possibilité a ) 32non-estre apres. E t donques estoient ces vertus ou possi-
bilitéz33 par temps infini.
G . Selonc les expositeurs,34 son intencion est que l’en ne porroit assigner
cause pourqouy la possibilité que la chose qui onques ne eut commencement
us avoit a non-estre fust verifiee en fait en un temps ou moment plus que en
autre, et semblablement de la possibilité que celle qui avroit commencement
sanz fin avroit eu a estre. Mes je di que c’est faulz, comme devant est monstré.
Une autre exposicion seroit selonc Averoïs35 quar il convendroit que telles
vertus ou possibilitéz fussent infinies, mais il fu dit devant ou .xxiii.e chappitre
30 A omits que il. 31 D E forte.
Book I, Chapter 34, fols. 58b—58c | 24j
begin and last forever and how it is not necessary to seek any other cause to explain
w hy it begins at such and such a moment beyond the perpetual disposition o f pre­
ceding movements. In Chapter Twenty-four [see fols. 34d~3 5a] we mentioned that
one kind o f duration is successive and temporal and can be imagined as infinite,
while another kind o f duration, permanent and altogether infinite, we call eternity.
Thus, if, in successive temporal duration, nature is able to begin a thing which will
last forever, none should doubt that in permanent duration, which in effect is eter­
nity, G o d can begin and create a thing which will endure forever. Just as we can­
not state the cause w hy nature begins this thing at one rather than at another mo­
ment o f all the infinite time at the disposition o f the heavenly movements, likewise
j (5 8b) we should not seek the cause w hy G o d created the world or w hy He creates
a soul when it pleases Him, neither earlier nor later in His eternity, beyond the sin­
gle cause o f His immutable divine will, permanent and eternal without succession.
And this eternity is G od, as stated in Chapter Twenty-four [see fol. 3 jab]. Next,
Aristotle advances another argument.
T . That thing which has always existed and has an end or that which will always
be and has a beginning is always the same in every point or moment o f time ; that
is, its being and non-being will have the same aspect at each moment. It follows
that in infinite time it will be capable o f both being and non-being. A n d this we
have already shown to be impossible [see fol. 49cd].
G . He assumes that the being and non-being o f this thing are related similarly
and equally or indifferently at each moment o f all infinite time, and this is false, as
we have said. This argument coincides with and is similar to the one already stated
and can be destroyed in the same manner. Next, he adds another argument.
T . I f in all past time a thing has been actually in existence //(58c) without a be­
ginning, or is ingenerable, or if a thing has been in non-being through infinite past
time and has always been capable o f being, then it follows that, while this thing
was not being, it had the power or possibility to be and, at the same time or later,
the power not to be. Thus, these two potentialities or possibilities existed through
infinite time.
G . According to the expositors, his meaning is that no cause could be assigned
[to explain] w hy the possibility that the thing without beginning could not exist
should be factually verified at one time or moment more than at another; and, like­
wise, that the possibility that the thing which would have a beginning without an
end would have had to exist. But I say that this is false, as I have shown earlier.
Averroes gives another interpretation; he holds that such powers or possibilities
were infinite, but in Chapter Thirty-three [see fols. 54 b - 56a] we showed that it is
32 A omits estre et ... possibilité a. 34 A iex positeurs.
33 B impossibilitéz. 35 See Juntas, t.c. 136, fol. 92C.
246 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
150 que il ne s’ensuiroit pas que elles fussent infinies fors en duration, et seulle-
ment d’une part.
35. Ou .xxxv.e chappitre il veult pro ver que de neccessité
toute chose corruptible sera corrompue et argue
encor au propos devant dit.
T . E t autrement appert/(5 8d) que c’est impossible que ce qui est corrup­
tible ne soit aucune foys corrompu.
G . Il met ceste conclusion principalment contre Plato,1 qui disoit que le
monde et les anges eurent commencement et sont anichilables quant est de
5 leur nature, mes il seront touzj ours sanz fin par la conservation et par le main­
tien de la voulenté2 de Dieu. Apres il met a ce .ii. raysons ou .iii.
T . Quar autrement il s’ensuiroit que telle chose fust touzj ours ensemble
corruptible et incorruptible de fait, et donques elle sera possible ou avra pos­
sibilité de touzj ours estre et de non touzj ours estre, et donques sera aucune
10 foys corrompu ce qui est corruptible.
G . C ’est le texte en sentence ; mais l’en doit savoir que incorruptible est dit
de ce qui ne puet estre corrompu, et est dit de ce qui puet estre non-corrom-
pu, aussi comme inmortel est dit de ce qui ne puet mourir ne finer, et ce est
Dieu seullement : Qui habet solus inmortalitatem, si comme dit l’Apostle,3
i5 et si est dit inmortel de ce qui puet non-morir ou non-finer, si comme les
anges et les âmes. Je dy donques que se Aristote prent // (59a) incorruptible
pour ce qui ne4 puet estre corrompu, sa rayson n’est pas a propos, quar se-
lonc Plato5 le monde n’est pas incorruptible fors en la seconde maniéré, quar
il puet6 estre corrompu et puet estre non-corrompu. E t se Aristote prent in-
20 corruptible en la seconde maniéré pour ce qui puet estre non-corrompu, il
ne s’ensuit pas pour ce que telle chose puisse estre et non estre ensemble,
quar une chose a venir contingente puet estre et puet tous jours non estre, si
comme la beste qui sera engendree de cy en un an. E t ce ne enclôt aucune
contradicion, et donques par semblable il ne s’ensuit pas contradiction se l’en
25 dit que une chose puet touzjours estre et puet non estre aucune foys. Mais
par aventure, aucun diroit que Aristote entent que toute chose perpétuel ou
temps a venir est neccessaire et ne puet non estre, et que tout ce qui puet
estre non-corrompu ne puet estre corrompu. E t je di que ainsi suppouseroit
Aristote ce que il doit prover, et que l’en li nee et que est falz, si comme il
30 sera monstré apres. Apres il argue de ce qui a touzjours esté.
T . Item, se aucune chose est generable et est de present et puet / (5 9b) avoir
1 See note 10, fol. 47c!. 3 Cf. I Tim. 6:16— Qui solus habet immor-
2 D E bonté. talitatem.
Book I, Chapter 35, fols. 58d—59b | 247
not necessary that they be infinite, except in duration and, then, in only one direc­
tion.
35. In Chapter Thirty-five he advocates the idea that o f necessity
all perishable things will be destroyed, and he argues
further concerning the previous question.
T . It is clear on other grounds / (5 8d) that it is impossible that the perishable
should not at some time be destroyed.
G . This statement is directed principally against Plato, who used to say that the
world and the angels were created and are destructible by nature, but that they will
last forever by reason o f the care and maintenance o f G o d ’s will. Then, he proposes
two or three arguments in support o f his statement.
T . Otherwise, it would follow that the thing would in fact be both perishable
and imperishable at all times so that it would be capable o f always being or o f not
always being, and, thus, the destructible will be at some time destroyed.
G . This is the reading o f the text. But it should be understood that imperishable
[incorruptible] is said o f what cannot be destroyed and also o f what can be not-
destroyed, just as immortal is said o f what can neither die nor cease to be, that is,
G o d alone : W ho alone hath immortality, as the Apostle [Paul] says. A n d immortal
is said also o f the thing which can not-die or not-cease-to-be, like the angels and
souls. Therefore, I say that, if Aristotle uses // (59a) imperishable to mean that
which cannot be destroyed, his reasoning is not to the point; for, according to
Plato, the world is perishable only in the second sense, that is, it can be destroyed
and it can be not-destroyed. A n d if Aristotle takes imperishable in the second
meaning o f not-destroyed, it does not follow that such a thing can both be and not
be simultaneously, for a future contingent can be and also always not-be, like the
animal which will be born a year from now. A n d this harbors no contradiction
and, in like manner, there is no contradiction when we say the thing can always exist
and can sometimes not exist. Perhaps, however, it will be said that Aristotle means
that all things perpetual in future time are necessary and cannot not-be and that all
things which can be not-perishable cannot be destroyed. I say that Aristotle would
thus assume what he must prove, and this is what we deny him since it is false, as
we shall later show. Next, he argues concerning that which has always been.
T . I f something is generable and exists at present and can / (59b) have had a be-
4 B omits ne. 6 B il ne peut estre.
5 Timaeus, 41A.6— 41B.6.
248 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
eu commencement, il convient que elle <ait>7 esté faite. E t se elle puet avoir
esté faite, elle ne puet pas touzjours avoir esté.8
G . Quar de ceste chose que tu dis que elle est generable et si a touzjours
35 esté, ou c’est possible que elle <ait>° esté faite ou non; se c’est possible, pou-
son que ce soit voir, et donques ceste chose n’a pas touzjours esté, et donques
est ce impossible que elle puisse avoir esté faite et avoir duré sanz commence­
ment. E t par semblable l’en pourroit arguer de la chose qui touzjours dur­
era que c’est impossible qu’elle ait fin ou qu’elle soit corruptible. Je respon
40 et di quant au premier point que c ’est possible9
101que une chose ait touzjours
duré sanz commencement, et toutevoies une de semblable nature puet avoir
eu commencement; et ainsi il ne répugné pas a ceste chose avoir eu com­
mencement quant est de sa nature, mais seullement pour ce que elle a tous-
jours esté, quar si comme il appert ou .xxviii.e 11 chappitre, une lumière ou
45 ciel a duré sanz commencement en la maniéré que fu dit et une autre sem­
blable puet avoir commencement. Apres je di que combien que de la chose
qui a touzjours duré ce soit // (59c) impossible que elle meisme ait eu com­
mencement, nientmoins de la chose qui touzjours durera c’est bien possible
qu’elle ait fin et qu’elle soit corruptible. E t n’est pas semblable de ces .ii. E t
50 la cause est quar a ce qui est passé n’est quelconque puissance, c ’est a dire que
tout ce qui est passé ne puet avoir non esté. Mais d’aucune chose qui est a
venir puet estre que elle ne sera pas. E t semblablement, une chose durera
touzjours et puet estre que non fera. Mais se une chose a duré touzjours, c’est
impossible que non ait fait. Apres il met une autre rayson au premier propos
55 et a cestuy.
T . Item, l’en puet veoir en la maniéré qui s’ensuit que c’est impossible que
chose qui ait aucune foys esté faite soit incorruptible ou que chose qui a touz-
jours esté12 soit corrompue, quar il ne puet estre que ce qui touzjours sera
et ce qui touzjours a esté soit a cas d’aventure, quar chose qui est casuele et
60 a cas d ’aventure ou de fortune n’est pas touzjours ou n’est pas touzjours faite
ne souvent. E t ce qui est par temps infini simplement de toutes pars ou seul­
lement d’une par est existent et en estre touzjours ou souvent. E t donques
con- / (5 9d) vient il par neccessité que telles choses aient de nature ce que
elles sont aucune foys et aucune foys non.
65 G . C ’est assavoir les choses qui avroient commencement et dureroient
touzjours, quar se elles ont de nature que elles soient touzjours, c’est necces­
sité qu’elles soient sanz fin et qu’elles ne puissent estre corrompues.
T . E t donques, de telles choses qui sont aucune foys et aucune foys non
est une meisme puissance de contradicion, c’est a dire qu’elles ont possibili-
70 té a estre et aussi a non estre. E t la matière de quoy elles sont est cause de ce
que elles pueent estre et pueent non estre.
G . Quar puisque ceste chose qui touzjours sera est nouvelle, il convient
7 A est. 8 B peut avoir eu tousjours esté.
Book I, Chapter 35, fols. 59C~59d | 249
ginning, then it must have been created or have come into being, and, if it can have
been created, it cannot have always existed.
G . For with regard to this thing which you say is generable and has always exist­
ed, either it is possible or not possible that it has been created; if possible, let us as­
sume it to be so and, therefore, this thing has not always existed and it is thus im­
possible that it could have been created and have lasted without a beginning. In
like manner, one could argue, with regard to the thing which will last forever, that
it is impossible that it have an end or that it be destroyed. With regard to the first
point, I reply that it is possible that a thing should always have existed without a
beginning, while another thing o f the same nature could have had a beginning.
Thus, it is not incongruous that this thing should have had a beginning as far as
its nature is concerned, but only because it has always existed; for, as we have
shown in Chapter Twenty-eight [see fols. 45a, 45c], a light in the sky has remained
without a beginning in the manner stated therein and another similar light can have
a beginning. Next, I say that, although it is impossible // (59c) that what has always
existed should have had a beginning, nevertheless, it is quite possible for that which
will last forever to have an end and be destroyed. A n d these two cases are not simi­
lar because that which is past has no power not to have been. But there is always
the possibility that the thing which is to happen in the future will not be. Likewise,
something will or perhaps will not last forever ; but, if something has lasted forever,
it is impossible that it has not done so. Next, he sets down another reason related
to the first argument and to this one.
T . From the following arguments one can see that it is impossible that some­
thing which has existed at some time or other should be imperishable or that what
has always existed should be perishable; for it cannot be that what will last forever
and what has always been are the playthings o f chance because a casual thing sub­
ject to chance and luck does not exist forever, nor is it a normal or frequent occur­
rence. What exists through infinite time absolutely in every direction or in only one
direction exists always or normally in actual being. Thus, such things must / (5 9d)
be o f such nature that they exist at one time and do not at another.
G . That is, things which had a beginning and will last forever ; for, if it is their
nature to exist forever, they must be without end, nor can they be destroyed.
T . In such things which exist at certain times and at other times do not, there is
the potential o f contradictory states, for they can both be and also not be, and their
substance or the matter o f which they are composed is the cause o f their capacity to
be and not to be.
G . Since this thing which will last forever is new, it must be made o f a material
9 A est. 12 F omits soit incorruptible ou que chose
10 D E impossible. qui a touzjours esté.
11 B C D E F .xxix.e
 2jo | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
que elle soit faite de matière et en ceste matière est possibilité a ce que ceste
chose ait aucune foys non-estre, et donques ceste chose puet non estre.13 E t
75 d’autre partie, il est dit qu’elle sera touzjours par neccessité. E t donques,
pousé, si comme il est possible, que elle soit reducte a non-estre, Aristote
conclut et dit :14
T . Donques convient il par neccessité que les opposites con<tra>dictoresIS
soient vrais ensemble.16
8o G . E t par ce s’ensuit se elle est corruptible, qu’elle sera aucune foys cor-
rupte, quar se elle duroit touzjours, elle seroit // (6oa) neccessaire et incor­
ruptible comme dit est. Apres il oste une response qui pourroit estre ; et sont
les paroles obscures, mais la sentence est tele :
T . E t se aucun disoit que en la matière de ceste chose qui est commenciee
85 et sera sanz fin est possibilité au non-estre de ceste chose, non pas pour le
temps a venir mais pour le temps passé, ce ne puet l’en dire véritablement,
quar l’an passé ne puet estre ne chose qui a eu ou temps passé non-estre ne
puet avoir esté perpétuelle sanz commencement, quar au temps passé n’est
quelconque possibilité, mais est au temps a venir.
90 G . Briefment, il veult dire que c ’est impossible que ce qui onques ne fu ait
esté et aussi que ce qui a esté ne ait esté, si comme <q u e )17 Adam n’ait esté.
E t pour ce disoit A gathon18 que Dieu ne le pourroit fere. Mais a ceste rayson
est autre response, quar elle est fondée sus .iii. choses. Une est que se une
chose dure touzjours, c ’est par neccessité de nature, et donques elle ne puet
95 avoir fin et est incorruptible. Item, se elle a commencement, elle est faite de
matière. Item, ceste matière a possibilité au non-estre de ceste chose. E t don­
ques est ceste chose corruptible. E t ainsi une meisme chose est 19 incorrup­
tible et corruptible, etc. Quant au premier point, je di que une chose puet /
(60b) avoir commencement et durer sanz fin par neccessité de nature qui la
100 conserve et maintient, nonobstant que elle de sa nature soit corruptible et que
une autre semblable sera corrumpue, si comme souvent est dit d ’aucune lu­
mière ou ciel. Item, se telle chose puet estre par nature, il semble par plus
forte rayson que Dieu par sa puissance puet une chose fere et la maintenir
sanz fin ou tant comme il li plaist par sa voulenté, qui est vraie, neccessaire et
105 souveraine liberté. Quant au secont point, il n’est pas ainsi que toute chose
qui est faite par nature soit fete de matière, mais aucune est faite en matière
et aucune en autre subject qui n’a pas proprement matière, si comme est le
ciel ouquel est faite lumière. Item, Dieu, qui est par sus nature, puet creer
aucune chose de noient et la réduire en autre en noient. E t que ce ne soit pas
11o simplement impossible, l’en le puet consevoir par telle ymagynacion: quar
se en la premiere moitié d ’une heure une chose materiele estoit condempsee
et comprimée en tant que elle occupast la moitié moins de lieu que devant, et
13 B C F omit et donques ceste chose puet 14 D E omit the entire gloss,
non estre. 15 A condictores.
Book I, Chapter 35, fols. 6oa-6ob | 2 ji
substance which possesses the capacity to empower the thing not to be at certain
times, and, thus, this thing can not-be. O n the other hand, it is stated that by neces­
sity it will exist forever. Therefore, assuming it to be possible that it should be re­
duced to non-being, Aristotle concludes by saying :
T . Thus, it is necessary to assume that contradictory opposites are both true at
the same time.
G . It follows that, if the thing is perishable, it will sometimes be destroyed ; for,
if it existed always, it would be // (60a) necessary and indestructible, as has been
stated. Afterwards, he refutes a possible reply; the words are obscure, but the state­
ment is as follows :
T . I f someone were to say that, in the substance o f the thing which has begun
and will last forever, there is the possibility o f non-being, not for the future but in
the past, this cannot be said truthfully; for last year cannot be now, nor can a thing
which possessed non-being in the past not have been perpetual without a beginning
since in past time there is no longer any possibility whatever, but only in the future.
G . In brief, he means that it is impossible that what never existed should have
been and also impossible that what has existed was not. For example, as though
Adam had never been. O n this account, Agathon said that G o d could not make it
probable. But there is another reply to be made to this argument since it is based
upon three things. One is that, if a thing lasts forever, it is by reason o f its nature
and, thus, it can have no end and is imperishable. I f it has a beginning, the thing is
made o f matter which governs its potential non-being and, thus, the thing is perish­
able. Therefore, the same identical thing is both imperishable and destructible, etc.
O n the first point, I say that a thing can / (60b) by necessity have a beginning and
last forever by nature which preserves and maintains it, in spite o f the fact that it is
by nature perishable and that some other similar thing will be destroyed, as is often
stated in connection with the light in the heavens. I f this can happen naturally then
by how much greater reason can G o d in His majesty create a thing and maintain it
forever or for as long as it may please His will, which is true, necessary, and sov­
ereign liberty. O n the second point, it is not true that all things made by nature are
made from matter, but certain things are created from matter and others from an­
other base which, properly speaking, has no matter, like the heavens in which light
is made. G od, who is above nature, can create anything from nothing and trans­
form it into something else o f nothingness. That this is not really impossible can be
conceived from the following speculation : if in the first half o f one hour a material
thing was condensed and compressed so that it occupied one-half the space it for-
16 B C D F vrais semblables; E F vraysem- 18 Cf. Rhetorica, 11.24.1402a 9 13.
blables. 19 B omits corruptible. Et ainsi une meisme
17 A omits que. chose est.
 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
apres en la moitié du résidu de celle heure elle fust encor condempsee et com­
primée tant qu’elle occupast moins de lieu la moitié que en la fin de la pre­
miere moitié de l’eure, et ainsi en procédant // (6oc) par les parties de celle
heure lesquelles l’en seult appeller continuelment propo<r)cionnelles,20 je di
que en la fin de celle heure ceste mattiere seroit sanz quantité aussi comme .i.
point indivisible. E t par consequant, elle seroit adnichilee et du tout anientie.
E t semblablement, se par les parties propo<r)cionnelles21 d’une heure une
matière estoit en la premiere rarefiee ou estendue au double, et en l’autre apres
au quadruple et puis a l’octuple et ainsi ensuianment, il appert que en la fin de
l’eure ou apres elle seroit du tout sanz matière et mise au noient. E t tel pro­
cès est ymagynable sanz contradiction et possible a puissance infinie. E t se
adnichilacion e<s)t22 possible, creacion de noient est possible. Quant au tiers
point, je di que l’en puet octroier que telle chose materielle est corruptible et
non pas incorruptible simplement, et nientmoins c ’est possible que elle dure
sanz fin, si comme il sera declairié ou chappitre ensuiant. <Et ce que dit l’Es-
cripture, Ecclesiasticus .xiiii.e : Omne opus corruptible in fine deficiet,23ce est
a entendre des oevres humaines, si comme il appert par ce que est escript
apres sanz moien : E t qui illud operatur ibit cum illo .)24
36. Ou .xxxvi.e chappitre il fait a son propos une autre rayson
plus especialle et de science naturelle.
T . E t a ceulz qui considéreront les choses qui sont naturelles et1 non pas
en arguant universe<l)ment,2 puet apparoir que c’est impossible que une
chose / (6od) qui a esté perpétuelle ou temps passé soit apres corrompue ou
qui a, ou temps passé, non esté soit perpétuelle ou temps a venir.
G . Les raysons dessus mises sont pour la plus grant partie de logique et de
methaphisique et generales a toutes choses, soient substances ou accidens,
mais ceste est selonc science naturelle et de choses qui ont commencement
par vraie generacion ou fin par vraie corrupcion. Apres il fait sa rayson.
T . Quar toutes choses qui pueent finir par corrupcion ou commencier par
generacion ont generacion et corrupcion par alteracion precedente et tote
alteracion est faite par qualités contraires. E t de ce par quoy les choses na­
turelles sont faites, par ce meisme sont elles corrompues.
G . C ’est assavoir par l’alteracion des premieres qualités qui sont chaleur et
fredeur et moisteur et sec, quar si comme il appert ou premier livre D e gene-
A propocionnelles. 23 Eccles. 14:20.
Ibid. 24 A omits Et ce que d it .. .cum illo.
A F et.
1 B C D E F qui considèrent les choses qui
Book I, Chapters 35-36, fols. 6oc-6od j 2J3
merly did, and if afterwards in half the remainder o f the hour [1 J4 hour] it was
further condensed and compressed until it occupied half as much space as at the
end of the first half-hour, and if we proceeded thus // (60c) through all the contin­
ually proportional parts o f this hour, I say that at the end o f the hour this material
would be without quantity, like an indivisible point. Consequently, it would be de­
stroyed and turned into nothingness. In the same way, if through the proportional
parts o f an hour a substance was in the first part rarified and extended to twice its
original size and if in the second part o f the hour [1/2 the first half] to four times its
size and next to eight times its size and thus continuously, then at the end o f the
hour or subsequently it would seem that the substance would be entirely devoid o f
matter and would have become nothing. A nd such a process is imaginable without
contradiction and is possible to an infinite power. I f annihilation is possible, then
creation from nothing is also possible. O n the third point, I say that we can admit
that such a material thing is perishable and not simply imperishable ; yet it is possi­
ble for it to last forever, as we shall show in the following chapter. A n d the state­
ment in the Scripture, Ecclesiasticus 114^20], That every destructible work will
disappear in the end, refers to human works, as we see in the very next clause : A n d
he who made it shall go with it.
36. In Chapter Thirty-six he adduces another more specific reason
taken from natural science in support o f his argument.
T . T o those accustomed to deal with natural science and not with generalities, it
may seem impossible that a thing / (6od) which has always existed in past time
should later be destroyed or that what has not existed in past time should last for­
ever in future time.
G . Th e arguments he has used hitherto are drawn for the most part from logic
and metaphysics and apply to all things whether substances or accidents, but the
present argument is based on natural science and speaks o f things which begin with
truly natural generation or which end with truly natural destruction. N ext he states
his argument.
T . For all things which can end by destruction or begin by generation have both
generation and destruction through a preceding change or alteration, and every
alteration is brought about by the interaction o f contrary qualities. A n d physical
bodies are destroyed by the interaction o f the same natural elements o f which they
are made.
G . That is to say, by the alteration o f the primary properties or qualities, name­
ly, heat, cold, wet, and dry. For, as stated in the first book o f Generation and Corrup-
sont naturelment et.
2 A universement.
2J4 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
i5 racione, generacion est fin d’alteracion et la generacion d’une chose est cor­
ruption d’autre.3 E t donques convient il que toute chose qui a eu commen­
cement par generacion ait en soy qualitéz qui ont contraire et qu’elle <ait>4
matière de quoy elle est faite. E t aussi comme en ceste matière fu altera- //
(61a) cion pour la generacion de ceste chose, il convient que semblablement
ao en elle soit aucune foys alteracion a la corruption de ceste chose. E t l’en doit
savoir que Aristote fait ceste rayson principalment contre ceulz qui mettoi-
ent que le monde, qui est perpétuel, avoit esté fait d’une matière precedente
confuse qui avoit duré par tout le temps infini devant, de laquelle disoit
O vide: Ante mare et terras et5 quod tegit6 omnia celum unus7 erat toto na-
25 ture v<ul>tus8 in orbe quem dixere chaos rudis9 indigestaque moles.10 Mais
ceste rayson n’est pas contre ceus qui dient— et c’est vérité— que le monde
fu créé de noient et non pas fait de matière precedente11 perpétuelle. Item,
encore ne conclute pas ceste rayson contre les philosophes qui diroient le
contraire, quar il est possible par nature que une chose soit materielle et que
30 elle ait en soy des premieres qualités et qui ont contraire, et qu’elle dure sanz
fin. E t telles sont les parties de terre qui sont ou centre ou vers le centre pour
ce que puet estre que leur contraire ne approchera onques de elles et ne fera
onques alteracion en elles. E t pour ce, quant Aristote dit ou premier de P h i-
I (61b) sique12 que touz corps naturelz sont ou seront meus ou aucuns, il dit
35 aucuns pour les parties centrales de la terre selonc l’exposition d’A veroÿs.13
E t donques est ce possible que ces parties ne seront onques meues ne alté­
rées et, par consequant, ne corrompues. E t totevoies, elles sont corruptibles
de soy, quar elles sont materielles et ont contraire selonc leurs qualités, com­
me dit est. E t semblable puet l’en dire des parties de l’element du feu qui sont
40 près de la circonférence concave du ciel de la lune. Mais pour plus grande
decleracion de ce, je argue au contraire premièrement, quar puisque ces par­
ties de terre sont materielles, la matere de elles a possibilité et inclination ou
appétit a autre forme et a la generacion d’autre chose et corruption de ceste.
E t donques se telle partie de terre duroit perpétuellement, ceste possibilité ou
45 inclination seroit pour noient; et D ieu et nature ne font rien pour noient, si
comme fu dit en <le>14 .viii.e chappitre. Item, l’influence des corps du ciel
3 De generatione, 1.1.314b 17-20. 10 Ovid, Metam 1.5—7 :
4 A est.
5 D E omit et. Ante mare et terras et quod tegit omnia caelum
6 B omits et quod tegit. unus erat toto naturae vultus in orbe,
7 D repeats unus. quem dixere chaos : rudis indigestaque moles.
8 A virtus.
11 A procedente.
9 A rusdis.
12 Physicorum, 1.2.185a 12-13.
Book I, Chapter 36, fols. 6ia-6 ib | 2//
tion> generation is the end result o f change, and the birth o f one thing is the destruc­
tion o f another. Thus, everything which has been generated must have within it­
self qualities which have contraries and must also have matter from which it is
made. Since there was in this matter the potential for the change / / (61 a) which pro­
duced the generation o f this thing, it must likewise have within itself the potential
to produce the change toward its own destruction. It is important to know that
Aristotle argues thus principally against those who held that the world, which is
eternal, had been created from some kind o f pre-existent confused matter which
had existed through all earlier infinite time, o f which O v id said : A n age there was,
before the land and sea / A nd sky, that covers all, began to be / When Nature’s
face was blank, and what they call / Chaos, a crude unsorted mass was all. But this
argument is not directed against those who hold— and this is the truth— that the
world was created from nothingness and was not made from preexisting everlast­
ing matter. So, again, this argument is not conclusive against the philosophers who
hold the opposite view , for it is naturally possible that there is a material body and
that it should have within itself certain prime qualities which have a contrary and
that this body should last forever. Such are the parts o f the world at or near its cen­
ter because it is possible that the contrary o f the qualities o f these parts will never
approach them and, therefore, will not cause any change in them. This explains
w hy Aristotle, according to Averroes’ exposition, states in the first book o f the
Physics / (6 ib) that all natural bodies or some o f them are or will be moved, mean­
ing by some o f them to exclude the central parts o f the earth. Therefore, it is possible
that these parts will never be moved nor changed and, consequently, will not be
destroyed. However, in themselves they are perishable, for they are material bodies
and have opposites according to their qualities, as already said. Th e same can be
said o f the parts o f the element o f fire, which are located near the concave circum­
ference o f the lunar heaven. But to make this problem clearer, I argue first for the
contrary; because since these parts o f the earth are material, their matter has the
potential and the inclination or appetite to seek another form and generate another
body, bringing about the destruction o f the first. Thus, if such a part o f the earth
were to last forever, this possibility or inclination would exist to no purpose, and
G o d and Nature do nothing without some purpose, as we said in Chapter Eight
[see fol. 16b]. Th e influence o f the heavenly bodies whose rays o f light are pouring
13 Aristotelis De phystco auditu cum Averrois t.c. 11, fol. 11B.
Cordubensis variis commentants (Juntas, 1562), 14 A omits le.
 2 j6 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
dont les rays sont concurrens vers le centre de la terre doit yleuques faire
action et alteracion. E t donques par la vertu de te k corps est yleuques faite
generacion et corrupcion quelle qu’elle soit, quar nous ne povons avoir ex-
5o perience des choses // (61c) qui sont la-bas.15 Item, par l’influence des corps
du ciel, les ellemens selonc aucunes de leurs parties sont transmués et cor­
rompus de l’un en l’autre, si comme il appert ou secont livre D e generacione.16
E t donques puet estre ( q u e ) 17 la terre en aucun costé de elle soit corrom­
p u ^ ) 18 et appeticie(e)19 et en l’autre costé ou partie soit creue. E t ainsi elle
55 poisera plus d’un costé que d’autre, et quant ce sera notablement il convendra
que toute la masse de la terre se meuve tellement que le centre de la pesanteur
de elle lequel estoit hors du centre du monde, pour la mutacion dessus dicte,
vienne ou centre du monde. E t ainsi la partie de terre qui estoit ou centre se
traira vers la circonférence, et par semblable transmutacion en un autre temps
60 s’approchera encor plus de la circonférence. E t ainsi par procès de temps,
ceste partie qui estoit ou centre vendra vers la circonférence jusques au lieu
ou sont faites alteracion et corrupcion et sera corrompue. E t ainsi des autres
parties de terre par lonc procès de temps et par moult de milliers d’anz. E t
tout ce est possible, et ceste possibilité sera réduite a fait en ceste maniéré par
65 neccessité de nature, qui ne / (6id) puet souffrir que une matere ait touzjours
une forme ne que une chose corruptible dure touzjours. E t semblable diroit
l’en d’une porcion de feu qui est près du ciel de la lune, que par la vertu des
corps du ciel elle descendra en son espere tant qu’elle vendra près de son con­
traire et finablement sera corrompue, quar par procès de temps toutes choses
70 materielles prennent fin, si comme dit Maximien : Ipsa etiam20veniens consumit
saxa vetustas et nullum est quod (n o n )21 tempore cédât22 opus.23 Je respon
au premier ou est dit que la possibilité de la matere, etc., serait pour noient:
l’en pourroit dire premièrement que non seroit, quar combien qu’elle ne soit
onques réduite a fait en ceste matière propre ou en ceste porcion, toutevoies
75 elle est reduicte en semblable (e n ) 24 espesce, quar une autre terre semblable
sera corrompue, et il soufïist. Apres je di que a parler proprement, ceste ma­
tière n’est enviee ne asaciee de quelconque forme et n’a en soy inclinacion ne
appétit ou autre qualité qui li soit propre, et telz moz25 impropres et ainsi
comme poétiques ne segnefient autre chose que la pure substance de la ma­
so tiere en connotant ou dénotant que, quant est de soy, elle est indifferente a
tote forme. E t donques, se elle a touzjours une meisme forme, il // (62a) ne
s’ensuit pas que aucune chose soit pour noient, aussi comme une cire qui est
indifferente a tote figure ne seroit pas pour noient, posé qu’elle fust tous jours
15 A las bas. 20 B enim.
16 De generatione, II.10.336a 33-35. 21 A F omits non.
17 A de. 22 B F cadat.
18 A corrompu. 23 Maximianus, Eieg. 1.273-74:
19 A C appeticie. ipsa etiam veniens consum it saxa vetustas,
Book I, Chapter 36, fols. 6ic-62a | 2/7
toward the center o f the earth must create there some action and alteration. So, by
the power o f such heavenly bodies generation, along with destruction o f some kind
or other, takes place there, for we cannot know directly by experience the things //
(61c) which are down there. By the influence o f the heavenly bodies, the elements
in their separate parts are transmuted and changed from one to the other, as stated
in Book T w o o f Generation and Corruption. Thus, it may be that the earth on one
side may be diminished or reduced in size while the other side may be increased,
thereby weighing more on one side than on the other. Should this inequality be­
come noticeable, then the whole mass o f the earth would have to m ove so that the
center o f its weight— which would be outside the center o f the mass o f the earth by
reason o f the aforesaid mutation— would come to the center o f the earth and the
former center would be drawn toward the circumference ; another similar mutation
at another time would cause it to m ove still closer to the circumference. In the
course o f time, therefore, the part which was at the center would reach a position
so near the circumference that it would be subjected to the forces producing change
and alteration and thus itself be transmuted. Through many millions o f years and
the process o f a long period o f time, other parts o f the earth would be similarly
changed. A ll this is possible, and this possibility will be realized in fact in this man­
ner by natural necessity, for nature / (6id) cannot permit that a material body al­
ways remain the same in form nor that a destructible body last forever. W e would
say the same o f a portion o f the element o f fire which is near the lunar heaven, that
by the influence o f the heavenly bodies it will descend in its sphere until it will very
nearly reach its contrary and finally will be destroyed, for by the process o f time all
material things come to their end, as Maximianus put it : A g e as it proceeds con­
sumes even the rocks and there is nothing which does not yield in time to its action.
T o the first argument which states that the potential o f matter, etc., would be to no
purpose, I reply that at first we could say that it would not be to any purpose, for,
although its potential is never brought to the point o f action or actualized in this
particular matter or in this portion, nevertheless it is actualized in form, since an­
other earth like it could be destroyed, and this is sufficient. N ext I say that, proper­
ly speaking, this matter is not furnished or provided with any form whatever and
possesses no inclination or appetency or other quality peculiarly its own, and such
words, not properly befitting the object and in a sense poetic, really mean nothing
more than the pure substance o f the matter, connoting or denoting that o f itself it
is indifferent to all form. Therefore, if it always has the same form, it // (62a) would
not prove that something exists for no purpose ; as, for example, a piece o f wax
which is indifferent in shape would not be purposeless if it were always spherical or
et nullum est quod non tempore cedat opus. 25 A molz.
24 D E omit en.
2j8 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
sperique ou ronde. A u secont arguement ou estoit dit que l’influence du ciel
85 doit ouvrer vers le centre, etc., je di que posé que la terre fust aussi transpa­
r e n c e 26 ou aussi clere comme est le ciel ou pur air, puet estre que vers le
centre du monde seroit grande influance et alteracion et generacion; mes l’al-
teracion des premieres qualités qui dispose a generacion et corrupcion est
causée par les lumières des corps du ciel, si comme nous voions par expe-
90 rience. E t l’espesceté ou obscurté de la terre empeesche que telles lumières ne
leur effés ne pénétrent ou percent et entrent et ataingnent jusques vers le
centre, mes ileques sont tenebres perpetueles : E t sempiternus horror inhabi­
tat.27 E t donques ileques n’est faite generacion ne corrupcion ne alteracion
naturelle ; et de ce est signe, quar tant plus descent l’en aval et en parfont en
95 terre, l’en treuve choses plus durables et moins de transmutacion ou moins
isnelle et plus tardive. E t donques en procédant oultre en aval est terminée et
finee toute transmutacion, quar oultre ne <s)e28 puet estendre ne descendre
la lumière des corps du ciel. Mes pour ce que la terre est transparente aucune­
ment, la lumière du ciel descent jusques a ce terme insensiblement et en affle-
100 biant ou / (62b) elle ou la chaleur ou autre qualité causée de elle et non oultre,
comme dit est. E t encore appert autrement, quar selonc les philosophes et
meisme selonc Aristote ou secont livre de Phisique,29 totes choses corporelez
qui sont en l’espere des elemens sont pour honme, et les generacions et cor-
rupcions qui seroient faites vers le centre de la terre, l’en ne pourroit dire de
105 quoy elles serviroient ne a honme ne as bestes ne <a>30 autre chose. E t Dieu
et nature ne font rien pour noient, si comme il est alegué devant. Mais celle
terre qui est vers le centre sert et est a fin de sostenir l’autre; et est ce, si com­
me dit l’Escripture : Super quo31 bases illius, scilicet terre solidate32 s(u )n t33
et est le fondement perpétuel de quoy dit le Prophète: Fundastiterra(m)34et
110 permanet— et derechief en Job : Ubi eras quando ponebam fundam ental ter­
re? E t donques la terre devers le centre est fondement de ceste ou sont les
transmutacions, quar le lieu de generacion est en36 un moien du semidia-
metre de l’espere des elemens ; et par aventure, cest moyen n’est pas par egu-
ale distance, mes est es parties de terre qui sont plus hautes et en l’yaue et en
115 l’air37 et es parties de l’element du feu qui sont plus basses (car Averroÿz dit
ou secont chapitre du secont que selon Aristote, des mouvemenz du ciel les
uns sunt engendranz et les autres conservanz)38 Mais vers le centre de la
26 A transparete.
illius soliditae sunt?
27 Cf. Job. 10:22— Sed sempiternus horror 34 A fondasti terra. Ps. 118:90.
inhabitat. D E inhabitans. 35 A fundmeta. Job. 38:4.
28 A ce. 36 D E omit en.
29 Physicorum, 11.2.194a 34-35. 37 B repeats de terre qui sont plus hautes et
30 A omits a. en l’yaue et en l’air.
31 D E que. 38 A omits car A verroÿz... conservanz. See
32 B C D E F fundate. Juntas, t.c. 2, fol. 96C.
33 A sont. Cf. Job 38:6— Super quo bases
B o o k I, C h a p te r 36, fo l. 6 2 b | 2/31
round. T o the second argument, in which it was stated that the influence o f the
heavens must work toward the center, etc., I say that, i f w e assume the earth to be
as transparent and clear as the sky or as pure air, perhaps there would be great in­
fluence and change and generation near the center o f the earth. But as we can see by
experience, the change within the primary qualities which inclines toward genera­
tion and destruction is caused by the light o f the heavenly bodies. N o w , the thick­
ness or impenetrability o f the darkness o f the earth prevents that such light or its
effects should penetrate or pierce or enter and reach the near-center portion o f the
earth, for, there, darkness and shadow are perpetual, and, [as the book o f Job,
10:22, remarks] : Eternal horror dwells. Thus, there can be no natural generation
or destruction or change in that place ; and the evidence for this is the fact that the
farther w e go down into the depths o f the earth, the more durable objects we find,
there being less rapid or much slower change the deeper we go. I f we proceed thus
downward far enough, all change terminates and stops, for the light from the heav­
enly bodies cannot reach or penetrate farther. But since the earth is slightly trans­
parent, the light from the heavens reaches to this limit with no effect, and, becom­
ing weaker and weaker, neither /(62b) the light, the heat, nor any other quality
caused by the light goes any farther, as we have said. A n d this is clear from other
angles o f reasoning ; for, according to the philosophers and even to Aristotle, in
the second book o f his Physics, all corporeal bodies existing in the sphere o f the ele­
ments are for man’s use, and we may ask what is the use o f the creations and de­
structions which occur near the earth’s center either to man or beast or to anything
else. But G o d and Nature do nothing without some purpose, as said before [see
fol. 16b]. A n d this earth which is near the center serves and exists for the purpose
o f supporting the rest o f the earth; it is as the Scripture says : Upon what are the
foundations o f [this solid earth] grounded? It is also the eternal foundation o f
which the Prophet says : Thou hast founded the earth and it is permanent, and,
again, in Job : Where wast thou when I set the foundations o f the earth? Thus, the
central portion o f the earth is the foundation o f this outer portion in which altera­
tions occur, for the locus o f generation is in an intermediate zone o f the radius o f
the sphere o f the elements; and, possibly, this zone is not equally distant from
the center, but is situated in those parts o f the earth that are higher and in the water
and the air and in the lower levels o f the fiery element, for Averroes says in the
second chapter o f B ook T w o that Aristotle held that some o f the movements o f the
heavenly bodies are generative and that others are preservative. Neither generation
nor alteration is caused by the heavenly influences near the center o f the earth, but
 2Ô0 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
terre n’est faite par l’influence du ciel generacion ne corrupcion, mes seule­
ment conservation de ces parties de terre a la fin dessus dite. E t se aucuns
120 mauvés esperis ou autre altera- // (62c) cion sont vers le centre, c ’est chose
supernaturele et par quoy ces parties de terre ne sont pas disposées a cor­
rupcion. A u tiers arguement, je di que c ’est une belle39 ymaginacion que j’ay
autrefoys pensee, mais l’en puet dire qu’elle prove possibilité et ne argue pas
neccessité de la corrupcion de la terre qui est vers le centre; quar posé que la
125 partie qui est maintenant <ou>40 centre issist du centre selonc celle ymagina­
cion, encor y porroit elle retorner par semblable maniéré, quar il n’est pas
vraysemblable que tel appeticement de la masse de la terre soit tousjours
d’une part et d’un costé et l’accroissement touzjours d’autre. E t donques
quant l’acroissement sera de l’autre partie, celle porcion de terre qui estoit
130 issue et esloingnie<e>41 du centre retornera vers le centre, et jamés ne vendra
jusques au lieu de corrupcion ne près de son contraire. E t d ’autre partie, se
tote la terre estoit aucune foys ainsi meue comme dit est, il sembleroit que ce
fust contre ce que dit le prophète a Dieu : Q ui fundasti terra<(m>42 super sta-
bilitatem suam : non inclinabitur43 in seculum seculi,44 et iterum,45 etenim
135 firmavit46 orbem terre, qui non commovebitur.47 E t donques sus ceste terre
qui est vers le centre et non pas en elle est faite generacion et corrupcion
comme dit est, et elle demeure tousjours, et ainsi le dit le Sage: Generacio
preterit, generacio advenit: terra vero48 in eternum stat,49 et parle yleques
comme philosophe.
140 O r ay je donques a l’aide de D ieu et a sa loenge50 monstré / (6zd) clere-
ment en plusseurs maneres par raysons humaines et en lumière naturelle
comment ce n’est pas impossible que une chose qui est de soy corruptible
soit perpetuele, ne que une chose qui ait eu commencement dure sanz fin. E t
toutevoies, comme devant appert, Aristote et Averroÿs vouldrent prover
145 l’opposite qui est contre vérité et contre nostre foy. Mais j’ay leurs raysons
recitees loyalment et declairé evidenment qu’elles ne sont pas bonnes et que
aucunes de elles sont purement sophistiques, quar combien que Aristote fust
excellent philosophe, nientmoins selonc ce que puet apparoir par ce que dit
Eustrace sus le premier d'E th iq u es* 1 Aristote reprovoit52 aucune foys Plato
i5o trop indeuement et avoit ses oppinions en hayne oultre ray son. E t si comme
souvent est dit, il arguoit ycy contre Plato ; et toutevoies saint Augustin ou
.viii.e et ou .ix.e livre de L a C ité de D ie u 53 préféré et recommande Platon et ses
39 B F foie. 47 D E omit etenim... commovebitur. Ps.
40 A il. 92:1.
41 A et soy esloingnie ; B C F esloingnie. 48 B autem.
42 A terra. 49 Cf. Eccles. 1:4— Generatio praeterit, et
43 B m ovebitur. generatio advenit: terra autem in aeternum
44 Ps. 103:5. stat.
45 B C F omit et iterum ; D E et cetera. 50 B omits ay je donques... loenge.
46 B item fîrmabit. C F et item. 51 Eustratii et Michaelis et anonyma in Ethica
Book I, Chapter 36, fols. 6zc-6zd | 261
only the preservation o f these parts o f the earth for the purpose stated above. I f
any evil spirits or other destructive // (62c) forces are in these central parts, this is
supernatural and further reason w hy these parts are not inclined to destruction. T o
answer the third argument, may I say that it represents a neat fantasy I imagined
some time ago, but one may say that it proves only the possibility and not the ne­
cessity for the destruction o f the earth near its center ; for, if we assume that part
near the center to be m oved out o f its central position, in keeping with my fantasy,
it could still return there in the same way, since it is not likely that the diminution
o f the earth would always be on one side o f its mass and the increase always on the
other. Therefore, when the increase is on the opposite side, that part o f the earth
which had gotten out o f its central position and had m oved away would return to
the center, and it would never reach anywhere near the level where corruption be­
gins nor anywhere near its contrary. O n the other hand, if at some time the whole
earth at the center o f the world were to be moved in this manner, it would seem to
contradict the statement made to G o d by the prophet [David] : W ho has founded the
earth upon the stability thereof and it will not be inclined in a century o f centuries.
And again: For He hath established the round world which shall not be moved.
So, upon this earth which is at the center o f the world, but not inside it, generation
and alteration take place, as stated; and the earth continues to endure, as the Sage
[Solomon] said : Generation passeth and generation cometh : but the earth standeth
forever. Here he speaks like a philosopher.
N o w , therefore, with G o d ’s help and to His glory, I have shown / (62d) clearly
in many ways by the light o f human reason and by natural light how it is not im­
possible that any destructible thing can be perpetual and that anything which has
had a beginning can endure forever. However, as clearly shown above, both Aris­
totle and Averroes would like to prove the opposite, which is contrary to truth and
to our faith. I have, however, loyally presented their arguments and the evidence
to show that their arguments are not sound and that some o f them are purely so­
phistic; for, although Aristotle was an excellent philosopher, nevertheless it is
clear from what Eustrathios says concerning the First Book o f the Nicom achean
E th ics that Aristotle was sometimes unduly harsh in his criticism o f Plato, whose
opinion he hated unreasonably. A s we have said many times, he was here arguing
against Plato, whom St. Augustine prefers and recommends above all others, along
with Plato’ s followers in philosophy, in the eighth and ninth books o f The C ity o f
Nichomachea commentaria, 1.6, also Oresme’s N . O., p. 32, calls attention to Oresme’s pre­
gloss in Le Livre de éthiques, p. 113. dilection toward Augustinianism and his
52 B C D E F reprenoit. marked preference for the Platonic cosmology
53 St. Augustine, De civitate Dei, V III.5, and cites this notable passage as his most
IX .23 ; Borchert, Die Lehre von der Bewegung bei forthright statement on the matter.
 262 Le Livre du ciel et du monde [Book II : List o f Chapters | 263

ensuians comme philosophes pardessus touz autres, et tient que leur doctrine G od, and he holds that their teachings are more congruous and more in harmony
entre lez autres des philosophes est plus congrue ou plus concordable a la foy with Catholic faith than those o f other philosophers. Thanks be to G od.
155 catholique. D eo gracias.54 Here ends the first book o f The H eavens and the W orld.
Ci555
6fenist le premier livre de D e celo et mondo.s6

Livre II [Book II]

(64a) Ci commence le secunt livre D u C ie l et du monde ouquel il determine (64a) Here begins Book T w o o f The Heavens and the W orld, in which he resolves
des corps meuz circulairement, ce est assavoir du ciel et de ses parties. E t con­ the problems pertaining to the circular motions o f bodies, specifically o f the heav­
tient .xxxi. chapitres. ens and their parts. A n d it contains thirty-one chapters.

[Table sommaire des chapitres du secunt livre] [Index o f the Chapters o f Book II]

1. O u premier chappitre il determine de la duracion du ciel. [65 a] 1. In Chapter One he discusses the eternal nature o f the heavens. [65a]
2. O u secunt chappitre1 il preuve encore que le ciel est pardurable par au­ 2. In Chapter T w o he proves again the eternity o f the heavens, using other
tres motifs.2 [67b] modes o f argument. [67b]
3. O u tiers il met une condicion du mouvement du ciel. [73 b] 3. In Chapter Three he states one condition with reference to the motion o f the
5 4. O u quart il commence a enquérir se ou ciel sunt destre et senestre et les heavens. [73a]
autres differences de posicion, et repreuve un opinion. [75 c] 4. In Chapter Four he begins his inquiry to ascertain whether right, left, and
5. O u quint il monstre que toutes les differences de posicion3 sunt ou ciel, other positional differences exist in the heavens, and he refutes an opinion. [75c]
ce est assavoir, desuz et desouz, destre et senestre, devant et desriere. [77d] 5. In Chapter Five he shows that all the positional differences discussed above
6. O u .vi.e il monstre comment les differences4 sunt assignees ou ciel. exist in the heavens, namely, above and below, right and left, front and rear. [77c]
[ 10 [8od] 6. In Chapter Six he shows how these differences are assigned in the heavens.
7. O u .vii.e il monstre comment selon le ciel les dites differences sunt en [8od]
terre. [87a] 7. In Chapter Seven he shows how these differences in the heavens affect the
8. O u .viii.e il monstre pourquoy ou ciel sunt plusieurs mouvemens. [89c] earth. [87a]
9. O u .ix.e il monstre que le ciel est de figure esperique5 par raison prinse6 8. In Chapter E igh t he shows w hy there are several different movements in the
i5 de la priorité de ceste figure. [96a] heavens. [89c]
9. In Chapter N ine he shows the heavens to be spherical in shape, on the basis o f
54 B C D E F omit D eo gracias. 2 B C D E F il preuve par autres raisons que the priority o f this figure. [96a]
55 C D E om it C i fe n ist...m o n d o . F explicit le ciel est pardurable.
primus liber de Celo et m undo in gallico. 3 B C D E F differences dessus dites sunt.
56 Fol. 5jabcd blank. 4 B C D E F les dites differences,
1 B C E F om it chapitre ; D omits ou secont s A espique.
chapitre. 6 B C D E F raisons prises.
 264 [ Le Livre du ciel et du monde B o o k I I : L is t o f C h a p te r s j 264

10. O u .x.e il prove ce meisme par .iii. autres raysons. [98c!]
11. <En> le7 .xi.e il met la quarte rayson a monstrer que le ciel est sperique.
[101a] /
(64b) 12. O u .xii.e il enquert et met la cause pourquoy le ciel est meu la
20 voie que il tourne plus que l’autre voie converse. [104a]
13. O u .xiii.e il monstre que le mouvement du ciel est régulier par une ray­
son. [105b]
14. O u .xiiii.e il monstre8ce meisme par .iii. autres raysons. [ioyd]
15. O u .xv.e il commence a determiner des estoylles et premièrement de
25 leur substance et comment elles sunt cause de chaleur, [ m a ]
16. O u .xvi.e il monstre que estoylles sunt meues au mouvement des cyelx
ou elles sunt et non autrement. [115 b]
17. O u .xvii.e il reprove l’opinion d’aucuns qui disoient que les corps du
ciel par leur mouvement font sons melodieus. [122c]
18. O u .xviii.e il monstre que les cielx par leur mouv<em>ens9 ne funt
aucun son.101[123 d]
19. O u .xix.e il tracte de l’ordre des cielx des planètes. [127c]
20. O u .xx.e il monstre que les estoylles sunt de figure sperique. [129a]
21. O u .xxi.e il pourpose .ii. fortes questions. [131a]
35 22. O u .xxii.e il met la solucion de la premiere question. [13 2a]
23. O u .xxiii.e il respont a la secunde question. [135b]
24. O u .xxiiii.e il commence a determiner de la terre en tant comme elle
<est)n centre du monde, et premièrement de son lieu, enreprovant12 aucuns
opinions. [136c]
40 25. O u .XXV.e il recite aucuns opini- // (64c) ons du mouvement de la terre.
[>37 d]
26. O u .xxvi.e il reprove un opinion de la figure de la terre et met la doubte
que plusieurs funt de lieu et du repos de la terre. [144c]
27. O u .xxvii.e il commence a reprover .v. causes13 que les anciens metoi-
45 ent du repos de la terre. [145b]
28. O u xxviii.e il reprove .ii. autres causes ou opinions du repos de la terre.
[146c]
29. O u .xxix.e il prove par .iiii.14 raysons que la terre repose ou melieu du
munde. [148c]
5o 30. O u .xxx.e il monstre que la terre est de figure sperique par .ii. raysons
natureles. [i5od]
10. In Chapter Ten he adds three further arguments in support o f his opinions.
[98d]
11. In Chapter Eleven he presents his fourth argument to show that the heavens
are spherical. [101a] / (64b)
12. In Chapter Tw elve he inquires into and states the cause o f the heavens’ m ov­
ing as they do in one direction rather than in the opposite way. [104a]
13. In Chapter Thirteen he presents one argument to show that celestial motion
is regular. [105 b]
14. In Chapter Fourteen he shows in three arguments that the movement o f the
heavens is regular, [ioyd]
15. In Chapter Fifteen he begins to examine the nature o f the stars, first their
substance and how they produce heat. [11 ia]j
16. In Chapter Sixteen he shows that the stars m ove with the motion o f the par­
ticular heaven in which they are stationed and not otherwise. [115 b]
17. In Chapter Seventeen he rejects the opinion o f those who said that the heav­
enly bodies make musical sounds by their movements. [122c]
18. In Chapter Eighteen he shows that the movements o f the heavenly bodies
produce no sound. [123 d]
19. In Chapter Nineteen he deals with the order o f the planetary heavens. [127c]
20. In Chapter Tw enty he shows that the stars are spherical in shape. [129a]
21. In Chapter Twenty-one he proposes two difficult problems. [131a]
22. In Chapter Tw enty-tw o he presents the solution to the first question. [132a]
23. In Chapter Twenty-three he replies to the second question. [135b]
24. In Chapter Twenty-four he takes up the study o f the earth as the center o f
the world; first, with regard to its place, refuting certain opinions. [136c]
25. In Chapter Twenty-five he relates the opinions // (64c) o f some thinkers
about the movement o f the earth. [137d]
26. In Chapter Twenty-six he refutes an opinion relative to the shape o f the
earth and presents the question that many have raised regarding the proper place
and repose o f the earth. [144c]
27. In Chapter Twenty-seven he begins the refutation o f five causes proposed
by ancient philosophers to explain how the earth rests. [145 a]
28. In Chapter Twenty-eight he refutes two other explanations or opinions con­
cerning the cause o f the earth’s immobility. [146c]
29. In Chapter Twenty-nine he presents four arguments to prove that the earth
is at rest at the center o f the universe. [148c]
30. In Chapter Thirty he shows the earth to be spherical by two arguments

A D E ou le.
7
drawn from nature. [15 od]
12 B reprenant.
8 B C D E F prouve. 13 B C D E F il reprouve .iii. causes que
9 A mouvens. aucuns anciens.
10 B C D E F aucuns sons. ™ F .iii.
11 A omits est.
 266 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
31. O u .xxxi.e il prove15 encore que la terre est sperique par ,iiii. raysons de
astrologie.16 [15 2a] /
(65 a) C y commence le secunt livre D u C ie l et du monde ouquel il deter­
mine des corps meus circulairement, c’est a savoir du ciel et de ses parties, et
contient .xxxi. chappitre^s).1
1. Ou premier chappitre il determine de la duracion du ciel.
T . T o u t le ciel ne fu onques fait et ne peut estre corrumpu si comme au­
cuns dient que si peut.
G . Ce estoit Plato et ses desciples qui disoient que il fu fait et que il est cor­
ruptible.
5 T . Mais il est un et pardurable.2
G . E t a ce prouver il touche ou met .vii.3 moiens ou raisons.
T . Car il ne ot onques commencement ne fin de toute sa duracion qui est
pardurable, car il a et contient en soy temps infini.
G . Car selonc Aristote, tout le temps qui fu et sera est sanz commence-
10 ment et sanz fin, si comme il appert en le ,viii.e de PhisiqueA E t le ciel parson
mouvement contient tout le temps aussi comme la cause contient son effit
et si comme la mesure contient la chose mesurée. E t donques le ciel est sanz
commencement et sans fin. Ce est la premiere raison. E t selon la translacion
d’Averroïz, Aristote conclut ainsi: Semper est eternum / (65b) sine principio
i5 et sine fine per omnia secula.5 Il veult dire que le ciel a duré et durera par touz
les siècles. E t est a savoir que cest mot seculum ou siecle est prins en .iiii. ma­
niérés : une est pour le monde. Item, Plato appelloit siecle la duracion qui
estoit avant que le commencement du monde et du temps ; et ce est éternité
permanente, si comme il fu dit ou .xxiiii.e chappitre6 du premier. Item, il est
20 dit de la duracion ou espace successive7 de cent ans; et selon ce dist Ovide
que la cornelle v it8 .iii.c siècles: Trecentum secula cornix,9 et entent par ce
.iii.c ans. Item, de chascune chose le temps qui contient la duracion de elle ou
de sa v ie 10 et qui en est mesure est dit son siecle, et est appellé le oziz< o)n11
de celle chose, si comme dist Averroïz ou .xxiiii.e chappitre.12 E t donques la
25 duracion de la chose qui n’a commencement ne fin est un siecle infini. E t pour
^ ^ tri
monstre... est de figure sperique. 4 Physicorum, VIII. 1.251b 14-26.
64.6 blank. 5 F secula seculorum. Cf. Juntas, 95 K .
chappitre; B C D E F omit Cy commen­ 6 B C D E F .xxviii. E omits chapitre.
c e ... chappitre (s>. 7 D E espace dessus dicte de.
2 B C D E il est pardurable ; F il est corrupt­ 8 D E omit vit.
ible.
9 D E cornis. Cf. Metam. V II.274: “ Oro
3 B C D E F il met .vi. A is correct; cf. 73a. caputque novem cornicis saecula passae.”
Boot: II, Chapter 1, fols. 65a-6jb | 267
31. In Chapter Thirty-one he again proves that the earth is a sphere by four ar­
guments derived from astronomy. [152a]//
(65 a) Here begins B ook T w o o f The Heavens and the W orld, in which he resolves
the problems pertaining to the circular motions o f bodies, specifically o f the heav­
ens and their parts. A n d it contains thirty-one chapters.
1. In Chapter One he discusses the eternal nature o f the heavens.
T . Th e world as a whole was never created and cannot be destroyed, as some
would claim.
G . These were Plato and his disciples who maintained that the world was creat­
ed and is destructible.
T . It is one world and eternal.
G . T o prove this he offers seven interpretations or arguments.
T . For it never had a beginning nor end o f its entire existence which is everlast­
ing, possessing and containing infinite time within itself.
G . For, according to Aristotle, all time past and future is without beginning or
end, as shown in the Eighth B ook o f the Physics. T h e heavens by their motion con­
tain all time, just as the cause contains its effect or the measure contains the thing
measured. Therefore, the heavens have neither beginning nor end. This is the first
argument. According to the translation [by Michael Scot] o f Averroes, Aristotle
concludes thus: Semper est eternum / (65b) sine principio et sine fine per omnia
secula. He means that the heavens have lasted and will last through all the centuries.
N o w this word seculum or century has four meanings. [ One meaning is world,
and Plato used seculum to mean the extent o f time which existed before the world
and time began, and this is permanent eternity, as we said in Chapter Twenty-four
o f Book I [see fols. 34d—3 5a]. Seculum is said to indicate the period o f 100 successive
years, and in this sense O v id says the crow lives for three centuries: Trecentum
secula cornix, meaning b y this three hundred years. Also, with respect to the dura­
tion o f anything, the length o f its life, which is the temporal measure o f its exist­
ence, is called its seculum, which Averroes, in Chapter Twenty-four, calls its o%i%on.
Therefore, the duration o f that which has neither beginning nor end is an infinite
Also: Amores II.6.35 : “ V ivit et armiferae cor- 10 B C D E fin.
nix in visa Minervae, ilia quidem saeculis vix 11 A ozizen.
moritura novem.” There are no other refer- 12 B C D E . xxviii. F .xxxviii. Cf. Juntas, t.c.
ences to the crow ’s age in O vid. 100, 68A.
268 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ce, dist Aristote que le ciel a duré et durera p er omnia secula, c ’est a savoir par
touz les siècles finis. Item, pour ce que le siecle du ciel qui est infini13 contient
et comprent touz les autres siècles finiz, il peut estre dit seculum seculorum, c’est
a dire le siecle des siècles qui sont finiz, successis et temporelz, lesquelz
3o l’Apostle appelloit tempora secularia.14 Item, pour ce // (65 c) que pluseurs
cielz15 sont et le siecle de chascun ciel16 est infini, il s’ensuit que les siècles des
cielz peuent estre diz en plurier nombre secula seculorum. Item, le siecle suc­
cessif de une telle chose, posé que elle fust perpétuelle de toutes pars, ne con­
tient pas le siecle d’une autre chose semblablement perpétuelle ; et pour ce,
35 l’en ne pourrait pas proprement dire que le ciel a duré ou durera per secula
seculorum, mais l’en peut bien dire que il durera per seculum seculorum
comme dit est, c’est a savoir par le siecle des siècles qui sont finiz en quantité
et infiniz en multitude. Item, la duracion de Dieu laquelle est toute ensemble
et permanente indivisible appellee éternité, contient et enclôt et excede toutes
4o duracions successives ou temporelles, posé que elles fussent sanz commence­
ment et sanz fin. E t de Dieu dist l’Apostle : Quod solus habet immortalita-
tem ,17 c’est a savoir éternité de quoy dist Ysaïe: Q uod ipse Deus est habi-
tans eternitatem.18 E t pour ce, il s’ensuit que de Dieu seulement l’en peut dire
proprement que il vit en régné per omnia secula seculorum, car ceste eter-
45 nité de Dieu contient touz les siècles qui seroient sanz commencement et
sanz fin et desquelz chascun seroit siecle des siècles finiz, comme dit est. E t
de se-/ (65 d) culis19 seculorum parle saint Augustin ou .xii.e livre20 de L a
C ité de D ieu . Item, éternité est dite aucune fois par equivocacion de duracion
successive infinie de toutes pars, si comme Aristote dist souvent que: Mun-
50 dus est eternus et motus celi eternus,21 et cetera. E t selon ce, l’en peut dire de
Dieu que il régnera in eternum et ultra,22 car il régnera tant comme sera dura­
cion successive ymaginee pardurable et donques in eternum. E t régnera en
son éternité permanente laquelle est oultre et contient comme cause et passe
toute autre duracion qui seroit sanz commencement et sanz fin, et donques il
55 régnera in eternum et ultra. Item, pour ce miex entendre, je met exemple en
quantité corporelle, car se nous appelions le ciel premier celui qui est le plus
près de nous, ce est le ciel de la lune. Je di que le secont ciel en montant peut
estre dit ciel du premier et le tiers dit ciel du secont et ainsi des autres, car
nous appelions communément le ciel d ’une chose ce que est par desus elle et
60 qui la contient ou queuvre. E t selon ce, l’en peut dire des cielz que celui qui
est par desus un autre ciel et qui le contient est ciel du contenu. E t par aven­
ture, par ce peut estre entendue l’escripture de M oÿse qui dist : Dom ini D ei
13 A infiniz. qui solus habet immortalitatem.
14 See II Tim. 1:9; Tit. 1:2. 18 Cf. Isai. 57:15— Quia haec dicit Excelsus,
15 B C D E F siècles. et sublimis habitans aeternitatem.
16 B C chascun si elle est; F si ele. 19 B seculum.
17 A immortalitalitatem. Cf. I Tim. 6:16— 20 B C D E chapitre. De civitate Dei, X II.19.
B o o k II , C h a p te r 1, fo ls. 6 5 C -6 6 a 269
seculum, and so Aristotle can say that the heavens have lasted and will last p er omnia
secula— through all finite time. A n d since heavenly time is infinite and contains
and comprises all finite time, it can be called seculum seculorum, that is to say, the sum
total o f all the centuries which are finite, successive, and temporal which the Apostle
[Paul] called tempora secularia [since the world began]. Since //(65c) there are sev­
eral heavenly spheres with infinite duration, it follows that the number o f their col­
lective centuries or their total ages will be plural, therefore secula seculorum .T h e suc­
cessive duration in time o f such a thing as a heavenly sphere, assuming it to be per­
petual in all its parts, does not include the duration in time o f another similar perpet­
ual heavenly sphere ; thus we cannot properly speak o f the heavens as having lasted
or as about to last for centuries o f centuries, but we can say that they will last
through a century o f centuries, as above ; that is, through the century o f centuries
which are finite in quantity but infinite in number. The duration o f G od, which
is a unity and the permanent indivisible which we call eternity, contains, encloses,
and exceeds all successive temporal durations, assuming these to be without begin­
ning or end. Th e Apostle says o f G o d : He alone has immortality; that is, as Isaiah
puts it : G o d Himself alone inhabits eternity. From this it follows that only o f G o d
can we say rightly that He lives and reigns p er omnia secula seculorum, [through all the
centuries o f centuries]; for this divine eternity contains all the centuries which
could be conceived without beginning and without end, o f which each would be a
century o f finite centuries, as we have said. In B ook Tw elve o f The C ity o f G o d [
(63 d) St. Augustine speaks o f secula seculorum. Sometimes eternity is said equivocal­
ly o f the infinite succession o f time in every direction; for instance, Aristotle often
says: Th e world is eternal; the motion o f the heavens is eternal, etc. According to
this, we can say o f G o d that He will reign in eternity and beyond, for He will reign
as long as we can imagine there will be infinite successive duration o f time, and
thus for eternity. A n d He will reign in his permanent eternity which is beyond,
which contains as a cause and surpasses every other duration which would be with­
out beginning or end, and thus He will reign in eternity and beyond. T o under­
stand this better, I offer an example using a material quantity; for, if we call the
first o f the heavenly spheres and the one nearest to us the lunar sphere, then I say
we may call the second heavenly sphere, the one just above the first, the heaven o f
the first sphere ; and the third heavenly sphere the heaven o f the second sphere, and
the others in the same manner. For we commonly call the heaven o f anything that
which is over and above it, which contains or covers it. Therefore, we can speak o f
the heavenly sphere which is above another sphere and contains it as the heaven o f
the contained or covered sphere. Perhaps we should understand in this way the
holy writ where Moses says : Th e heaven is the Lord’s //(66a) and the heaven o f the
21 E celi est eternus; B C D E F omit et 22 Exodus 15:18.
cetera.
 2jo [ Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Book II, Chapter 1, fols. 66b-66c | z ji
tui23 JJ (66a) celum est et celum cefi, 24 et est possible que par le premier
heaven; for it is possible that the first heaven means the invisible h ea v en called the
celum il entent le ciel invisible qui est appellé empireum2S ou glaciale, et par le
empireum or glacial, and the second heaven may mean the ninth or eighth sphere
65 secont celum26il entent la noviesme <0 >u27 octiesme espere qui contient toute
which contains the entire mass o f the other heavenly spheres, since he uses in the
la masse des autres cielz qui est entendue, parce que il dist tiercement celi en
third repetition o f heaven the genitive singular case, celi. In similar manner w e may
génitif singulier. E t par voie semblable, l’en peut exposer ce que dist le Pro­
explain the statement o f the Prophet [David] : T h e heaven o f the heavens is the
phète: Celum celi domino, et cetera.28 Item, .ii. ou pluseurs des cielz qui sont
Lord’s, etc. ; that is, tw o or more o f the higher heavens which contain the heavenly
plus haut et contiennent ceulz qui sont plus bas et dedens eulz ; et selon ce, il
spheres that are below and inside o f them, being in this way heavens o f heavens.
70 sont c ie lz de cielz, et par ce peust estre exposee l’Escripture qui dist : Si celum
Thus, we may explain the Scripture where it says : Heaven and the heaven o f heav­
et celi celorum te non capiunt, etc.,29 en disant que par celum est a entendre
ens cannot contain Thee, etc., explaining that the word celum [heaven] here means
le souverain et desrenier ciel, et par celi celorum sont entendus30 les autres,
the last and sovereign heaven, while celi celorum refers to the other heavenly spheres,
comme dit est. E t donques aussi comme le ciel qui contient un autre ciel est dit
as noted above. A n d just as we call the heavenly sphere which contains another
celum celi, et aussi de pluseurs peut l’en dire celum celorum et celi celorum par
sphere celum celi [heaven o f a heaven] or just as we speak o f several heavenly
75 continence local, semblablement dist l’en des siècles dont31 les uns contien­
spheres as celum celorum or celi celorum meaning their local content, similarly we can
nent les autres par continence de duracion, si comme dit est. Item, aussi comme
speak o f the periods o f time o f which some contain the others as being the content
l’eternité indivisible de D ieu contient toute autre duracion, semblablement
o f the duration o f time, as we have said. Just as the indivisible eternity o f G o d con­
l’immensité indivisible de D ieu contient touz corps qui sont ou qui peuent
tains all other durations, likewise the indivisible immensity o f G o d contains all
estre. / (66b) E t selon ce, Priscian ou commencement de sa Mappemonde dist
bodies which exist or can exist. / (66b) A n d accordingly, Priscian says at the be­
80 ainsi : Nature32 genitor, mundum qui continet33 omnem annue rex celi, etc.34
ginning o f his Mappemonde'. C rea to r o f nature, which contains all the world o f time,
Mes par ce que dit est, il sambleroit que l’eternité35 de D ieu peust estre dite
king o f the heaven placed above the earth, etc. But from what has been said, it
siecle de touz siècles, car elle les contient; et que son inmensité peu<s)t36
would appear that the eternity o f G o d could be called world everlasting, for it con­
estre dite ciel de touz cielz, car elle les contient E t je respon et di que, par
tains all time; while his immensity could be called heaven o f all the heavenly
aventure, selon la consideracion desus mise bien entendue, ce ne seroit pas
spheres, for it contains them all. T o this I reply that, perchance according to the
85 inconvenient ; mes pour ce que communément l’en entent par siecle duracion
discussion above, this would not be inconvenient; but since we usually mean by
successive, et par ciel quantité corporelle, telle maniéré de parler comme dit
siecle successive periods o f time and by d e l [or heaven\ a quantitative body, this man­
est ne est pas a recevoir, car l’en ne doit pas dire que Dieu est siecle ne que
ner o f speaking is not acceptable ; for we must not say that G o d is time nor that
Dieu est ciel, et il le convendroit pour ce que D ieu est son éternité et son im­
G o d is heaven, even though it would be fitting, since G o d is His eternity and His
mensité. E t presque semblablement dient les docteurs que l’en peust bien
immensity. In much the same way, the doctors o f the Church maintain that one
90 dire que le Filz de Dieu est creature, ne fust que par ce l’en pourroit entendre
could say that the Son o f G o d is a creature, except that in this we might understand
que II fust pure creature, si comme disoient aucuns heretiques. Item, puisque
that He is simply a creature, as certain heretics used to say. A n d since we are on this
nous sommes en ceste matière, je di que aussi comme hors37 le monde qui
subject, I want to say that, just as the immensity o f G o d extends outside the world
est fini en extension est l’immensité de Dieu, et meisme selon Aristote ou
which is finite in extent, and even Aristotle agrees in Chapter Twenty-four in Book
.xxiiii.e chappitre du premier, je di que par raison aussi est ou peut estre l’e-
I [see fol. 34cd], it is equally reasonable to maintain that the eternity o f G o d exists
95 ternité de D ieu avant que le monde fust, lequel (e s t)38 ou peut estre fini en
or could exist before the world existed, which world is or may be finite in // (66c)
I l (66c) duracion et ot commencement selon vérité; et aussi comme, selon
time and certainly had a beginning. Moreover, again following Aristotle, since the
Aristote, par cest mot dehors ou desus en cest propos ne est pas dénoté lieu
words dehors [outside] and desus [above] do not denote place in this context— for
23 D E deum dei tui. 30 B C D E F sont a entendre les.
24 Unidentified. 31 F siècles qui contiennent; B omits dont;
25 B celum empireum. D E quant.
26 C selum. 32 B natura.
27 A au. 33 B C D E confines.
28 Ps. 113:16. B omits et cetera. 34 D E anime. Cf. Dionysii A fr i de situ orbis:
29 Cf. II Par. 6:18— Si coelum et coeli coe- rae genitor, quae m undum continet omnem 36 A peut.
sive geographies Prisciano, aut Fannio Phenio inter­
lorum non te capiunt. B C D E F omit etc. A nnue rex coeli positum telluris: et undae __” 37 D E com m e est le m.
prète liber unieus, (Venice, 1512), fol. ir: “ Natu-
35 F la trinité. 38 A om its est.
 2J 2 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
— car hors le monde ne est aucun lieu, 39 si comme il dist ou .xxiiii.e du pre­
mier— je di que par semblable raison cest mot devant en cest propos ne de-
ioo note pas temps, car avant que le monde fust ne estoit aucun temps.40 Item,
aussi comme tout corps a en soy une trinité de dimensions, si comme il fu
déclaré ou premier chappitre du premier, aussi a tout corps duracion et ex­
tension et puissance; et ce est a l’exemplaire de Dieu le créateur qui a en Soy
éternité et immensité et toute-puissance. E t les .iii. choses desus dites qui
105 sont es corps sont finies et distinctees et divisibles, mais celles de D ieu sont
plus que infinies ou simplement infinies et sont une chose très simple sanz
distinction et du tout indivisible, car son éternité est sanz succession et son41
immensité sanz extension et sa42 toute-puissance sanz intension. Item, com­
bien que raison naturelle nous enseigne que en Dieu sont telles choses ou
no que D ieu est telle chose, toutevoies nous ne pourrions ce comprendre ne
plainnement entendre pour ce que nostre entendement depent de noz senz
naturelz lesquelz sont corp(or)elz,43 mais nous les44 entendons imperfecte-
ment. E t pour ce, par aventure, quant / (66d) le saint Esperit nous vouloit
par son prophète inducer et mener a la petite cognoissance que nous povons
ii5 avoir de ces choses, il nous appelloit enfans et disoit: Laudate pueri Dom i-
num : laudate nomen Domini,45 et tantost apres il nous denote et insinue ces
.iii. choses estre en D ieu: et premièrement son éternité, par ce que il dist:
Sit46 nomen Dom ini benedictum, ex hoc nunc et usque in seculum;47 secon­
dement son immensité, par ce que il dist: A soüs ortu usque ad occasum,
iso laudabile nomen Dom ini;48 et tiercement l’excellence de sa puissance, par ce
que il dist: Excelsus super omnes gentes Dominus, et super celos gloria
eius.49
O r veul je retourner a parler de ces<t> ciel50 apres ce que je me suiun pou
dilaté en ceste matière, pour ce que je ne le ay pas veue ainsi traitié ailleurs.
125 Je di donques que Aristote touche apres le secont moien a monstrer que le
ciel est pardurable.
T . Item, l’en peust prendre foy de ce par les choses desus dictes.
G . Car Aristote a monstré ou sixte et ou .vii.e chappitre du premier51 que
le ciel ne fu onques fait et que il est incorruptible. Item, es derreniers chap-
i3o pitre<s>52 du premier il a monstré que le monde est perpétuel et sanz com­
mencement. E t le ciel est la premiere et la plus principal partie des elemens
du monde. Item, il est plus durable // (67a) proprement que ne sont les au­
tres .iiii. elemens, car nulle partie de lui ne est corruptible ne nouvelle et du-
39 D E omit car hors le monde ne est aucun ment,
lieu. 45 Ps. 112:1.
40 F lieu; B C D E omit temps. 46 B omits sit.
41 D E sanz. 47 Ps. 112:2.
42 Ibid. 48 Ps. 112:3. B outu; D ortu caidine usque;
43 A corpelz; D corporeez. E ortu et usque. D omits nomen domini.
44 D E nous ne les entendons mie perfecte-
49 Ps. 112:4.
Book II, Chapter 1, fols. 66d-6ya | 277
outside the world there is no place, as Aristotle said in Chapter Twenty-four o f
B ookI[seefol. 34c]— I say that likewise this word devant [before] in his context does
not mean time, because before the world existed there was no time. Thus, just as
every body has within itself three dimensions, as declared in Chapter O ne o f B ook I
[see fol. 4c], in the same way every body has duration, extension, and power; and
this is according to the pattern set by G o d the Creator, who possesses in Himself
eternity, immensity, and omnipotence. Th e three things noted above which exist
in bodies are finite, discrete, and divisible, but the dimensions o f G o d are more than
infinite or absolute infinity and constitute one very simple thing without discrete­
ness and completely indivisible ; for his eternity is without successive parts, his im­
mensity is unextendable, and his omnipotence is without intensity. A lthough nat­
ural reason may teach us that in G o d all these things exist or that G o d is Himself
such a thing, nevertheless, we could not understand this nor fully grasp its mean­
ing since our perception depends upon our natural senses which are corporeal, and
we perceive things imperfectly. Perhaps it was for this reason that, when / (66d)
the H oly Spirit wished through the agency o f His prophet [David] to lead us and
direct us to the small amount o f comprehension we can have o f these things, he
called us children and said: Children, praise the Lord; praise ye the name o f the
Lord. A n d immediately afterwards he points out and implies that these three things
exist in G o d : first, His eternity, by stating : Let G o d ’s name be blessed from this
time henceforth ; secondly, his immensity, by stating : From the rising o f the sun
unto the going down o f the same, the Lord’s name is to be praised; and thirdly,
His omnipotence, by his statement : The Lord is high above all nations, and His
glory above the heavens.
N o w , I should like to return to the subject o f this heaven after I have broadly
expressed myself regarding this topic, for I have never seen it treated elsewhere in
this way. Thus, I say that Aristotle next touches upon the second method o f show­
ing the heavens to be eternal.
T . We can feel sure o f our ground at this point on the basis o f what we have said
above.
G . For Aristotle has shown in the sixth and seventh chapters o f Book I [see fols.
I3a-i4d] that the heavens were never created and will be everlasting. In the later
chapters o f Book I he showed that the world is everlasting and without a begin­
ning. The heavens are the primary and principal part o f the elements o f the world.
O f itself this heavenly element is more durable // (67a) than the other four elements,
for no part o f it is destructible nor newly created and all its parts endure without
50 A de ces cielz apres ; B C D E F siecle. 32 A B C E chapitre; F ou derrenier chapitre.
51 B D E .viii.e ch.
2J4 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
rent toutes sanz crestreet sanz appeticier, mais aucuns des autres elemens ou53
135 touz sont continuelment engendrés et corrumpuz, creuz et appeticiéz selon
leurs partiez ; et ne durent pas par touz temps comme chose permanente mes
comme chose successive et qui est une par continuation, si comme l’en diroit
que un fleuve est perpétuel, et toutevoies il n’i a rien de l’eaue qui estoit54
passés mil ans. Apres55 il met le tiers motif.
140 T . Item, encor appert ce que dit est par l’oppinion de ceulz qui dient autre­
ment et qui mettent que le ciel fu engendré ou fait par generacion, car estre
en la maniéré que nous disons est chose possible,56 et que le ciel soit fait, si
comme il dient, ne est pas possible. Se il est ainsi, pour certain ce donne
grant inclination a ce que nous aions foy de l’immortalité du ciel et de sa
145 pardurableté.
G . Il veult dire que a mettre le ciel est perpétuel il ne s’ensuit quelconque
impossible, et a dire que il fu fait d’une matière qui avoit tous]ours duré sanz
commencement, si comme aucuns disoient, il s’ensuit chose naturelment im­
possible. E t contre cest opinion sont les raisons d ’Aristote.57 Mais a dire que
i5o il / (67b) fu créé de nouvel de nient il ne s’ensuit quelconque impossible. Item,
Averroïz recite et approuve un qui disoit que nous tenons plus l’oppinion
d’Aristote que des autres en ceste question pour ce que ses paroles sont moins
doubteuses et plus loing de contradiction.58 Item, Aristote dist de l’immor­
talité du ciel pour ce que selon aucuns anciens, et par aventure selon lui, le
i55 ciel est dit immortel pour ce que il vit de vie intellective par les intelligences
qui lui sont appropriées.
2. Ou secont chappitre il prouve encore que le ciel est pardurable
par autres motifs.
T . E t pour ce, est ce bien raisonnable chose de soy abandonner aus anciens
et mais<me)mentI a crere les paroles de nos anciens peres estre vraies, et que
des choses qui ont mouvement aucune soit divine et immortelle, c’est a sa­
voir que elles aient telz mouvemens desquelz ne soit aucune fin, mais que tel
5 mouvement soit plus fin des autres qui ont fin.
G . Ce est un m otif ou confirmation par l’auctorité des anciens. Mais con­
tre ce sembleroit estre ce que dist Aristote ou .xxv.e chappitre du premier ou
il dist que tous dient que le monde fu fait et engendré. Je respon que // (67c)
il entent yleuques de touz les philosophes de Grece, car si comme dist Aver-
10 roïz, Aristote fu le premier des philosophes de Grece qui mist que le monde
est pardurable. Mais yci endroit, selon Averroïz, Aristote allégué le philo-
53 B C D E F omit ou; D E autres degréz 55 A B C D E F ans. Glose. Apres,
touz. 56 D E est impossible.
54 A esestoit. 57 A Aristotez.
Book II, Chapters 1-2, fols. G-jb-G-ic \ 2 jj
growth or diminution. But some or all o f the other elements are continually gener­
ated and destroyed; they grow and diminish in their parts and they do not last for­
ever as permanent things, but as a successive thing or one by continuation, just as
we speak o f a river as perpetual although there remains nothing o f the water which
existed in it a thousand years ago. Next, he resumes the third method.
T . What we have said is supported by the opinion o f those who think differently
and who state that the heavens were created or produced by generation, for, if they
exist in the manner we have described, then the heavens cannot have been gener­
ated as they claim. Certainly this may strengthen our belief that the heavens are im­
mortal and everlasting.
G . He means that there is nothing impossible involved in holding the heavens
to be everlasting, while to say, as some did, that they were made o f a substance
which had always existed without any beginning would be naturally impossible.
A nd the arguments o f Aristotle attack this opinion. But to say that the heavens /
(67b) were created anew from nothing is not impossible. Averroes relates with ap­
proval the opinion o f someone who said that we favor Aristotle’s opinion in this
matter more than that o f some others because his statements are less dubious and
less easily contradicted. Aristotle preferred to support the immortality o f the heav­
ens, because certain ancient thinkers, and, perhaps, he himself as well, assumed
they are immortal since the heavens enjoy an intellectual life through the intelli­
gences which are appropriate to them.
2. In Chapter Two, he proves again the eternity o f the heavens
by other modes of argument.
T . Therefore, it is reasonable to adopt the views and beliefs o f those ancient
thinkers and the statements o f our ancestors that among the things endowed with
the capacity for motion there is something divine and immortal, that is, they pos­
sess certain motions which are without end, but such motion is different and more
refined than motions to which there is a limit.
G . This is a corroboration or confirmation on the authority o f the ancient philos­
ophers. But it would appear to be contrary to what Aristotle said in Chapter
Twenty-five o f Book I [see fol. 39d], where he states that all thinkers say the world
was created and generated. I say that // (67c) there he means to include all the
Greek philosophers, for, as Averroes says, Aristotle was the first o f the Greek phi­
losophers who taught that the world is eternal; here Averroes states that Aristotle
1 A C D maisment.
58 Juntas, t.c. 1, 96B.
 2 j6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
sophes de Caldee qui disoient que le mouvement du ciel est perpétuel sanz
commencement.2 Apres il met une autre raison.
T . Item, la cause de ce est car ce que est fin est contenant et contient ce de
i5 quoy il est fin. E t le mouvement circulaire du ciel est parfet...
G . Si comme il appert par le quart chappitre du premier. E t en un meisme
ordre, ce que est parfet contient ce que est moins parfect.
T . E t contient les autres mouvemens imparfetz qui ont terme <s >3 et repos.
G . Il les contient encor autrement, car il a duré4 quant il durent et apres et
20 devant.
T . E t cest mouvement n’a commencement ne fin.
G . Car il est selon ligne circulaire qui est d’une maniéré en toutes ses par­
ties, sanz ce que en une soit le commencement de elle plus que en autre fors
par signacion voluntaire.
a5 T . E t pour ce, cest mouvement est sanz cesser par temps infini et est aus
autres mouvemens, aus uns cause de leur commencement et des autres il re­
çoit leur repos.
G . Car / (6yd) selon Aristote, ce est impossible naturelment que un mou­
vement commence de nouvel se aucun autre mouvement n’est cause de ceste
30 nouvelleté, et donques convient il que le procès des mouvemens qui sont
causes un de l’autre soit infini, et c ’est impossible si comme il appert ou se-
cont de M ethaphisique ;5 ou que un mouvement perpétuel soit cause des autres
mouvemens qui ont commencement et c ’est le mouvement du ciel. E t dist
yci Aristote que aussi il reçoit le repos des autres mouvemens que il conserve,
35 et garde les corps qui se reposent. E t pour ce dist Averroïz que Aristote veult
yci dire que des mouvemens pardurables les uns sont cause de la generacion
des choses et les autres les conservent.6 E t selon ce, je dis ou desrenier chap­
pitre du premier que il souffist que les parties de terre qui sont vers le centre
soient conservées en estre par l’influence du ciel sanz ce que elles soient ja-
40 mais corrompues. Apres il met le sixte motif.
T . Item, les anciens attribuent aus diex le ciel et le lieu qui est en haut ausi
comme lieu lequel seul est immortel.
G . E t dist yci Averroïz que toutes loys conviennent et sont a acort que
Dieu est ou ciel et que Dieu est pardurable. E t il convient // (68a) que le lieu
45 de celui qui est pardurable soit pardurable.7
Pour mieux entendre ceste chose et aucunes autres qui sont dignes de
consideracion, je veul premièrement declairer comment D ieu est ou ciel ou
ailleurs, et apres des autres choses incorporelles ou elles sont et conment.
Quant au premier, les sains docteurs ont déterminé comment Dieu est en ses
5o creatures par grace ou par gloire ou autrement, et comment elles sont en Lui.
X to
Cadee. See 40a and Juntas, t.c. 2, 96F. 5 Metaphysicorum, 11.2.994a 2-7.
terme. 6 Juntas, t.c. 2, 96G-H.
4 B C D E F il dure quant. 7 Juntas, t.c. 2, 96H.
Book II, Chapter 2, fols. 6yd-68a | 277
refers to the Chaldean philosophers who taught that the motion o f the heavens is
eternal without a beginning. N ext he presents another argument.
T . This is caused by the fact that the thing which limits is itself a container, con­
taining that o f which it is the limit, and the circular motion o f the heavens is com­
plete . . .
G . A s shown in Chapter Four o f B ook I [see fol. 11a]. A n d in the same pattern,
that which is complete contains the less complete.
T . A n d embraces the other imperfect motions which are finite and capable o f
rest.
G . A n d it contains these other motions in another manner, for it has lasted as
long as they have lasted and, in addition, both before and afterwards.
T . A n d this circular motion o f the heavens has neither beginning nor end.
G . Because it moves in a circular line which is the same in every part, without
any beginning o f the line in one part more than in any other, unless b y reason o f
some voluntary disposition.
T . Therefore, this motion o f the heavens is ceaseless through infinite time, and,
in relation to other motions, it is the cause o f the beginning o f some and it receives
the cessation o f others.
G . For, / (6yd) according to Aristotle, it is naturally impossible for a motion to
start anew if some other motion does not start it; therefore, it follows that 1) either
the succession o f movements causing other movements must be infinite, and this is
impossible according to B ook II [Ch. 2] o f the M etaphysics', or 2) that a perpetual
motion must cause the other movements which have a beginning, and this perpet­
ual motion is the movement o f the heavens. A n d Aristotle adds here that also it
receives the cessation o f the other motions which it conserves, and it preserves the
bodies at rest. Averroes says that here Aristotle means that some o f the eternal
movements o f the heavens cause the generation o f things, while others conserve
things. In accordance with this, I said in the last chapter o f B ook I [see fol. 61b]
that it would be enough if the central parts o f the earth were conserved by the in­
fluence o f the heavens without their being altered in any way at any time. N ext, he
presents his sixth corroborative statement.
T . Th e Ancients attributed to the gods the heavens and the higher regions as the
place which alone is immortal [or imperishable].
G . A n d Averroes says here that all laws and doctrines agree with one accord that
G o d is in the heavens and is eternal. // (68a) A n d the place o f the Eternal must be
eternal.
T o aid in understanding this and other matters worthy o f consideration, I wish,
first o f all, to explain how G o d exists in the heavens or elsewhere and then to dis­
cuss the place occupied b y other incorporeal bodies and their mode o f being. O n
the first point, the holy doctors have explained how G o d exists in His creatures
through grace or glory or otherwise and how they exist in Him. This is not precise-
 z j8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
E t ce n’appartient pas tant a philosophie comme fait savoir comment Dieu et
les choses incorporelles sont en lieu, car si comme il appert yci par Averroïz,
touz dient que D ieu est ou ciel comme en son lieu. Je di donques que aussi
comme Dieu de neccessité est present sanz succession en toute duracion pas-
55 see, présente et a venir par son éternité indivisible qui contient et passe toute
autre duracion et en est cause, si comme il appert ou chappitre precedent et
plus a plain ou ,xxiiii.e chappitre du premier, semblablement Dieu par sa gran­
deur infinie sanz quantité et simplement indivisible appellee immensité est de
neccessité tout en toute extension ou espace ou lieu qui est ou qui peut/ (68b)
60 estre ymaginé. E t pour ce dist l’en que D ieu est touzjours et partout— sem­
per et ubique— touzjours par éternité et partout8 par immensité. E t ce te-
noient les paiens, si comme il appert en une glose ordinaire sus Jeremie ou
est allégué un poète qui disoit ou livre appellé Giganchomachie: Q uo fugis
Enchelade, quascumque accesseris oras <sub>9 Jove semper eris.10 Il vou-
65 loit dire que ce géant Encheladus11 ne povoit fuir en lieu ou Dieu ne fust. E t
selon ce disoit le Prophète: Q uo ibo a spiritu tuo? et quo a facie tua fugiam?
Si ascendero in celum, tu illic12 es: si descendero in 13 infernum, ades, etc.14
Il veult dire que Dieu est et ou ciel et en enfer et partout. E t derechief il dist
en Ysaÿe: Celum et terram15 ego impleo.16 E t sont a ce pluseurs autres es-
70 criptures et meisme des paiens, et si comme de Virgile qui dist: Jovis omnia
plena17— tout est plain de Dieu. E t selon les docteurs, Il est par tout lieu en
.iii. maniérés, c’est a savoir par presence et par puissance et par essence. E t
aussi comme Dieu ne porroit faire que II ne fust en estre par l’espace18 d’un
jour ou d’une heure ou, a parler improprement, que II fust en non-estre par
75 une espace de temps, semblablement ce est impossible simplement que II ne
soit en tout lieu selon les .iii. maniérés desuz dites, et ne se pourroit départir
ne absentir de quelcunque lieu et ne peust estre ymaginé lieu qui soit // (68c)
privé de la presence19 de son essence et que l’en peust dire «Dieu n’est pas
yci» ; et non pas seullement des lieus de cest monde, mais samblablement en
80 l’espace infinie ymaginee et immobile. Car se Dieu faisoit un autre monde
ou pluseurs hors cestui, ce seroit impossible que II ne fust en ces mondes et
sanz Soy mouvoir, car c’est impossible que II soit meu comment que soit.
E t ainsi, par ce que dit est appert que D ieu n’est pas ou ciel plus que en un
autre lieu selon les .iii. maniérés desus mises, ne simplement quant est de
85 soy. E t encor appert que II n’est pas ou ciel comme chose enclose ne comme
8 B et semper par. nus omit these two lines as spurious. See,
9 A super. however, Claudii Claudiani opera omnia, recen-
10 Migne, P L vol. 24, p. 307: “ Quo fugis, suit N. L. Artaud (Paris, 1824), vol.2, 286, n. 1.
Encelade? quascumque accesseris oras, / Sub 11 B C D E F ce grant Ench. ; F Enchecladus ;
D eo semper eris.” A n appended note 1 reads: B Enchelade.
“ rectius ad metri saltern leges veteres vulgati 12 B illuc.
sub Jove.” The poet quoted by Saint Jerome 13 D E ad infernum.
is Claudius Claudianus. Editions o f Claudia- 14 B C D E omit etc. Ps. 138:7-8.
Book II, Chapter 2, fols. 68b-68c | 277
ly the proper role for philosophy, but the question how G o d and immaterial things
exist in their place must be considered ; for, as Averroes has stated, all people say
that G o d is in the heavens and in His proper place. Therefore, I say that, as G o d is
necessarily present without succession in all past, present, and future time b y rea­
son o f His indivisible eternity, which contains and exceeds all other time and is its
cause, as shown in the preceding chapter and also more fully in Chapter Tw enty-
four o f B ook I [see fol. 34d], likewise G o d in His infinite grandeur without any
quantity and absolutely indivisible, which we call immensity, is necessarily all in
every extension or space or place which exists or can / (68b) be imagined. This ex­
plains w hy we say G o d is always and everywhere— semper et ubique— always
through His eternity and everywhere through His immensity. T h e pagans believed
this, as we can see from a common gloss [Glossa Ordinaria] on Jeremiah in which
a quotation from a poet is cited. In [Claudius Claudianus’] B a ttle o f th e G ian ts we
read : Wherever you may flee, Encheladus, or whatever shores you may reach, you
will still be under the power o f Jupiter. He meant that this giant Encheladus could
flee nowhere that G o d would not be. Accordingly, the Prophet said : Whither shall
I go from thy spirit, whither shall I flee from thy presence? If I ascend into heaven,
thou art there ; i f I make my way down to hell, thou art there, etc. H e means that
G o d is in heaven, in hell, and everywhere. Again in Isaiah [actually in Jeremiah
23:24] : D o I not fill heaven and earth? saith the Lord. There are many other simi­
lar passages, even among the pagans, as, for example, when V irgil says : Jovis om­
nia plena— meaning everything is filled with G od. According to the doctors o f the
church, He is in all places in three ways : by His presence, His power, and His es­
sence. A n d since G o d could not cause Himself to cease to be for a day or an hour
or since, in improper parlance, He could not not-exist for the space o f any time
whatsoever, just so is it impossible that He should not be in all places according to
the three ways just mentioned above; nor would He be able to depart or absent Him­
self from any place whatever, nor could any place be imagined which would be
without //(68c) the presence o f His essence where one could say,“ G o d is not here.”
This is true not only o f the places o f this world, but also o f imagined infinite and
motionless space. For, if G o d made another world or several outside o f this world
o f ours, it would be impossible that He not be in these worlds, and without m oving
Himself, because G o d cannot possibly be moved in any way whatsoever. Thus,
from what has been said it appears that G o d is not more in heaven than elsewhere,
in accord with the three ways stated above, nor simply when it is a question o f
Himself. Moreover, it is clear that He is not in the heavens like some object en-
15 C D terra. 18 B C D E F par l’estante d’un.
16 E implebo. N ot in Isai. but in Jer. 23: 24. 19 D E la partie de son essence.
17 E plena sunt. Vergil, Bucolica III.60.
 28o | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
chose comprinse ou ciel ne comme chose qui n’est pas hors le ciel et hors le
monde ; et pour celui disoit Salomon :20Si celum, et celi celorum te capere non
possunt, etc.21 O r convient donques declairer pourquoy les philosophes et
touz dient que le ciel est le lieu de Dieu, et meisme la sainte Escripture : Celum
90 celi Dom ino : terra22 autem, etc. ;23 item : Dominus in celo sedes eius ;24 item :
Celum sedes mea;25 item: Q ui habitat in celis26 et pluseurs choses semblables.
Je di premièrement que de toute chose ou cause oculte,27 mucie ou latente,
l’en28 seult dire que elle est la ou appert son effit ou son operacion; et quant
nous voions un effit merveilleux en e x c e lle n c e )29 de bien ou de biauté ou en
95 quan- / (68d) tité ou qualité, l ’en seult dire que c’est oeuvre de Dieu. E t pour
ce disons nous que aucune cause est la ou appert tel effit. E t selon ce disoit
O vid e d’un lieu dont il avoit descripte la biauté : Crederes numen inesse lo­
co.30 E t quant une operacion merveilleuse en excellence de bien est faite de
nouvel en un lieu, l’en seult dire que Dieu y est venu ou descendu, si comme
ioo en l’Escripture est dit: Venit Deus in castra,31 et item: Descendit Dominus
super montem,32 et pluseurs dis semblables, combien que D ieu selon sa divi­
nité ne puisse aler ne venir ne monter ne descendre. O r est il ainsi que de
toutes les choses visibles de cest monde le ciel est la plus très souverainnement
merveilleuse en excellence; premièrement de quantité, car il est si très grant
io5 que la plus petite estoille fichie que nous puissons vouer est plus grande que
toute la terre ; et pour ce dist l’Escripture : A magnitudine speciei et creature,
etc.,33 et parle de la grandeur du ciel. Item, il est excellenment merveilleux en
qualité et biauté, car il est très parfectement pur et net et cler et plain de lu­
mière ; et pour ce, selon la translacion de Averroïz, Aristote l’appelle corps
no glorieus ou .vii.e chappitre.34 E t la sainte Escripture de la biauté et hautesce
du ciel dist que elle est en vision de gloire: // (69a) Altitudinis firmamenti
pulcritudo eius est species celi in visione glorie;35 et du soileil dist que ce est
un vaiseau merveilleus et oeuvre de D ieu: Vas admirabile, opus Excelsi;36 et
de la lune que elle resplendist ou firmament glorieusement; et des estoilles
115 comment leur gloire est la biauté du ciel: Species celi gloria stellarum.37
Item, en permanence, car le ciel dure et persevere des ce que il fu fait tel comme
il est sanz empirer, sanz envillir,38 sanz crestre, sanz appeticier ne en tout ne
20 B Salamon; C D F Salemon; E Salmon. 29 A excelle ; B C F celle ; D E excellent.
21 Cf. I ll Reg. 8:27— Si enim coelum, et 30 E inesse in loco. Cf. Amores III.xiii.8:
coeli coelorum te capere non possunt. “ Concedes numen inesse loco.” Also III.i.2:
22 C D E F terram. “ credibile est illi numen inesse loco.” Cf.
23 Ps. 113:16. Fasti III.296: “ quo posses viso dicere ‘numen
24 Ps. 10:5. inest.’ ”
25 Isai. 66:1. 31 I Reg. 4:7.
26 Ps. 122:1. 32 Cf. Exodus 19:20— Descenditque Dom i­
27 B C D E omit ou cause; F omits ou cause nus super montem.
occulte. 33 D E omit et. Cf. Sap. 13:5— A magnitu­
28 D E ou l’en doubte l’en. dine enim speciei et creaturae.
Book II, Chapter 2, fols. 68d-69a | 281
closed or comprised within the heavenly spheres, nor like something that does not
exist beyond the heavens or earth. Therefore, Solomon said : Behold, the heaven
and heaven o f heavens cannot contain Thee, etc. N o w , it is fitting to explain w hy
the philosophers, all] others, and even several passages o f the H oly Scripture say
that the heavens are the dwelling place o f G o d : Th e heaven o f heavens is the Lord’s
but the earth [hath He given to the children o f men]. Again: The Lord’s throne is
in heaven. A n d again [in Isaiah] : Th e heaven is my throne. A n d once again: T h ou
that dwellest in the heavens. A n d many similar passages. In the first place, I wish to
say that people have the habit o f saying o f all occult, secret, and esoteric things that
the cause is there in the place where its action or effect is evident. When we see an
effect marvelous in the excellence o f its goodness or beauty or in its quantity /
(68d) or quality, we commonly say that it is the work o f God. So, we say that where
there is this effect there is some cause. In this sense, O v id said o f a place whose
beauty he had described: Y o u would have expected a go d to inhabit this place.
A n d when some action o f marvelous excellence in goodness occurs unexpectedly in
a place, we often say that G o d came there or came down there, as it says in the
Scripture:] G o d has come into the camp; G o d descended upon the mountain; and
other similar passages, although G o d in His divinity cannot go or come or go up
or down. N o w it happens that o f all the things in this world the heavens are first
the most supremely marvelous in excellence o f quantity, because they are so large
that the very smallest fixed star we can see is larger than all the earth; wherefore
the Scripture says : For by the greatness o f the beauty and o f the creature, etc., and
here it is speaking o f the grandeur o f the heavens. T h ey are extremely wonderful in
quality and beauty, perfectly pure, clean, clear, and full o f light. Therefore, in
Chapter Seven according to Averroes’ translation, Aristotle calls it a glorious ob­
ject. A n d H oly Scripture, speaking o f the beauty and height o f the heavens, says
that they are a vision o f glory : // (69a) His beauty is the lofty firmament, the beauty
o f the heavens with their glorious splendor. O f the sun it says : Vas admirabile, opus
Excelsi, meaning that it is a marvelous vessel and the work o f God. O f the moon it
says that it stands gloriously resplendent in the firmament, and it notes how the glo­
ry o f the stars is the beauty o f the heavens : Species celi gloria stellarum. Likewise,
the permanence o f the heavens [is to be hailed], for the heavens endure and contin­
ue since they were so created without deteriorating, grow ing old, without increas-
34 Juntas, 16K. 36 Ecclus. 63 :2.
35 Cf. Ecclus. 63:1— Altitudinis firmamen- 37 Ecclus. 63:10. B sellarum.
tum pulchritudo eius est, species coeli in vi­ 38 D F enveillir; E envieillir; B omits sanz
sione gloriae. envillir, sanz crestre, sanz appeticier.
 282 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
en partie et sanz quelcunque alteracion qui tende ou dispose a corruption, si
comme il appert par le sixte chappitre du premier. Item, en influence et ver-
120 tu, car par les mouvemens et par les lumières et par les influences celestielz
est gouverné tout cest monde cibas, si comme il appert ou premier de M ethe-
ores, 39 et est a entendre excepté ce qui depent de liberté, de volenté et souz
Dieu, car les cielz sont instrumens de Dieu par lesquelz II oeuvre selon ce que
il Lui plaist, si comme dist Bernardus Silvester : Organa sunt primi, sunt in-
125 strumenta suppremi.40 Item, le ciel est merveilleux en figure, car de toutes
figures ce est la plus parfete que celle qui est sperique et ronde simplement,
et est celle qui plus contient, si comme il appert par geometrie. E t de telle
figure est le ciel et contient tout autre corps, et ne peut / (69b) estre en chose
corruptible par art ne par nature telle rondece ne si parfectement polie com-
130 me est celle du ciel, si comme il sera dit apres. Item, en vélocité, car l’en ne
pourroit penser comme ce est grande admiracion de considérer la vélocité
ou ysneleté du mouvement du ciel, attendue la grandeur de lui et du tour ou
circuite que il fait en un jour. E t ne pourroit estre par nature ne par art en cest
monde cibas mouvement tant isnel qui ne fust pas tardif et plus lent plus de
135 cent mille fois ou regart du mouvement du ciel que le plus tardif que l ’en
pourroit appercevoir a l’oeil ne seroit ou regart de celui. Item, en ordenance
car les corps celestielz sont meuz si ordeneement et si regulierement et par
telle mesure que c ’est très grant merveille; et perseverent touzjours ainsi
sanz cesser, sanz avancier, sanz retarder fors selon l ’ordenance establie, et
ho continuent41 sanz reposer si comme dist l’Escripture : Estas et hyemps, nox
et dies non requiescent.42 E t pour ce, selon Tulles ou livre D e la N atu re des
dieux, aussi comme d’un horloge qui est meu très ordeneement nul ne diroit
que ce peust estre a cas d ’aventure et sanz avoir esté fait par cause intellec­
tive, par plus forte raison il convient que les mouvemens du ciel dependent
us d’aucune vertu intellective plus haute et plus grande // (69c) que entendement
humain.43 E t ainsi les cielz, par les condicions desus dites, nous monstrent la
magnificence de Dieu et de ses oeuvres : Celi enarrant gloriam Dei, et opera
manuum eius annunciat firmamentum.44 E t c’est la cause pourquoy l’en dit
plus et en especial que Dieu est es cielz combien que II soit partout: et ave-
i5o ques ce, pour la noblesce et dignité du lieu du ciel qui est par desus les ele-
mens, car nous voions que des elemens les plus vilz sont bas vers le centre et les
plus nobles en haut. E t pour ce, nous disons encor que Dieu est sus les cielz
aveques les angelz : Super celos gloria eius,45 et semble que Aristote ot aucun
39 Meteorologicorum, 1.2.339a 21-23. in aethere mansitant potestates, terrena quae
40 C Bernardus. Unidentified, although a subiacent gubernantur. Non secus et in ho-
like idea is found in his De universitate mundi, mine cautum est, imperaret anima in capite.”
II.13, ed. Barach and Wrobel (Innsbruck, 41 A continuement.
1876), p. 64: “ De caelo deitas imperat et dis- 42 Gen. 8:22.
ponit. Exequuntur iussionem, quas in aere vel 43 Cicero, De natura deorum, II. 38; see also
Book II, Chapter 2, fols. 69b-69c | 283
ing or diminishing either in whole or in part, and with no change which might tend
toward their destruction, as was stated in Chapter Six o f Book I [see fol. 13a]. Also,
by reason o f their influence and power, for this entire world beneath the heavens is
governed by means o f their movements, lights, and celestial influence, as appears
in the first book o f M eteorologica, with the understanding, o f course, that we except
all that depends upon free will under God. Th e heavens are His instruments
through which He acts as it may please Him, as Bernard Sylvester says: First as
tools, they are the instruments o f the Supreme Being. Th e heavens are marvelous
in design, for the most perfect o f all shapes is the absolutely round sphere, which
figure contains the most, as it appears from geometry. Th e heavens are o f this
shape and contain all other bodies ; / (69b) there can be nothing o f perishable ma­
terial formed by art or by nature so perfectly round and so smoothly polished as
the figure o f the heavens, as we shall later show [see fol. 102b]. Also, we could not
conceive how remarkable the velocity or speed o f the heavenly movement is, in
view o f their great size and o f the fact that they make a complete turn or circuit in
one day. Here below there could not be by nature or by art any motion so fast that it
would not be one hundred thousand times slower than the slowest motion per­
ceptible to the eye would be in comparison with heavenly motion. Their orderly
arrangement is also remarkable because the heavenly bodies move with such regu­
larity, orderliness, and symmetry that it is truly a marvel; and they continue always
to act in this manner ceaselessly, following the established system, without in­
creasing or reducing speed and continuing without respite, as the Scripture says :
Summer and winter, night and day they never rest. A s Tu lly says in The N a tu re o f
the G ods, no one would say that the absolutely regular movement o f a clockh appens
casually without having been caused by some intellectual power ; just so must the
movement o f the heavens depend to an even greater degree upon some intellectual
power higher and greater // (69c) than human understanding. In this manner, in
the several ways we have cited, the heavens show us the magnitude o f G o d and
His works : Th e heavens declare the glory o f G o d and the firmament showeth His
handiwork. These are the particular reasons why we say that G o d is in the heavens
although He is in reality everywhere ; another reason is the noble and dignified char­
acter o f the position o f the heavens over and above the elements, for we observe that
the baser elements are located nearest the' center o f the world and the nobler ele­
ments on high. So, we say that G o d is above the heavens with the angels : His glory is
above the heavens. A n d it seems that Aristotle had some premonition o f this truth
I.36. B E annunciant.
44 Ps. 18:2. B ennerant; D E omit manuum; 43 Ps. 112:4.
 284 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
sentement de ceste vérité ou .xxiiii. <e)>46chappitre du premier ou il dist que les
155 choses qui sont hors le ciel ont vie très bonne <et>47 par soy très souffissante.
O r appert donques par ce que dit est que la raison Aristote devant mise ne
conclude pas que le ciel est pardurable, mes est très legiere persuasion, car
Dieu ne requiert le ciel ne autre chose pour le lieu de Lui pour ce que II est
partout et dehors le ciel et dedens par son immensité infinie et indivisible
160 comme dit est, et n’a mestier pour son estre d ’autre chose que Soy. E t est
plus et plus vraiement le ciel en Dieu qui tout contient que D ieu n’est ou ciel,
et / (Ô9d) aussi comme l’eternité de Dieu ne depent de quelcunque duracion
successive, semblablement le immensité de Lui ne depent de quelcunque ex­
tension, dimension ou distance local, mais tout depent de Lui, car II est cause
165 de tout par sa pure, franche volenté: Omnia quecumque voluit, fecit.48
O r est bon dire comment les autres choses esperituelles, appellees intel­
ligences ou angelz, sont en lieu et en quelz lieus. E t premièrement, aussi com­
me nulle chose n’a éternité fors Dieu seulement, si comme il fu dit ou chap­
pitre precedent, semblablement Lui seul a immensité et autre chose non. E t
170 est incomprehensible, c ’est a dire que II ne peut estre compris en quelcunque
espace finie ne infinie, car II est partout comme dit est, et chascune autre cho­
se est en certain lieu ou espace determineement ainsi que non ailleurs et non
pas partout. Mais ce est differentement, car tout corps occupe et emplist lieu
et pour ce <ne>49 peuent par nature pluseurs corps estre en un lieu propre ou
175 precis. E t toutes choses corporelles et materieles sont divisibles et ont exten­
sion et la ou est une partie n’est pas l’autre. Mais les choses // (70a) esperi­
tuelles sont indivisibles et ne occuppent pas ou raemplissent lieu, et toute-
voies chascune tele est en certain lieu determineement et non ailleurs ; et tel
lieu n’est pas indivisible, car c ’est naturelment impossible. O r posons don-
180 ques premièrement, selon Aristote et Averroïz, que les cielz soient meuz par
choses immaterieles et incorporelles ou esperituelles, appellees intelligences
ou substances separees ; donques convient il par raison que ces intelligences
soient la ou sont les corps celestielz que elles moevent. E t chascune intelli­
gence est toute en chascune partie du ciel que elle meut tant soit la partie pe-
185 tite, ausi comme l’ame humaine est toute en chascune partie de corps humain
fors tant que l’ame est ou corps par informacion, et l’intelligence est en son
ciel par apropriacion. E t ce dient aucuns de ceulz qui ensuient Aristote. O r est
il ainsi que pour salver les apparences des mouvemens du ciel lesquelles ont
esté apparceues et cogneues ou temps passé par observacions, il convient par
190 neccessité mettre que aucuns des cielz sont excentriques et aucuns epycicles.
E t aveques ce il convient mettre que telz cielz sont meuz non pas seulement
en leur lieu, mais aveques ce sont meuz et transportéz de lieu en autre en es-
xxiiii. 48 Ps. 1x3:3. E fecit Dominus.
omits et. 49 B C D E F omit ne.
B o o k I I , C h a p te r 2, fo ls, ô q d -y o a j 28j
where he says, in Chapter Tw enty-four o f Book I [see fol. 34c], that things which
exist beyond the heavens have a good life and are altogether self-sufficient. Thus, it
is clear that Aristotle’s arguments presented earlier do not prove conclusively that
the heavens are everlasting; but it is easy to be persuaded to accept this as fact, for
G o d does not need the heavens nor any other place for Himself because He is
everywhere— both outside and inside the heavens by reason o f His infinite and in­
divisible immensity, as we have said; and, as for His being, he has no need o f any­
thing other than Himself. T o say that the heavens are in G o d who contains all
things is more exact than that G o d is in the heavens, and / (69b) just as G o d ’s eter­
nity is not dependent upon any successive duration, so then neither is His immen­
sity dependent upon any extension, dimension, or local distance, but all depends
upon Him since He is the cause o f everything by His absolutely free will : He hath
done whatsoever He hath pleased.
N o w , it is fitting to explain how the other spiritual beings, called intelligences or
angels, are situated and in which places they exist. First o f all, since nothing is
eternal save only G od, as we said in the preceding chapter [see fol. 65c], He alone,
and nothing else, has immensity. A n d H e is incomprehensible, that is to say, He
cannot be comprised nor encompassed within any finite or infinite space because
H e is everywhere, as we have said. E very other thing is in a definite place or deter­
minate space, that is, not elsewhere and not everywhere. But this involves a dif­
ferent mode o f being, for every body occupies and fills a place and, therefore, more
than one body cannot be in one proper or precise place naturally. A ll material
bodies are divisible and have extension and where one part exists the other does
not. Y e t spiritual things // (70a) are indivisible and neither occupy nor fill any place
although each is in a certain definite location and not elsewhere and such a place is
not indivisible, for this is naturally impossible. N o w , let us assume first o f all, with
Aristotle and Averroes, that the heavens are m oved by immaterial and incorporeal
or spiritual things called intelligences or separate substances ; then it is reasonable
to maintain that these intelligences are with the celestial bodies which they move.
A n d each intelligence is complete in each part— however small— o f the heavens
which it moves, just as the human soul is complete in every part o f the human body,
except that the soul is in the body by information and the intelligence is in its heav­
en by appropriation. This is according to the followers o f Aristotle. In order to save
appearances with respect to the movements o f the heavens, which have been no­
ticed and known about from observation in time past, we have to assume that some
o f the heavenly bodies have eccentric motion and m ove in epicycles. Further­
more, we have to assume that such heavenly bodies m ove not only in their proper
place, but also are moved and transported from one place to another in space /
 286 J Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, C h a p te r 2, fols. 7ob~7od | 287

pace / (70b) ymaginee immobile. E t ce appert par Ptholomee en l’A lm ag este^ (70b) imagined to be immobile. This is clear from Ptolemy’s A lm a g est and from
et par les autres aucteurs d’astrologie.5
51
052E t l’intelligence qui meut tout le ciel other writers on astronomy. Such intelligence as that which moves the entire heav­
195 ensamble par le mouvement journal ou autre intelligence qui meut .i. ciel ens in their daily movement or another such intelligence which moves only one
particulier concentrique au monde, tele intelligence selon la philosophie particular heaven concentric with the world is always in one place and completely
d’Aristote est tous jours en .i. lieu et du tout immobile. Mais l’intelligence motionless, according to Aristotelian philosophy. But the intelligence which moves
qui meut un ciel excentrique duquel le centre est meu environ le centre du an eccentric heaven whose center moves around the center o f the world, as depict­
monde en la maniéré qui est mise en la Théorique des Planètes *z il convient que ed in the Theory o f the P lanetsy must itself be moved. This is clearer still in the case
200 ceste intelligence soit meue. E t encor appert ce plus clerement de celle qui o f the intelligence which moves the epicycle with its own motion around its center,
meut l’epicicle de son propre mouvement environ son centre, car le centre de for both th e c en ter o f such an epicycle and the epicycle itself are m oved around the
tel epicicle et l’epicicle sont meus environ le centre du ciel ou l’epicicle est center o f the heaven to which the epicycle is attached. Therefore, the intelligence
fichié. E t donques est ainsi meue son intelligence qui le meust. E t pour ce m oving the epicycle is m oved in the same manner. T o understand this a little bet­
miex entendre, je le declaire en figure en tant seulement comment il fait a ter, I clarify it in the drawing [below], insofar as it fits our present case, and I as­
205 propos, et pose pour exemple que la lune soit en son ciel epicicle et si est elle, sume, for example, that the moon be in its epicyclical heaven; and, indeed, it is
car elle est fichiee près de la circunference de son ciel epicicle. E t cest epicicle
est fichié ou ciel de la lune et est meu en son lieu environ son centre, et par ce
la lune tourne environ le centre de l’epicicle. E t cest epicicle n’est pas meu
seulement en son lieu comme dit est, mais aveques ce // (70c) il est meu de son
210 lieu et tourne environ le centre du monde par le mouvement journal, et en­
core autrement par le mouvement de l’excentrique de la lune, et cetera
[Fig. 1].53 E t pour ce que, selon Aristote ou .xii.e de M etaphisique ,54 le nom­
bre des intelligences est selon le nombre des mouvements55 du ciel, et chas-
cun ciel qui a propre mouvement a une intelligence approprié pour soy et
215 pour son mouvement, il convient que une intelligence moeve cest epici- / thus, for the moon is attached near the circumference o f its epicyclical heaven. This
(7od) cle de son propre mouvement que il a environ son centre. E t donques epicycle is attached to the lunar heaven and moves in its place around its center so
par le mouvement journal et autrement, cest epicicle et son intelligence sont that the moon turns around the center o f the epicycle. So, this epicycle is moved
meus et transportéz de lieu en autre aussi bien comme est la lune, mes par not only in its proper place, as we have said, but also // (70c) from its proper place,
autre maniéré. E t ces choses je ay ici notées pour declairier par philosophie turning around the earth’s center in accord with its daily rotation; and it is other­
220 et par astrologie une vérité consonante a nostre foy et contraire a l’oppinion wise for the movement o f the moon’ s eccentric, etc. [see Fig. 1]. For the reason
given by Aristotle in the twelfth book o f the M etaphysics, that the number o f intel­
50 C F Tholomee; A B en la Mageste. Clau­ rum to Gerard o f Cremona: “ a Gerardo ipso ligences is in accord with the number o f movements o f the heavenly bodies, and
dius Ptolomaeus, Almagest, I.iii, ed. M. Halma composita.” This attribution is no longer held. because each heaven, having its ow n proper motion, has an intelligence appropri­
(Paris, 1816), pp. 170-83. The Middle Ages Cf. Johannis de Sacro Bosco sphaera mundi. Gerardi ate to it and to its motion, it must, therefore, follow that an intelligence moves this
used the Latin version from the Arabie, trans­ Cremonensis theorica planetarum (Venice: per
lated by Gerard o f Cremona about 1175; see epicycle / (7od) with its own proper motion around its center. Thus, both by its
Franciscum Renner de Hailbrun, 1478), fols.
C. H. Haskins and D. P. Lockwood, “ The 3ir, 34V, and fig., fol. 37r. daily movement and otherwise, this epicycle and its intelligences are moved and
Sicilian Translators o f the Twelfth Century,” 53 D E de la lune si comme il appert par transported from place to place just as the moon is, although in a d iffere n t manner.
Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. 21 ceste présente figure. E t pour ce. I have made these observations here to explain by philosophic and astronomic anal­
(1910), 75, concerning an earlier version from 54 Metaphysicorum, X II.8 .1073a 23— 1073b ysis a truth which is in harmony with our faith, but contrary to the opinion o f
the Greek.
17. See also Octavum volumen Aristotelis Meta­
51 B C F autres anciens d’astrologie; D E both Aristotle and Averroes : in the twelfth book o f the M etaphysics they state it to
physicorum libri X I V cum Averrois Cordubensis
omit et ce app ert...d ’astrologie. in eosdemcommentariis (guntzs, t 573), t.c. 43,44,
52 Johann Albert Fabricius, Bibliotheca latina 326L-328M.
mediae et infimae aetatis (Hamburg, 1735), vol. 55 B omits est selon le nombre des mouve-
3, vii, p. 115, attributes the Theorica planeta- mens.
 288 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
d’Aristote et d’Averroïz ou .xii.e de M etaphisique ,56 ou il mettent que c’est
impossible que les intelligences soient meues de quelcunque mouvement,
car par leur diz meisme aveques évidentes demonstracions d’astrologie s’en­
suit l’opposite de leur oppinion en ceste partie. E t ainsi, aussi comme Goüas,
225 il sont feruz de leur glaive.57 Mais par aventure, il ne advertirent pas souf-
fissanment a astrologie en ce pas. E t selon vérité, nulle intelligence n’est
simplement immobile et ne convient pas que chascune soit par tout le ciel
que elle meut ne en chascune partie de tel ciel, posé que les cielz soient meuz
par intelligences, car par aventure, quant Dieu les créa, Il mist en eulz quali-
230 téz et vertus motivez aussi comme II mist pesanteur es choses terrestes, et
mist en eulz resistences contre ces vertus motivez. E t sont ces vertus et ces
resistences d’autre nature et // (71a) d’autre ma<t)ieres8 que quelcunque chose
sensible ou qualité qui soit ici-bas. E t sont ces vertus contre ces resistences
telement moderees, attrempees et acordees que les mouvemens sont faiz sanz
235 violence; et excepté la violence, c’est aucunement semblable quant un honme
a fait un horloge et il le lesse aler et estre meu par soy. Ainsi lessa Dieu les cielz
estre meuz continuelment selon les proporcions que les vertus motivez ont
aus resistences et selon l’ordenance establie. E t pour ce, quant le Prophète ot
dit de Dieu : Laudate eum celi celorum,59il dist apres : Statuit ea in eternum, et
240 in seculum seculi: preceptum posuit, et non preteribit.60 E t par aventure,
des ce que Dieu créa les cielz, Il ordena et députa angels qui ainsi les moe-
vent et mouvront tant comme il Lui plaira. E t de ce peut estre entendu ce
que il dist en l’Evangile: Virtutes celorum movebuntur.61
E t pour grace de ce, je veul dire sous correction comment les angels sont
245 en lieu et comment il sont meuz. E t premièrement, si comme devant dit est,
il ne sont pas partout, mais de chascun est certaine quantité de lieu ou d’es­
pace laquelle il ne peut exceder ou estre en plus grant par la vertu que il a
de<s>62 sa / (71b) creacion ou de sa nature, ne sans divin miracle, combien
que, par aventure, il puisse bien estre en mendre. Item, chascun est tout en
250 chascune partie de l’espace ou il est sanz occuper le lieu et sanz le raemplir, si
comme il fu dit devant, et pour ce, pluseurs anges peuent estre en un lieu ou
en une espace et chascun de eulz par toute celle espace. E t peut-estre que
ainsi estoit de la legion des mauvés angelz que nostre Seigneur mist hors d’un
honme, si comme dist l ’Evangile,63 car legion contient vim lxvi, si comme il
est dit en «La Legende saint Morice.»64 Item, quelcunque ange n’est pas
ou corps ou es corps qui sont ou lieu ou il est telement que il soit en eulz par
56 See note 54, above 62 A E de.
57 I Reg. 17:51. 63 Marc. 5:1-20; Luc. 8:26-39.
58 A maniéré. 64 Cf. Legenda aurea, ed. Th. Graesse (Leip­
59 Ps. 148:4. zig, 1850), p. 629: “ Congregantes igitur elec-
60 Ps. 148:6. tam militum legionem, sc. V I millia D C L X V I,
61 Matt. 24:29, Et virtutes coelorum com- eos ad imperatores miserunt.” Also Acta
movebuntur. Sanctorum, Septembris (Antwerp, 1757), V I:
Book II, Chapter 2, fols. 7 ia -7 ib | 289
be impossible that the intelligences m ove in any manner whatever; yet from their
own statements and with clear astronomical demonstrations the opposite to their
opinion in this portion is definitely indicated. Like Goliath, they are slain with
their own sword. Perhaps, in this passage they paid too little attention to astrono­
my. Actually, no intelligence is absolutely immobile, and, i f w e assume the heav­
ens to be m oved by intelligences, it is unnecessary that each one should be every­
where within or in every part o f the particular heaven it moves ; for, when G o d
created the heavens, He put into them motive qualities and powers just as He put
weight and resistance against these motive powers in earthly things. These powers
and resistances are different in nature and // (71a) in substance from any sensible
thing or quality here below. Th e powers against the resistances are moderated in
such a way, so tempered, and so harmonized that the movements are made without
violence; thus, violence excepted, the situation is much like that o f a man making a
clock and letting it run and continue its own motion b y itself. In this manner did
G o d allow the heavens to be moved continually according to the proportions o f
the motive powers to the resistances and according to the established order [of
regularity]. For this reason, when the Prophet [David] had said o f G o d : Praise
Him, ye heaven o f heavens, he said afterward: H e hath established them forever
and ever; He hath made a decree which shall not pass. And, possibly, as soon as
G o d had created the heavens, He ordained and deputed angels who should move
the heavens and who will move them as long as it shall please Him. In this way we
may understand the statement in the Gospel [of St. Matthew] : Th e powers o f the
heavens shall be moved.
T o examine this matter still further, I want to explain (subject to correction) how
the angels are situated in their proper place and how they are moved. First, as said
before, they are not everywhere, but for each angel there is a certain amount o f
space which it cannot exceed nor increase by the power with which it was endowed
at its / (71b) creation or by its nature, not without divine miracle, although its
power can indeed be diminished. Each angel exists in every part o f the space where
it is located without occupying or filling it, as already stated. Therefore, several
angels can be in one place or space and each one can occupy the entire space. Pos­
sibly this was the case with the legion o f bad angels which our Savior cast out o f a
certain man, as recorded in the Gospels [of Mark and Luke], for a legion consists
o f 6,666, as is stated in “ T h e Legend o f St. Maurice.” A n angel is not in the body or
bodies which occupy the place where it exists in such a manner that it is in them by
Passio auctore S. Eucherio Lugdunense epi- autem vocabatur, quae tunc sex millia ac sex-
scopo: “ Erat eodem tempore in exercitu legio centos viros in armis habebat.”
militum, qui Thebaei appellabantur. Legio
 2po | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 2, fols. 7 ic -7 id | 291

information, si comme ame humaine est en son corps, ou par inhere<n)ce6s
260 ou adherence ne par apropriacion, tele comme aucuns philosophes dient que
les intelligences sont ou ciel. E t pour ce, un ange peut estre en un lieu sanz
soy mouver nonobstant que en ce lieu pluseurs corps succèdent un apres
l’autre, aussi comme le ray du soleil qui passe par une fenestre n’est pas meu
aveques l ’aer que le vent emporte ou chace, mais samble demourer tout un
265 combien que non soit, car ce n’est pas du tout semblable. Mais par ce peut
estre entendue la vérité en // (71c) cest propos. Item, un ange par sa volenté
peut bien estre meu avecques le corps, lequel corps et l’ange sont en un lieu
ou proceins, et peut l’en dire que l’ange est en ce corps ou a destre ou a senes-
tre de ce corps. E t de ce dist Remigius ou comment sus un livre que fist Mar-
270 cianus Cappella66 que le<s>67 Grecs disoient que chascun honme a un tel ange
avecques soy lequel les philosophes appellent prestitem , id est, prepositum :
prevost, et que chascun honme mortel a .ii. autres znges appellés genius bonus
et genius malus ; et le bon quant il se veult monstrer, il se fait ou forme68
corps du haut aer, et le mauvés du bas aer. Item, un ange quelcunque ne peut
275 pas de sa vertu former tel corps de quelcunque figure, car une portion de aer
de la quantité d’un pey en touz senz, il ne la pourroit tant estendre que elle
fust aussi longue comme est le dyametre de tout le monde, car l’ange ne
pourroit percier le ciel ne la matière ne se pourroit tant estendre. Item, quel­
information, like the human soul in its body; neither by inherence, nor adherence,
nor appropriation, as some philosophers state about the existence o f the intelli­
gences in the heavens. Therefore, an angel can be in a place without m oving in
spite o f the fact that several bodies pass one after the other in this same place, much
as the ray o f sunshine passing through a window is not moved by the air which the
wind drives or chases, but seems, rather, to remain a single unit, although it may
not be so since the tw o cases are not at all similar. However, from this we may
reach the truth in // (71c) this statement. B y its own will an angel may be moved
with the body, both the body and the angel being in one place or nearly so, and we
can say that the angel is inside this body or to the right or left o f it. In his commen­
tary on a book by Martianus Cappella, Remigius states about this matter that the
Greeks used to say that each man has with him such an angel which the philoso­
phers called prestitem or prepositum , meaning a helper [or guardian angel], and also
Fig. 2

cunque ange, quant est de l ’espace ou il est et que il tient sanz la occuper
that each mortal man has two other angels called good genius and evil genius respec­
280 comme dit est, il est vraysemblable que il ne requiert pas quant a ce certaine
tively. When the go o d genius wishes to be seen, he transforms himself into a
figure determineement si comme ronde ou quarree ou beslongue ou tele
body in the higher air, and the evil genius does likewise in the lower air. N o w ,
comme est figure humaine ou autre. Mais / (7id) tele espace peut estre indif-
no angel can, by its own power, form such a body in any shape whatsoever, for
ferentement de quelcunque figure, et se peut en ceste maniéré un ange trans­
a portion o f air one foot in length in all directions could not be stretched until
muer de figure en figure; et la cause est car pour tele transmutation il ne con-
it became as long as the diameter o f the whole world because the angel would not
285 vient onques que chose corporelle quelcunque soit par ce en rien transmuée.
be able to pierce the heavens, nor could the substance be stretched so much. If, as
Item, se il est ainsi, je pose pour exemple que un ange soit en un lieu ou es­
we have said, we .consider the space in which a particular angel exists without oc­
pace laquelle, se elle estoit sperique ou ronde, seroit de la quantité d’un piey
cupying it, it is probable that, for this purpose, such an angel does not require a
en touz sens. [Fig.2] Je di que cest ange peut estre ensamble et pour une fois
particular shape such as round, square, oblong, that o f a human being, or any other.
ou ciel et en terre et yci a Rouen, et a Paris et a Romme et en cent mille lieus
But / (7id) such a space can be o f any shape at all, and in this way an angel can
290 et plus sans ce que il soit en plus grant lieu simplement que est le lieu ou l’es­
change from shape to shape. Th e reason is that for such a transformation a corpo­
pace desus dite. E t la cause est car tout corps est divisible sanz fin quant est de
real object must never be changed in any way. I f this be so, I offer the example o f
65 A inherece. populi cum poscitur ille generalis Genius. an angel in a place or space which, if spherical or round, might be a foot in every
66 B ou commencement sus ; D E marcianus Quare Genius dicitur ? Quia videlicet cum quis direction [see Fig. 2]. I say that at one and the same time this angel can be in the
in capella. Cf. Remigii Autissiodorensis commen­ hominum genitus fuerit, mox eidem copulatur
tant in Martianum Capellam, libri /-//, ed. Cora heavens, on earth, here at Rouen, in Paris and in Rome, and in 100,000 places and
ad tutelam sui. Hic subaudis Genius, tutelator,
E. Lutz (Leiden: Brill, 1962), p. 184: “ Genius id est protector, fidissimusque germanus quia more without being in a space any larger than that specified above. Th e explanation
naturalis deus sive angélus qui singulis nascen- illis nascentibus et de germine manantibus
tibus tribuitur, quem etiam vocaverunt subau- attribuitur. Sciendum vero quia duo sunt genii,
dis philosophi Praestitem, id est praefectum vel unus bonus qui animam ad virtutes impellit,
praepositum eo quod praesit omnibus geren- alter malus qui ad vitia stimulât.”
dis, nam supplicatur ab hominibus genius 6’ A le. 68 D E fait en forme; F fait en forme de corps.
 2j2 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
soy, si comme il appert ou premier chappitre du premier. E t par ce, il est, en
tant comme corps, figurable indifferenment69 de quelcunque figure. E t pour
ce, une masse de cire de la quantité de un p< i)ey70 en touz sens ou mendre
295 pourroit estre telement figure<(e>71 sanz la crestre et sanz ad- // (72a) jouster,
et si grelle filee que elle attaindroit au ciel et a la terre et en cent mille lieus,
se ainsi estoit que la matière le peust souffrir et que vertu naturelle fust qui ce
peust faire, si comme il peut legierement apparoir par geometrie. O r est il
ainsi que l’ange en son espace ne requiert quelcunque matière determinee-
300 ment, mes est indifferenment en quelcunque corps ou avecques quelcunques
corps ou matière sanz la transmuer se il ne lui plaist, si comme il est thouchey
devant. E t n’est chose quelcunque qui li résisté que il ne puisse estre en es­
pace figurée telement comment il li plaist sans ce que aucune figure li soit
devee72 ou impossible, si comme il est dit devant. E t ce et autres choses peu-
305 ent les anges par leur vertu naturele que il ont des leur creacion, mais ceste
vertu ou puissance est aucune fois es mauvés anges reprimee et restrainte par
le plaisir de Dieu, si comme il appert de Sathanas ou .xx.e chappitre de l’A p o-
caüpse.73 E t par ce que dit est peust l’en respondre a pluseurs difficultés que
font les docteurs en ceste matière.
31.} E t quant est du mouvement des angelz ou mutacion de lieu, il est dit de­
vant comment selon philosophie teles substances se- / (72b) parees ne sont
pas immobiles, mes des anges il me samble que l’en peut ymaginer eulz estre
mués74 de lieu en lieu en .iiii. maniérés simples ; en .ii. par mouvement suc­
cessif et en .ii. sanz tel mouvement. Premièrement, par le mouvement qui
315 seroit fait en la transfiguracion ou transmutacion de figure en l’espace ou est
l’ange, de laquelle est faite mencion tantost devant. E t en ceste maniéré un
ange peust aler ou soy mettre de nouvel en un lieu sanz soy départir du lieu
ou il estoit devant et sanz ce que il le lesse tout. Secondement, un ange peust
delessier du tout et soy départir du lieu ou il est et soy mouver et transporter
320 en un autre Heu par l’espace moienne par laquelle il trespasse. E t ce peut il
faire sanz mouver ou altérer ou muer en riens les corps par lesquelz il passe,
aussi comme .i. umbre75 d ’une chose meue qui samble estre meu parmi les
corps ou il passe sanz les mouvoir, car ce puet faire l’ange selon vérité que
fait l ’ombre selon apparence ou .i. ray de lumière. E t pour ce que nul tel
325 corps moien ne autre chose ne fait resistence en ce mouvement, les anges se
peuent mouvoir de quelcunque vélocité ou isneleté combien que elle soit
grande et tant ysnelement comment il leur plaist // (72c) et par leur propre
vertu, se elle n’estoit restrainte par la volenté de Dieu ; et pour ce dist l’Es-
cripture en Ysaïe: Ite angeH veloces, et cetera.76 E t c ’est la cause pourquoy
330 l’en dist que il volent; de quoy dist Daniel: Gabriel, et cetera, cito volans;77
69 D E figurable se puet diviser indiff. 72 B donnée.
70 A prey.
73 Apoc. 20:2-3, 7-9. D Apocalice.
71 A C F figure. 74 B C D E F meuz.
Book II, Chapter 2, fols. -]Z2.--jzc | 293
is that any body is divided infinitely with respect to itself, as stated in Chapter One
o f Book I [see fol. 3d]. Therefore, as a body it is capable o f assuming any shape in­
differently ; for example, a mass o f wax one foot or less in size in all directions could
be shaped in such a way without increasing or adding to it, // (72a) and spun out so
thin that it would reach to the heavens and back to earth in 100,000 places, if the
material could bear it and i f there were some natural power capable o f doing it, as
can readily be understood from geometry. Th e angel in its space requires no defi­
nite material body whatever, but is indifferently in or with some body or other mat­
ter without altering it, i f it so chooses, as we have hinted above [see fol. 71b]. N o th ­
ing can prevent the angel’s being in space o f any shape it wishes, no shape being
impossible to its occupancy, as already stated [see fol. 71b]. Th e angels are capable
o f all these and many other things b y reason o f the natural power granted them at
their creation, but this virtue or power is sometimes suppressed or restrained in bad
angels by G o d ’s pleasure, as in the case o f Satan recorded in the twentieth chapter
of the Apocalypse. From what has been said here, one can answer many difficulties
raised b y the doctors in dealing with this matter.
W ith regard to the movement o f the angels or their place-changing, we have al­
ready said how philosophy explains the fact that such separate ] (72b) entities are
not motionless. But, it seems to me, we can imagine four simple ways in which
they may be m oved from place to place : in two ways by successive movement and
in tw o ways without such movement. First, by the movement which would occur
in the transfiguration or change in shape o f the space in which the angel is, which
we have mentioned above [see fol. 7 id]. In this way an angel could go away or
settle back again in a place without leaving the previously occupied space and with­
out leaving it entirely. Secondly, an angel could forsake and go away completely
from its location and m ove and transfer to another place in the intermediate space
through which it passes ; and this it could do without m oving or changing or dis­
turbing in any way the bodies through which it passes, just as the shadow o f a m ov­
ing body appears to m ove among the bodies where it passes without m oving
them. The angel can actually do what the shadow or a ray o f Hght merely appears
to do. A n d since no such intermediate body or anything else causes any resistance
to this movement, angels can move just as they please with whatever velocity or
speed however great or fast it may be // (72c) and with their own power, except that
they are subject to the restraining will o f G od. Thus, the Scripture according to
Isaiah states : G o , ye swift angels, etc. This explains w h y angels are said to fly, as
Daniel says : Gabriel... whom I see flying A n d again Isaiah : There flew unto me
cetera.
75 F un nombre.
76 Isai. 18:2. B C D E F omit et pour c e ... 77 Dan. 9:21. F volens.
 *94 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 2, fols. 29J

et Ysaïe: V olavit ad me unus de séraphin;78 et saint Jehan:79 V id i angelum
D e i80 volantem per medium celum.81 E t pour ce, feint l ’en que il ont elles
et sont ainsi peinz. E t aussi disoient les paiens que le mesagier de Joves82
avoit elles es pieiz, de quoy dist un poète : Alato qui pede carpis humum, i.e.,
335 celer, etc.83 La tierce maniéré comment un ange mueroit lieu sanz mouvement
successif selon ymaginacion seroit que il fust en un lieu et tantost apres, sou­
dainement et sanz moien, fust en un autre séparé et sanz passer par les corps
moiens ou par l ’espace moienne. E t ce ne pourroit ange de sa propre vertu,
mais ce pourroit Dieu faire de sa toute-puissance infinie, si comme il me sam-
340 ble a present; et pourroit faire que ensamble et pour une foiz un ange seroit
en pluseurs lieus distans, separéz et desjoinz. La quarte maniéré seroit que
l’ange fust mué soudainement d’un lieu en autre lieu distant en passant par
tous les moiens ou espace moienne entre ces .ii. lieus, en laquelle es- / (72d)
pace il seroit par un tout seul moment ou instant indivisible. E t je cuide que
345 ce soit simplement impossible, car estre en une espace par tel instant ou mo­
ment, c’est non estre en celle espace, pour ce que en quelcunque chose con­
tinue, successive ou permanente ne est selon vérité telle mesure indivisible
appellee instant ou point, si comme je monstrai pieça sus Sentences;84 et ne
est mesure indivisible fors l’eternité de D ieu et son inmensité dont est fait
350 mencion ou chappitre precedent et ou .xxiiii.e chappitre du premier. O r ay
donques dit souz correction comme les anges sont en lieu et leur lieu propre
ou plus propre est ou ciel ou sus le ciel, mais par dispensacion divine et par
leur volenté ou pour leurs démérites85 aucuns sont yci-bas. E t ne sont pas
pour ce loing de Dieu, car II est partout comme dit est, ne la gloire des bons
355 n’est par ce en rien diminuée ; et pour ce, des anges qui gardent ceulz qui ont
vraie humilité, nostre Seingneur disoit : Angeli eorum in celis vident semper
faciem Patris mei, qui in celis est— leurs angelz voient touzjours la face de
Dieu le Pere.86 Item, il est dit comment il sont meuz et est certain que il habi­
tent ou fréquentent aucuns lieus en especial, si comme en la «Legende de saint
36o Michiel» est // (73a) escript que il disoit du M ont de Gargan87 que ily conver-
soit et le gardoit: Hune88 enim locum in terris in celo, et cetera;89 et lessent
aucune foiz lieus ou il ont conversé et s’en départent; de quoy raconte Jo­
sephus que, devant la destruction de Jerusalem, l’en ouït voiz disantes : alons
one o f the seraphim. A n d St. John [Apocalypse] : A n d I saw another angel o f G o d
fly in the midst o f heaven. Thus, they are imagined as having wings and are so d e ­
picted. Th e pagans also used to say that the messenger o f Jove had wings on his
feet, about which a poet [Ovid] has said: W ho graze the earth with winged fo ot;
that is, swiftly, etc. Th e third manner in which an angel could change its place
without successive motion can be imagined as follows : it could be in one place and
immediately afterward in another separate place without any intermediate m ove­
ment or without passing through the intermediate bodies or space. The angel
could not perform this act o f its own power, but G o d could accomplish it b y His in­
finite omnipotence, as I now consider it; and H e could cause an angel to be at one
and the same time in several distant places, separated and isolated from one an­
other. T h e fourth w ay would be for the angel to be moved suddenly from one place
to a distant place, passing through all the intermediate bodies and space between
the two, and remaining / (72d) for a single indivisible moment or instant in the in­
termediate space. This, I think, is simply impossible, for to be in space through
such an instant or moment amounts to not being in this space at all, because in any
continuous series, successive or permanent, there is, in reality, no such indivisible
measure called instant or point, as I showed some time ago in m y commentary on
the Sentences. There is no indivisible measure except the eternity and immensity o f
G od, which was mentioned in the preceding chapter and in Chapter Tw enty-four
o f B ook I [see fol. 35a]. N o w , I have explained, subject to correction, h ow the
angels exist in their place and that their proper or most proper location is in or
above the heavens, but because o f divine dispensation, their will, or their sins, some
o f them are here below. This does not mean, however, that they are far away from
G od, for He is everywhere, as we have said ; nor is the glory o f the go o d ones di­
minished in any degree by their existence below the heavens because our Lord said
o f those angels w ho protect the truly humble : Angeli eorum in celis vident semper
faciem Patris mei, qui in celis est : their angels behold the face o f G o d the Father
forever. W e have explained how they move, and it is certain that they inhabit or
frequent special places, as it is written in the “ Legend o f St. Michael” // (73a) that
he [the Archangel] stated that he dwelt on M t. Gargan and guarded it : Hunc enim
in terris in celo, etc. A n d sometimes they leave the places they have inhabited and
go away, o f which Josephus relates that before the fall o f Jerusalem voices were

78 Isai. 6:6. preserved.

79 C Johannes.
80 B domini.
81 Cf. Apoc. 14:6— Et vidi alterum angelum
volantem per medium coeli.
82 D E Jovis.
83 Ovid, Fasti V.666 : “ Alato qui pede carpis
iter.”
84 Clearly a reference to Oresme’s commen­
tary on the Sentences o f which no copy has been
85 B C F omit démérites; D E requeste; F
aucuns mouvemens sont.
86 Cf. Matt. 18:10— Angeli eorum in coelis
semper vident faciem Patris mei, qui in coelis
est.
87 B C gargam; D E F gargain. changelus, qui in conspectu Domini semper loci me esse inspectorem atque custodem.” Cf.
88 B habent. assisto: locumque hunc in terris incolere, tu- also Eegenda Aurea, p. 643. “ In celo” o f Ores-
89 Cf. Acta Sanctorum, Septembris (Antwerp, tumque servare instituens, hoc volui probare me’s quotation is an error for “ incolere,” This
1762), VIII, 61 : “ E go enim sum Michael Ar- indicio, omnium, quae ibi geruntur, ipsiusque error appears in all the manuscripts.
 296 j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
nous en de ci: Transseamus ab hiis sedibus.90 E t anciennement, Hermes,91
365 en prenostiquant les maulz qui estoient a venir en Egipte, disoit que la divi­
nité retourneroit ou ciel, c ’est a savoir les bons92 anges, et ne demorroient
fors les mauvés : Divinitas repetet celum— soli nocentes angeli remanebunt.93
E t se il est ainsi des âmes separees quant a estre en lieu et quant a m ouve­
ment,94 je n’en di rien quant a present, car il est temps de retourner a propos.
370 Apres Aristote met la .vii.e raison a monstrer que le ciel est perpétuel.
T . Item, une raison devant mise tesmoingne que le ciel est ingenerable et
incorruptible, et encor fu dit que il est impassible95 de toute mortelle diffi­
culté.
G . C ’est a dire que il ne peust estre altéré ne transmué de quelcunque mu-
375 tacion qui tende ou dispose a corrupcion, si comme il peust apparoir par ce
que fu dit ou sixte chappitre du premier ou ce fu monstré par raison. Mais le
ciel peust bien estre altéré selon lumière en aucunes parties, si comme il ap­
pert / (73b) en l ’eclipse de la lune, mais tele alteracion ne dispose pas a cor­
rupcion. E t selon vérité le ciel ne a <en>96 soy ne dehors soy contrariété ne
380 cause naturelle de sa corrupcion, mais il despent de Dieu le créateur qui le
conserve et garde en estre et fera tant comme il Lui plaira.
3. Ou tiers chappitre il met une condicion du mouvement du ciel.
T . E t le ciel est meu sanz labour ou travail pour ce que il n’est mestier de
metre quelcunque neccessité violente qui le detienne en son mouvement et
qui empeesche que il ne soit meu d’autre mouvement auquel il soit naturel-
ment enclin.
5 G J Car la cause pourquoy telles choses, comme sont honmes et bestes,
ont labour et travail ou poine en mouvant elles meismes ou autres choses pe­
santes est pour ce que pesanteur les encline a reposer ou a estre meues d ’au­
tre mouvement aucunement contraire. E t pour ce se lassent elles et se tarde
leur mouvement2 et finablement cesse, car la pesanteur résisté et est meue par
10 violence. Mais le ciel n’a3 en soy ne dehors pesanteur ne quelcunque autre
chose qui l’encline a repos ou a autre mouvement que le sien, si comme il
90 Josephus, De hello Iudaico V I.3. 1924), pp. 340, 344. About two pages o f text
91 B hmez. intervene between the first four and last three
92 B C D E F omit bons. words cited by Oresme.
93 Hermes Trismegistus Asclepius, Fterme- 94 C moment.
tica, 111.24b: “ divinitas enim repetet caelum;” 95 F impossible.
III.25 : “ soli nocentes remanent [var. remane­ 96 A C F omit en.
bunt].” Edition o f Walter Scott (Oxford, 1 B C D E F omit glose. In her synoptic study
Book II, Chapters 2-3, fol. 73b | 297
heard saying: Let us go from here— Transeamus ab hiis sedibus. A n d in olden
times, Hermes, diagnosing the evils which were to come in E gypt, said that the
divinity would return to heaven— that is, the good angels— and only the bad angels
would remain : Divinitas repetet celum— soli nocentes angeli remanebunt. Whether
it is thus also with separate individual souls as regards their existence in place and
their movements, I shall say nothing for the present, for it is time to return to the
subject. N ext Aristotle states his seventh argument to show that the heavens are
everlasting.
T. A former argument [see fol. 13 abed] confirms the fact that the heavens are
not created and not destructible, and we have also demonstrated that they are not
subject to any o f the troubles o f a mortal body.
G . That is, the heavens cannot be altered or changed by any mutation that
would tend toward destruction, as can be seen by what we have said in Chapter Six
o f Book I [see fol. 13abed], where this was discussed at length. However, the heav­
ens can indeed be altered with regard to their light in certain parts, as appears /
(73 b) in a lunar eclipse, but such a change does not imply destruction or degenera­
tion. In truth, the heavens do not in nor outside themselves possess any contrariety
or natural cause for degeneration, but they depend upon G o d the Creator, who
preserves and protects their being and who will do so as long as it shall please Him.
3. In Chapter Three he states one condition with reference
to the motion of the heavens.
T . The motion o f the heavens is effortless and involves no exertion because it is
not necessary to interpose any violent force to constrain its movement or to hinder
it from m oving as it is naturally inclined.
G . The reason that such things as men and animals must labor and work or strug­
gle to move themselves or other heavy bodies is that their weight makes them incline
to rest or to be subjected to a motion in some way contrary [to their intention].
Thus, they become tired, their motion slows down, and finally stops, for the weight
resists their effort and is moved only by violence. But the heavens have neither
o f the history o f the impetus theory, Anneliese theorie,” pp. 335-37.
Maier cites this gloss as evidence o f Oresme’s 2 B C F lessent; D pour ce lessent elles et se
close approach to the concept o f inertia, ap- tarde de leur mouv. ; E pour ce lessent elles
plied solely to celestial motion and unrelated et se tardent de leur mouv.
to any general law; see “ Die naturphilosophi- 3 d ne n’a.
sche Bedeutung der scholastischen Impetus-
298 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
appert par le quint // (73c) chappitre du premier.4 E t pour ce est il meu sans
violence et sans labour et sanz cesser; et pour ce dist Aristote apres :
T . Car toute chose qui a difficulté en son mouvement a plus de labour et de
15 poine de tant comme son mouvement dure plus et n’a pas très bonne dis­
position.
G . E t la translacion d ’Averroïz dist ainsi :5
T . D e tant comme telle chose a plus de fatigacion ou de travail, de tant est
elle plus loing de bonne disposition.6
20 G . Car ce est meilleur et plus noble condicion mouver sanz labour et sanz
poine que autrement. E t pour ce, selon la philosophie d’Aristote, il convient
par neccessité que le ciel soit meu par vertu incorporelle ou separee de ma­
tière, car se elle estoit corporelle et materiele et estendue en corps et divisi­
ble aussi comme est pesanteur ou legiereté, elle ne seroit pas entendement ne
25 volenté ou vertu voluntaire selon philosophie. E t donques convendroit il
que ceste vertu corporelle meust le ciel selon tout son povoir par la plus gran­
de isneleté que elle porroit et a tout son eff<or>t,7 ausi comme nous voions
que pesanteur meust le corps pesant. E t donques se ceste vertu n’avoit resis-
tence, elle mouvroit le ciel soudainement en instant ou mo- / (73 d) ment in-
30 divisible; et ce est impossible, si comme il fu dit ou chappitre precedent. E t
se elle avoit resistence, elle seroit ou corps meu et non pas dehors, si comme
en mouvement droit; et8 donques seroit le mouvement du ciel oveuques v io ­
lence et fatigacion ou travail et se tarderoit et cesseroit comme dit est. E t ce
est faulz. E t donques s’ensuit il par neccessité que le ciel soit meu par vertu
35 abstrainte ou separee de matière et incorporelle9 et que elle ne moeve pas
par efforcement, mes par plaisance et par volenté franche laquelle est deter-
minee a certainne vélocité ou isnelleté sanz violence et sanz resistence. E t se­
lon Aristote, ceste volenté ne peut estre meue10 et meut le ciel telement per-
petuelment par neccessité— non pas de constrainte, mes de complaisance.
40 Mes selon vérité, ce n’est pas impossible, si comme il fu touché ou chappitre
precedent, que le ciel soit meu par une vertu ou qualité corporelle qui est en
lui et sanz violence et sans travail, car la resistence qui est ou ciel ne l’encline
pas a autre mouvement, ne a repos, mes seulement a ce que il ne soit meu
plus isnelement.11 E t ne convient pas que tout mouvement ou il a resistence
45 soit fait aveuques labour et travail ne en soy // (74a) retardant, car une pierre
ne se traveille pas en descendant ne un feu en ardant. Item, si comme il fu tou­
ché ou chapitre precedent, il est possible que chascun mouvement du ciel
soit sanz resistence et fait par ange duquel la volenté est muable, car rien
4 12c. 9 B C D E F incorruptible; B omits et.
5 Juntas, 96L. 10 A meuee.
6 D E omit G lo se .. .disposicion. 11 Cited by Anneliese Maier, “ Die Natur-
7 B C D E F effect; A corrected from effect. philosophische Bedeutung der Scholastischen
8 B C D E F omit elle seroit.. .droit et. Impetustheorie,” p. 337.
Book II, Chapter 3, fols. 7 3 c~7 4 a 299
within nor outside themselves any weight or a n y th in g e ls e to incline them toward
rest or any movement other than their own, as shown in // (73 c) Chapter Five
o f B ook I. A n d because they are m oved without constraint or effort and without
ceasing, Aristotle says next :
T . For anything which moves with effort requires all the more work and energy
the longer its movement lasts, and this is not a very satisfactory arrangement.
G . Averroes’ translation reads as follows :
T . In proportion, the more fatigue or effort this motion induces, the farther is it
removed from a good arrangement.
G . T o move without effort and constraint is the sign o f a better and nobler sta­
tus than otherwise. Thus, according to Aristotle’s philosophy, the heavens must
move by reason o f an incorporeal power separated from matter ; for, if the cause o f
heavenly movement were corporeal or material and if it had bodily extension and
divisibility such as weight and lightness, then, according to philosophy, this cause
would not be understanding, nor will, nor voluntary virtue. So, we should have to
assume that this corporeal power moved the heavens with all its strength, with the
greatest possible speed, and with all its force, just as we observe that weight moves
a heavy body. A n d i f this force met with no resistance, it would m ove the heavens
instantaneously in an indivisible / (73d) moment; and this is impossible,as we said
in the preceding chapter [see fol. 72d]. I f there were resistance, it would be within
the m oving body and not outside, as in rectilinear motion. Thus, the movement o f
the heavens would be violent, accompanied by fatigue or effort, and it would slow
down and stop, as w e have said. This is false. It follows necessarily, then, that the
heavens are m oved by a compressed or concealed power, devoid o f matter and in­
corporeal, that they do not move by compulsion but by pleasure and free will, and
that their rate o f movement is established at a certain velocity or speed without
constraint or resistance. A n d Aristotle holds that this free will cannot be altered and
that it moves the heavens thus perpetually byÿ necessity— not by constraint but
for self-satisfaction. But, in truth, it is not impossible, as we explained in the pre­
ceding chapter [see fols. 7oa~7ia],that the heavens are m oved without constraint or
effort by a force or corporeal quality present within them ; for the resistance which
is in the heavens does not incline them to any other motion nor to rest, but only to
prevent their being moved more rapidly. It is not necessary, then, that every m ove­
ment which contains a resistance factor should require effort or exertion or // (74a)
be slowed down, for a stone exerts no energy in falling nor a fire in burning up­
ward. A s explained in the preceding chapter, it is possible that each celestial m ove­
ment is without resistance, caused by an angel whose will is changeable, for noth­
ing is unchangeable save G o d Himself, and such motion can be as slow or as fast
 jo o | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
n’est intransmuable fors Dieu, et peut estre tel mouvement tant tardif et tant
5o isnel comme il plait a la vertu motive, si comme il fu dit devant du m ouve­
ment dont les anges se moevent. E t se aucun opposoit au contraire, en met­
tant que un ange meust le ciel ou soi meisme selon tout son povoir le plus
tost et le plus isnelment que il onques pourroit, donques convendroit il que
il meust soudainement et en moment indivisible ; et c ’est impossible, si com-
55 me il est dit devant. Item, toute vertu cree<e>12 est finie et terminée,13 et don­
ques ne peust elle pas outre certainne quantité de vélocité ou d’isneleté ne de
autre chose. Je respon au premier et di que un ange ne pourroit mouvoir se
meisme ou le ciel selon tout son povoir ou vertu, mes convient par neccessité
que il se determine par sa volenté a certainne isnelleté, aussi comme une ver-
Go tu infinie ne pourroit mou- / (74b) voir un corps qui avroit resistence finie
selon tout son povoir, car ce seroit par isnelleté infinie laquelle est impossi­
ble; et tout ce appert par le .xii.e chappitre du premier. E t pour ce, vertu finie
ne peust faire mouvement sanz resistence ne vertu infinie comment que soit,
se l’une et l’autre ne meust14 par liberté et par franche volenté. E t tel resgart
65 a vertu finie a mouvement sanz resistence comme vertu infinie a a mouve­
ment15 o resistence. E t donques se vertu finie meut sans resistence, ce ne peust
estre selon tout son povoir ne ainsi <de>16 vertu infinie. E t samblablement
disons nous que Dieu ne pourroit faire une creature si parfete que II ne peust
faire encor plus parfecte,17 et donques ne pourroit II oeuvrer selon toute sa
70 vertu qui est infinie et plus que infinie. A u secont, je octri que l ’ange a vertu
termine<e>18 et finie et ne pourroit mouvoir outre certainne vélocité ou is-
neleté la ou il avroit resistence certainne ; mes a mendre resistence, il pour­
roit mouver de plus grant isneleté et sanz resistence a sa volenté comme dit
est. E t pour ce miex entendre, je met un exemple en autre propos: car une
75 porcion de terre ne peut descendre par si grant isneleté que elle ne peust en­
cor par plus grande au double et au quadruple19 et ainsi // (74c) sans fin, posé
que la resistence fust diminuée et appeticiee en proporcions20 a ce conve­
nables. Mais se la resistence estoit toute et du tout ostee, ceste terre ne pour­
roit estre meue, si comme il fu dit ou .xxiiii.e chappitre du premier et ou
80 quart de P hisique.21 E t c’est a entendre se ceste terre n’estoit meue par vertu
voluntaire. Apres il reprouve .iii. oppinions anciennes.
T . E t pour ce, nul ne doit cuider que il soit ainsi comme l’en disoit selon
une ancienne fable, c ’est a savoir que le ciel, pour le salut et soustenement de
lui, a mestier d’un géant appellé Athlas. E t samble que ceulz qui ce dient
85 aient telle oppinion comme eurent aucuns qui furent apres qui mettoient que
le ciel, aussi comme toutes autres choses pesantes et terrestres qui seroient en
haut, a neccessité d ’aucune chose vive qui le soustienne ; et ce baillierent eulz
par maniéré de fable et n’est pas a crere.
G . Aucuns dient que Athlas fu un roy es parties de occident en Hespain-
12 A B C D E F créé. 13 B D E F determinee.
Book II, Chapter 3, fols. 74b~74c 301
as the motive power pleases, just as we said before o f the motion which moves the
angels [see fol. 7zbcd]. I f someone wishes to support the contrary opinion that an
angel moves the heavens or itself with all its power at the fastest possible speed,
then it would have to do so instantaneously and in an indivisible moment; and this
we have declared impossible. Next, all generated power is finite and limited; there­
fore, it cannot attain an excess o f a fixed velocity or speed or anything else. T o the
first opinion I reply that an angel cannot move itself or its heaven with all its
strength or power, but that, by its own will, it has to set for itself a certain speed,
just as an infinite power with all its strength could not move / (74b) a body having
finite resistance because this would require infinite speed, which is impossible, as we
have shown at length in Chapter Tw elve o f Book I [see fol. 21 d). Thus, finite power
cannot make a movement without meeting resistance, nor can infinite power in any
way at all, unless both are moved o f their own free will, without constraint ; and
finite power has the same relevance to free motion without resistance as infinite
power has to motion with resistance. Therefore, if finite power moves without re­
sistance, this motion cannot require all its strength, and the same holds for infinite
power. In the same way we say that G o d could not make a creature so perfect that
He could not make one still more perfect, and so H e would not be a ctin g with all
His power, which is, and even more than, infinite. A s for the second opinion, I ad­
mit that the angel has limited, finite power and could not m ove faster than a par­
ticular velocity or speed where there was a certain resistance, but with a lesser re­
sistance the angel could m ove faster and without resistance if it so willed, as we
have stated. T o understand this better, I take an example from another subject: a
clod o f earth cannot fall so fast that it still could not fall two or four times faster,
and so on // (74c) to infinity, assuming the resistance to be reduced in the proper
proportions. However, if the resistance were completely removed, this clod o f
earth could not move at all, as was stated in Chapter Twenty-four o f Book I and in
Book IV o f the Physics. That is, if this clod o f earth were not moved by its own free
will. N ext he refutes three opinions o f ancient times.
T . So, none should believe that things are as represented in an ancient fable—
that is, that the heavens require the aid o f a giant called Atlas for their safety and
support. It would seem that those who hold that opinion are o f the same mind as
certain later philosophers who maintained that, like all heavy bodies and earthly
objects situated up high, the heavens must require some living thing to support
them, but this idea they expressed as a kind o f fable and it is not to be believed.
G . Some say that Atlas was a king in the western region o f Spain and a great as-
18 A C D terminé.
14 D veinent; E viennent.
19 D druble; E triple.
15 D E omit sanz resistence... a mouvement.
16 A omits de. 20 B C D E F porcions.
17 F omits que il ne peust faire encore plus 21 Physicorum, IV .8 .2i5b 12— 9.217b 28.
parfecte.
 jo 2 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
90 gne qui fu très grant astrologien, et ou païs est une haute montaingne qui fu
jadis denommee de lui et appelle<e>222
3Athlas, et la mer prochaine M are A t b -
lanticum A E t de ce vint en fable / (74d) que Athlas soustient le ciel sus ses es-
paulles ou pour la science du roy ou pour la hautesce du mont ; et de ce dist O -
vide : Athlas24 en ipse25 laborat vixque suis humeris cadentem sustinet axem.26
95 E t par aventure, a ceste maniéré de parler se conformoit Job, mes en autre
entencion, quant il disoit de Dieu: Sub quo curvantur qui portant orbem.27
E t apres, aucuns disoient que il n’est pas ainsi selon vérité, mes par ce nous
est donné a entendre que le ciel et les estoilles ont nécessité d’aucune vertu
vive qui les soustienne que il ne cheient aval. E t il ne convient pas, car le ciel
ioo n’est pesant ne ligier, si comme il fu dit ou quint chappitre du premier. E t
posé que il fust pesant, si pourroit estre naturelment lasus ou il est, si comme
il fu monstré ou .xxiiii.e chappitre du premier. Mais a savoir se il pourroit
estre meu en circuite sanz violence, c’est une autre question dont je dirai
apres en son lieu. Apres il reprouve une autre oppinion.
io5 T . Item, le ciel n’est pas soustenu pour la vélocité ou isneleté de la circun-
giracion de son mouvement par quoy il se tienne ainsi, pour ce que ceste
isneleté excede la propre inclinacion que le ciel a a descendre, si comme disoit
Empedocles, car telle violence ne pourroit estre salvee ou durer par si grant
//( 7 5a) temps.
i io G . Quant un vaisel plain d’yaue est isnelement tourné en circuite puis de­
sus puis desouz, l ’eaue demeure ou vaisel sans espandre et sanz cheoir pour
la force28 du mouvement. E t ainsi disoit Empedocles du ciel, comme dit est.
Apres il reprouve par .ii. moiens la tierce opinion d’aucuns qui disoient que
l’ame du ciel contraint le corps du ciel par violence a tel mouvement.
115 T .29 Item, encore ne peut l’en dire que par ame racionele30 le ciel soit con­
traint a demourer ainsi perpetuelment.
G . Supplé : car chose violente ne peut estre perpétuelle. E t selon Averroïz,
aucuns disoient ainsi car il leur sembloit que l’ame qui est en .i. corps le fait
durer tant comme elle y est.31 E t donques le corps du ciel qui est si très noble
i2o a en soy ame qui le soustient et le fait durer et estre ainsi meu perpetuelment.
T . Item, ce n’est pas possible que ame eust telle vie sanz tristesce et que sa
vie fust beneuree, car il convient par neccessité que le mouvement soit o vio ­
lence se le corps qui est ainsi meu est enclin naturelment a estre meu autre­
ment. E t mouvoir ainsi continuelment sanz vacacion et sanz cesser et sanz
22 A appellé. 24 F Alas.
23 Oresme’s relation o f the fable follows 25 B ipso.
closely that o f Diodorus Siculus: see Diodori 26 Metam. II.296-97: “ Atlas en ipse laborat:
bibliotheca historia, III.60, ed. F. Vogel (Leipzig: / Vixque suis humeris candentem sustinet ax­
Teubner, 1888), vol. 1, 363. The story may em.”
have suggested itself to Oresme through St. 27 Job 9:13.
Augustine’s account, De civitate Dei, X V III.8. 28 E fourme.
Book II, Chapter 3, fols. 74^-75 a | 303
trologer, and they say that there is in that country a high mountain called Atlas
which formerly bore his name, while the neighboring sea was called the Atlantic.
From this arose the fable / (74d) that Atlas supports the heavens on his shoulders
either because o f the king’s great wisdom or because o f the great height o f the
mountain. O v id says o f this : Behold ! Atlas himself is working ; barely does he sup­
port on his shoulders the glow ing dome o f heaven. Probably it was in this same
manner o f speaking, but with different intent, that Job said o f G o d : Under which
they are bent who carry the orb o f heaven. Then there were others who used to say
that this is not the truth, but that by it we are to understand that the heavens and
the stars must have some living force or power to sustain them lest they fall. But
this is not so, because the heavens are neither heavy nor light, as we said in Chapter
Five o f Book I [see fol. 12a]. A n d even i f they were heavy, they could still be up
there where they are, as w e showed in Chapter Twenty-four o f Book I [see fol.
39b]. A s to whether the heavens can m ove in circular motion without constraint,
this is another question which I shall answer in its proper place [see fols. 89C-90C,
98d]. N ext he refutes another opinion.
T . T o refute what Empedocles used to say, the heavens are not supported by the
velocity or speed o f their circumgiration, which holds them in position, because
this speed exceeds the power o f their natural inclination to descend; for such vio­
lence could not be maintained or last for so long // (75 a) a time.
G . When a bow l filled with water is turned rapidly around and then up and
down, the water remains in the bow l without spilling or falling by the force o f the
motion. Empedocles said it was thus with the heavens. Then, with two arguments,
he disproves the third opinion— the belief o f those who said that by violence the
soul o f the heavens causes the celestial body to move as a whole.
T . Again, it cannot be said that the heavens are forced to remain perpetually as
they are by a rational soul.
G . Supply here: For violent things cannot be perpetual. And, according to
Averroes, there were some who said this because they thought that the soul within
a body makes it last as long as the soul is within it. Consequently, the heavenly
body as a whole, which is so very noble, has within it a soul which supports it,
makes it last, and causes it to be moved thus perpetually.
T . Th e soul could not lead such a life without pain and unhappiness for, neces­
sarily, the movement o f the heavens would have to be violent if they are moved
contrary to their natural inclination. T o move thus continually, without ceasing
31 Juntas, t.c. 6, 98G.
29 D E omit tiexte.
30 B C D E F raisonnable.
 ^04 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapters 3-4, fols. 75b—75c ( 30j

125 avoir remission ne repos de vaquer a prudence ou a spéculation, ce n’est pas
bonne vie.
G . Car qui / (75 b) veult entendre a prudence ou a science, il convient ces­
ser de labour corporel.
T . E t ceste ame qui ainsi mouvroit le ciel n’avroit pas repos en dormant, si
130 comme ont les âmes des corps mortelz quant elles ont remission et cessacion
du labour32 du corps.
G . E t ainsi elle seroit de pire condicion que ne sont les âmes de cibas.
T . Mais seroit neccessaire que aucun la soustenist et la retenist et contrain-
sist a mouvoir sanz cesser.
135 G . Car puisque ce labour seroit pénible et triste, elle voudroit cesser se elle
n’estoit contrainte par autre a perseverer. E t selon la translacion et expo­
sition d’Averroïz, Aristote fait ici similitude de ceste chose a la fable de Y x -
ion,33 duquel les poètes dientqueil est en enfer en une roe ou il est contraint a
tourner touzjours perpetuelment. E t de ce dist Ovide: V olvitur Y xion 34 et
140 se sequiturque fugitque.35 E t tele maniéré de parler est en l’Escripture, primi
Regum xxv : Inimicorum tuorum anima rotabitur,36 quasi impetu37 et circulo
funde;38 et item: en circuitu impii ambulant.3? Apres Aristote conclut.
T . E t donques <se>40 il est ainsi du premier mouvement, c ’est a savoir de
celui du ciel, comme nous avons d i t ...
145 G . C ’est a savoir que il est fait sanz labour.
T . Ce n’est pas seulement le miex de ce41 cuider de sa perpétuité, mais //
(7 5c) encore disons nous ceste chose concordablement a la science divine qui
est des diex.
150 G . Car les théologiens des paiens disoient que Dieu meut le ciel sanz poine
et sanz labour.
T . Mais c’est asséz parlé de telles choses quant a present.
and without relaxation or rest for prudent thought or speculation, is not indeed a
good life.
G . For one who / (75 b) would listen to prudence or wisdom must give up cor­
poral labor.
T . A nd this soul, presumed to move the heavens thus, would have no rest in
sleep as do the souls in mortal bodies when they have repose and cessation from
the body’s labor.
G . Therefore, the soul presumed to move the heavens would have a worse situ­
ation than that o f the souls here below.
T . A n d it would be necessary that someone sustain it, hold it, and force it to
move without stopping.
G . Since this labor would be painful and saddening, the soul would want to
stop, if it were not forced by someone to keep at work. According to Averroes’
translation and exposition, Aristotle here compares this situation with the fable
about Ixion, o f whom the poets say that he is in hell attached to a wheel that he is
required to turn perpetually. O v id says o f him: Ixion turns around, following him­
self and fleeing from himself. A similar statement is found in the Scripture, I
Samuel 25 ^29] : Th e souls o f thine enemies, them shall He sling {out as out o f the
middle o f a sling. A n d : Th e wicked walk on every side. Next, Aristotle concludes.
T . If, therefore, it is as we have stated with regard to the first motion, that o f the
heavens...
G . That this motion is without effort.
T . It is not only best to conceive o f its eternity in this way, but // (75 c) also it is
consistent with divine wisdom which treats o f the gods.
G . For the pagan theologians claimed that G o d moves the heavens without ef­
fort or exertion.
T . But for the present we have talked long enough o f such matters.

4. Ou quart chappitre il commence <a)J enquérir se ou ciel 4. In Chapter Four he begins his inquiry to ascertain whether
sont destre et senestre et les autres differences right, left, and other positional differences exist in the
de posicion et reprouve une opinion.2 heavens, and he refutes an opinion.

T . Aucuns dient que ou ciel est aucune chose destre et aucune senestre, si T . There are some who say that right and left exist in the heavens ; for instance,
comme sont les Pitagoriens, c ’est a dire ceulz qui ensuient l’opinion de Py- the Pythagoreans— those who follow the opinions o f Pythagoras— maintain this

32 B C D E F omit corporel... labour. 35 Metam. IV.461.

33 D E Prescian. The line which Oresme 36 C D E F ratabitur.
does not translate reads: “ sed necesse est 37 D E in pecu.
Ixionis cuiusdam fatum detinere ipsam, sempi- 38 Cf. I Reg. 25:29— Porro inimicorum tuo­ 39 Ps. 11:9. 1 A omits a.
ternum et indomitum.” Cf. Juntas, 98B. rum anima rotabitur, quasi in impetu et circulo 40 A omits se. 2 Guthrie, ch. 2.
34 B volvit; F Yxien; B D E F omit se. fundae. 41 B C D E F omit ce.
jo 6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
thagoras, car ainsi le dient. E t pour ce convient il considered se il est ainsi ou
autrement.
5 G . L ’en doit savoir que .vi. differences de posicion sont, c’est a savoir de­
sus et desouz, destre et senestre, devant et derrière. E t aucune fois Aristote les
appelle principes. O r disoient les Pythagoriens que ou ciel sont seulement .ii.
de ces principes, c ’est a savoir destre et senestre, et les autres non. E t Aristote
les reprouve en monstrant par .vii. raisons que se ou ciel sont destre et se-
io nestre, il convient que les autres differences y soient.
T . Premièrement, car se il convient appliquer ces principes au corps de
tout le monde, c ’est a sa- / (75 d) voir au ciel qui tout contient, et une partie
est destre, il s’ensuit tantost que l’autre soit senestre. E t encore doit l’en plus
cuider que devant ces .ii. principes soient ou ciel les autres qui sont pre-
15 mier<s>3
4 et precedent ces .ii. O r est il déterminé ou livre D e s Mouvemens des
bestes pourquoy ces principes sont propres a leur nature, car l’en voit mani­
festement que il sont es bestes, et aucunes les ont toutes, c ’est a savoir destre
et senestre et les autres .iiii.5...
G . Les honmes et les bestes parfectes ont toutes ces différences.
20 T . E t les autres en ont aucunes et non toutes.
G . Si comme, par aventure, aucunes bestes imparfectes et immobiles de
soy, qui ont devant et derrière et ne ont destre ne senestre; ce dist Averroïz.6
Je cuide que telles soient aucunes bestes de mer.
T . E t les plantes7 ont tant seulement desus et desouz. E t donques se l ’en
25 doit attribuer au ciel aucune de teles choses, c’est raisonnable de lui attribuer
ce qui est le premier es bestes, si comme nous avons dit.
G . E t desus et desouz sont naturelment premiers que destre et senestre, car
il sont plus communs comme dit est.
<T >8 Item, .iii. choses ou opposicions sont dont en chascune est aussi
30 comme un principe : une est desus et desouz, l’autre est devant et son oppo­
site, la tierce // (76a) est destre et senestre. E t est raisonnable que toutes ces
choses soient es corps parfectz.
G . E t le ciel ou le monde est corps très parfect, si comme il fu dit ou pre­
mier chappitre du premier. Apres il met comment les choses desus dites sont
35 principes.
T . E t desus, c’est commencement ou principe de longitude; et destre est
principe de latitude;9et devant est principe de profundité.
G . Ce sont les .iii. dimensions dont fu dit plus a plain ou premier chappi­
tre du premier, car longitude ou mesure de longueur commence desus en
40 venant desouz ; et latitude va de destre a senestre ; et parfondeur de devant a
derrière.
3 D E commencent il a considérer. 16.
4 A B C premier. 6 D Adverrois. Juntas, t.c. 7, 99C.
5 De animalium incessu, IV .5.704a 26— 706b 7 A D E planètes.
Book II, Chapter 4, fols. 7jd-76a | $oj
doctrine. Therefore, we shall have to consider whether it is true or otherwise.
G . There are six different positions in all: up and down, right and left, in front
o f and behind. Occasionally, Aristotle refers to these terms as principles. N o w , the
Pythagoreans used to say that in the heavens there are only two o f these principles,
that is, right and left, the others being absent. Aristotle disputes them by showing
in seven arguments that, if there is a right and left position in the heavens, the oth­
ers must be present also.
T . In the first place, if we should apply these principles to the entire world, that
is, / (75 d) to the heavens which contain the whole, and if we decide that one part o f
the world is in the right portion o f the whole, then it follows at once that the other
is in the left portion. Then, we must also believe that, before these tw o principles
exist in the heavens, the other primary principles which precede right and left
must be there. N o w , in our book dealing with the Movements o f A n im a ls we showed
w hy these principles are a proper adjunct o f their nature, for, manifestly, these
principles are present in animals, some having all— that is, right and left and the
other fo u r . . .
G . Men and animals, complete in every way, have all these differences.
T . While the others have some, but not all these potential differences.
G . Like certain imperfect and immobile animals, for instance, which have front
and rear, but not right and left, according to Averroes. I believe that such animals
are found in the sea.
T . Plants have only up and down or above and below. Therefore, if we attribute
any one o f these principles to the heavens, it is reasonable to attribute to them the
principle which is primary among animals, as we have said above.
G . A n d above and below naturally stand ahead o f right and left, for they are
more general.
T . There are three pairs o f opposites, each pair representing a principle : one is
above and below, another the front and its opposite, and the third // (76a) right
and left. It is reasonable to assume that all these things exist in perfectly complete
bodies.
G . A n d the heavens, or the world, are a very perfect body, as stated in Chapter
One o f Book I [see fol. 6a]. Next, he explains in what way the things stated above
constitute principles.
T . For, above is the beginning or principle o f length, right the principle o f breadth,
and fro n t the principle o f depth.
G . These are the three dimensions o f which we spoke more fully in Chapter One
o f Book I [see fol. 4a]. Longitude or the measure o f length begins above and comes
down; latitude goes from right to left, and depth goes from front to rear.
8 A B C D E F omit tiexte. 9 D E omit et destre...latitude.
jo 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Item, encore appert autrement selon les mouvemens dont aucunes de
ces differences sont princ(ip)es10 es choses qui se moevent, car desus est
commencement de augmentacion ou cressance et mouvement local commen-
45 ce de destre. E t mouvement qui est selon aucun sens naturel commence au
devant la ou sont les sens.
G . O r convient suppléer que la ou sont touz mouvemens, augmentacion
precede les autres. E t par ce s’ensuit que ceste difference desus est naturel-
ment premiere que destre. E t donques se destre est ou ciel, desus est ou ciel.
50 Apres / (76b) il met en quelles choses ici-bas sont ces differences et en quelles
non et comment.
T . E t pour ce, desus11 ou desouz et destre et senestre et devant et derrière
ne sont pas en toutes choses, mes sont seullement en celles qui ont en soy
commencement ou principe de leur mouvement, et qui ont ame.
55 G . Vegetative, comme les plantes, c ’est a savoir herbes et arbres ; ou vege­
tative et sensitive, si comme les bestes ; ou ces .ii. et intellective, si comme ont
les honmes ; ou intellective seulement, si comme a le ciel selon aucuns.
T . Car en quelcunque chose qui ne a ame, nous ne voions que elle ait en
soy chose par quoy son mouvement commence plus d’une part que d’autre,
60 car aucunes ne sont onques meues.
G . Si comme les parties de terre qui sont vers le centre, selon ce que fu dit
ou desrenier chappitre du premier.
T . E t les autres sont meues, mais c ’est samblablement de quelcunque par­
tie, si comme le feu en haut seulement et la terre en bas vers le centre.
65 G . E t une partie de la terre n’est plus devant que derrière, ne destre que
senestre quant est de soy; mais sanz distinction, celle que l’en met desouz12
va devant en descendant quelle que elle soit, et ainsi des autres telles choses.
Apres pour ce // (76c) declairer, il oste13 une doubte en mettant la cause
pourquoy l’en attribue ces differences a telles choses qui sont sanz ame.
70 T . Mais en ces choses nous disons desus et (d eso u z)1* et destre et senestre
en raportant a nous.
G . E t non pas simplement ne absolutement, mais en relation a nous et ou
resgart de nous. E t de ce met il apres .iii. maniérés. Une est:
T . O u selon nos destres, si comme font les divineurs...
75 G . Anciennement aucuns par le chant et par le vo l ou volement des oi­
seaux divinoient et prenostiquoient d’aversité et de prospérité, de maladie et
de santé, selon ce que il vouloient a destre ou a senestre. E t de ce font men-
cion Ypocras et Galien en .i. livre appellé Regimen d ’Acues.™ E t en ceste ma-15
*
10 A princes. 15 Hippocratis opera, 1. 8, ed. Hugo Kuehle-
11 B C D E F pour ce se desus. wein (Leipzig: Teubner, 1894), p. 113, 11. 8-
12 B dessus. 12. Galen, Hippocrates acutorum morborum victu
13 D E est. liber Galeni commentarius, 1.15, in Galetti opera
14 A desus et de et destre. omnia, vol. 1 5,ed. D .Carolus G. Kühn(Leipzig,
Book II, Chapter 4, fols. 76b-76c | 509
T . This appears also from a consideration o f motions where these differences are
principles in bodies that m ove; for above is the beginning o f increase or growth,
while local movement begins from the right and motion following from sensation
begins from in front where the natural senses are situated.
G . Here we must add that, when all varieties o f motion are present, growth or
increase precedes the others. Thus, above naturally takes precedence over right.
So, if right exists in the heavens, then above must also be there. N ext / (76b) he
states in which things here below these differences exist, in which they do not, and
in what manner.
T . Therefore, above and below, right and left, and front and rear are not pres­
ent in all things, but only in those living bodies which possess the power to initiate
their own motion and which have a soul.
G . T h e vegetative category, like plants, grasses, and trees ; or the vegetative and
sensitive category, like animals ; or both categories plus the intellective, such as
men; or the intellective alone, as some believe to be the case with the heavens.
T . For in anything not possessed o f a soul, we cannot observe the cause o f its
movement in one part more than in another, and some never move at all.
G . Like those parts o f the earth near the center, as was said in the last chapter o f
Book I [see fol. 61b].
T . Others move, but only in one direction, like fire which has only upward
movement and the earth which has only downward movement toward the center.
G . One part o f the earth is not o f itself more front than rear nor right than left,
but, without exception, whatever we put underneath goes down first, and the same
applies to the other positions. Afterwards, to // (76c) clarify this he removes a doubt
by explaining w hy we attribute these positional differences to non-living things.
T . In such non-living things, we say above and below and right and left in rela­
tion to ourselves.
G . A n d not simply nor absolutely, but with respect to ourselves. Concerning
this fact, he gives three examples. One is :
T . One corresponds to our right hands, as those who practice augury d o . . .
G . L o n g ago, from the song or flight o f birds, certain persons foretold or prog­
nosticated the bad or good fortune and the sickness or good health o f those who
sought their services, depending upon whether the birds flew to the right or the
left. Both Hippocrates and Galen mention this practice in a book called the R egi­
men o f A gues. In the same manner we say that what is to the right o f us or on our
1828), pp. 442-45 ; see also “ Regimen in Acute (Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, 1962),
Diseases,” in Hippocrates, ed. W. H. S. Jones vol. 2, 77-85.
jio | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
niere nous disons que ce qui est a destre de nous ou a nostre destre16 est des-
80 tre, si comme un pilier ou quelque chose. Apres il met l’autre maniéré.
T . O u selon similitude a nos destres, si comme sont les parties d ’une sta­
tue ou ym age...
G . Nous disons d’une ymage que une main est destre et l’autre est senes-
tre par similitude a nous et non pas par nature. Apres il met la tierce maniéré.
85 T . O u selon ce que telles choses sont mises devant nous ou contre nous,
car / (y6d) se une ymage est mise devant nous aussi comme en resgardant
nous, son destre est devant nostre senestre et semblablement son senestre
contre nostre destre et son derrière vers ce que est devant nous. Mais en tel­
les ymages, quant a ce, ne a aucune difference, car se (e lle s)17 estoient tour-
90 nees au contraire, nous dirions les parties estre destres que nous disions se-
nestres, et devant ce que nous disions derrière, et desus ce que18 estoit de-
souz.
G . Si comme qui leur mettroit la teste en bas. E t pour ce, selon nature il
n’i a destre ne senestre, etc., fors ou par similitude ou ( o u ) 1’ resgart de nous,
95 si comme une colompne est faite destre ou senestre, devant, etc., par remuer
ou elle ou nous. Apres il met la quarte raison.
T . Item, pour ce se doit l ’en merveillier des Pitagoriens, car il ne parloient
fors seulement de ces .ii. principes destre et senestre et delessoient les .iiii. au­
tres qui ne sont pas moins principalz. Car en toutes bestes, les parties desus
100 a20 celles desouz et celles devant a21 celles derrière n’ont pas mendre diffe­
rence que celles de destre a22 celles de senestre, mes plus grande, car destre
et senestre different seulement en vertu et les autres different en vertu et en
figure.
G . Les mem- // (77a) bres destres sont de tele figure comme sont les se-
105 nestres, mais destres sont plus fors et plus abiles a oeuvrer selon commun
cors, et23 en aucuns honmes est le contraire; en aucuns sont equalz en vertu
et sont appelléz en latin : am bidextri. E t de telz fait mencion aucunes fois la
sainte Escripture.24 E t les autres .iiii. principes desus dis different en vertu et
en figure, si comme la teste et les piés et devant et derrière. Apres il met la
110 quinte raison qui est presque telle comme la seconde.
T . Item, desus et desouz sont en toutes choses qui ont ame et semblable­
ment es bestes et es plantes,23 mes destre et senestre n (e sont)26 pas es plan­
tes.27
G . E t donques desus et desouz sont plus generaulz et, par consequent,
us premiers en ceste maniéré. E t donques sont il ou ciel se destre et senestre y
sont, meismement car nous ne voions yci-bas chose qui ait destre et senestre
que elle ne ait desuz et desouz.
16 D E senestre. 19 A omits ou.
17 A B C D E F se il. 20 E et.
18 B C D E F omit que. 21 D et.
Book II, Chapter 4, fols. 76d~77a | 3 11
right hand is straight, like a column or similar thing. Then he states another exam­
ple.
T . O r by analogy with our right hands, as with the parts o f a statue or painting...
G . We say o f a painting that one hand is right and the other left, b y analogy
with ourselves and not with nature. Next, he gives the third example.
T . O r depending upon whether such things are placed facing us or back to us;
for / (76d) if a picture is placed face toward us, its right side is opposite our left side
while its left is opposite our right with its back toward that which is in front o f us.
But with such pictures it makes no difference ; if they were turned about, we should
say that those parts are right which we just called left, those parts front which we
just called back, and the top what was bottom.
G . I f we put the picture head down. Thus, in nature there is neither right nor
left, etc., except by analogy or with respect to ourselves, as a column is made right
or left or front, etc. by m oving either it or ourselves. N ext he states his fourth ar­
gument.
T . W e must wonder at the Pythagoreans, who talked about only these tw o prin­
ciples right and le ft, and neglected the other four, which are not less important. In
all animals the upper parts are not less different from the lower, nor the front parts
from the rear, than are the right parts from the left, but actually more different; for
right and left in animals differ only in strength, while the other positional differen­
ces vary in both strength and shape.
G . Th e right members // (77a) o f the body are the same in shape as the left, but
in the average body the right members are the stronger and more suited for work,
although the opposite is the case with some men. Both right and left are equally
strong in some persons, such being called in Latin ambidextrous. Occasionally
such persons are mentioned in H oly Scripture. T h e other four principles mentioned
above vary in strength and in shape, like the head and feet, the front and rear.
Next, he states the fifth argument, which is almost like the second.
T . A b o ve and below appertain to all living things, that is, to animals and plants,
but plants have no right or left.
G . So, above and below are more universal and are therefore primary in this
respect. If right and left exist in the heavens, then above and below must also be
there; for we cannot observe here below that anything having a right and left fails
to have an above and below.
22 E et. Ps. 17:35 ; 57:11.
23 A repeats et. 25 D E planètes.
24 We have not been able to find a definite 26 A n’est.
reference to ambidextrous persons in Scrip- 27 D E planetes.
ture. However, cf. Matt. 6:3; Eccles. 10:2;
$12 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 4, fols. 77^770 313

T . Item, aussi comme longitude est premiere que latitude et devant elle.
G . Car selon ymaginacion mathématique, ligne est quantité premiere na-
120 turelment qu<e>28 superfice. E t ligne a une seule dimension, c’est a savoir
longitude; et superfice a .ii. dimensions qui sont longitude et latitude; / (77b)
et corps en a .iii., longitude et latitude et profundité. E t tout ce appert plus a
plain ou premier chappitre du premier. E t ainsi longitude est premiere que
latitude.
125 T . O r est ainsi que desus est principe23
^ de longitude et destre principe de
0 width, and the primary principle comes first in order. Therefore, above ranks be­
latitude, et le principe de ce que est premier <est premier).3° Donques est
desus premier que n’est destre selon generacion, car “ premier” est dit en
moult de maniérés.
G . Si comme il appert ou quint de M ethaphisique .3I E t en un ordre, ce que
130 est premier par voie de generacion est derrenier par voie de perfection et
e converso. O r avons donques que desus est premier que destre par generacion
et par nature selon raison prinse d’ymaginacion mathématique. E t appert par
la raison desus mise que les choses esperituelles32 et incorporelles, comme
sont Dieu et les anges et les âmes humaines, n’ont destre ne senestre ne les
135 autres differences desus mises, car ces differences sont corporelles et prinses
selon dimensions ou mesures corporelles. E t quant la sainte Escripture nom­
me la destre de Dieu, c ’est en autre signification en dénotant la vertu ou la
gloire divine.
T . Item, se desus est principe dont vient m ouvement,...
ho G . Ce peut estre entendu pour ce que la // (77c) vertu motive es bestes est
desus ou cervel, ou pour ce que desus est ’commencement33 de augmenta­
tion ou de cressance, si comme fu dit en la tierce raison. E t augmentacion est
naturelment es bestes avant que mouvement local.
T . E t destre est dont commence mouvement,34 et devant est la ou il tent.
145 G . Tout ceci peut estre entendu de mouvement local. E t selon une autre
exposicion destre est raporté a mouvement local et devant est raporté a l’al-
teracion qui est selon les sens des bestes, car telz sens naturelz sont devant.33
T . E t donques, au moins en ceste maniéré, desus a une vertu de principe et
de priorité ou resgart des autres especes desus dites.
150 G . E t par consequent, il doit estre trouvé ou ciel plus tost que destre.
T . E t pour ce, l’en doit blasmer les Pitagoriens qui parloient seulement de
destre et de senestre et lessoient les autres plus principalz; et aussi pour ce que
il cuidoient que il fussent semblablement en toutes choses.
T . Just as length is primary with respect to breadth and precedes it.
G . According to mathematical concept, a line is naturally primary to surface in
quantity. A line has only one dimension, namely, length or longitude ; an area or
surface has two dimensions, length and breadth; / (77b) and a body has three di­
mensions, length, breadth, and depth or profundity. A ll this appears in more de­
tail in Chapter One o f B ook I [see fols. 4a ff]. Thus, length comes before breadth.
T . N o w , above is a principle o f length or longitude, and right o f latitude or
fore right according to the order o f generation, for “ primary” is said with several
meanings.
G . A s stated in B ook V o f the M etaphysics. In any orderly progression, that which
is first in generation is last in completion or perfection, and the converse is also
true. N o w we have it that above comes before right by generation and by nature,
reasoning on the basis o f mathematical concept. From the argument above, it ap­
pears that spiritual and immaterial things, such as G od, angels, and human souls,
have neither right nor left nor the other differences we have discussed here be­
cause such differences are material, based on dimensions or bodily measures. When
the H oly Scripture speaks o f the right hand o f G o d, it is with !a 'different mean­
ing, denoting divine strength or glory.
T . Thus, if above is the principle from which motion is born ,. . .
G . W e can understand this since the // (77c) motive power o f animals is above in
the brain and since above is the beginning o f increase or growth, as we said in con­
nection with the third argument. A n d increase in growth is by nature prior to local
movement in animals.
T . R ight is the starting point o f motion and front is the place toward which mo­
tion is directed.
G . A ll this can be understood with reference to local motion. A different expo­
sition holds that right is related to local motion and front to the change o f direction
which is one o f the natural animal senses situated in the foreparts o f the animal.
T . Consequently, in this way at least, above has a just claim to stand as the first
principle or has the right o f priority with regard to the other principles mentioned
above.
G . Therefore, above must be found in the heavens rather than right.
T . Then, we should blame the Pythagoreans, who talked only about right and
left and who omitted the others which are actually more important ; and we should
blame them also because they assumed them [right and left] to be equally inherent
in all things.

28 y l qui.
20 B C D E F est premier que longitude.
30 A.B omits est premier.
31 Metaphysicorum, V . 1.1012b 34— 1013a 24.
32 B C D E F perpétuelles.
33 D E principe.
34 B est du commence; D E dont est com-
mencie mouv. ; F dont commencie de mouv.
35 Cf. Juntas, t.c. 12, 1011.
314 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . E t c’est faulz, car il ne sont pas en choses qui n’ont vie fors par simili-
155 tude ou en relation, si comme il est dit devant en la tierce raison.
5. Ou quint chappitre il monstre que / (77c!) toutes les differences
desus dites sont ou ciel, c'est a savoir desus et desous,
destre et senestre, devant et derrière.
T . E t pour ce que nous avons déterminé devant que toutes telles vertus
sont en choses qui ont en elles principe ou commencement de leur mouve­
ment ...
G . Il entent par principe ou commencement la vertu motive qui est cause
5 efficiente de tel mouvement, si comme l’ame en choses qui ont ame.
T . E t le ciel est chose qui a en soy ame et vie et qui a en soy principe de son
mouvement, il s’ensuit clerement que il a en soy desus et desouz et destre et
senestre.
G . Il samble que l’opinion d’Averroïz, et d’Aristote selon Averroïz, es-
10 toit que, ausi comme les plantes ont vie et ame vegetative et les bestes vege­
tative et sensitive et les honmes vegetative et sensitive et intellective, que
aussi le corps du ciel a en soy seulement ame intellective appellee intelligen­
ce, laquelle est indivisible et non pas estendue par quantité ne par parties,
mes est toute en chascune partie de ce corps. E t la maniéré de l’union de ceste
i5 intelligence et du ciel declaira Averroïz en un // (78a) tracté appellé D e sub­
stantia orbis.1 E t ceste intelligence ou ame et le corps du ciel font et consti­
tuent12 un suppost vif. E t aucune fois, cest mot ciel est prins pour ce suppost
contenant le corps du ciel et cest ame; et selon ce dit ici Aristote: Est autem
celum animatum, si comme nous disons que: Homo est corpus animatum.3
20 <Et ce pourroit estre couloré par la sainte Escripture qui dit de Dieu : Qui
fecit celos in intellectu ;4 et en autre lieu dit du solail : In circuitu pergit spiri-
tus ;s et iterum : sol cognovit occasum suum. >6Mais je demande a celui qui ten-
droit ceste opinion comment ame intellective peust vivifier corps sans la sen­
sitive ; et toutevoies, la sensitive ne peust estre par nature sanz la vegetative.
25 Item, se tout le corps du ciel est v if par l’intelligence qui le meut de mouve­
ment journal et le nombre des intelligences est tel comme est le nombre des
mouvemens du ciel, si comme il est dit ou .xii.e de M ethaphisique,7 donques
s’ensuit il que le ciel du soleil qui est aussi comme un membre de tout le ciel,
1 D Adverrois. Averrois Cordubensis opera, 3 B C D F disons quod corpus est animatum;
sermo de substantia orbis, vol. 9 (Juntas, 1574), E que corpus. Cf. Juntas, 101M.
ch. I V .5, fols. 10-11.
4 Ps. 135:5.
2 B C D E F sont et contiennent. 5 Eccles. 1:6. B in entuitu; E in crecuitu.
Book II, Chapter 5, fols. 77d~78a j 31 j
G . A nd this is false, for they [right and left] do not exist in inanimate things save
by analogy or with relation to other objects, as we said above in the third argu­
ment.
5. In Chapter Five he shows that / (jjd) all the positional
differences discussed above exist in the heavens, namely,
above and below, right and left, front and rear.
T . Since we have already established the fact that all such capacities exist in
things possessing the beginning or principle o f m o tio n . ..
G . B y principle or beginning o f motion he means the motive power which is the
efficient cause o f such motion, just as the soul is in living things.
T . A n d since the heavens are alive and possess the principle o f their own m ove­
ment, it follows clearly that they have in themselves above and below and right and
left.
G . The opinion o f Averroes and that o f Aristotle according to Averroes, it
seems, was that just as plants have a vegetative life and soul, animals a vegetative
and sensitive soul, and men a vegetative, sensitive, and intellectual soul, so also the
whole heavens possess in themselves only an intellective soul called intelligence,
indivisible, without extension in substance or in parts, but existing in its entirety
within each part o f those heavens. Averroes stated the manner o f union o f this in­
telligence with the heavens in a // (78a) treatise called The Substance o f the Universe.
A nd this intelligence or soul and the whole heavens constitute a living substance ;
sometimes the word d e l [heavens] is taken to mean this substance containing the
entire body o f the heavens and this soul. In this meaning Aristotle says here : The
heavens are alive, just as we say: Man is a living body. A n d this can be substantiat­
ed by H oly Scripture which says o f G o d : W ho in His wisdom made the heavens ;
and in another place says o f the sun : Th e spirit goeth forward surveying all places
roundabout ; and again : The sun knoweth his going down. But I ask the person
holding this opinion how an intellective soul could dwell in a living body without
the sensitive soul also being present; and, moreover, the sensitive soul could not
naturally exist without the vegetative soul. I f the whole celestial body is alive with
the intelligence which causes its daily motion and if the number o f intelligences is
the same as the number o f movements o f the heavens, as stated in Book X II o f the
M etaphysics, then it must follow that the celestial sphere o f the sun, which is a
member o f the whole heavens, has two souls or intelligences at least, one which
6 Ps. 103:19. A omits Et ce pourroit.. .oc- 7 Metaphysicorum, X II.8 .1073a 37— 1073b 1.
casum suum; B omits suum.
$ i6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ait en soy .ii. âmes ou intelligences au moins, c’est a savoir une qui le meut o
30 tout le firmament par mouvement journal, et l’autre qui le meut par son pro­
pre mouvement selon les signes du zodiaque. E t ce est possible. Mais que ces
intelligences soient âmes du ciel du soleil et que elles soient unies au corps de
ce ciel par informacion ou par inherence ou autrement telement / (78b) que
ce ciel soit v if par elles, il ne le convient pas, mes samble chose naturelment
35 impossible, car ainsi il vivroit de .ii. vies8 intellectives et seroit aussi comme
se .i. honme avoit une ame intellective qui fust par tout son corps et que
oveuques ce, il eust en chascun membre une autre ame. E t par samblable, il
s’ensuiroit des epicicles des planètes que un fust v if de .iii. ou de .iiii. vies et
.i. autre, par aventure, de pluseurs. Mais peut estre que aucun diroit que le
40 premier et souverain ciel, qui esc meu seulement de mouvement journal, vit
par son intelligence qui lui est propre et qui est en ce ciel et en chascune par­
tie de ce ciel en la maniéré que fu dit ou secont chappitre, et n’est en quelcun-
que autre ciel. Mais ce ciel par9 la grandeur et par la force et isneleté de son
mouvement ravist et trait tous les autres cielz que il contient et qui sont souz
45 lui et les meut de mouvement journal. E t chascun autre ciel parcial a sa pro­
pre intelligence par quoy il vit et qui le meut d’un mouvement qui lui est
propre. E t en ceste maniéré le ciel epicicle d’une planete a en soy seulement
sa propre intelligence qui le meut par son propre mouvement, et il est porté10
ou ciel excentrique par autre mouvement. Mes // (78 c) l’intelligence qui est
50 en l’excentrique n’est pas en l’epicicle, et ainsi ne sont pas pluseurs intelli­
gences en un ciel ou ensamble ne pluseurs vies, mais une seule. Je respon et
di que il ne peut estre ainsi selon philosophie, car estre ravi ou trait est estre
meu o violence. E t donques le mouvement journal des planètes seroit vio­
lent, meismement car il seroit fait par vertu qui est dehors elles ou dehors
55 leurs cielz et contre leur inclinacion, car elles sont enclines a autre mouve­
ment aucunement opposite ou contraire au mouvement journal. E t tout mou­
vement du ciel est naturel, car autrement il ne seroit pas régulier ne perpé­
tuel. Item, le premier et souverain ciel qui est ainsi meu est concentrique au
monde selon la concavité de ce ciel, et donques il ne boute et ne tire le ciel
60 qui est souz soy sanz moien. E t avecques ce, ceste concavité ou superfice
concave est très parfectement polie, planee et onnie en tant que rien ne peut
estre plus, si comme il sera dit apres au .xx.e chappitre,11 et sanz quelcunque
aspreté ou endenteure. E t donques elle ne free en rien au ciel d’emprés elle ou
desouz elle, mes passe très souef sanz le ravir ou traire avecques soy. Item,
65 po- / (78d) sé par ymaginacion que le propre mouvement des planètes ces-
sast par un jour et que elles fussent meues seulement de mouvement journal;
donques se l’intelligence qui ainsi les meut est du tout hors leurs cielz, il
s’ensuit par samblable que tout le ciel peust estre meu par une intelligence
8 B C D E F .ii. âmes. 10 B E est pour ce ou ciel.
9 D E mais cecy est par. 11 C F .ix.e chapitre.
Book II, Chapter 5, fols. 78b-78d |
moves it or the whole heavens each day and the other which moves it in its proper
motion through the signs o f the zodiac. A nd this is possible. But that these intelli­
gences are souls o f the sun’s sphere, united to the body o f this heaven by informa­
tion or inherence or otherwise in such fashion / (78b) that this heaven is alive be­
cause o f them, is not possible naturally; for, if this were so, then the sphere o f the
sun would enjoy life by reason o f two intellective lives— a situation which would be
as though a man had an intellective soul all through his body and, besides this, an­
other soul in each member. Similarly, in the case o f the planetary epicycles, it would
follow that one epicycle would be alive with three or four lives and another, per­
haps, with several. Possibly, someone will say that the primary and sovereign
heaven, which has only daily movement, lives by the intelligence proper to it
which is in this heaven and in each part o f it, in the way stated in the second chap­
ter [see fol. 67c], and which is not in any other heaven whatever. But because o f
its great size and the force and velocity o f its motion, this primary heaven over­
whelms and attracts to itself all the other celestial spheres which it contains within
itself and propels them in their daily movement. Each other partial heaven has its
own intelligence which gives it life and propels it with its own particular motion.
In this way the epicyclical heaven o f a planet alone possesses its own intelligence
which moves with its own particular motion, and it is borne to the eccentric heav­
en by another movement. But // (78 c) the intelligence is in the eccentric heaven
and not in the epicycle so that there are not several intelligences nor several lives
together in one heaven, but only one. I reply that, according to philosophy, this
cannot possibly be the truth, for to be overwhelmed or drawn along is to be moved
by violence. Thus, the daily motion o f the planets would be violent precisely because
it would be brought about by a force outside them or outside their celestial spheres
and contrary to their natural inclination, for they are inclined toward another
movement somewhat opposite or contrary to their daily motion. A ll celestial m o­
tion is natural since, otherwise, it would be neither regular nor perpetual. The
primary and sovereign heaven which is so moved is concentric to the universe with
respect to the concavity, and, as a result, it does not push nor pull the heavenly
sphere which is immediately under it. In addition, this concavity or concave area is
very completely and perfectly polished, planed, and smoothed so that it could not
be more so, as will be stated later on in Chapter Tw enty [see fol. 129b], and with­
out any roughness or denticulation. Then it does not rub at all against the heaven
next to or below it, but passes over it smoothly without damaging or dragging it
along with it. Assuming / (78d) for the sake o f imagination that the proper motion
o f the planets should stop for a single day and that they were moved only by their
daily movement, then, if the intelligence which moves them in this manner is al­
together outside o f their heavens, if follows that the whole heavens can be moved
by one intelligence which is completely outside them. Therefore, the heavens
 ji8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 5, fols. 79a-79b | 319

qui est du tout hors lui. E t par consequent le ciel ne seroit pas v if par elle. E t would not be animated by this intelligence. I f the intelligence, which moves the
70 se ceste intelligence qui ainsi meut les planètes ou cas desus mis est en leurs planets in the case just cited, is within their heavens, let us then posit that this day
cielz, posons donques que ce jour soit passé et que leurs mouvemens propres is over and that their proper motions begin again; this intelligence will not on this
recommencent; ceste intelligence ne s’en fuira pas pour ce ou se retraira de account flee away nor withdraw from their heavens. Consequently, in each plane­
leurs cielz. E t donques en chascun ciel de planete est une intelligence qui le
tary heaven there are tw o intelligences, one which moves the sphere with its daily
meut de mouvement journal et une autre qui le meut de son propre mouve-
motion and another which propels it with its proper motion. This is, as we have
75 ment. E t ce est bien possible comme dit est ; mais que par elles le ciel soit v if
said, entirely possible; but it is not naturally possible that by reason o f these intel­
et vive de pluseurs vies intellectives, ce n’est pas naturelment possible. Item,
ligences the heaven or sphere should be animated and alive with several intellectu­
selon Aristote ou premier de M etheores, 12 le feu en son espere est meu circu-
al lives. According to Aristotle in the first book o f the M eteors, fire in its sphere
lairement de mouvement journal et aussi la plus grant partie de l’espere de
moves circularly in its daily movement and, in like fashion, moves the greater part
l’aer. E t ne peut l’en dire que ce soit par ravissement et par violence tant pour
o f the sphere o f air. W e cannot say that this is caused by ravishment or violence be­
80 ce que cest mouvement est perpétuel, et que le ciel en sa // (79a) concavité
cause this motion is perpetual and because the heaven in its // (79a) concavity is
est très parfectment poli sanz quelcunque aspreté comme dit est. E t donques very perfectly polished with no roughness whatsoever, as we have said. I f fire is
se le feu est ainsi meu par une intelligence qui est hors de lui, par samblable
moved thus by an intelligence outside it, then we can say the same o f the heavenly
peut l’en dire du ciel. E t se le feu est meu par une intelligence qui est en lui,
sphere ; but if fire is m oved by an intelligence inside it but not animated by it, then
mais il n’est pas v if par elle, aussi par samblable peut l ’en dire du ciel. E t se
we can say the same o f the heavenly sphere. T o maintain that, b y reason o f the in­
85 par elle le feu est v if de vie intellective, ce dire est une absurdité en philoso­
telligence, fire is animated with intellective life is to utter an absurdity in philoso­
phie et aproche de l’erreur d’aucuns anciens de Caldee qui aoroient le feu.
phy, which is like the error o f certain ancient Chaldeans who worshiped fire, and
E t ainsi dire que le ciel soit v if de telle vie, c’est a conforter l’ydolatrie de
to say that the heaven is animated thus with such life is to give comfort to the idola­
ceulz qui aouroient le souleil et la lune, etc. E t avecques ce, c’est contre raison
try o f those who worshiped the sun and moon, etc. ; moreover, it is contrary to
naturelle, comme dit est. E t pour ce, 13 il ne convient pas se un ange meut un
natural reason, as already stated. Just because an angel moves a body it is not ne­
90 corps que, pour ce, il li donne vie ne que il soit en tel corps par union et in­
cessary that it should give it life nor that it be in the body by union and information
formation ou autrement fors par application voluntaire ou appropriation,
or otherwise, save by voluntary application or appropriation, as in the case o f a
aussi comme un honme meut la nef ou il est, fors que l’ange est en lieu ou en
man m oving a boat on which he stands, except that the angel is in a place or a body
corps par autre maniéré, si comme il fu dit ou secont chappitre. O r avons
in a different way, as we said in Chapter T w o [see fol. 61c]. N o w we have shown
donques monstré contre Aristote par raison naturelle que le ciel n’est pas v if
by natural reason, contrary to Aristotle’s statements, that the heavens are not a liv­
95 ne corps animé; et noientmoins il a en soy desus et desouz, si comme il sera
ing nor an animated body; nevertheless, they have an above and a below, as will
dit apres. Mais Aristote en poursuiant sa matière oste apres ce ,ii. doubtes. /
be stated hereafter [see fol. 8obc]. Pursuing his subject, Aristotle next disposes o f
(79b) T . E t ne convient faire doubte comment ce pourroit estre, pour ce
two doubts. /
que la figure du ciel et du monde est sperique et ronde, car comment peut
(79b) T . There should be no doubt as to the manner in which this could be pos­
l’en dire que une partie soit destre et l’autre senestre puisque elles sont toutes
sible because the shape o f the heavens and the world is spherical and round. So how
100 semblables ?
can we say that one part is right and the other left when they are both exactly alike?
G . Quant a figure et aussi quant a substance ainsi comme sont les parties
G . Their shape and substance are like the parts o f a body o f water, save that the
d’une eaue, fors que les estoilles sont1* les parties plus espesses.
stars are the thickest parts.
T . Item, il ne convient pas faire telle doubte pour ce que le ciel et ses par­
T . Also it is unnecessary to raise such a doubt because the heavens and its parts
ties sont meus touz temps.
are always moving.
105 G . Car pour ce pourroit aucun doubter comme l’en peut dire que une par­
G . For this reason, one could doubt that we can speak o f a part o f the heavens
tie du ciel soit destre, car destre est de la ou commence le mouvement, si
as right, for right is where a motion begins, as stated in the B ook o f the M ovements o f
comme il appert ou livre D e s Mouvemens des bestesM E t donques ne peust l’en

12 Meteorologicorum, II.3. 340b 29— 341a 4; 14 V o m its les parties.. .estoilles sont.
7.344a 11-14. 15 De animalium incessu, IV.705b 13— 706a
13 A B C D E F pour ce que il. 13.
 $20 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 5, fols. 79c-8oa | pu

assigner destre en corps qui est meu sans commencement. Apres il respont a A n im a ls. Thus, we cannot assign right to a body whose movement is without a
la premiere doubte. beginning. Then he replies to the first doubt.
no T . Mes il convient ceste chose entendre aussi comme qui ymagineroit une T . W e must try to understand this thing by imagining something having a shape
chose de laquelle le destre et le senestre different en figure, et apres que ceste in which right and left are differentiated and then by imagining this thing to be
chose fust composée et mise en figure sperique et ronde. E t ce fait, encor compounded and made into a sphere or a round shape. H aving done this, the right
avra ceste chose destre et senestre differenz en vertu, et samblera que non ait and left o f the thing will have different strengths, but this difference will be con­
pour la similitude de la figure. cealed by the similarity o f the parts o f the figure.
115 G . Pluseurs ont escript que quant un petit serpent appellé ceps point // G . M any have written that, when a small snake called a ceps stings // (79c) a man,
(79c) un honme tout le corps de cel honme remet et char et olz et devient the man’s entire body casts o ff both flesh and bones and becomes like a mass o f
ausi comme une masse de pois noir<e)16 et ronde. E t de ce dist Lucain: Os- round, black peas. Lucan says thus : Dissolving bones with body, the poisonous
saque dissolvens17 cum corpore tabificus seps.18 E t donques en telle masse viper. In such a mass no one could recognize right or left; nevertheless, i f it could
l’en ne peust congnoistre destre ne senestre ; et noientmoins, se il povoit es- be that this mass were alive, it would still have a right and a left, etc. Here, in this
120 tre que elle eust vie, encore y seroit destre et senestre, etc. E t par ce est de- way, we explain Aristotle’s meaning. Next he replies to the second doubt.
clairee l’intencion d ’Aristote en ceste partie. Apres il respont a la seconde
doubte.
T . E t en ceste maniéré doit l’en dire du commencement de son mouve­
ment.
125 G . C ’est a savoir condicionelment et par supposicion, car se le ciel eust
esté fait de telle figure comme un honme et puis mis en figure sperique il eust
destre et senestre. E t samblablement est du mouvement.
T . Car posé que le ciel n’eust onques commencement de son mouvement,
toutevoies il est neccessaire que aucune difference soit dont il eust commencié
i3o son mouvement se il eust commencié estre meu, et dont19 il le recommence-
roit se il se arrestoit et reposoit aucune fois.
G . Pour entendre ce que dit est et ce que s’ensuit en ceste matière, je pose
que un honme soit en estant, ses bras estendus, et que / (79d) parmi son corps
T . In like manner we must speak o f the origin o f its motion.
du lon<c>20 soit ymaginee une verge droite, immobile aussi comme un axel,
G . That is, we must treat it conditionally and hypothetically, for, i f the heavens
135 et que cest honme soit meu environ ceste verge de mouvement circulaire. Je
were made in the shape o f a man and, thereafter, transformed into a spherical fig­
di que cest mouvement est selon ordre deu et a son droit se la main destre de
ure, it would have a right and left, and the same would apply to its motion.
cest honme tourne et est meue en venant vers son devant. Car <s)e21 cest
T . Assuming that the motion o f the heavens had no beginning, nonetheless, had
honme tournoit l’autre voie au contraire, il se movroit a rebours et contre
it had a beginning, there must be some directional difference from which its mo­
droite ordenance pour ce que la destre, qui est plus noble que la senestre, doit
tion would have begun and from which it would recommence if it stopped some
140 aler ou tourner vers le devant qui est plus noble naturelment que le derrière
[Fig. 3]. // (80a) O r appert clerement par cest exemple que quant a ceci ne a time and rested.
G . T o explain what has been said and what follows on this subject, I posit that a
man is standing with arms extended and that / (79d) we imagine an upright pole
passing vertically through his body like an axis and that this man moves around
the pole with a circular motion. I say this motion is in the proper order and to the
right if the man’s right hand turns forward toward his front; if he turns the oppo­
16 A noir. 19 F estre et doncques il le rec. site way, the man would turn backwards, contrary to the regular right order, be­
17 B C D E F Lucan; B dissolvit. 20 A loing.
cause the right hand, which is nobler than the left, must move or turn toward the
18 M. Annaei Lucani belli civilis, IX .723, ed. 21 A ce.
o f Carolus Hosius (Leipzig, 1913), p. 289. front, which by nature is nobler than the rear [see Fig. 3]. // (80a) N o w , from this
$22 j Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 5, fols. 8ob-8oc | $23

example it is clear that it makes absolutely no difference whether this man began to
force ne quelcunque difference se cest honme commence maintenant estre
be moved thus at the present time, whether he began a thousand years ago, or
ainsi meu ou se il commença passé a mil ans, ou se il a esté ainsi meu sanz
whether he moves as he does without having begun, because, however it may be, if
commencement, car, comment que soit, se il estoit meu circulairement l’au-
he moved circularly the opposite way, this w ould be the unnatural order, called
145 tre voie, ce seroit ordre desnaturel,22 comme dit est: Ordo preposterus. E t
back-first order. Thus, we can clarify Aristotle’s purpose in his reply to the second
par ce est declairee Fintencion d ’Aristote en responnant a la seconde doubte.
doubt. In this connection we ought to explain here that above and below are each
Item, l’en doit savoir que quant a ce propos desus est dit en .ii. maniérés et
used in two different meanings ; one meaning o f above equates it with “ high,” so
desouz ausi : une est a prendre desus pour ce mot “ haut,” et ainsi en la region
that in the region o f the elements that which is farthest from the center is the most
des elemens ce que est le plus loing du centre est plus desus et, du contraire,
above or highest, and in the opposite direction that which is the most below is the
i5o ce que est plus bas est desouz. E t ainsi quant un honme a les piés contremont,
lowest. So, when a man’s feet are up in the air, we say his head is down or below. In
nous disons que sa teste est desouz. E t en ceste maniéré ou tout le ciel est
this sense, either the entire heavens are above, or to speak more correctly, in the
desus ou, a parler plus proprement, il n’a ou ciel ne desus ne desous ne haut
heavens there is no above nor below, no high nor low, as was stated in Chapter
ne bas, si comme il fu declairé ou .xxiiii.e chappitre du premier. Mais desus
Twenty-Four o f B ook I [see esp. fol. 34b]. But, on the other hand, above is used
est dit autrement de la plus noble partie d’une chose vive, et desouz de celle
in referring to the noblest part o f a living thing, and below to the opposite part, ac­
155 qui est a l’opposite selon la premiere dimension. E t en ceste maniéré, la teste
cording to the first dimension. In this way a'man’s head is the top o f him whether he
d’un honme est le desus de lui, combien que il soit ou estant ou gesant ou les
is standing or lying or standing on his head feet / (80b) upward, and the same usage
piés / (80b) contremont, et aussi d’une beste. E t par aventure, selon ce diroit
is applied to animals. Perhaps, we might say that the roots o f a tree are its top be­
l’en que la racine d’un arbre est le desus de l’arbre, car yleuques est princi-
cause in the roots is located the most important part o f the tree— that through which
paument la vie de lui et par ce prent nourissement. E t pour ce dist Aristote
it receives its nourishment. This is w hy Aristotle says that: Roots are like a mouth;
160 que: Radices23 sunt ori similes; et dist l’en que honme est arbre reversé: V i­
and w hy we say that man is like a tree bottom side up: Y o u see men as [walking]
des homines velut arbores.24 E t je ay veu un livre de songes ou est dit que:
trees. I have seen a book o f dreams where it says : Th e falling o f trees signifies the
Casus arborum significat mortes hominum.25 Item, en prenant desus et de­
death o f men. Taking above and below in the second meaning, I say that to all
sous en la seconde maniéré desus dite, je di que en tout corps meu circulaire­
bodies having circular motion, even if not animated, we can assign the differences
ment, encore posé que il ne soit pas vif, l’en peut assigner les differences de-
o f direction here discussed. For, if we assume a standing wheel such as a mill
165 sus mises. Car posé que une roe estante, aussi comme est la roe du moulin,
wheel to be in front o f me, m oving and turning straight at me, I say that, in keep­
fust devant m oy et fust meue en tornant droit vers m oy; je di que, selon
ing with the right or natural order o f motion, the top o f the wheel— taking top in
droit ordre de mouvement, le desus de ceste roe— a prendre desus en la se­
the second meaning— would be in front o f me in relation to m y right hand. The
conde maniéré— seroit devant m oy a main destre. E t la cause est car qui
reason is as follows : if we imagine the wheel to be alive or that a man stretched out
ymagineroit que elle fust vive ou que un honme estendu en la maniéré de-
as described above were m oving the wheel in the natural order, then, when this
170 vant mise la meust par ordre deu, quant cest honme avroit son bras destre
man has his right arm above the wheel— using above in the first meaning— his head
ou desus de la roe— en prenant desus en la premiere maniéré— il convendroit
would necessarily be in front o f me towards my right. Likewise, if a // (80c) potter’s
que sa teste fust devant moy vers ma destre. E t samblablement d ’une roe
wheel lying on its side moves in accordance with the daily movement o f the heav­
jesante, si comme est la // (80c) roe du potier, car se elle est meue ausi com­
ens, the man we imagined to be stretched out on the wheel would have his head
me en ensuiant le mouvement journal du ciel, cest honme ymaginé en la roe
under the wheel towards the center o f the world ; if it turned in the other direction,
175 avroit la teste sous la roe vers le centre du monde; et se elle tournoit l’autre
he would have his head up toward the heavens. So, if the wheel turns one way, the
voie, il avroit sa teste desus vers le ciel. E t ainsi se la roe tourne en une ma­
top is in one direction ; if it turns the other way, the top is in the other direction.
niéré, son desus est d’une part; et se elle tourne en autre maniéré, son desus
Both Aristotle and Averroes represent the heavens in this imagined arrangement,
est de l’autre part. E t samblable ymaginacion mettent Aristote et Averroïz ou
as will be said later [see fol. 8icd]. It is, therefore, clear how we can assign above
ciel, si comme il sera dit apres. O r appert donques comment l’en peut assi-

22 B de naturel; F naturel. 25 B arboris; D E F significat mettes homi-

23 C D E radice. De anima, 11.4.416a 4. num. Unidentified; not found in Somnium sci-
24 Cf. Marc. 8:24— Video homines velut pionis.
arbores ambulantes.
324 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapters 5-6, fols. 8od-8ia | 32$
180 gner desus et desouz en quelconque corps meu circulairement combien que tel
and below [or top and bottom] in any body m oving in a circle even if such body is
corps ne soit pas vif. E t encore est ceste difference plus proprement ou ciel,
not animate. This distinction o f positions is particularly important in the heavens
tant pour ce que il est ainsi meu naturelment, continue<l>ment26 et orde-
because their circular movement is natural, continual, and regular, because they
neement,27 tant pour ce que il n’est enclin a autre mouvement, tant pour ce
are not inclined to any other motion, and also because they have neither above nor
que ou ciel n’a desus ne desouz en quelcunque maniéré fors seulement ou
below in any way whatever, except with respect to their motion in relation to the
185 resgart de cest mouvement quant aus parties qui sont en equale distance du
parts equidistant from the center o f the world. Therefore, in spite o f the fact that
centre du monde. E t donques, nonobstant que le ciel ne soit pas vif, il a en
the heavens are not animate, they do possess an above and a below. The opinion o f
soy desus et desouz. E t se aucun opposoit contre ce que dit est et disoit que
those who oppose this view and hold this hypothesis to be false, maintaining that
l’ymaginacion desus mise n’est pas vraie, c ’est a savoir que une chose vive
some living thing moves the wheel in the manner described above, / (8od) does not
moeve une roe en la maniéré desus dite, / (8od) ce ne fait empeeschement a
hinder our argument; by means o f such tentative hypotheses we may arrive at a
190 nostre propos, car par telles supposicions condicionelles l’en vient a cognois-
knowledge o f the truth. Even in this chapter, in dealing with this subject, Aristotle
sance de vérité. E t meisme en cest chappitre et a cest propos, Aristote pose
suggests that the heavens were made up o f dissimilar parts or units which were
que le ciel eust esté fait de menbres ou parties dessamblables et que apres
later made into a spherical figure, and this is naturally impossible. Then he posits
eust esté mis en figure sperique; et tout ce est naturelment impossible.
that celestial movement had a beginning, that it stopped and began again, which
Item, il pose que le mouvement du ciel eust eu commencement et que il se
he himself states to be impossible. According to Averroes, he also posits that a man
195 arresta<s>t28 et recommençast, laquelle chose il repute impossible. Item,
may be stretched out in the heavens, m oving them from east to west, and this is
selon la translacion d’Averroïz,29 il pose que .i. honme soit extendu ou ciel
not so. But all these things he proposes conditionally and tentatively to lead us to
et le moeve d’orient en occident, et il n’est pas ainsi; mais il pose telles choses
a knowledge o f the truth.
condicionelment pour nous mener a cognoissance de vérité.30

6. Ou sixte chappitre il monstre comment les dites differences 6. In Chapter Six he shows how these differences
sont assignees ou ciel. are assigned in the heavens.
T . Je di que la longitude ou le loin g1 du ciel est la distance qui est selon
T . I say that the longitude or length o f the heavens is the distance between the
les poles, et des poles un est desus et l’autre est desouz.
poles and that one pole is above [or the upper] and the other below [or the lower].
G . E t ce prouve il apres par .ii. raisons.
G . A nd this he proves by two arguments.
T . Car nous voions que la difference des hemisperes est prinse seulement
T . For we can see that the different hemispheres are distinguished only by the
5 en la distance des poles parce que les poles ne sont pas meus.
distance between the two poles, because the poles are not moved.
G . En grec, hem i, c ’est «demi» et hemispere, c’est «demie-espere», et est
G . In Greek hem i is equivalent to “ demi” [or half] and hemisphere means “ half a
la moitié du ciel // (81 a) que est desus nous et celle qui est desouz est un
sphere” and is the half o f the heavens // (81a) which is above us ; the half below us
autre hemispere.2 E t ces hemisperes sont distinguéz et congneus plus prin-
is another hemisphere. These hemispheres are distinguished and recognizable
cipaument par le elevacion de<s>3 poles. E t sont .ii. poles immobiles : un est
principally by the elevation o f the poles, both o f them immobile. One is above our
.0 sus nostre hemispere emprés l’estoille appellee du nort, et l’autre est souz
hemisphere in the neighborhood o f the North Star; the other pole is beneath our
nostre hemispere ou souz nostre ozizon et ne le povons veoir. E t pour ce que
hemisphere or our horizon and we cannot see it. Since the poles are motionless,
il sont immobiles, la ligne qui est ymaginee de l’un pole a l’autre par le centre
the imaginary line drawn from one pole to the other through the center o f the world
26 A C F continuement. 28 A arrestat.
27 D tant pour ce que il n’est enclin a autre 29 Juntas, t.c. 13, 102H.
mouvement ordeneement tant; E tant pour ce 30 D E add Ci s’ensuit la figure de l’ymagi-
qu’il n’est en celui a autre mouvement orde­ nacion devant dicte et cetera. N o figures are 1 B C D E F lone. usually also in B C F .
neement tant. executed in either MS at this point. 2 In A , hemispere is uniformly masculine; 3 A de.
326 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
du monde est appellee en especial le dyametre du monde ou l’essel du ciel et
est la plus no<ta)ble4 difference, et pour ce est elle la longueur ou longitude
i5 du ciel.5 E t desus et desouz sont principes de longitude, si comme il fu dit ou
chappitre precedent.
( T . y Item, nous avons acoustumé a dire les costéz du monde non pas ce
que est desus et ce que est desouz ne les poles, mais ce que est jouste les po­
les ...
20 G . Vers orient et vers occident.
T . Aussi comme se le lonc du ciel ou sa longitude fust de pole <a p o le ),7
car ce que est es costés est jouste ce que est desus et desouz.
G . Il veult dire que orient et occident sont les costés du ciel et les poles
sont les bous du ciel. Mais ici est une doubte, car selon ce que dit est, la longi-
25 tude du ciel est de pole a pole et la latitude seroit d’orient en occident. E t les
astrologiens mettent, au contraire, la longitude est d’orient en / (81b) occi­
dent et la latitude de pole a pole. Je respon et di que les astrologiens ne dient
onques le contraire de ceste ymaginacion qui est d<e>8 tout le corps du ciel
selon son mouvement, mais il ont autre consideracion quant a notifier les
30 lieus et les distances des planètes ou ciel et des cités en terre, car la partie du
ciel en laquelle cuerent9 les planètes entre les .ii. tropiques ou sous le zody-
aque a plus grande estente ou distance en procédant de orient en occident et
au contraire que en procédant de pole vers pole. E t la plus grant dimension
ou distance est communément10 appellee la longitude ou le lonc de la chose,
35 et semblablement la terre habitable est plus estendue au double et plus en
alant d’orient en occident que elle n’est en alant de midi vers septentrion. E t
pour ce, le lonc de la terre habitable est d’orient en occident. E t ces .ii. termes,
l’en les seult appeller les bouz du monde, et de leur distance sera dit vers la
fin11 de cest secont livre. Apres il monstre lequel des .ii. poles est desus et le-
40 quel desouz.
T . E t des poles, celui qui est apparent sus nous c’est la partie du ciel qui
est desouz, et le pole opposite, qui onques ne nous appert, c ’est la partie de­
sus.
G . Sanz les .ii. maniérés qui furent mises ou chappitre JJ (S ic ) precedent,
45 encore est dit desus en autre maniéré de ce que est eslevé sus nostre ozizon en
nostre hemispere et desouz de ce qui est déprimé souz nostre ozizon. E t en
ceste maniéré toutes les estoilles que nous voions sont desus et tant plus sont
eslevees, et plus sont desus. E t semblablement celles que nous ne povons
veoir et sont rescousees, elles sont desouz ; et noientmoins, absoluement et
5o simplement, elles sont tous jours equalment desus ou ciel. Apres il prouve ce
que il a dit.
4 A noble. 7 A omits a pole.
5 D E omit et est la plus... du ciel. 8 A du.
6 A omits tiexte. 9 E queuvrent.
Book II, Chapter 6, fols. 8ib-8ic | ^27
is given the special name o f diameter o f the world or axis o f the heavens and is the
most important distinction, marking the length or longitude o f the heavens. A b o v e
and below are the principles o f length, as we said in the preceding chapter [see fol.
7 7bc].
T . We are accustomed to call the sides o f the world not that part above us nor
below us nor the poles, but that part which is near the poles. . .
G . Toward the east and toward the west.
T . A s though the length or longitude o f the heavens were represented by the
distance from pole to pole, for the part which lies around the poles is near that
which is above and below.
G . He means that east and west are the sides o f the heavens and the poles mark
the two ends o f the heavens. But here I feel doubtful, because, from what has been
said, the longitude o f the heavens would be from pole to pole and the latitude from
east to west. But astronomers hold the contrary opinion that longitude is from
east to / (8 ib) west and latitude from pole to pole. T o this I reply that the astrono­
mers never contradict this hypothesis dealing with the movement o f the entire
heavens, but they have to take other things into consideration such as the positions
and distances o f the planets in the heavens and o f the cities on the earth, because
that part o f the heavens between the two tropics or under the zodiac in which
the planets make their course is more extensive proceeding from east to west and
in the opposite direction than from pole to pole. A n d the greatest dimension or
distance is commonly called the longitude or length o f anything; in this sense the
habitable earth is more than twice as extensive going from east to west as from
south to north and, thus, the length o f the habitable earth is from east to west.
These two extreme limits are commonly called the ends o f the earth, and their
distance from each other will be given toward the end o f this second Book [see
Ch. 31, fols. I52d -i53b]. N ext he shows which o f the two poles is above and
which below.
T . Th e pole we see above us is the part o f the heavens below or under us, and the
opposite pole, which we can never see, is the upper part o f the heavens,
i G . Besides the tw o senses o f above defined in the // (81c) preceding chapter,
this word is also used in the meaning o f that which is above our horizon in our
hemisphere, and beneath [or under] is used o f that which is depressed under our
horizon. In this manner all the stars we can see are above us, and the higher they
are the more they are above us. Likewise, those stars that we cannot see and that
are hidden from us are beneath or under us, but, nevertheless, absolutely and
simply, they are actually always above in the heavens. N ext he proves what he has
said.
10 B C D E F continuelement. 11 D E omit et de leu r...la fin.
328 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Car nous disons le destre d ’une chose ce dont est le commencement de
son mouvement local ou selon lieu, et le commencement du mouvement cir­
culaire du ciel est dont les estoilles lievent. E t donques orient est le destre du
55 ciel et occident le senestre. E t donques se le mouvement commence a destre
et de destre s’en va et procédé en circuite, il s’ensuit par neccessité que le pole
qui ne12 nous appert pas soit13 le dessus du ciel,14 car se le pole qui nous ap­
pert estoit le desus du ciel, le mouvement du ciel seroit de senestre en alant
vers destre, laquelle chose nous ne disons pas.
60 G . Car si comme il est dit ou chappitre precedent, tout mouvement cir­
culaire selon droit ordre procédé de destre vers senestre, aussi comme se il
commençast de destre, nonob- / (81 d) stant que il soit perpétuel, si comme
il appert par le chappitre precedent. E t ainsi est prouvé lequel pole du
monde est desus et lequel est desouz, et que celui qui est eslevé sus nous est
65 desouz.
Selon Aristote et Averroïz,15 pour declairer et entendre ces choses, il con­
vient ymaginer .i. très grant honme, aussi comme celui dont fu faite mencion
ou tiers chappitre, et soit nommé Athlas et soit estendu ou ciel en la maniéré
que il est yci mis en figure, et moeve le ciel. E t pour ce que mouvement
70 circulaire selon ordre deu procédé de destre en v<en)ant16*vers senestre, il
convient que la destre de cest honme soit en orient et so<n>12 devant vers
midi, car ainsi procédé le mouvement du ciel, et sa senestre sera en occi­
dent. E t donques s’ensuit il par neccessité que la teste18 de cest honme soit
vers le pole antartique qui est souz nostre ozizon et ne nous appert on-
75 ques, et que ses piés soient vers le pole { o u ) 19 ou pole artique qui tousjours
nous appert et est emprés l’estoille du nort. Mes je argue contre, première­
ment car se la partie du ciel qui est au matin en orient20 est destre et elle est
meue continuelment et sera au vespre en occident, donques sera le destre21
du ciel en occident et le senestre en orient et sera Athlas torné ce devant der-
80 riere. E t ainsi orient n’est pas plus destre que occident. Item, se l’en dit que
quant la partie du ciel qui est en orient s’en // (82a) part, elle lesse22 estre destre
et celle qui y / (82b) vient de nouvel commence estre [Fig.4] // (82c) destre,
12 D E omit ne. 16 A devant.
13 E appert qu’il ne soit pas. 17 A soy.
14 B C D E F soit dessus le ciel. 18 B D E destre.
15 Oresme refers to Aristotle from the Trans­ 19 A omits ou.
latif) Scotti, which accompanies Averroes’ 20 D E omit en orient.
Commentary. Cf. Juntas, 102B: “ sed oportet 21 B desus.
ut imaginetur homo” and Averroes’ commen­ 22 B C D E F part et lesse.
tary, Juntas, t.c. 13, 102H.
Book II, Chapter 6, fols. 8 id -8 2 C | 323
T . For we call the right that part o f a thing whence its local motion starts, and
the beginning o f celestial circular movement is where the stars rise. Thus, the
eastern part o f the sky is the right and the western part the left. If, therefore, the
motion begins on the right and from this direction moves along its path or circuit,
it must be that the pole which we cannot see is the top o f the heavens ; for, if the
pole which we can see were the top, then the motion o f the heavens would be from
the left to the right, which we do not admit.
G . A s stated in the preceding chapter [see fols. 79d ff.], all circular motion in
proper order should proceed from right to left as though beginning from the right,
even though / (8id) it is perpetual. In such a way we can prove which pole o f the
universe is above [or up] and which is below [or down] and that the pole over [or
above] us is down [or below] in the heavens.
Fig. 4
According to Aristotle and Averroes, in order to understand these problems,
we must imagine an enormous man like the one mentioned in Chapter Three [see
fol. 74c]. Let us call him Atlas and let him be stretched out in the heavens as he is
shown here in Figure [4] and let him move the heavens. Since the proper circular
movement proceeds from right to left, the right hand o f Atlas must be in the east
and his front toward the south, because this is according to the order o f celestial
motion, and his left hand will be in the west. Therefore, it must follow that his
head will point toward the south or antartic pole under our horizon and invisible
to us and that his feet will point toward the north or arctic pole always visible to
us and near the North Star. Against this theory, I indicate first that, if the part of
the heavens which is east in the morning, is on the right and is turned continually
so that by evening it is in the west, then the right o f the heavens will be in the west
and the left in the east and Atlas will have turned his back to us. A nd so, east is no
more right than west. Next, if we say that, when the part o f the heavens which is in
the east moves away, // (82a) it leaves behind its rightness and that the part which /
(82b) replaces it becomes the right part o f the heavens, // (82c) as though Atlas did
3d<> Le Livre du ciel et du monde
aussi comme se Athlas ne se meust mais eust touzjours son bras destre en
orient; donques s’ensuit il que la partie du ciel qui est au matin destre sera au
85 vespre senestre et, e converso, la senestre destre. E t par consequent, destre et
senestre ne sont ou ciel fors en relacion, aussi comme une colompne est une
fois a destre de m oy et autre fois a senestre, si comme il fu dit ou quart chap-
pitre. E t c ’est contre l’intencion d’Aristote. Item, chascune partie du ciel qui
peut lever et rescouser est en orient et lieve en quel païz que ce soit <et chas-
90 cune en occident)23 et chascune a midi, si comme pour grace d’exemple, le
soleil lieve touzjours en aucun hemispere ou en aucun païs et resco<u)se24 en
un autre; et ainsi des autres estoilles et parties du ciel qui seulent lever et res­
couser, si comme il peut legierement apparoir a qui considéré la rondesce de
la terre. E t donques indifferenment chascune telle partie est destre et est se-
95 nestre et devant et derrière sanz distinction, fors ou resgart de diverses re­
gions ou hemisperes. Pour telles difficultés evader, il convient mettre une de
.iii. voies : une est que le destre de chascun ciel et chascune partie du ciel2*
<est en une partie du ciel)26 determineement ou que elle soit, et le senestre
aussi, 27 et est meue aveques le ciel. E t dient ceulz qui sont de ceste opinion
100 que l’estoille est la plus noble partie de son ciel, et en l’estoille et de celle part
est le destre du ciel. E t ainsi Athlas tourneroit avecques le ciel. / (82d) Mais ce
ne <se>28 peut soustenir quant au ciel ou sont les estoilles fichiees, car elles
sont semees partout environ, qui ne voudroit signer aucunes de elles et dire
que elles sont les plus nobles ; mais ce seroit un dit voluntaire et sanz raison.
105 Item, et quant aus estoilles fichiees et quant aus planètes, il s’ensuiroit que le
destre du ciel fust aucune fois en occident et que il ne fust plus en orient que
en occident. E t Aristote le met en orient. Une autre voie est que le destre du
ciel est touzjours en un lieu29 immobile, ausi comme est le desus, et sembla­
blement des autres differences. E t ainsi Athlas seroit tous jours fichié et ne se
»o mouvroit. E t pour ce entendre, il convient supposer que la terre n’est pas
habitable tout environ ou tout en circuite en alant ou en procédant d ’orient
en occident ou au contraire, mes vers orient est un terme outre lequel elle
est inhabitable et aussi un autre vers occident. O r ymaginon donques en la
terre sous le <c)ecle30 equinocial du ciel une porcion de cede qui procédé de
ii5 l’un bout a l’autre de terre habitable E t vérité est que ceste porcion est plus
grande que de<mi)-cecle,31 car les deux bous de terre habitable sont asséz pro­
chains // (83a) par devers la partie inhabitable, si comme il sera dit vers la fin
de ce secont livre. E t les astrologiens ymaginent ou milieu de ceste porcion
une cité que il appellent Arim. E t pour ce que la partie de terre qui est habi-
120 table est plus noble que la partie inhabitable et la terre est subjecte au ciel, il
s’ensuit que la plus noble partie du ciel est sus la terre habitable en tant com-
omits et chascune en occident. 26 A omits est en... ciel,
resconse. 27 D E ou quel soit et soit le senestre.
25 B C D E F omit et chascune partie du ciel. 28 A omits se.
Book II, Chapter 6, fols. 82d-83a | 331
not himself move but always kept his right arm in the east, then it would follow that
the part o f the heavens which is on the right in the morning would become the left
in the evening and, conversely, that the left part would become the right. Conse­
quently, right and left exist in the heavens only relative to something outside them,
just as a column or pillar at one time is on my right and at another on m y left, as
was stated in Chapter Four [see fol. 76c]. A n d this was not what Aristotle had in
mind. Each part o f the heavens which can rise and set is in the east and it can rise
in any country at all; and, likewise, each part in the west and in the south, as, for
example, the sun always rises in the same hemisphere or in the same country and
sets in another, and so do the other stars and parts o f the heavens which rise and set.
This is clear to anyone who considers the roundness or sphericity o f the earth. There­
fore, each such part is right and left or front and rear indifferently without distinc­
tion, with the exception o f various regions or hemispheres. T o escape from such
difficulties, we must use one o f three means. One is to posit that the right and also
the left o f each heaven and o f each o f its parts are located in one definite part,
wherever that may be, and that this part moves with the heavens. Those w ho hold
this opinion say that the star is the noblest part o f its heaven and that the right o f
the heaven is in this star and in this part o f the heaven. Thus Atlas would turn with
the heaven. / (8 2d) But this theory does not stand up when we consider the heaven
o f the fixed stars, for they are scattered all about so that anyone who would pick
out certain ones and call them the noblest would be passing a purely voluntary
judgment without foundation. It would follow that, as far as the fixed stars and
planets are concerned, the right o f their heaven would sometimes be in the east,
but no more in the east than in the west. Aristotle puts it in the east. Another ex­
planation o f this problem is to posit that the right o f the heavens is always fixed in a
motionless place, just like above and other positional differences. Then Atlas would
always be motionless and in one place. T o understand this we must suppose the
earth not to be habitable around all its circuit from east to west, or vice versa, but
in the east and similarly in the west there is a limit beyond which it is uninhabitable.
Then let us imagine a portion o f the circumference o f the circle at the equinoctial
equator extending from one end o f habitable land to the other. A s a matter o f fact,
this portion o f the circumference is greater than a half-circle, for the two extremes
o f habitable land are quite near // (8 3a) in the general direction o f the uninhabitable
area, as we shall explain toward the end o f this second Book [see fol. 15 2d]. In the
middle o f this portion o f the circumference the astrologers imagine a city which
they call Arim. Since the habitable portion is nobler than the uninhabitable and
since the earth lies beneath the heavens, it follows that the nobler part o f the heav­
ens is located, as far as possible, above the habitable portion o f the earth, remem-
29 D E ciel. 31 A que de un cede.
30 A siecle.
332 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
me il est possible, considéré32 que desus ne peut estre [Fig. 5] / (83 b) ou ciel
autrement que dit est devant selon le mouvement du ciel.33 E t donques le
devant du ciel est sus Arym et le destre du ciel en l’orient d ’Arym , et le midi
125 d’Arim est le vrai <midi>34 immobile, <et le orient d’Arym est le vrai orient
im m obile)35 et non pas le premier orient de terre habitable, car se il estoit le
droit destre du ciel et le derrenier occident fust le droit senestre, destre et se-
nestre ne seroi<en>t36 pas opposites selon le dyametre du ciel. Item, se ainsi
estoit, Athlas avroit ses mains ausi comme derrière soy, car il n’a pas grant
130 distance du premier orient au derrenier occident en procédant par la partie de
terre inhabitable, si comme il est dit devant et appert en figure. O r avons
donques comment desus et destre et devant sont ou ciel, et par ce appert des
autres differences opposites a cestes, et avons que elles sont immobiles. E t par
ce s’ensuit que Athlas est ymaginé fichié et immobile. E t me samble que ce fu
135 l ’oppinion d’Aristote selon Averroïz. E t par ce s’ensuit que quelcunque par­
tie du ciel vient de nouvel et succédé en cel orient desus dit, elle commence et
est faite destre et quant elle s’en depart, elle lesse estre destre, et ainsi des
autres différences excepté desus et desouz, car les poles sont immobiles. E t
est aussi comme se les parties materieles de la main senestre // (83c) d’un
140 honme fluoient a la main destre, car elles seroient fetes destres; mes pour ce
que ou ciel les parties desus ne peuent estre faites desouz, telle transmutacion
n’est pas quant aus poles comme dit est. E t par ce est evadee la premiere dif­
ficulté devant touchie. Mes encore demeurent les autres, et pour les evader
sont .ii. opinions plus apparentes entre les autres : une est que l’intelligence
145 qui fait le mouvement journal est en chascune partie du ciel, si comme il fu
dit ou secont chapitre, et est immobile selon Aristote. E t ceste intelligence a
plus grant vertu en orient que <en>37 autre part, si comme il appert parce que
les estoilles ont plus forte influence en celle partie que ailleurs. E t pour ce,
cel orient est la destre partie du ciel, et quelconque partie succédé en cel orient,
i5o elle est fete destre comme dit est. E t ainsi le destre du ciel n’est onques en
l’occident opposite ne en autre orient. E t par ce appert la response aus .ii. der-
reniers arguemens. Mais ceste oppinion n’est pas raisonnable, car selon Aris-
32 Lacuna in C extends from this point to 35 A B omit et le orient...im m obile.
I05b- 36 A seroit.
33 D E omit selon...du ciel. 37 A omits en.
34 A C orient.
Book II, Chapter 6, fols. 83b-83C | 333
bering o f course that above cannot exist / (83b) in the heavens save in relation to
celestial motion, as stated before [see Fig. 5]. Therefore, the front o f the heavens
is above Arim, the right to the east o f Arim, the true motionless south to the south
o f Arim, and the true motionless east to the east o f Arim ; but this would not be the
first east o f habitable land, for, if it were the vertical right o f the heavens and if the
western extreme were the vertical left, then right and left would not be opposites
on the diameter o f the heavens. Also, if it were thus, Atlas would have his hands
behind him because there is not a great distance between the first east and the last
west, proceeding through the uninhabitable part o f the earth as we have just said
and as can be seen in Figure [5 ]. N o w we understand the meaning o f above, right,
and front and o f their opposites with regard to the heavens ; we know that these
are fixed and immobile, and from this it follows that Atlas is imagined to be sta­
tionary and immobile. It seems to me that, according to Averroes, this was Aris­
totle’s opinion. It follows then that, when any part o f the heavens reaches the point
in the east we have just spoken of, this part becomes the right portion; and when it
leaves this point, it ceases to be the right. It is the same with the other positional
directions, except with above and below, for the two poles are motionless. It is as
though the material parts o f a man’s left hand //(83c) passed over to his right hand,
because these parts would then become the right; but since in the heavens the up­
per parts cannot become the lower, there is no such transference with reference to
the relative position o f the poles to each other. In this manner we avoid the first
difficulty mentioned above, but the others remain. A nd to escape them the two
following opinions are more likely than the others: one is that the intelligence
which causes daily motion is present in each part o f the heavens, as we said in
Chapter T w o [see fol. 67c], and, according to Aristotle, this intelligence is motion­
less. It has greater power in the east than elsewhere, as appears from the fact that
the stars have greater influence in this region than elsewhere. Therefore, this east
is the right part o f the heavens and whatever part reaches and overtakes this point
becomes the right part. Thus, the right part o f the heavens never reaches the oppo­
site west nor becomes another east. This is the answer to the last two arguments,
334 I Lë Livre du ciel et du monde
tote ou quart et ou quint chapitre, destre et senestre et les autres differences
sont corporelles et de corps ou en corps mobiles et divisibles. E t l’intelligen-
155 ce qui meut tout le ciel est incorporelle et immobile38 et indivisible. E t don-
ques se elle a autre vertu en une partie du ciel et autre / (83 d) en autre, ce
n’est pas par raison de elle ; mais se en ce a difference, c’est pour la difference
des parties du corps du ciel, si comme l’estoille a plus grant influence que une
autre partie. E t par ce appert que teles differences sont ou corps du ciel pre-
160 mierement et principaument et toutes les parties du ciel sont meues, et don-
ques destre et senestre ou ciel ne sont pas immobiles. E t a ce que l’en dist que
les estoilles ont plus grant influence en orient, je di que peut estre que une
estoille ou planete, quant elle a aucune prerogative et elle est en l’orient d’une
region, elle est plus vertueuse que se elle estoit a midi ou au vespre pour ce
165 qui elle demeure plus sus celle region, mais c’est samblablement et generau-
ment partout en chascun orient et non pas seulement en l’orient d’Arym.
E t donques par ceste raison, orient de Arym n’est pas plus vray orient que
un autre. Item, le orient des planètes est l’occident du mouvement journal,
si comme il appert ou chapitre ensuiant; et toutesvoies elle<s> n’o<n>t30
170 pas plus grant vertu en occident. Une autre oppinion est que par desus les
cielz qui sont meus est un autre ciel immobile duquel les parties sont dessam-
blables en vertu et en influence. // (84a) E t samble par raison que il convient
que il soit, car autrement l’en ne pourroit réduire a cause celestiel aucunes di­
versités qui sont en terre selon longitude, c ’est a savoir en procédant d’orient
175 vers occident ou, au contraire, sanz approchier ou esloingnier des poles, si
comme pourquoy une partie de la terre selon cest procès est habitable et
l’autre non, et pourquoi les plantes*0 et les bestes et les corps et les meurs des
gens sont tant differens d’orient en occident qui ont presque un meisme res-
gart au soleil et aus planètes et aus estoilles et aus parties des cielz qui sont
180 meuz. E t donques il convient mettre un ciel immobile duquel les parties sont
differentes en influence et sont causes des diversités desus dites. E t de ce ciel,
la partie qui est en l’orient de Arym est destre. E t des cielz mouvables, chas-
cune partie est faite destre quant elle vient en cel orient immobile, et selon ce
sont assignees les autres differences de posicion souvent nommées. Je di que
185 ceste opinion n’est pas concordable a la philosophie d’Aristote, car tout corps
est mobile41 ou mouvable, si comme il fu dit ou secont chapitre du premier,
et meismement tout corps celestiel, si comme il appert en pluseurs / (84b)
lieus en cest livre et en autres. Item, se un ciel i<m)mobile42 estoit, en tel
ciel ne seroit destre ne senestre, car telles differences ne sont fors en corps qui
190 ont en soy principe et cause de leur mouvement, si comme il appert par le
quart chapitre. Item, il ne convient pas mettre tel ciel immobile pour les dif-
38 B D E F incorruptible. 41 D E F immobile.
39 A elle n’ot. 42 ^4 iimobile.
40 B D E planètes.
Book II, Chapter 6, fols. 83d-84b | 333
but it is not a reasonable opinion because in Chapters Four and Five [see fols.
75d ff.], according to Aristotle, right and left and the other positional differences
are corporeal, concerned with bodies or with mobile and divisible bodies, and the
intelligence which moves the whole heavens is incorporeal, immobile, and indivi­
sible. So, if it has one function in one part o f the heavens and another function /
(83 d) in another part, it is not because o f the power o f this intelligence, but because
o f the difference in the various parts o f the heavens, just as the star has greater in­
fluence than some other part. It appears from this that such differences exist pri­
marily and principally in the celestial bodies and that all parts o f the heavens are
m oved; consequently, right and left in the heavens are not immobile. Regarding
the statement that the influence o f the stars is greater in the east, I suggest that, when
a star or planet has some prerogative and is in the eastern part o f some region,
perhaps it is stronger than at noon or in the evening because it is directly above;
and this would hold generally throughout the eastern region and not only in the
east region o f Arim. So, this opinion would indicate that the region around Arim
is no more truly east than any other eastern region. Th e east o f the planets is the
west o f daily motion, as shown in the following chapter [see fols. 88d ff.]; how­
ever, they have no greater power in the west. Another opinion holds that above
the mobile heavens there is another and motionless heaven, whose parts are varied
in power and influence. // (84a) It seems reasonable that such a heaven should
exist ; otherwise we would not be able to find a celestial cause for certain diversities
in regard to terrestrial longitude— that is, m oving from east to west or vice versa
without approaching or m oving away from the poles ; as, for example, why, ac­
cording to this process, a part o f the earth is habitable and the other uninhabitable
and w hy the plants, animals, and bodies and behavior o f people in the east are so
different than in the west, although they may stand in very nearly the same posi­
tion with respect to the sun, the planets, the stars, and the mobile parts o f the heav­
ens. Therefore, we need to assume a motionless heaven whose parts exert a dif­
ferent influence to cause the diversities just mentioned. Th e part o f this heaven
east o f Arim is the right part, while each part o f the mobile heavens becomes right
as it reaches this motionless east; and on this basis are assigned the other positional
differences so often referred to here. I must say that this opinion is not in harmony
with Aristotelian philosophy, for every body is mobile or movable, as stated in
Chapter T w o o f B ook I [see fol. 6d], and especially all celestial bodies, as shown in
several /(84b) places in this Book and elsewhere. I f a motionless heaven did exist, it
would have neither right nor left, for these differences exist only in bodies possess­
ing within themselves the principle and cause o f their own motion, as stated in
Chapter Four [see fol. 76b]. It is not necessary to posit such a motionless heaven to
336 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ferences desus dites qui sont en terre, car l ’en peut de ce assigner autres cau­
ses43 selon astrologie, si comme les conjunctions et autres resgars des estoil-
les, et les eclipses qui ne sont pas samblablement en orient et en occident. E t
195 se tel ciel estoit, il ne seroit pas cause de destre et de senestre es cielz qui sont
meuz et qui sont sous lui, car, posé par ymaginacion que il fust adnullé et que
les autres fussent meuz par mouvement journal, encore convendroit il metre
telles differences ou ciel, car autrement l’en ne pourroit assigner cause pour-
quoy il est meu ainsi et non l’autre voie, si comme il sera dit ou .xii.e chapitre.
200 Item, le destre du mouvement des planètes est en occident, si comme il appert
ou chapitre ensuiant, et ne convient pas pour ce mettre un ciel immobile, et
par samblable, il ne convient pas mettre pour assigner destre ou mouvement
journal. Item, je argue contre ces .ii. // (84c) opinions ensamble, première­
ment car se la terre estoit toute couverte d’yaue aussi comme elle fu ou temps
205 de N oé, encore tourneroit le ciel la voie que il tourne. E t toutevoi<e>s,44
l’en ne pourroit assigner ou seroit l’orient d’Arym, mais seroit orient par
tout le circuite indifferanment. Item, se la terre estoit habitable tout en­
viron en procédant d’orient vers occident ou a<u)4S contraire, l’en ne pour­
roit dire que orient fust plus en un lieu que en autre ne que <un>46 orient
210 fust plus noble ou plus destre que l’autre ; et noientmoins le ciel ne cesseroit
pas tourner, si47 comme il tourne maintenant. E t donques est maintenant
orient par tout le circuite indifferanment. Item, ceulz qui sont souz le pole48ou
seroient, ont perpetuelment la moitié du ciel sus eulz49 sanz ce que par mou­
vement journal quelconque partie du ciel leur lieve ou rescouse, mais chas-
215 cune va et tourne equalment environ eulz ; et donques n’est yleucques orient
ne occident determineement et absoluement, ne par consequent destre ne
senestre, mais seulement en relacion d’une partie a autre, si comme il sera dit
apres, se aucun ne disoit que quant une estoille est ou meridian de Arym elle
est devant et quant elle est en l’orient d’Arym elle est a destre ; mais c’est un
220 dit voluntaire sanz raison, car souz le pole tout est indifferent / (84d) quant a
ce. Item, se la terre estoit ausi clere ou aussi tra<n)sparente50 comme aer fin
et pur ou comme l’element du feu est en sa region au desus de l’aer— se ainsi
estoit— la terre ne feroit quelconque umbre ne empeeschement que l’en ne
peust veoir equalment toutes les parties du ciel et seroit tous jours jour sanz
225 nuit: Continuus sine51 nocte dies.52 E t pour ce que la terre est très petite ou
resgart du ciel et aussi comme un point, toutes les parties du ciel qui sont en
circuite en equales distances des poles resgarderoient equalment la terre par­
tout, et ne pourroit l’en signer determineement ne absoluement orient ne des­
tre plus en un lieu que en autre; et toutevoies, le ciel seroit meu aussi comme
230 il est. E t donques ne peut estre telle signacion ou ciel fors en relacion et par
43 D E F guises. 46 A omits un.
44 A toute vois. 47 D E ciel ne seroit pas tournés si.
45 A a. 48 B D E F omit souz le pole.
Book II, Chapter 6, fols. 84c-84d | 33J
account for the differences which, as said above, exist in the earth, for we can as­
sign other causes based upon astronomy such as conjunctions, other stellar posi­
tions, and eclipses, which are not similar in east and west. I f such a heaven existed,
it would not be the cause o f right and left in the heavens which m ove and which
are beneath it; for, if we imagine this heaven to be destroyed and the others to
move in their daily motion, we should still have to admit such differences in the
heavens ; otherwise, we could not assign a cause to account for its being in one way
and not in another, as will be discussed in Chapter Tw elve [see fol. 104a]. The
right o f planetary motion begins in the west, as shown in the following chapter
[see fol. 88d ff.], but it is not necessary in this case to posit nor assume such a mo­
tionless heaven to explain the daily right motion o f the planets. Against these two
IJ (84c) opinions I shall present one argument. First, if the earth were completely
covered with water as it was in N oah ’s time, the heavens would still turn in the
same direction as at present, but we should not be able to fix the position east o f
Arim since east would be indifferently along the entire circuit o f the earth. I f the
earth were habitable all around its circumference from east to west or the opposite
way, we could not say east o f one place more than o f another nor that one east was
more noble or more right than another; nevertheless, the heavens would not stop
revolving just as they do at present. Therefore, east extends indifferently along the
entire circuit o f the earth. Those people who live below the pole have one half o f
the heavens perpetually above them without the daily motion causing any part o f
the heavens to rise or set, but each part moves and revolves equally around them;
thus, there is no absolutely fixed and determined east nor west nor any right nor left,
but only in relation o f one part to another, as we shall explain later, unless we agree
that, when a star is over the meridian o f Arim, it is in front o f us and that, when it
is east o f Arim, it is on our right. But this is a voluntary arrangement without any
reason because under the poles all directions are completely undifferentiated. /
(84d) I f the earth were as translucent or transparent as fine pure air or the element
o f fire in its region above the air, then it would cast no shadow, nor would it pre­
vent one’s seeing all parts o f the heavens equally, and we should always have days
without nights : Continuus sine nocte dies. Since the earth is relatively very small
and like a mere dot in comparison with the heavens, all celestial parts revolving
along a circuit equidistant from the poles would observe the earth everywhere
from equal distances, and so we could not establish absolutely an east or a right
more in one place than in another; however, the heavens would move exactly as at
present. Therefore, there could not be any direction established in the heavens,
save relatively and indifferently along the entire circuit. I f someone were to say that
49 D E omit sus eulz. 51 B sum; E serum.
50 A trasparente; B masparente. 52 Unidentified.
338 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
tout le circuite indifferanment.53 E t se aucun disoit que les .iiii. supposicions
mises en ces .iiii. raisons sont impossibles, c’est a savoir que la terrejsoit toute
couverte d’yaue ou que elle soit habitable tout en circuite, etc., je respon que
nulle de ces supposicions n’est telement impossible que elle encloe ou con-
235 tienne en soy contradiction selon la distinction de possible et de impossible
qui fu mise ou .xxx.e chapitre du premier livre. E t pour ce, l’en seult aucune
//(85 a) fois mettre telles supposicions pour declarer la vérité aussi comme en
disant: “ Se ainsi estoit, ainsi seroit; et ainsi est comme il seroit, etc.” E t les
supposicions desus mises ne sont pas si impossibles selon la philosophie
240 d’Aristote comme sont celles que il meisme met en cest propos ou en ceste
matière ou quint chapitre, ou il pose que le ciel eust esté fait et d’autre figure
que sperique et apres composé en figure sperique, et que il commence estre
meu et que il cesse estre meu54 et que il recommence. Item, de ceste supposi­
tion je argue quintement au propos devant dit, car se par ymaginacion le
245 mouvement du ciel cessoit par un temps et recommençoit apres, si comme il
fu de fait ou temps de Josué, l’en ne pourroit dire que une partie du ciel com-
mençast estre meue plus tost que l’autre, mes toutes commenceroient estre
meues equalment et semblablement et chascune leveroit en aucun païs ou sus
aucun ozizon, si comme il fu touchié devant. E t par consequent chascune se-
250 roit destre en aucun lieu et chascun senestre, etc. Je di donques, en récapitu­
lant, que il est monstré devant que la voie n’est pas vraie qui met que le destre
du ciel est en une certainne partie du ciel et est meu avecques celle partie. E t
aussi est monstré que la seconde voie qui met que le destre / (85 b) du ciel est
immobile et que il est perpetuelment en l’orient du milieu de terre habitable,
255 ne se peut soustenir par quelconque voie ; et samble que ce fu l’opinion d’A ­
ristote selon Averroïz.55
O r veul <je>56 mettre la tierce voie qui est selon raison naturelle et con-
cordable a nostre foy,37 et pour la entendre, je veul recorder et descrire en fi­
gure une ymaginacion ou consideracion qui fu mise en glose apres le quint
260 chapitre. E t pose que une roe soit estante devant moi et que un honme soit
<estendu> [Fig. 6]58 parmi ceste roe aussi comme en lieu de essel; et soit sa
teste devant m oy vers ma destre et les piés vers ma senestre et ses bras esten-
dus vers la circunference de la roe aussi comme se il la tournoit a ses mains.
Je di que, selon droit ordre de // (85 c) mouvement circulaire, sa destre main
53 D E omit donques ne peut... indifferan­ 56 A omits je.
ment. 57 B F a nostre propos; D E a cest propos.
54 F omits et qu e... meu. 58 A omits estendu.
55 Cf. Juntas, t.c. 15, 104B ff.
Book II, Chapter 6, fols. 85a-85C | 339
these last four hypotheses and their accompanying arguments are impossible,
namely, that the earth should be completely covered with water or that it should be
habitable through its entire circumference, etc., I reply that none o f these hypo­
theses is so impossible that it involves or contains within itself a contradiction, ac­
cording to the distinction made between possible and impossible in Chapter Thirty
o f Book I [see fols. 47b ff.]. Sometimes we are accustomed // (85a) to state such
hypotheses to attain the truth, for instance, as when we say, “ I f it were thus, it
would be thus and so; and if it is thus, then it would be, etc.” Th e hypotheses set
forth here are not so impossible according to Aristotelian philosophy as his own
hypotheses à propos this subject or problem in Chapter Five [see fol. 79cd],
where he posits that the heavens were not originally spherical in shape but became
so at some later time and that the heavens began to move, then stopped, and then
began again. O n this last point I argue for the fifth time ; if we can imagine that the
celestial motion stopped for a time and later began again, as in the time o f Joshua,
Fig. 6
we could not say that one part o f the heavens began to m ove sooner than the other,
but, rather, all parts would move equally and alike and each part would rise over a
certain country or above a certain horizon, as mentioned above [see fol. 84a].
Consequently, each part o f the heavens would be right or each left in some place.
T o sum it all up, I say that we have shown that it is not true that the right o f the
heavens is in a fixed, certain part and that it moves with that part. W e have de­
monstrated also that the second hypothesis— which holds that the right / (85 b) o f
the heavens is immobile and that it is perpetually in the east, in the middle o f habit­
able land— is untenable in any way whatever, although it appears that this opinion
was held by Aristotle, according to Averroes’ interpretation.
N o w I want to present a third hypothesis, based upon natural reason and con­
formable to our faith, and in order to explain it understandably, I want to narrate
and describe in Figure [6] an imaginary conjecture or theory mentioned above in
the gloss at the end o f Chapter Five [see fols. 79c ff.]. I imagine that a wheel stands
in front o f me and that a man is stretched out across its side taking the place o f the
axle. His head is in front o f me towards my right side and his feet are on my left,
with his arms stretched out toward the circumference or rim o f the wheel as
though he were turning it manually. I say that, according to the right and natural
order o f // (85 c) circular motion, his right hand should m ove toward his front with
340 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 6, fols. 85d-86a | 341

265 doit aler ou mouver vers le devant de lui et la palme de sa main destre devant the palm o f his right hand in front o f the back o f this same right hand. Thus the
le dos de celle meisme main destre. E t donques ceste roe tournera tellement wheel will turn so that its top will come toward me or opposite me, and if the
que le desus de elle vendra vers m oy ou contre moy, et se la teste de cest man’s head were in front o f me toward my left and his feet in the opposite direc­
honme estoit devant m oy vers ma senestre et les piéz de l’autre part [Fig. 6 tion, the wheel would turn in the opposite w ay [see Fig. 6, reversed]. But I also say
reversed], la roe tourneroit l’autre voie au contraire. Mes je di outre que l’en
270 peut ymaginer la main destre de cest honme en quelconque partie de la cir-
cunference de la roe [Fig. 7] / (8 5d) sanz difference, et n’est force en quelcon­
que partie que elle soit mes est partout une meisme raison quant au mouve­
ment, si comme il appert en figure, posé que la roe fust59 assise autrement
que elle n’estoit devant et que une moitié d’elle fust devant m oy vers destre
275 et l’autre vers senestre et que la teste de cest honme fust loing de m oy outre
la roe et les piés devers60 moy. Car l’en ne pourroit assigner cause ne reson
quant au mouvement pourquoy sa destre fust plus en une partie de la circun-
ference de la roe que en autre, et aussi de la senestre et des autres .ii. differen­ that we can imagine the man’s right hand in any part whatsoever o f the rim o f the
ces. Je di donques que, posé que ceste roe ne soit pas vive ne meue par chose wheel / (8 5d) indifferently [see Fig. 7] ; it makes no difference in which part it may
280 vive, toutevoies par similitude a chose vive qui seroit ainsi meue, l’en peut be because the motion is the same— as the figure makes clear— even if we assume
assigner en elle determineement desus et desouz. Mais chascune des autres the wheel to be arranged otherwise than before and in such a way that one-half o f
.iiii.61 differences peut estre signee equalment et samblablement par toute la it would be in front o f me on m y right and the other half on m y left with the man’s
circunference de la roe sanz quelconque difference fors en relacion de l’une a head far away from me outside the wheel and his feet facing me. It is impossible to
l’autre et quant au mouvement, car la partie qui va devant (est senestre et establish cause or reason, as far as the motion is concerned, w hy his right or left
285 devant)62 ou resgart de celle qui vient apres elle, aussi comme des personnes hand should be more in one part o f the circumference or rim o f the wheel than in
en une carole. E t donques a propos, se le ciel est corps non-vif et sans ame—
another, and it is the same with the other two positional differences. Therefore, I
et tel est il, si comme il fu dit // (86a) ou chapitre precedent— je di que desus
et desouz quant au mouvement sont ou ciel par similitude en la maniéré que

Fig- 7

say that, assuming that this wheel is not animate nor moved by a living thing,
nevertheless one can assign to it, exactly as to a living thing with similar motion,
a definite above and below; and each o f the other four positional differences can be
assigned equally in the same manner throughout the entire circumference o f the
wheel with no distinction, save with relation to one another and to the motion o f
the wheel, because the part which moves forward is left and front with regard to
the part which follows, just like people in a round dance. So, to return to our
subject, if the heavens are an inanimate body without a soul— and so it is, as was
59 B roe ne fust. 61 F .iii. stated I f (86a) in the preceding chapter [see fol. 78b]— I say that above and below
60 D E devant. 62 A omits est... devant. with respect to motion exist in the heavens by analogy, as shown in the case o f the
342 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
dit est d’une roe, et est le pole antartique desus et le pole artique desouz ainsi
a9o comme dist Aristote.63 Item, se le ciel estoit corps vif, si comme veult Aris­
tote, desuz et desouz seroient distincteement ou ciel en la maniéré desus mise
et non pas seulement par similitude, mes reaiment et selon vérité. Item, posé
que le ciel soit corps v if ou non-vif, comment que soit, je di que les autres .iiii.
differences ne sont pas ou ciel reaiment distinctees ne absoluement, mes tant
295 seulement en relacion, et non pas en relacion ou en resgart a nous aussi com­
me unecolompne est destre ou senestre, mes en relacion et en regart [Fig. 8] /
(86b) des unes aus autres selon le mouvement. Car posé que le ciel soit divisé
en .iiii. parties equales selon .iiii. poinz signés en l’equinoctial, et soit .a. et .b.
et .c. et .d., et que le mouvement soit telement que .b. precede et vaise devant
300 .a. ; je di que se .a. est orient ou destre, .b. est devant et .c. est senestre et .d.
est derrière. Mais pour ce que orient peut estre signé partout, si comme sou­
vent dit est, se .b.’ est orient et destre, je di que .c. est devant et .d. est senes­
tre64 et .a. est derrière, et ainsi des autres poins. Item, ces .iiii. poinz peuent
estre signés ailleurs par tout le cede semblablement et sanz difference65 fors
305 que il soient distans equalment. E t donques se Athlas est ymaginé ou ciel, si
comme il fu dit devant, il convient par neccessité que sa teste soit ou pole
antartique et que sez piéz soient par deçà en l’autre pole, mais sa m ain destre
peust estre ymaginee par tout le circuite sanz difference, et aussi la senestre
contre la destre, et samblablement de son devant et de son derrière. E t cest
310 Athlas peut estre ymaginé fichié et immobile ou tourné aveuques le ciel et ne
est force ou sa main destre soit ymaginee estre ou signee, fors que elle vaise
vers son devant, et la senestre au contraire vers son derrière, si comme de­
vant dit est d’une roe. // (86c) Item, pour ce miex entendre, je pose que une
carole de66 honmes torne en circuite selon le mouvement journal, car ainsi
315 va elle naturelment. E t donques chascun de la carole va devant celui qui est
a sa destre et derrière celui qui est a sa senestre. O r ymaginons donques que
parmi ceste carole soit un grant honme qui la moeve toute a ses bras estenduz
aussi comme Athlas est ymaginé ou ciel. Je di que il convient que la teste de
cest honme soit vers le centre de la terre et les piés contrement, car autre-
320 ment sa main destre ne iroit pas vers son devant, si comme elle doit aler selon
63 B omits ainsi comme dit Aristote. 65 D E distance.
64 D E omits Mais pour ce que... est senes­ 66 A. des.
tre.
Book II, Chapter 6, fols. 86b-86c | 345
wheel, and the antarctic pole is above and the arctic pole below, just as Aristotle
says. If, as Aristotle would have it, the heavens were an animated body, above and
below would definitely exist in the heavens in the manner stated above, not merely
by analogy but in reality and in truth. Whether the heavens are animated or not, I
say that the other four positional differences are not distinct and absolute, but only
relative in the heavens— and not in relation to us like a column with a right and
left; these differences exist only with regard / (86b) to the position o f each separate
heaven relative to its proper motion. Let us imagine that the heavens are divided
into four equal parts along four points b, c, and d on the equinoctial with a mo­
tion such that b precedes and moves ahead o f a \ I say that, if a is east or right, then
b is the front and c the left and d the rear. But because east can be placed anywhere,
as has often been said, if b, is east and right, I say that c is the front and d the left
and a the rear, and the same with the other points. In this manner these four points
orient destre devant
senestre dertînier
Fig. 8
can be placed indifferently anywhere along the entire circle, provided they are
placed equidistant from one another. Therefore, if Atlas is imagined in the heav­
ens, as we stated above, his head must be at the antarctic pole and his feet in the
opposite direction at the other pole, while his right hand can be imagined indif­
ferently anywhere along the circumference with his left hand opposite the right,
and likewise his front and rear. This Atlas can be imagined as stationary and mo­
tionless or as being turned with the heavens, and it makes no difference where his
right hand is imagined or assigned, except that it must move toward his front and
his left hand in the opposite direction toward his back, as we explained in the case
o f the wheel [see Fig. 8]. // (86c) T o understand this more readily, I posit that a
round dance made up o f men is turning in a circle in the same direction [from east
to west] as the daily motion o f the heavens, which is the natural order. Thus, each
member o f the dance goes ahead o f the person on his right and behind the person
on his left. N o w , let us imagine that in this group o f dancers there is a huge man
who moves the group with his arms extended just as Atlas is supposed to do in the
heavens. I say that this huge man’s head must be directed toward the center o f the
earth and his feet in the air, for, otherwise, his right hand would not go forward
toward his front as it should in accordance with the proper order o f circular mo-
344 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
droit ordre de mouvement circulaire ; mais la main destre de cest honme peust
estre ymaginee en quelconque partie de la carole sanz difference. E t se un
honme est hors la carole et il la resgarde devant soy, je di que, en quelcon­
que lieu que il soit, la destre de toute la carole ensamble est touzjours a sa
325 destre et ausi est la destre du grant honme ymaginé parmi la carole qui avroit
son devant contre cest honme. Item, je met encore un autre exemple et pose
que le desus d’un arbre soit la racine,67 jouste ce que fu dit ou quart chapitre,
et ymagine que cest arbre soit meu circulairement en son lieu et sanz issir /
(86d) de son lieu. E t donques convient il, se il est meu selon droite ordenance,
330 que il soit meu selon le mouvement journal; mais se son desus et son chief ou
racine est contremont, il tourneroit l’autre voie. E t aussi comme il est dit de
la carole, se un honme a cest arbre devant soy qui a la racine en terre touz­
jours, le destre de l’arbre selon cest mouvement est a la destre de cest honme
ou qu’il soit, sanz difference. Je conclue donques par les raisons desus mises
335 que ces .iiii. differences,68 c’est a savoir destre et senestre et devant et der­
rière, ne sont ou ciel fors par similitude. E t posé que le ciel fust un corps vif,
si comme dist Aristote : Corpus animatum,69 encore ne seroient ces .iiii. dif­
ferences ou ciel absoluement ne reaiment distincte<e>s,70 mais seulement en
relacion comme dit est, et chascune partie qui fait circuite seroit ensamble
340 destre et senestre et devant et derrière en divers resgars; et les .ii. autres dif­
ferences seulement71 seroient ou ciel absoluement et reaiment distinctees en
la maniéré que Aristote les met es plantes et es arbres ou quart chapitre, qui
n’ont pas les autres differences aussi comme ont les corps vifs et perfecz. E t
donques se le ciel estoit corps vif, il seroit quant a ce aussi comme une beste
345 imperfecte, car selon Aristote ou quart chapitre, // (87a) aucunes bestes ont
aucunes de ces differences et non pas toutes, et selon les expositeurs, ce sont
bestes immobiles et imperfectes.72 E t par ce que dit est appert la response aus
arguemens qui furent devant mis, car le premier est contre la premiere voie
de<s>73 .iii. desus dites, et le secont contre la seconde et le tiers est pour la
350 tierce laquelle je ay de nouvel pensee, et les autres apres la pourront adrecier
et plus brief declarer.
67 B D E F soit le desous jouste. n B D E F semblablement.
68 B omits que ces .iiii. differences. « Cf. Juntas, t.c. 7, 99C.
69 Cf. fol. 78a, n. 3. 73^4 de>
70 A distinctes.
Book II, Chapter 6, fols. 86d-8ya | 343
tion; but his right hand can be imagined indifferently in any part o f the circle o f
dancers. If a man outside the circle looks at the dancers in front o f him, I say that
no matter where he may stand, the right o f the dancing group is always on his
right and so also is the right o f the huge man we imagined in the midst o f the circle
o f dancers who would be facing this man. I offer another example : imagine that the
top o f a tree is its roots, as we suggested in Chapter Four [see fol. 76b], and that
the tree is moved circularly in its proper place without m oving / (86d) out o f it. It
follows then that, if this tree is moved in the natural way to the right, its motion
will be identical with the daily movement o f the heavens from east to west. But if
its top and head or root is pointed upward, it will turn the opposite way— that is,
toward the left. A n d just as in the case o f the dancing group, if a man stands facing
this tree which still has its root in the ground, the right o f the tree relative to the
circular motion is on the man’s right, wherever he may stand. I conclude, therefore,
from the reason set forth above that these four positional differences, right and left,
front and rear, exist in the heavens only by analogy. Assuming then that the
heavens are a living body, as Aristotle calls them: Corpus animatum, these four
positions would still not exist in the heavens as distinct, absolute, and actual dif­
ferences, but only as relative differences as stated; and each part which moves cir­
cularly would be both right and left and front and back in diverse aspects, and only
the other tw o positional differences [above and below] would be absolute and real­
ly distinct in the heavens, in the same way that Aristotle defines them in plants
and trees in Chapter Four [see fol. 76b], since they do not have the other positional
differences o f living and perfect bodies. Thus, if the heavens were a living body, in
this respect they would be like an imperfect, incomplete animal, for, according to
Aristotle in Chapter Four [see fol. 76b], // (87a) certain but not all beasts have
some o f these differences and, according to the expositors, those lacking such dif­
ferences are animals without the power o f motion and therefore imperfect. From
what has been said, the reply to the preceding arguments is clear : the first argu­
ment is against the first o f the three opinions set forth above, the second is against
the second, and the third, which I have thought through again and reconsidered,
speaks for the third. Later on, others may raise the question again and explain it in
briefer fashion.
 346 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 7, fols. 87b-87C | 347

7. Ou septiesme chappitre il monstre comment selon le ciel 7. In Chapter Seven he shows how these differences in the
les dites differences sont en terre. heavens affect the earth.

T . E t les habitans vers le pole antartique sont en un hemispere qui est de­ T . T h e people who live near the antarctic pole are in a hemisphere which is
sus et vers destre, et nous sommes en un hemispere qui est desous et vers se- above and to the right; w e are in a hemisphere which is below and toward the left.
nestre. E t c ’est le contraire de ce que dient les Pithagoriens, car il tiennent This is the contrary o f what the Pythagoreans say, for they hold that we are above
que nous sommes desus et en la destre partie du monde et que les autres, qui and in the right part o f the world, while those who are near the south pole are be­
5 sont vers le pole antartique, sont desouz et en senestre. E t le contraire est low and to the left. The truth is the reverse o f their statement.
vérité. G . T o understand this better, w e have to imagine that half o f the world’s sur­
G . Pour ce miex entendre il convient ymaginer que la moitié de la super- face is divided into four quarters by two half circles, one under the equinoctial and
fice de la terre soit divisée en .iiii. quartiers par deux demicecles desquelz un the other under the meridian marking the middle o f habitable land [see Fig. 9]. /
est sous l’equinocial et l’autre souz le 1 meridian de milieu de terre habitable. / (87b) Therefore, follow ing the second opinion which was stated in the gloss to the
10 (87b) E t [Fig. 9] donques, selon la seconde voie qui fu mise en la glose du last chapter [see fol. 86a], the quarter which is between the east and the south pole
chapitre precedent, le quartier qui est entre orient et le pole antartique est de­
sus et destre; et le quartier qui est entre le pole antartique et occident est de­
sus2 et senestre; et celui qui est entre orient et le pole artique est desouz et
destre; et celui qui est entre le pole artique et occident est desouz3 et senestre,
i5 car telles sont les parties du ciel souz lesquelles sont les diz quartiers selon occident
l’opinion d’Aristote. E t Grece, dont il estoit, est ou quartier d’entre le pole
artique et occident, car Grece est en Europe selon les aucteurs qui descrip-
sent la terre.4*E t toute Europe et Affrique sont en // (87c) <ce)s quartier, et
pole a r t i q u e
pour ce, disoit Aristote que nous sommes desouz et a senestre. Mais ceulz
F ig. 9
20 qui seroient droitement souz les poles ne seroient a destre ne a senestre, mais
seroient les uns desus et les autres desouz. Item, Averroïz dist que par ce que
is above and to the right; the quarter between the antarctic pole and the west is
dist Aristote appert que il avoit opinion que gens habitassent ou quartier
above and to the left ; the quarter between the east and the arctic pole is below and
d’entre orient et le pole antartique, mais cel païs est inhabitable, si comme il
to the right; and the quarter between the north pole and the west is below and to
sera déclaré vers la fin de cest secont livre.6 E t ne appert pas que Aristote eust
the left, for such are the parts o f the heavens under which are located the afore­
25 opinion contraire, car ses paroles sont a entendre sub condicion quant il dist
said quarters o f the earth in Aristotle’s opinion. Greece, Aristotle’s native land, is
ou commencement de ce chapitre: Les habitans sont en cel païs7 vers le pole,
in the quarter between the north pole and the west because Greece is in Europe
etc. Ce est a entendre: se habitans sont en cel païs, il seroient desus et a destre
according to the authors who describe the earth ; and all o f Europe and Africa are
et nous sommes desouz et a senestre selon son opinion. Mais selon vérité, des
located in // (87c) this last-mentioned quarter. For this reason Aristotle said that
we are below and on the left. But those directly under the poles would be neither to
the left nor right and some would be above and others below. Averroes says that
1 D E omit souz le. (Berlin, 1866), 162. Oresme could not have from Aristotle’s statement it appears that he held the opinion that people inhabit
2 D E dessoubz. been acquainted with Ptolemy’s Geography, the
3 D E dessus. the quarter o f the hemisphere between the east and the south pole, but this region
best o f all ancient works, which was not made
4 Cf. for example: Pomponii Melae de choro- available until the early fifteenth century. See is uninhabitable, as we shall declare toward the end o f this second Book. It does
graphia libri très, I.18, ed. Gustavus Parthey Geograpbia, II.4, ed. Carolus Mullerus (Paris, not seem that Aristotle held a contrary opinion, for his words at the beginning o f
(Berlin, 1867), p. 8 ; Dionysius Afer de situ orbis, 1883), vol. I, 72. this chapter, “ The people live in this land near the pole, etc.,” are to be taken con­
fol. 13V, II.396 ff. ; Rufi Festi Avieni descriptio 5 A omits ce. ditionally. His statement should be taken to mean : if people live in this region, they
orbis terrae, ed. H. Friesemanni (Amsterdam, 6 Cf. Juntas, t.c. 16, 105E ff., 152D.
1786), p. xxvi, 11. 472-76; C. Plinii Secundi na- would be above and on the right part o f the hemisphere ; and we are below and on
7 B D E F omit sont en cel païs.
turalis historia, IV. 1, ed. D. Detlefsen, vol. 1 the left, according to his opinion. But in reality, we cannot say that one o f the two
 348 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
.ii. quartiers que il dist estre desouz et qui sont habitables et non pas en tout,
30 l’en ne peut dire que l’un soit8 plus destre que l’autre reaiment et a b s o lu ­
ment, si comme il appert par le chapitre precedent, car ceulz qui sont vers
orient ou resgart de nous sont vers occident ou resgart d ’autres, et nous aussi
sommes orientelz ou resgart d’aucunes autres. E t donques chascun est destre
et senestre en divers resgars,9 car partout est orient et partout est occident,
35 etc., comme souvent dit est. Item, / (8yd) destre est plus noble que senestre.
O r posons que la terre soit habitée tout environ en alant d ’orient vers occi­
dent. E t donques, se il estoit autrement que dit est, ceulz de Inde seroient en
plus noble lieu que [Fig. 10] ceulz de Babiloine10 et ceulz de Babiloine11 que
ceulz de Romme et ceulz de Romme que ceulz d’Espaingne et a<in>si12 en
40 procédant; et finablement il s’ensuiroit que ceulz de Inde fussent en plus no­
ble lieu que eulz meismes ne sont, et ainsi des autres. E t donques Inde n’est
pas plus destre absoluement que Babiloine13 ou que Romme, ne plus en orient
fors seulement en relation. E t samblablement est Romme en orient ou res­
gart / / (88a) d’autre region. Item, il appert en exemple de ceulz qui sont assis
45 a une table ronde, car se celui qui est a ma destre est en plus noble lieu que je
ne sui et ainsi ensuianment des autres, donques, en procédant, il s’ensuit que
je sui plus noblement assis que je meisme ne sui assis. E t donques touz sont
assis equalment quant a ce. E t il est samblablement en nostre propos. E t se
aucun disoit que je pose une chose fause, c ’est a savoir que la terre soit habi-
50 tee tout environ, je di que ce ne empeesche nostre propos, car se Espaingne
est en la fin de habitacion vers occident, toutevoies se la terre estoit habitée
oultre ou toute en circuite, Espaingne est assise quant au ciel ne plus ne
moins ainsi comme elle seroit. Item, Espaingne est destre et orientele ou res­
gart de ceulz qui sont ou premier orient habitable et est asséz1* près de eulz,
55 si comme dist Averroïz en la fin de cest secont.15 Item, encore appert par
l’exemple devant mis de ceus qui sont a la table ronde, car se il estoient .lx,
et l’en en ostast .iii. ou .iiii. en faisant une place wide et comme une brecque,
ceulz qui demoureroient ne seroient pas pour ce assis les uns plus noble­
ment que les autres, mes equalment comme devant. E t d’une carole ou touz
60 sont equalment, se l’en en ostoit un, celui qui estoit a sa destre seroit le pre-
8 D E l’en peut dire que l’en soit. 12 A aussi.
9 D E omit ou resgart d’aucuns...en divers 13 D E Babillone.
regars. D E assise.
10 D E Babillone. 15 Juntas, t.c. m , 17 1K -L .
11 Ibid.
Book II, Chapter 7, fols. 87d-88a | $49
quarters o f the hemisphere which he says are below and habitable, though not
entirely so, is absolutely and actually more to the right than the other, as shown in
the preceding chapter, for those people who are to the east o f us are to the west o f
others, and we ourselves are east o f certain other people. Thus each quarter is
right and left from different points o f reference because east and west are every­
where around us, as we have often noted. A n d [ (8jd) right is nobler than left.
N o w , let us assume that the earth is inhabited completely around the circumference
from east to west. I f it were otherwise than we have said, the people o f India
would be in a nobler position [see Fig. 10] than those o f Babylon, those o f Baby­
lon in a nobler position than those o f Rome, and those o f Rome in a nobler place
than those o f Spain, and so forth, until finally it would follow that the people o f
India would be in a nobler place than they actually are, and the others in the same
way. Therefore, in an absolute sense India is not more to the right than Babylon or
Rome nor more to the east, save relatively; and the same is true o f Rom e which is
east relative j j (88a) to another region. Th e example o f people seated at a round
table is pertinent here. I f the person on my right is in a nobler position than I am
and if the same is true o f all the others, then as we go completely around the table,
it will follow that I am more nobly seated than I actually am. In such a case all are
equally nobly seated, and it is the same in our present discussion. Should someone
say that I am speaking falsely when I say that the earth is inhabited all around its
circumference, I still say the premise o f our argument remains unchanged; for, if
Spain is at the end o f the inhabited parts o f the earth at its western terminus or if the
earth were inhabited farther west or completely around its circumference, in either
case Spain would occupy exactly the same place with respect to the heavens. Spain
is to the right and east o f those who live in the first part o f the habitable land in the
east and is quite near them, as Averroes remarks at the end o f this second Book.
The same thing is apparent from the example o f those seated at a round table ; for,
if there were sixty people and three or four went away leaving a vacant place— like
an opening or breach in a wall— some o f those who remained would not as a result
be more nobly seated than the others, but with respect to one another would be the
same as before. In a group o f dancers where all are equal, if we removed one dan­
cer, the one standing at his right would then be the first o f the group, but only
 3J° | L e L iv r e du c ie l e t du monde
Book II, Chapter 7, fols. 88b-88d | y ji
mier, mais c’est pour raison du mouvement. / (88b) E t donques quant a ce
because o f group motion. / (88b) So, with regard to what has been said, those
que dit est, ceulz d’orient ne sont en rien plus nobles que nous qui sommes en
people who live in the orient are in no wise more noble than are we in the west
occident ou resgart de eulz en une maniéré. E t pour ce, disoie je ou chapi­
from one point o f view. For this reason I said in the preceding chapter [see fol.
tre precedent que la voie que je ay mise en ceste mattiere est concordable a
85 b] that the position I have taken on this subject is in full accord with our faith,
65 nostre foy, car par ce appert que ceulz d’orient qui sont mescreans ne se peu-
for my reasoning makes clear that those eastern peoples who are miscreant [or in­
ent venter que il soient en plus noble lieu que nous crestiens en resgart au
fidels] cannot boast that, with respect to the heavens, they live in a nobler place
ciel, car nous et eulz sommes equalz en ce. Mais en autres conditions, leur
than we Christians ; we and they are equals in this regard. In other considerations,
lieu et eulz sont moins nobles, car leur habitation en pluseurs lieus est péril­
their position and they themselves are less noble, for many parts o f their region are
leuse pour la desordenance et variacion de l’aer et pour la corrupcion des
dangerous because o f the disturbance and irregularity o f the air, the contamination
70 eaues et pour l’a<n)veniment16 de diverses maniérés de serpens et d’autres
o f the water, and the poisonous nature o f the various kinds o f snakes and other
bestes dont Lucan fait m ention.17 E t tout ce est declairé plus a plain en un
animals mentioned b y Lucan. This is all explained more fully in a book called The
livre appellé D e s M erveilles de H ib ern ie.18 Item, cel aucteur dist que les mon­
M arvels o f Ireland, whose author [Giraldus Cambrensis] states that the monsters
stres des quelz saint Augustin fait question ou .xvi.e livre de L a C ité de D ie u
reported by St. Augustine in Book Sixteen o f The C ity o f G o d are born in the east;
naissent en orient et met ou secont chapitre19 comment le aer de occident
he [Giraldus] notes also in his second chapter that the air in the west is gentler and
75 est plus benigne et plus convenable au salu de nature humainne que n’est
more salubrious to human beings than that o f the east. St. Jerome states in a letter
celui d’orient. Item, saint Jerome20 met en une epistre comment orient est
that the Orient is old and effete and that its people have deteriorated, while in the
envielli21 et le pueple de la empiré,22 et que en occident // (88c) est le soleil de
west // (88c) there is the sun o f justice, and he says thus: Since the effete east has
justice, et dist ainsi : Quoniam vêtus oriens inter se23 populorum furore col-
been crushed b y the madness o f its people, now the sun o f justice is rising in the
lisus, et cetera24— sequitur huic : in oriente— sol iusticie oritur ; in occidente
west where the morning star which had fallen in the east has established its throne
80 autem lucifer ille qui25 ceciderat, etc. E t a ceste grace recevoir, le Prophète
above the heavens. T o receive this grace or favor, the Prophet exhorted the people
exitoit ceulz d ’occident ou .xlviii.e Psalme ou il dist selon le hebreu : Audite
o f the west in Psalm 48: [1], where he said in Hebrew: Hear these things, all ye
hec omnes populi, auribus percipite omnes habitatores occidentis.26O r avons
nations ; give ear, all ye inhabitants o f the west. Thus w e have it that no part o f the
donques que du ciel ne de la terre quelcunque partie n’est destre ou senes-
heavens or o f the earth is absolutely or really right or left more than another part,
tre plus que une autre reaiment et absoluement, mais ainsi n’est pas de desus
but that this is not the case with above and below, for, as shown in the preceding
85 et desouz, car si comme il fu dit ou chapitre precedent,27 desus et desouz par
chapter [see passim and esp. fol. 86d], above and below by analogy are absolutely
similitude28 sont distinctez absoluement, et est le pole antartique desus et
distinguishable and separate, and the antarctic pole is above and the one which we
celui qui nous appert est desouz. E t se le ciel estoit corps vif, ainsi seroit il
see is below. I f the heavens were an animated or living body, this would be true
non pas par similitude, mais reaiment et proprement. E t donques selon ce, la
not only by analogy, but also in reality and rightfully. Accordingly, that part o f the
partie de terre ou nous sommes est desouz, si comme il appert en la figure
earth where we are is below, as shown before in Figure [9, fol. 87b], and the oppo­
90 devant mise, et l’autre opposite est desus. E t par consequent, elle est plus
site one is above. Consequently, on this score the one above is more noble than
noble que n’est ceste quant a ce. Mais en recompensacion de ce, ceste partie
ours. But by way o f compensation, our part o f the earth has, with respect to the
ou nous sommes a, ou resgart de ciel, .iii. autres differences ou condicions
heavens, three differences or conditions which more than equal the advantage o f
plus que équivalentes a celle que dite est : une est car en la partie du ciel la­
nobility ; one favorable condition for us is the fact that in our north polar heavens
quelle est vers nostre pole artique est plus grande / (88d) multitude de estoil-
there are / (88d) many more large and beautiful fixed stars. According to Aristotle,
95 les fichies grosses et belles que en l’autre partie, et selon Aristote, l’estoille
16 A l’avenimement. Augustine, see De civitate Dei, X V I .8.
17 M. Annaei Lucani Pharsalia, IX .700-26, 20 D E Jeroisme; F Jeroesme. Sancii Eusebii
suum.” Note that Oresme has transposed 26 Cf. Ps. 48:1— Audite haec omnes gentes:
ed. C. E. Haskins (London, 1887), pp. 343-45. Hieronytni epistulae, X V , ad Damasum, ed. I.
oriente and occidente. auribus percipite omnes, qui habitatis orbem.
18 B Hibeine. Giraldi Cambrensis topographica Hilberg (Leipzig, 1910), p. 62: “ Quoniam
21 D E est ou milieu et. Also Jerome, P L 28,1226 : Audite haec omnes
Hibernica, I.35, 36 (Rerum Britannicarum Me- vetusto [MS. D S vêtus] oriens inter se popu­
22 D E emprecié; F empicey. populi: auribus percipite universi habitatores
dii A evi Scriptores, vol. 5), ed. J. F. Dimock lorum furore conlisus... nunc in occidente sol
(London, 1867), pp. 68-70. 23 B D E F omit se; D E furorem. occidentis.
iustitiae oritur; in oriente autem lucifer ille, 27 B precedent de desus et de desous.
24 B omits cetera.
19 Actually ch. 3. Ibid., II.3, p. 25. For St. qui ceciderat, super sidéra posuit thronum
25 E qui ille. 28 B D E F omit par similitude.
 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 7, fols. 89a-89b | 3J3

est la plus noble partie de son ciel, et ceste difference touche Averroïz.29
Autre cause est car celle partie de terre ou celle plage qui regarde le pole
<ant)artique30 en tele distance comme la nostre resgarde le pole artique est
desatrempee, car quant nous avons yver, yleuques est esté et e converso, et
ioo yleuques est yver plus loing31 et excessif en froit pour ce que adonques est le
soleil ou point appellé a u x solis32 et est loing de terre. E t aussi est esté yleu­
ques excessivement chaut pour ce que le soleil est près de terre vers le point
appellé oppositum augis, et tout le contraire est en la partie ou nous sommes.
E t pour ce, elle est attrempee et habitable et l’autre non, si comme il sera plus
105 a plain déclaré vers la fin de cest livre. La tierce cause est car combien que
celle partie soit desus ou resgart du mouvement journal, aussi est ceste partie
desus ou resgart du mouvement des planètes. E t ceste recompensacion met
Aristote apres et dit :
T . Mais de la seconde circulacion, c’est a savoir du propre mouvement des
no planètes, les parties ou nous sommes sont desus et sont destres, et les parties
ou ceulz sont que nous avons dit estre desus et destres selon le mouvement
journal sont desus33 et senestres // (89a) selon le mouvement des planètes.
Car le principe ou commencement du mouvement journal et de celui des
planètes sont au contraire l’un de l’autre, pour ce que les mouvemens sont
115 contraires, en tant que par ce avient et est ainsi que nous sommes vers le com­
mencement et vers le destre du mouvement des planètes, et les autres sont
vers la fin et vers le senestre de ce mouvement.
G . Il appert par le T ra itié de F espere comment le propre mouvement des
planètes est de occident en orient 34 aussi comme au contraire du mouve-
120 ment journal, et non pas proprement au contraire,35 car mouvement circu­
laire n’a363
7pas proprement contraire, si comme il appert par le .viii.e chapitre
du premier. Mes le propre mouvement des planètes est l’autre voie et non pas
encore droitement, car les poles du zodiaque selon lequel est le mouvement
des planètes ne sont pas la ou sont les poles du mouvement journal, mes en
125 sont a certainne distance, si comme il appert par le T ra itié de F espere?1 O r po­
sons donques par ymaginacion que le mouvement journal cessast et que le
propre mouvement des planètes demourast,38 je di que le soleil feroit un
circuite environ la terre en un an et la lune en un moies / (89b) ou près, et
ainsi des autres planètes, chascune en certain temps. E t seroit leur mouve-
130 ment d’occident en orient aussi comme au contraire du mouvement journal,
si comme dit est, et leveroient en occident. E t telement sont elles meues
the star is the noblest part o f the heavens ; and Averroes also touches upon this dif­
ference. Another circumstance favoring our position is the fact that the southern
hemisphere, which is at the same distance from the antarctic pole that we are from
the arctic pole, has an intemperate climate; when w e have winter, there it is sum­
mer and vice versa, but winter there is longer and much colder because the sun is at
a point far from the earth called a u x solis [or apogee]. Summer in the southern
hemisphere is excessively hot because the sun is near the earth at the point called
oppositum augis [or perigee], while the contrary is the case in our hemisphere. There­
fore, our part is temperate and habitable while the other part is not, as we shall
show more fully toward the end o f this Book [see fol. 142c]. The third advantage is
that, although the southern hemispere is above ours with respect to daily motion,
ours is above with respect to planetary motion. Aristotle next notes this compen­
satory factor and says :
T . A s concerns the second revolution, that is, the motion o f the planets, the
part o f the earth where we are is above and right, while the part o f those other
people, which we said to be above and right with respect to daily motion, is below
and left // (89a) with respect to planetary motion. The starting points o f daily and
planetary motion are opposite each other since their motions are contrary, so that
it results in our being at the starting point and to the right in relation to planetary
movement and in those o f the southern hemisphere being near the end point to the
left o f this motion.
G . It is explained in our Treatise on the Sphere how the proper motion o f the pla­
nets is from west to east, contrary to the daily movement o f the rest o f the heav­
ens, although not actually contrary because there can be no contrary to circular
motion, as stated in Chapter E igh t o f Book I [see fol. i4d]. But the proper motion
o f the planets is the other way from diurnal motion, but not precisely opposite, for
the zodiacal poles between which the planets m ove are not in the same location as
the poles o f the diurnal motion o f the heavens, but are somewhat distant from
them, as is explained in the Treatise on the Sphere. N o w let us imagine that diurnal
motion stopped and that planetary motion continued; I say that the sun would
make its circuit o f the earth in one year, the moon / (89b) in approximately one
month, and likewise each o f the other planets in its own certain time. Their mo­
tion would be from west to east and the opposite o f daily motion, as we have said,
and they would rise in the west. In fact, the planets m ove in this manner accord-

29 Juntas, t.c. 16, 105G-H.
30A B C D E F artique. The sense demands
antartique.
31 B C D E F lonc.
32 Oresme defines the terms aux solis and
oppositum augis in his Traitié de T espere as fol-
lows: “ Or est il ainsi que le cercle que le soleil
descript en son espere soubz le zodiaque n’est
pas concentrique a son centre ailleurs que ou
centre du monde, et est excentrique, si comme
il appert par exemple en ceste figure cy dessus
faite. E t le point de ce cercle qui est plus hault
et plus loing du centre du monde est appellé
aux solis. E t l’autre point contraire qui est au
bas et plus pres du centre du monde est appellé
oppositum augis.” See editions by L. McCarthy,
Ch. X X V II, 11. 884-92, and by J. V . Myers,
PP- 4i-43*
33 B desous.
34 B de orient en occident.
35 De Tespere, ed. L. McCarthy, ch. V I, 11.
179-282.
36 B D E F n’est pas.
37 De Tespere, ed. L. McCarthy, ch. VII, 11.
325-45 •
38 B omits et que... demourast.
3J4 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
maintenant de fait selon leur propre mouvement. E t donques, selon la con­
sideration declaree es chapitres precedens, il s’ensuit que le pole du zodiaque
et le pole de leur propre mouvement— lequel pole est vers le pole artique—
135 soit desus et que l’autre pole opposite soit desouz. E t par consequent, nous
sommes desus ou resgart du mouvement et des cielz des planètes, si comme
il appert par l’ymaginacion desus mise. E t par aventure, les cielz et les mouve-
mens des planètes sont plus nobles que le derrenier ciel meu et que le mou­
vement journal meismement, car le soleil, qui est planete, est le plus noble
140 corps du ciel. E t se ainsi est, nous sommes en plus noble lieu que ceulz qui
seroient vers l’autre pole par ceste cause seulement, posé que les .ii. autres
devant mises ne fussent pas. E t encore, selon Aristote, nous sommes des-
tres quant au mouvement ou quant aus cielz des planètes. Mais par ce que je
ay devant déclaré, il appert que en ce n’a destre ne senestre distincteement ne
145 absoluement, et tout ce est equal quant a ce. O r appert donques // (89c) pour
.iii. raisons que nous sommes en plus noble assiete de terre que ne seroient
ceulz qui habiteroient vers le pole antartique. E t devant fu monstré par au­
tres raisons que nous sommes miex colloquiéz ou logiéz que ceulz d ’orient.
Apres il recapitule.
150 T . E t en tant soit dit des parties du monde selon distance ou difference de
posicion et selon lieu.
G . Ce sont desus et desouz et destre et senestre et devant et derrière.
8. En le huitiesme chappitre il monstre pourquoy1 en
ciel sont pluseurs mouvemens.2
T . Comme ainsi soit que mouvement circulaire n’est pas contraire a mou­
vement circulaire...
G . Si comme il appert par le .viii.® chapitre du premier.
T . Il convient considérer pourquoy pluseurs telz mouvemens sont ou ciel.
5 G . Car se mouvement circulaire eust contraire, son contraire fust en estre,
et fussent pluseurs mouvemens telz differenz en espece, et fust chose legiere
a savoir. Mes or n’est pas ainsi.
T . E t convient tempter de loing faire response a ceste question.
G . Il dist de loing pour ce que les corps du ciel sont loing de nous.
10 T . Mes encore ne sont eulz pas si loing de nous par distance local que eulz
ne soient moult plus loing en ce / (89d) que de leurs accidens nous avons
très petite congnoissance sensible.
G . Car nous n’avons fors la veue et de loing. O r avons3 donques .iii. cau-
1 D E comment. 3 D E loing. Texte. Avon.
2 Guthrie, ch. 3.
Book II, Chapters 7-8, fols. 89C-89d | jjj
ing to their proper and natural motion. Therefore, as suggested in the preceding
chapters [see Chs. 6 and 7], it follows that the zodiacal pole and the pole o f proper
planetary motion— which is toward the arctic pole— is above and the other oppo­
site pole is below. Consequently, we are above with respect to the planetary heav­
ens, as is clear from the suppositions above. A nd perhaps the heavens and the mo­
tions o f the planets are more noble than the highest mobile heaven and more noble
even than the daily motion o f the heavens because the sun, which is a planet, is the
noblest body in the heavens. I f this is the case, then we live in a nobler place than
the people who dwell near the other pole for this single reason, even if the other
two reasons did not exist. Moreover, according to Aristotle, we are right in rela­
tion to the motion or the planetary heavens [see fol. 89a]. But from what I have al­
ready explained, it is clear that in this matter there is neither distinct and absolute
right nor left, these [principles o f positional direction] being equal in this case. It
appears, therefore, // (89c) that we are, for these three reasons, in a nobler ter­
restrial position than are those who perchance dwell near the antarctic pole. W e
have previously presented [see fol. 88b] other reasons w hy we are better situated
or settled than the people o f the orient. Next, he recapitulates.
T . This is sufficient to explain the dimensional aspects o f the world or the posi­
tional differences o f its parts and places.
G . These are above and below, right and left, front and rear.
8. In Chapter Eight he shows why there are several
different movements in the heavens.
T . Since there is no circular motion that is the opposite o f another circular mo­
tion . . .
G . A s it appears in Chapter Eight o f Book I [see fol. i4d].
T . W e have to consider w hy there are several different circular motions in the
heavens.
G . For, if circular motion had a contrary, its contrary would exist in the heav­
ens, and there would be many such movements differing in form which could easily
be known, but there are none such.
T . We must attempt from a far remove to find an answer to this problem.
G . He says from a fa r remove because the heavenly bodies are so far away from us.
T . They are not so far from us in the sense o f spatial distance as they are /(89d) in
our limited perception o f their sensible attributes.
G . Our only acquaintance with them is visual and from afar. Thus we have three
3 j 6 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ses de la difficulté de ceste question : une pour ce que le mouvement du ciel
15 n’a point de contraire; l’autre car le ciel est loing de nous ; la tierce car nous
avons du ciel trop peu d’experience.
T . Mes toutevoies, disons de ceste chose. E t la cause de ce est a prendre en
la maniéré que s’ensuit.
G .4 Apres il met sa raison qui contient .vi. condicioneles ou .vi. conse-
20 quences. Premièrement, se D ieu a en soy vie pardurable, le ciel est meu par-
durablement. Item, se le ciel est ainsi meu, il convient que terre soit. Item,
se la terre est, il convient que l ’element du feu soit. Item, se ces .ii. elemens
sont, il convient que les .ii. autres elemens moiens soient. Item, se les .iiii.
elemens sont, il convient que generacion et corrupcion soient. Item, se elles
25 sont, il convient que ou ciel soient pluseurs mouvemens. Ce est l’abrevia-
cion de cest chapitre. Apres il procédé par ordre en ces consequence<s).s
T . Chascune chose de laquelle est aucune oeuvre est pour grace et a fin de
son oeuvre. E t l’oeuvre ou operacion de Dieu est immortalité et ceste im­
mortalité,6 c’est vie pardurable. E t donques il est nécessité // (90a) que Dieu
30 ait et face mouvement pardurable. E t le ciel est tel corps que il est ainsi meu,
car c’est un corps divin. E t pour ce le ciel, qui est corps circulaire et sperique
a ceste propriété que par nature il est meu circulairement touzjours sanz ces­
ser.
G . La fin pour quoy est toute chose qui a operacion, ce est son operacion.
35 E t pour ce, félicité, qui est operacion, est la fin pour quoi est honme, si com­
me il appert ou premier et ou .x.e de E thiqu es ,7 E t la principal operacion de
Dieu, ce est congnoistre et amer Lui meisme, et c’est vie pardurable et ceste
operacion, c’est Dieu meisme qui est fin de Lui meisme. Mes Dieu a une au­
tre operacion qui est es choses qui sont hors Lui ou autres que Lui, et selon
40 Aristote, ceste operacion est mouvoir le ciel et gouverner le monde.8 O r est
ainsi que, a parler de ce que est fin principal et de premerairle intencion, Dieu
est fin de ceste operacion et de toutes choses. Mais a parler de fin qui est fin
de seconde intencion et moins principaument, Dieu est pour ceste operacion
comme pour fin de Lui. Item, Aristote appelle le ciel corps divin et Averroïz
45 esperituel, car selon eulz le ciel est corps v if par l’intelligence qui le meut et
qui est Dieu, et pour ce est il dit corps divin.9 Mais ceci fu reprové ou quint
chapitre. Apres il met la seconde consequence.
T . [ (90b) E t pour ce, ne peut l’en dire que tout le corps du ciel, c’est a dire
du monde, soit tel et ainsi meu, car par nécessité il convient que aucune cho-
50 se soit permanente sanz mouvement ou resgart du corps qui est meu circu­
lairement, et que elle soit ou milieu de tel corps. O r n’est il pas possible que
4 D E omit Glose. 1-10.
5 A consequence. 8 Cf. Metaphysicorum, X II.7 .1072b 14-30.
6 B omits et ceste immortalité. 9 Juntas, t.c. 17, 106K.
7 Ethic. Nie., 1.7.1098a 15-18; X .6.1176b
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 9oa-qob |
causes for the difficulty o f this problem : one because celestial motion has no con­
trary, another because the heavens are so far distant from us, and the third because
we have too little actual experience with the heavens.
T . However, let us speak about these problems ; the cause is to be sought in the
following manner.
G . Next, he presents this argument which contains six conditions or consequen­
ces. First, if G o d has eternal life, then the heavens will m ove eternally. I f they are
moved eternally, then the earth must exist. I f the earth exists, then there must be
the element o f fire. I f these two elements exist, then the other two intermediate
elements must exist. I f these four elements exist, then growth and destruction
must exist. I f these exist, then there must be several different movements in the
heavens. This is the summary o f this chapter. Afterwards he proceeds to treat
these consequences in order.
T . Everything that has some function to perform exists for the sake o f or for the
purpose o f accomplishing that function. N o w , the function or activity o f G o d is
immortality, and this immortality is eternal life. Therefore, it is necessary // (90a)
that G o d should be endowed with the attribute o f perpetual motion. A n d the
heavens are o f such nature as to be moved eternally, being a divine body. For this
reason the heavens, being a round spherical body, have by nature this property o f
unceasing circular motion.
G . The purpose or end o f the existence o f all things which act is their action or
operation. Thus, in the case o f man, happiness, which is an activity, is the purpose
o f man’ s existence, as stated in the first and tenth books o f the E th ics. The principal
action o f G o d is to know and to love Himself— this is eternal fife; and this action is
G o d Himself, who is the end or object o f Himself. But G o d has another occupation
with things outside and other than Himself, and, according to Aristotle, this ac­
tivity is to move the heavens and to govern the world. Speaking in this way, G o d
is the principal purpose and primary intention o f this activity and o f all things. But,
speaking o f the purpose o f the second intention, or less absolutely, G o d is in this
activity as if it were His own purpose. Thus, Aristotle calls the heavens a divine,
and Averroes a spiritual, body because they consider them to be animated by the in­
telligence, which is G od, that moves them, and so the heavens are divine. This we
refuted in Chapter Five [see fols. 78c ff.]. Next, he states the second consequence.
T . I (90b) A s a result, we cannot say that the entire heavenly body— that is, the
whole world— is moved thus ; for necessarily there must be some permanent m o­
tionless part o f the body m oving in a circle and this part must be at its center. H ow -
}j8 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
aucune partie quelcunque du ciel repose sanz mouvement, premièrement car,
univercelement,10 chascune est m eu<e)u circulairement avecques son tout
et donques ne peut elle reposer en quelcunque lieu. Item, en especial ce ne
55 peut estre ou milieu et ou centre, car se aucune partie du ciel reposoit natu-
relment ou milieu, il convendroit que elle fust meue naturelment au milieu
se elle en estoit hors, et le ciel est meu par nature circulairement.
G . E t donques il ne peut avoir autre mouvement naturel. E t tout ce fu
déclaré ou tiers et ou quart chapitre du premier.
60 T . E t se une partie du ciel reposoit ou milieu hors nature ou contre nature,
le mouvement12 du ciel ne seroit pas perpétuel.
G . Car se il estoit perpétuel, il convendroit que ceste partie reposast ou
milieu perpetuelment et contre nature.
T . E t rien qui est contre nature n’est perpétuel, car ce que est hors nature
65 est derrenier et apres ce que est selon nature, et ce que est hors nature est ex­
cès ou deffaute de ce // (90c) que est selon nature et generacion.
G . Si comme il appert des monstres ou des bestes monstrueuses. E t don­
ques chose desnaturelle n’est pas perpétuelle. O r avons donques que quelcun­
que partie du ciel ne peust reposer ou milieu ne par nature ne par violence, et
que il convient que aucune chose y repose et ce ne peut estre autre chose que
la terre, si comme il sera déclaré apres. E t pour ce il conclut et dist:
T . E t donques se le ciel est meu perpetuelment, il est neccessité que la
terre soit, car elle est ce qui repose ou milieu. E t ce soit a present supposé,
car apres sera de ce faite demonstracion.
75 G . Ce sera ou .xxix.e chapitre ou il sera monstré que la terre repose ou
milieu. Apres il met la tierce consequence.
T . Item, se la terre est, il est nécessité que l’element du feu soit, car de .ii.
contraires, se un est en estre par nature, l’autre de neccessité est en estre par
nature13 pour ce que, se un contraire est, il convient que aucune nature soit
subjecte a lui et a son contraire. E t de .ii. contraires la matière est une
meisme.
G . Choses proprement contraires sont accidens, si comme chaleur et froi­
dure, blancheur et noirté et telles choses. E t la matière qui est subjecte a un
contraire a puissance d’estre subjecte a l’autre contraire, et seroit ceste puis-
85 sance pour noient se elle n’estoit en aucun temps mise en fait. E t pour ce /
(9od) dist il que la matière est une meisme, et non pas en un temps, mes elle
est une fois souz14 un contraire et puis apres souz15 l’autre. O r est la terre
contraire au feu non pas selon sa substance, mes selon ses accidens, car elle
est froide et la matière de elle peut estre faite chaude et convertie en feu. E t
go donques se terre est, feu est qui peut de elle faire feu. Apres il met a ce une
autre raison.
10 D E uniforment. 12 D E omit du ciel reposoit...m ouvem ent.
11 A meu. 13 T7 omits l’autre de...nature.
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 90c~9od |
ever, it is impossible that any part whatever o f the heavens should be immobile
and at rest because, in the first place, each part generally is moved circularly with
the whole body, and so it cannot rest in any place. This is especially true o f the
middle or center, for, if any part o f the heavens rested naturally in the center, it
would have to be moved naturally toward the center i f it were outside the center;
and the heavens m ove circularly by nature.
G . A nd they can have no other natural motion. A ll this was stated before in
Chapters III and I V o f Book I [see fol. 9dJ.
T . I f a part o f the heavens were at rest at the center unnaturally or contrary to
nature, the motion o f the heavens would not be perpetual.
G . For if it were perpetual, this part would have to rest at the center perpetually
and unnaturally.
T . Nothing contrary to nature is perpetual, for whatever is unnatural is subse­
quent and secondary to the natural, and the unnatural is anything either in excess
or in deficiency // (90c) o f the natural and o f generation.
G . As in the case o f monsters or monstrous beasts. Thus, unnatural things are
not perpetual. So we have established that no part o f the heavens can rest at the
center either naturally or violently, that something must be at rest there, and that
this can be nothing else than the earth, as will be explained later [see fol. 91c].
Therefore, he concludes by saying:
T . I f the heavens m ove eternally, then there must exist the earth, for it is the
earth that stands motionless in the middle o f the world. For the present, let us
accept this supposition for it will be demonstrated fully later.
G . He will show that the earth is at rest in the center in the twenty-ninth chapter
[see fol. i48d]. N ext, he states the third consequence.
T . N o w , if the earth exists, then the element o f fire must exist ; for, if one o f two
contraries exists by nature, then the other must exist by nature because, i f there is a
contrary, there must be a nature subject to it and to its contrary. Th e substance o f
the two contraries is identical.
G . Things that are truly contraries are accidents like heat and cold, whiteness
and blackness, and such things. A n d the matter which is subject to one contrary is
capable o f being the subject o f the other, and this capacity would be purposeless i f
it were never actualized. For this reason / (9od) he says the matter is the same but
not at the same time, for it is first under one and then under the other contrary.
N o w , the earth is contrary to fire not in substance, but according to its accidents,
for it is cold and its matter can be made hot and converted into fire. So, if there is
earth, there is also fire which can change earth to fire. Then he states another rea­
son for this.
14 D E sans. 15 Ibid.
 y6o | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Item, affirmacion est premiere que n’est privacion,16 si comme chaleur
est premiere que n’est froidure, et repos et pesanteur sunt dis par privacion
de legiereté et de mouvement.
95 G . Il veult dire que les propriétés ou accidens de la terre contraires a ceulz
du feu sont aussi comme privacion et moins dignes que ceulz du feu. E t pour
ce, nature doit plus mettre le feu en estre que la terre. E t donques se terre est,
par plus forte raison feu est. Item, l’en doit savoir que de touz contraires un
est meilleur et plus noble que l’autre, si comme chaleur que froideur, blanc
ioo que noir, douz que amer et ainsi des autres. E t samblablement de differences
de posicion, si comme il fu dit ou sixte chapitre, car destre est plus noble que
senestre et dessus que desouz et devant que derrière. Item, par ce que dit
Aristote n’est pas a entendre que froideur soit proprement privacion de //
(91a) chaleur, ne pesanteur de legiereté et ainsi des autres contraires positifs
105 en la maniéré que tenebre est privacion de lumière et repos de mouvement.
Mais ainsi parle Aristote pour ce que les contraires moins nobles et mains
perfecz approchent plus de privacion que ne font les autres, et pour ce il sont
aussi comme privacion ou resgart des autres. Apres il met la quarte conse­
quence.
no T . Item, se feu est et terre est, il est neccessité que les corps ou elemens
soient qui sont moiens entre ces .ii., car chascun des elemens a contrariété a
chascun des elemens.
G . C ’est a savoir selon aucune qualité, et si co m m e dit est, la matière qui
est subjecte a un contraire, il convient que elle soit aucune fois subjecte a
115 l’autre contraire. E t tout ce est déclaré ailleurs.17 E t pour ce dist il apres :
T . E t ce soit supposé maintenant, et apres nous essoierons a le monstrer.
G . O u secont livre D e generacione.1% Apres il met la quinte consequence.
T . Item, se ces elemens sont, il est neccessité que generacion s o it...
G . Ce monstre il par .ii. raisons.
120 T . Pour ce que il n’est pas possible que quelcunque de ces elemens soit
perpétuel, car choses qui sont contraires ont action une en l’autre en- / (91b)
samble et passion une de l’autre et corrompent une l’autre.
G . E t les elemens sont contraires selon leurs qualitéz comme dit est, et
pour ce, il s’entre-corrompent selon leurs parties, si comme il appert ou se-
125 cont livre D e generacione.19
T . Item, ce n’est pas dit selon raison que un corps qui est20 mobile selon
lieu soit perpétuel, et son mouvement selon nature ou naturel ne soit pas per­
pétuel. E t le mouvement des elemens n’est pas perpétuel.
G . Car leur mouvement naturel est selon droite ligne et donques ne peut il
130 estre perpétuel, si comme il appert ou premier livre en pluseurs lieus et en le
.viii.e de Physique.2I
16 F texte. Apres il met une affirmacion et 17 De generatione, 1.3.319a.
premiere que ne est privacion. 18 11.3.331a 1-2; II.10.336a 12— 337a 32.
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 9ia~9ib | y 6i
T . Positive precedes privation as heat comes before cold, and rest and weight
indicate the privation o f lightness and motion.
G . He means that the properties or accidents o f the earth opposite those o f the
element fire are a kind o f privation and thus less worthy than the properties o f fire.
Therefore, nature must place fire before earth in the categories o f being so that, if
the earth exists, there must indeed be fire. It should be pointed out that in the case
o f contraries one is always better and nobler than the other, as heat is better than
cold, white better than black, sweet better than bitter, etc. Th e same is true o f po­
sitional differences, as was stated in Chapter Six [see fol. 81c], for right is nobler
than left, above nobler than below, and front than rear. From Aristotle’s statement
above, it is not to be understood that cold is properly the privation o f // (91a) heat,
nor weight the privation o f lightness, nor the other positive contraries in the same
way that darkness is the privation o f light and rest o f movement. Aristotle speaks
in this way because the less noble and less perfect contraries approach more nearly
to privation than others [of a more noble kind] because, with respect to these oth­
ers, they are as a privation. Next, he states the fourth consequence.
T . I f fire and earth both exist, then the bodies or elements intermediate between
them must exist also, for each o f the elements has a contrariety in each o f the ele­
ments.
G . That is to say, with respect to some quality, and, as we have said, matter
which is subject to a contrary must at times be subject to the other contrary. A ll
this is explained elsewhere. Then he says :
T . Let this be assumed for the present; we will try to demonstrate it later.
G . In the second book o f Generation. He states now the fifth consequence.
T . I f these elements exist, there must be generation. . .
G . This he shows by two arguments.
T . Because it is impossible that any one o f these elements should be eternal, for
things which are contrary to other things have an interaction one upon the other
reciprocally / (91b) with a kind o f passion and destroy one another.
G . A s we have said, the elements are opposites according to their properties and
for this reason they contaminate in a destructive manner one another’s parts, as
shown in the second book o f Generation.
T . It is not reasonable to maintain that a body locally mobile is perpetual when
its natural motion is not perpetual. A nd the movement o f the elements is not per­
petual.
G . For their natural motion is rectilinear and cannot be perpetual, as was shown
in Book I in several passages and in Book E igh t o f the Physics.
1911.4.331a 10— 332a. 21 Physicorum, V III.9 .265a 27-32.
20 D E qui n ’est m obiile.
y6z j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . E t donques est il neccessité que generacion soit.
G .22 Apres il met la sixte consequence.
T . Item, se generacion est, il convient de neccessité que un ou pluseurs
i35 mouvemens soient autres que le mouvement journal, car les elemens des
corps qui sont ici-bas se ont tousjours semblablement selon le mouvement
journal, et ne ont onques difference ou resgart de ce mouvement. E t de ce
dirons nous apres plus a plain.
G . C ’est a savoir ou secont livre D e generacione vers la fin.23 E t briefment,
ho si comme dist Aristote ou premier de M etheores 26f ce monde cibas est gouver­
né // (91c) par les mouvemens du ciel. E t se il n’estoit ou ciel fors seulement
le mouvement journal, il ne seroit ne yver ne esté ne variacion de lune ne des
autres planètes, car elles regarderoient la terre et les autres elemens touzjours
en une maniéré aussi comme font les estoilles fichiees ou près. E t donques ne
145 seroit faite ici-bas alteracion de chaut en froit, etc., ne par consequent, gene­
racion. Apres il recapitule par autre ordre aucunes consequences devant
mises.
T . O r avons donques manifestée la cause pourquoi sont pluseurs corps
meus circulairement, car il est neccessité que generacion soit. Car se l’ele-
i5o ment du feu est, il convient que generacion soit et se terre est, il convient que
le feu et les autres elemens soient et il convient que la terre soit pour ce que se
aucune chose est meue tousjours perpetuelment, il est nécessité que aucune
chose soit qui repose touzjours et qui ne se moeve.
155 G . Il touche toutes les consequences desus mises excepté la premiere. O r
avons donques que la cause pourquoy pluseurs mouvemens sont ou ciel est
generacion des choses qui sont ici-bas. E t selon Averroïz,25 ceste cause est
final et comme fin, mais non pas comme fin de premeraine inten- / (9id) cion,
mes corne fin de seconde intencion, aussi comme l’effit est fin de sa cause.
160 Mais selon vérité, les corps et les mouvemens du ciel sontprincipalmentet de
premiere intencion pour generacion et finablement pour nature humainne,
car meisme selon Aristote ou secont de Phisique2(> et en pluseurs autres lieus,
honme est fin de toutes choses et c’est a entendre des choses corporelles.
O r me veul je esbatre a examiner ces consequences. La premiere estoit que
165 se D ieu est, le mouvement du ciel est perpétuel. Je di que il ne s’ensuit pas,
car meisme selon philosophie, D ieu est fin principal de Lui meisme et n’a
mestier quant a l’acomplissement de sa perfection de quelcunque chose qui
soit hors <Lui>.27 E t c’est selon le Prophète qui dist: Quoniam bonorum
meorum non eges,28 car II est très perfectement par Soy souffissant, et de ce
170 dist l’aucteur D e s C auses: Primum omnium per se dives.29*E t pour ce, se de
22 A B C D E F omit Glose. 23 Juntas, t.c. 21, 108L-M.
23 B omits vers la fin. De generaüone, II.10. 26 Physicorum, 11.2.194a 34-35.
336a 12— 336b 22. 27 A omits lui.
24 Meteorologicorum, 1.2.339a 21-23. 28 Ps. 15:2.
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 9 ic-9 id | 565
T . Therefore generation or growth must exist.
G . Next, he states the sixth consequence.
T . A n d if generation exists, it follows that one or several motions exist besides
the daily motion o f the fixed stars, for the elements o f the bodies here below al­
ways maintain the same reciprocal positions with respect to one another and make
no change as far as daily motion is concerned. We shall speak o f this later in greater
detail.
G . In the second book o f Generation toward the end. Briefly, as Aristotle says in
the first book o f M eteors, this world below is governed // (91c) by the movements
o f the heavens. N o w , if there were only daily motion in the heavens, there would
be no winter or summer, nor lunar phases, nor planetary orbiting, for these bodies
would stand in the same position relative to the earth and other elements as the
fixed stars, or approximately so. Then there would be here below no climatic
changes from hot to cold, etc., and consequently no [growth or] generation. Next,
he recapitulates in a different order some o f the consequences stated above.
T . We have explained w hy there are many bodies which revolve because there
must be generation. I f the element o f fire exists, then generation must exist ; and if
earth exists, fire and the other elements must exist. The earth is necessary because
if something is m oved perpetually and eternally, there must be something perpetu­
ally stable, fixed at rest, and motionless.
G . He summarizes all the consequences stated above except the first. The expla­
nation for the several motions present in the heavens is the generation o f things
here below. According to Averroes, this is the final cause or purpose, not the
cause o f primary intention / (9id) but, rather, o f secondary intention, just as the
effect is the purpose o f its cause. But, in truth, the heavenly bodies and their mo­
tions are principally and primarily intended for generation and finally for human
nature because, according to Aristotle himself in the second book o f the Physics
and in several other passages, man is the end o f all things, that is, o f all corporeal
things.
N o w , I should like, for the sake o f diversion, to examine these consequences.
The first consequence was that, if G o d exists, the motion o f the heavens is eternal.
I say that this does not follow ; even according to philosophy, G o d is the principal
purpose o f Himself and has no need to accomplish His perfection by means o f any­
thing outside Himself. This is what the Prophet means when he says : Th ou hast no
need o f my goods ; for G o d is perfectly sufficient unto Himself, as the author o f the
D e causis says : First o f all in riches within Himself. Therefore, if o f His own free
29 Cf. Die pseudo-aristotelische Schrift Ueber 1882), ch. 20, p. 182: “ Primum est dives per
das Reine Guie bekannt unter dem Nam en Liber se ipsum et est dives maius.” Hereafter cited
de Causis, ed. O. Bardenhewer (Freiberg, as Liber de causis.
 364 | L e L ivre du ciel et du monde
sa franche et liberale volenté II espant de son bien et de sa grace en ses crea­
tures et fait aucunes choses pour elle<s>30 secondairement et comme pour
fin de seconde intencion, si comme nous disons : Q ui propter nos homines et
propter nostram salutem, etc.,31 ce ne redunde et ne fait en rien a sa bonté ne
175 a sa perfection. Car se II // (92a) creoit anges et âmes glorifiées autant en nom­
bre cent mille fois comment il sont, sa bonté ne crestroit pour ce en rien, et
ne apeticeroit en rien se II adnichiloit toute creature; tout aussi comme se II
creoit cent mille mondes ou se II adnichiloit cestui et tout<T>32autre creature,
ja pour ce ne seroit en rien creue ne appetizee l’immensité de Lui de laquelle
180 fu dit ou premier chapitre. E t briefment, c ’est simplement impossible que
quelcunque autre chose soit requise ou face addicion a la perfection de Lui
laquelle ne depent de quelcunque chose. Item, encore, pour ce miex enten­
dre, je met .ii. gros examples : un est du feu qui est lasus en son espere près
du ciel de la lune, si comme il fu dit ou tiers chapitre du premier et en plu-
185 seurs autres lieus, car ce feu ne art ne eschaufe ou altéré quelcunque autre
chose et ne produit nul effit, et toutesvoies il n’est pas moins perfect que le
feu de cibas qui art les busches ou telles choses. Item, le soleil quant éclipsé
est, aucuns lieus sont en terre ou il ne espant pas sa lumière, mais pour ce n’est
il pas moins perfect en soy que autrefois. E t de ce disoit Johannes Damas-
190 cenus: Q uod quamvis tunc33 sol ad tempus videatur deficere,34 ipse tamen
semper in se retinet indeficientis35 luminis claritatem.36 E t par trop plus forte
/ (92b) raison, la perfection de Dieu ne peut crestre ne amen<u)isier37 par
quelcunque chose que II face hors Lui ne autrement, car elle est simplement
infinie et plus que infinie. E t donques appert par ce que dit est que il ne
195 s’ensuit pas se D ieu est que le ciel soit et, par consequent, il ne s’ensuit
pas que le mouvement du ciel soit, car selon vérité, tout ce depent de la v o ­
lenté de Dieu franchement sanz ce que il soit aucune neccessité que II face ou
produise telles choses ou ait faites et productes perpetuelment, si comme il fu
plus a plain déclaré en la fin du .xxxiiii.e chapitre du premier.38 Item, encore
200 ne s’ensuit il pas se le ciel est que il soit meu, car si comme dit est, Dieu le
meut ou fait mouver purement voluntairement. E t selon vérité, ce monstra
Il ou temps de Josué, quant le soleil se arresta par tant de temps comme dure
un jour, car de ce dist l’Escripture : E t una dies facta est quasi due.39 E t est
vraisamblable que lors cessa le mouvement journal de tout le ciel et des pla-
205 netes et non pas le soleil seulement. E t pour ce disoit le Prophète en recitant
ceste chose : Sol et luna steterunt in habitaculo suo, etc.40
La seconde consequence estoit que se le ciel est meu perpetuelment, il
convient que la terre // (92c) repose ou milieu du ciel. Je di que non, premi-
30 A elle. 34 B videatur in se ipso deficere.
31 From the Credo o f the Mass. 35 D E semper ipse retinet ibi defficientis
32 A tout. luminis.
33 D E omit tunc. 36 Unidentified.
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 92a~92C | 363
and generous will H e spends His goodness and grace upon His creatures and does
for them certain things secondarily or for the purpose o f a second intention, as we
say: W ho for us men and for our salvation, etc., this action does not redound to
nor increase in any way His goodness or perfection. For if He // (92a) had created a
hundred thousand times the number o f angels and saints that He did create, His
goodness would not increase a single iota, nor would it decrease by so much as a
single speck if He destroyed every creature; and it would be the same i f He were to
create 1 00,000 worlds or i f he destroyed this world and every other creature; for
by this action His immensity, which we noted in Chapter One [see fols. 65a ff.],
would be neither increased nor diminished one jot or tittle. Briefly, it is simply im­
possible that anything could be required to add to His perfection, which depends
on nothing whatsoever. T o understand this better, I offer two crude examples : one
concerns the fire up above us in its sphere near the lunar heaven, which was men­
tioned in Chapter Three o f Book I [see fol. 9c] and elsewhere ; this fire does not burn
nor give off heat nor change anything nor produce any effect; nevertheless, it is no
less perfect than the fire here below which burns logs and such things. When the sun
is eclipsed, there are certain places on the earth where it does not spread its light,
but the sun is no less perfect in itself than at other times. O f this fact John o f
Damascus said : A lthough the sun seems to fail at times, nevertheless it always re­
tains within itself its unfailing brilliant light. B y still stronger / (92b) reason the
divine perfection cannot grow nor decrease because o f anything G o d may do out­
side Himself or otherwise, for His perfection is absolutely infinite and even more
than infinite. Thus, it is clear from what we have said that it does not follow that, if
G o d is, the heavens are ; consequently, it does not follow that the heavens move.
For, in truth, all these things depend freely upon the will o f G o d without any ne­
cessity that He cause or produce such things or that He should cause or produce
them eternally, as we explained more fully at the end o f Chapter Thirty-four o f
Book I [see fol. 58b]. Moreover, it does not follow that, if the heavens exist, they
must move; for, as stated, G o d moves them or makes them m ove quite voluntarily.
He demonstrated this action at the time o f Joshua when the sun stood still for the
duration o f an entire day, as the Scripture states : Was n o t... one day made as tw o?
It is probable that the daily motion o f the whole heavens and that o f the planets
stopped, and not only the sun. In relating this event, the Prophet said : The sun
and the moon stood still in their habitation, etc.
The second consequence was that, i f the heavens are moved perpetually, the
earth must // (92c) rest in the middle o f the heavens. I say no; first,because we ob-
37 A E amenisier. una dies facta est quasi duo.
38 B F .xxxiii.; D E .xxx. 40 Hab. 3: 11.
39 D E quasi vidue. Cf. Ecclus. 46:5— E t
 366 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
erement car nous voions que une roe, si comme la roe du moulin, est meue
210 toute sanz ce que ou milieu de elle <repose)41 quelcunque partie de elle ne
autre chose fors seulement42 un point indivisible lequel n’est rien fors selon
ymaginacion, combien que aucune chose repose hors la roe sus quoy elle est
meue. E t donques il ne s’ensuit pas se le ciel est meu circulairement que la
terre ou autre chose repose ou milieu, car posé que elle y repose et que le con-
215 sequent soit vray, toutevoies la consequence n’est pas bonne, car mouvement
circulaire, en tant comme tel ne requiert pas que aucun corps repose ou mi­
lieu du corps ainsi meu. Item, il n’est pas impossible simplement et qui en-
cloe contradiction, mes est possible a ymaginacion que la terre fust meue
avecques le ciel par mouvement journal, aussi comme est le feu en son espere
220 et la plus grant partie de l’aer selon Aristote ou premier de M etheores.43 E t
combien que nature ne peust ainsi mouver la terre, toutevoies est ce possible
en la seconde signification de possible et de impossible mise ou .xxx.e chapi­
tre du premier. O r donques, posé que la terre fust meue avecques le ciel ou
au contraire du mouvement du ciel, il ne s’ensuit pas que pour ce le / (92d)
225 mouvement du ciel cessast. E t donques ce mouvement, quant est de soy, ne
requiert pas de neccessité que la terre repose ou milieu. Item, ce n’est pas
impossible que toute la terre soit meue d ’autre mouvement ou d ’autre ma­
niéré: Job .ix.e: Q ui commovet terram de loco suo,44 car autrement les par­
ties qui sont vers le centre ne pourroient venir au lieu de leur corrupcion et
230 seroient perpétuelles, laquelle chose ne peust estre par nature selon Aristote,
combien que a ce fu<st>45 souffissanment respondu en la fin du premier li­
vre. E t donques est ce chose neccessaire selon la philosophie d’Aristote que
la terre soit aucune fois meue et est impossible que elle repose tousjours. E t
le mouvement du ciel est perpétuel selon Aristote. E t donques il ne s’en-
235 suit pas se le ciel est meu que la terre repose. Item, a celui qui dist que il con­
vient que aucun corps repose ou milieu du corps meu circulairement, je de­
mande de quelle quantité il convient que tel corps soit et l’en ne pourroit
assigner ou designer quantité si petite que mendre, combien que fust, ne
souffisist par samblable raison. E t donques se toute la masse des elemens es-
240 toit meue avecques le ciel, aussi comme est le feu en son espere et l’aer en
partie, et seulement une très petite porcion de terre reposast ou centre, //
(93a) il souffiroit. E t par consequent, le mouvement du ciel ne requiert pas
de neccesité que toute la terre repose. Item, le ciel est meu par une vertu mo­
tive laquele ne le ciel ne dependent en rien de la terre quant a ce mouvement,
245 car la terre ne fait a ce appoement ne aide ne confort. Item, nature ne pour­
roit faire que l’espere ou masse des ,iiii. elemens qui est contenue dedens le
ciel fust adnichilee et que l’espace ou elle est fust wide, mais ce n’est pas chose
41 A omits repose. 344a 11-14.
42 A fors que seulement. 44 Job 9:6.
43 Meteorologicorum, 1.3.340b 29-34^ 4; 7. 45 A fu.
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 92d~93a | p 6j
serve that a wheel— like a mill wheel— moves completely without its center resting
or remaining immobile in any part, save in an indivisible point which is nothing
more than imagination, although there is something fixed and motionless outside
the wheel upon which it is moved. So, it does not follow that because the heavens
move in a circle the earth or some other body must remain motionless at their cen­
ter, for, supposing that this is so and that the consequent is true, still the consequent
is not valid because circular motion as such does not require that any body rest
motionless in the middle o f a body so moved. It is not absolutely impossible nor
does it imply a contradiction, rather it is possible, to imagine that the earth moves
with the heavens in their daily motion, just as fire in its sphere and a great part o f
the air participate in this daily motion, according to Aristotle in the first book o f
M eteors. Although nature could not m ove the earth thus, it is however possible in
the second meaning o f possible and im possible in Chapter Thirty o f B ook I [see fols.
48b~49a]. Therefore, assuming that the earth moves with or contrariwise to the
heavens, it does not follow from this / (9 2d) that celestial motion would stop, and
so, in and o f itself, this circular motion o f the heavens does not demand that the
earth remain motionless at the center. It is, indeed, not impossible that the whole
earth moves with a different motion or in another way. In Job 9, we read: W ho
shaketh the earth out o f her place..., for otherwise the parts near the center would
never reach the place where they are destroyed and would be perpetual, which A -
ristotle holds to be impossible naturally, although enough has been said o f this
matter at the end o f Book I [see fols. 6od-62c]. It is necessary, according to Aris­
totelian philosophy, that the earth should move occasionally and impossible that it
always remain immobile. A n d celestial motion is eternal in Aristotle’s opinion.
Then, it does not follow that, i f the heavens move, the earth remains motionless.
O f the person who says there must be some motionless body in the center o f a cir­
cularly m oving body, I ask what must be the size o f this body, for we could not
fix upon a quantity so small that a smaller one would not satisfy the demands o f
reason. Therefore, if the entire mass o f the elements moved with the heavens— as
do fire and a part o f the air— and if only a small portion o f earth remained at rest
in the center, // (93a) this would be enough. Consequently, the motion o f the
heavens does not require that the whole earth should rest. Th e heavens are moved
by a motive force which, like the heavens themselves, does not depend in any way
upon the earth for this motion because the earth gives neither support, help, nor
comfort to it. Nature could not cause the destruction o f the sphere or mass o f the
four elements therein contained, nor could nature cause the space containing this
sphere to be empty; but it is not absolutely impossible, as we pointed out at the
 j6 S | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
simplement impossible, si comme il fu dit en la fin du .xxiiii.e chapitre du
premier. E t ce posé par ymaginacion, le ciel ne lesseroit pas pour ce estre meu.
250 E t donques la consequence n’est pas bonne qui dist : se le ciel est meu, la terre
repose ou milieu. Item, les parties du ciel et les estoilles qui sont devers sep­
tentrion sont meues circulairement environ une partie de l’exel du monde,
lequel axel n’est fors une ligne ymaginee, et nul corps quelcunque ne repose
ou milieu du circuite qu’i font les dites parties ou estoilles. E t donques nul
255 corps n’est requis reposant ou milieu de leur mouvement circulaire. Item, l’es-
toille que l’en appelle l’estoille du nort, laquelle est près du pole artique, se
elle estoit droitement en ce pole, elle seroit meue circulaire- / (93 b) ment en­
viron le centre de elle sanz ce que rien du monde reposast en son centre. E t
se aucun responnoit en disant que aucun corps repose ou milieu de tout le ciel
260 dont ceste estoille est une partie, ceste response est nulle, car le repos de la
terre est du tout impertinent au mouvement de ceste estoille sanz a ce nuire
ou aidier. Item, contre ceste response et au propos principal est ou ciel in­
stance manifeste, car pour salver les apparences et les experiences des mou-
vemens du ciel, il convient de neccessité confesser que ou ciel sont aucuns
265 corps celestielz speriques appelléz epicicles, et que chascun tel epicicle a mou­
vement circulaire propre a soy environ son centre autre que le mouvement
du ciel en quoy est cest epicicle. E t appert clerement que c’est impossible
selon philosophie que quelcunque corps repose ou milieu de cest epicicle.
E t donques il ne convient pas que aucun corps repose ou milieu de corps meu
270 circulairement. E t encore ne peut l’en dire que le corps du ciel qui contient
cest epicicle repose, car il est meu, mes c’est d’autre mouvement. Item, en­
core pourroit l’en faire instance des mouvemens des excentriques, car ne la
terre ne autre corps ne repose ou milieu ou ou46 centre de l’excentrique.
Mais pour ce que la // (93c) terre repose dedens l’excentrique et non pas ou
275 centre et rien ne repose dedens l’epicicle, l’instance devant mise qui estoit
de l’epicicle est plus forte que ceste. Item, se aucun disoit que la diffinicion de
mouvement local est soy avoir autrement selon lieu47 ou regart d ’aucun corps
qui repose, et donques se nul corps ne reposoit, ce seroit impossible que au­
cun corps fust meu; je di que ce ne vault, car repos est privacion de mouve-
280 ment, si comme dist Aristote en cest chapitre. E t donques n’est pas repos de
l’essence de mouvement et ne doit estre mis en sa diffinicion. Mais par aven­
ture, aucun diroit que estre meu selon lieu est autrement soy avoir ou res-
gart d’autre corps, soit meu ou non-meu; encore di je que ce ne vault, pre­
mièrement car hors le monde est une espace ymaginee infinie et immobile,
285 si comme il fu déclaré en la fin du .xxiiii.e chapitre du premier, et est possible
sanz contradiction que tout le monde fust meu en celle espace de mouvement
droit. E t dire le contraire est un article condampné a Paris.48 E t ce posé, nul
autre corps ne seroit auquel le monde se eust autrement selon lieu. E t don-
46 B F un. 47 D E Dieu.
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 93^3-930 | 369
end o f Chapter Tw enty-four o f Book I [see fols. j8 d ff.]. This imaginary situation
does not assume that the heavens would stop moving. So the consequence is not
valid which holds that, if the heavens move, the earth rests at the center. The parts
o f the heavens and the stars in the north m ove in a circle around a part o f the
earth’s axis, which is only an imaginary line, and no body whatever rests in the
middle o f the circle which the aforesaid parts and stars travel. Thus, no body is re­
quired to be at rest in thé center o f their circular motion. I f the star called the Star
o f the North, which is near the arctic pole, were directly on the pole, it would move
in a circle / (93 b) around the center o f the earth with nothing in the world at rest
within its center. I f someone were to reply that something is at rest at the center o f
the heavens o f which this star is a part, this objection is nul, because the immobility
o f the earth is not pertinent to the motion o f this star, which it neither injures nor
aids. Against this objection and against the principal argument is the manifest
instance in the heavens themselves ; for to save appearances and from our obser­
vations o f celestial motion, we have to confess that in the heavens there are some
spherical bodies called epicycles and that each epicycle has its own proper circular
motion around its center— a motion different from that o f the heavenly sphere in
which the epicycle is found. Clearly it is impossible, according to philosophy, that
any body should be at rest in the center o f this epicycle. So again, it is not necessary
that a body be at rest in the middle o f another body m oving in a circle. N o r can we
say that the celestial sphere containing the epicycle is resting, for it moves, but with a
different motion. W e could cite here eccentric motions because neither the earth nor
any other body rests in the middle or center o f the eccentric. But since the // (93 c)
earth rests within the eccentric and not at its center and since nothing rests within
the epicycle, the above illustration o f the epicycle is stronger than that [of the eccen­
tric]. Should someone say that the definition o f local motion is to be transported to
a different place with respect to some other body at rest, then, if no body were at
rest, no body could m ove; I say that this hypothesis does not hold, for rest is pri­
vation o f movement, as Aristotle says in this chapter [see fol. 9od]. Therefore, rest
is not o f the essence o f motion and ought not to be included in its definition. Per­
haps someone will say that local motion means to be transferred with respect to
another body either m oving or not; again I say that this does not hold because, in
the first place, beyond this world is an imaginary space infinite and motionless, as
stated at the end o f Chapter Twenty-four o f B ook I [see fols. 37b ff.], and it is pos­
sible to say without contradiction that the whole world moves in this space with a
right motion. T o say the contrary is to maintain an article condemned in Paris.
With this assumption, no other body exists with which the world could exchange
48 Doubtless Art. 49, among those condem­ tunc relinqueret vacuum.” Denifle et Châte­
ned in Paris in 1277 : “ Quod Deus non possit lain, Cbartularium, I, 546.
movere celum motu recto: Et ratio est, quia
 3 jo | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ques ne vault la description desus dite. Item, posé par ymaginacion et si
290 comme il est possible que Dieu par sa puissance creast .ii. corps / (93 d) sé­
parés un de l’autre, et soient .a. et .b. [Fig. 11, marginal], et que nul autre
corps ne fust fors ces .ii., et que il fussent meuz samblablement un comme
l’autre; et donques se avroient il .i. ou regart de l’autre touzjours samblable­
ment et .a. ne se avroit autrement a quelcunque autre corps ne .b. aussi. E t
295 donques estre meu n’est pas soy avoir autrement a autre corps. Item, posé
que .a. fust meu et que .b. reposast, .a. et .b. se avroient autrement un a l’au­
tre du tout en telle maniéré comme se .b. estoit meu et .a. reposast. E t don­
ques l’en ne pourroit assigner cause ne raison pourquoy .a. seroit meu plus
que .b. ou reposast plus que .b., se estre meu estoit avoir soy autrement ou
300 resgart d’autre corps. Item, je argue en especial du mouvement du ciel, car
se estre meu ainsi estoit soy avoir autrement ou resgart de la terre qui repose
ou milieu, il s’ensuiroit que les parties du ciel qui sont lasus vers la circun-
ference et celles qui sont plus bas49 vers le centre ou vers la terre fussent
meues d’une meisme vélocité ou isnelleté, et samblablement des parties qui
305 sont ou milieu du ciel et de celles qui sont vers les poles, car les unes ne re­
gardent pas la terre autrement que les autres plus isnelement, // (94a) mais
d’une meisme isneleté. E t toutevoies, il est certain que les unes sont meues
plus isnelement que les autres très notablement, et donques le mouvement du
ciel n’est pas en soy avoir autrement a la terre. Item, posé par ymaginacion
310 que la terre fust meue par l’espace d’un jour de mouvement journal et que le
ciel reposast et apres ce temps la chose fust si comme elle est, je di que en ce
temps le ciel et la terre ne se avroient .i. ou resgart de l’autre autrement que
il avoient devant ce temps ne que il se sont apres, mais du tout en tout par
samblable maniéré sanz quelcunque difference. E t donques, se estre meu es-
315 toit soy avoir autrement a autre corps, l’en ne pourroit dire pourquoy le ciel
reposast en ce temps plus que autrefois. Item, se il estoit necessaire pour le
mouvement du ciel que la terre reposast si comme dist Aristote, posons don­
ques que aucune vertu, si comme une intelligence ou un ange, meust la terre
de mouvement journal par un certain temps, il s’ensuiroit que en ce temps le
320 ciel fust sanz mouvement journal. E t ainsi la vertu qui mouvroit la terre a-
vroit en sa puissance de faire que le ciel seroit meu ou que il reposeroit. E t ce
est inconvenient. Item, en / (94b) ce cas, quant telle vertu mouvroit la terre
comme dit est, en ce temps l’intelligence qui m ouvoit le ciel au devant se a ou
resgart du ciel et le ciel ou resgart de elle du tout aussi comme devant. E t don-
325 ques elle meut le ciel et le ciel est meu aussi comme devant.50 E t toutevoies, en
49 A sont bas plus bas. Redundancy par- 50 B D E F omit Et donques... comme de-
tially expunged. vant.
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 93d~94b | 371
places. So the description above is not valid. N o w , let us imagine and assume to be
possible that G o d in His omnipotence created two bodies / (93 d) separated from
each other, which we will designate a and b [see Fig. 11 ] ; there are no other bodies
save these two and both are m oved exactly alike so that the two bodies are always
in the same position with regard to each other, neither a nor b having any connec­
tion whatever with any other body or bodies. It should be clear that it is not correct
to say that to be moved is to change the relative position o f one body with respect
to the other. L et us suppose that a moves and b rests ; then a and b would change
their relative positions completely just as though b moved and a rested. In such a
case, it would be impossible to explain w hy a should move rather than b3 or vice
versa, if it were true that motion implies a change o f relative position with respect
to some other body. Again, I am arguing especially about celestial motion, for, i f
to be moved thus implied that the heavens were in a different position relative to
the earth resting at the center, it would follow that the parts o f the heavens near
the circumference and the parts lower down near the center or closer to the earth
would all m ove with the same velocity and, likewise, those parts in the middle o f
a
b
Fig. ii
the heavens and those near the poles, because with respect to the earth, no single
part would move more quickly than any other, // (94a) that is, the rate o f motion
is everywhere identical. However, it is certain that some parts m ove considerably
faster than others, and so celestial motion does not involve a different relative po­
sition o f the heavens with respect to the earth. N o w let us imagine the earth to be
moved for a day by daily motion while the heavens remain at rest and, then, after­
ward, the two bodies [the heavens and earth] resume their customary actions— the
earth immobile with the heavens revolving. I say that during that day the heavens
and earth would not change their positions relative to each other, but that after­
ward they would be exactly as before without any difference whatsoever. There­
fore, if to be moved implied a change o f relative position with respect to another
body, we could not explain w hy the heavens rested at one time rather than at an­
other. I f it were necessary that the earth should remain at rest in order that the
heavens revolve, as Aristotle states, imagining that some force, like an intelligence
or angel, moves the earth in daily motion for a certain time, it would follow that
during this time the heavens would remain without daily motion. Thus, the power
that moves the earth would be capable o f controlling heavenly motion, causing
them to move or rest. This is inadmissible. In / (94b) this case, when such a force
moved the earth as stated above, the intelligence m oving the heavens forward in
this time would remain in the same relation to the heavens and the heavens in the
 5J2 j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ce temps, quant la terre est ainsi meue, le ciel se a continuelment51 a la terre
en une maniéré et non autrement, et a tout corps samblablement. E t donques
estre ainsi meu n’est pas soy avoir autrement a autre corps. Item, estre es-
chaufé ou autrement altéré n’est pas soy avoir autrement a autre corps, mais
330 se le corps qui eschaufe se a autrement a autre, c ’est par accident et hors l’es­
sence de ceste alteracion ou mouvement. E t donques c’est soy avoir autre­
ment en soy meisme. E t donques par samblable, estre meu selon lieu est soy
avoir autrement en soy meisme ou resgart de l ’espace ymaginee immobile,
car ou resgart de celle espace ou selon elle est mesurée le isneleté du mouve-
335 ment et de ses parties. E t par ce appert que le mouvement du ciel ne autre
<ne>52 requiert, quant est de soy, repos ne mouvement d ’autre corps. E t don­
ques ne vaut la consequence d’Aristote qui disoit : se le ciel est meu, la terre
repose, etc. E t encore appert par ce que dit est que mouvement local est au­
tre chose que le // (94c) corps ainsi meu, car c ’est le corps soy avoir autre-
340 ment en soy meisme ou resgart de l’espace ymaginee immobile. E t tel mou­
vement est un accident et non pas chose qui puisse estre separee de toute
autre et par soy estant, car c ’est impossible— tel qui implique contradiction—
mais est aussi comme seroit la curvité ou la rectitude d’une ligne ou d’une
verge, car telle chose ne peut estre ymaginee sanz aucun subject.
345 La tierce consequence fu ceste : se la terre est, il convient par neccessité que
le feu soit. Je di que ceste consequence n’est pas neccessaire combien que le
consequent soit vrai de neccessité de nature, et les probacions ne sont pas
bonnes. L a premiere estoit telle: la terre et le feu sont contraires et se un con­
traire est en estre, il convient que l’autre soit en estre, etc. Je di que il ne con-
350 vient pas de neccessité, car se toutes choses estoient blanches, rien ne seroit
noir; et que rien ne soit noir, ce n’est pas impossible ou que rien ne soit amer
et ainsi de pluseurs autres contraires. Item, a ce que Aristote le veult prouver
parce que une meisme matière est subjecte a .ii. contraires, je di que se la ma­
tière est subjecte a un contraire, il ne s’ensuit fors53 que elle peut estre sub-
355 jecte a l’autre contraire; mes / (94d) se ceste possibilité n’estoit onques re-
ducte a fait, ce ne seroit pas inconvenient, si comme il fu dit en la fin du pre­
mier livre. Item, a l’autre probacion ou il dist que chaleur est premiere que
froidure, etc., l’e<(n>54 peut respondre que chaleur est trouvée en autre chose
que en feu, et pour ce, il ne s’ensuit pas se chaleur est que feu soit. E t par ce
360 que j’ay dit appert que la quarte consequence n’est pas évidente laquelle est
prouvée par samblables raisons et estoit telle: se terre et feu sont, les .ii.
autres elemens moiens sont. La quinte consequence estoit: se ces elemens
sont, il est neccessité que generacion soit. Je di que non. E t a la premiere
raison quant Aristote dist que c ’est impossible que aucun de ces elemens
365 soit perpétuel, etc., je respons que non, mais est vérité que aucunes parties de
51 B meue ne le ciel continuelment. 53 B pas.
52 A omits ne. 54 A le.
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 94c~94d | 373
same relation to the intelligence as before. So it moves the heavens and the heavens
are moved as before. Nevertheless, during the time that the earth is thus moved, the
heavens stand continuously in the same, and not a different, relation to the earth and
likewise to all other bodies. Therefore, motion o f this kind does not involve a
change o f position relative to another body. T o become warm or altered in some
other way does not mean to assume a change o f position relative to another body,
but, if the body which does the heating assumes a different relative position, this
change is accidental and beyond the essence o f this alteration or movement; it is
an internal change within the body itself. Likewise, to change place is an internal
change with respect to the imagined motionless space, for it is with regard to this
space that the speed o f the motion and o f its parts is measured. A s a result, it ap­
pears that no movement— celestial or otherwise— requires in and o f itself either the
immobility or the movement o f another body and that Aristotle’s consequence
stating: I f the heavens move, the earth rests, etc., is not valid. Still it is clear from
what has been said that local motion is something other than the // (94c) body that
is locally moved because this involves the body undergoing an internal change
with respect to the space it occupies, assumed to be motionless. Such motion is an
accident and cannot be separated from other things and stand alone ; it would be
impossible since it implies contradiction. It would be like the curvity or straight­
ness o f a line or rod, for such a thing cannot be imagined apart from some object.
The third consequence was as follows : i f the earth exists, fire must also. I say
that this consequence is not necessary— although it is true according to nature— and
that the proofs are not good. T h e first proof was this : earth and fire are contraries,
and if one contrary exists, then so must the other, etc. I say that this is not neces­
sarily so ; for, i f all things were white, then nothing would be black, and that noth­
ing should be black, or bitter, and so forth with other contraries is not impossible. I
say to Aristotle’ s wish to prove this rule o f contraries, because the same matter is
subject to two contraries, that, if the matter is subject to one contrary, it follows
merely that it can be subject to the other; but, / (94d) if this possibility is never
realized, it would not be disadvantageous, as we said at the end o f Book I [see fol.
6id]. T o the other proof, where he says that heat is prior to cold, etc., we can reply
that heat is found in things other than fire, and so it does not follow that, i f heat
exists, fire exists. From what I have just said it appears that the fourth consequence
is not self-evident, which he proved by similar arguments, for instance : if earth and
fire exist, the other two intermediate elements exist. The fifth consequence was :
if these elements exist, then generation must exist also. T o this I say no. T o the
first argument where Aristotle says it is impossible that any o f these elements
should be perpetual, etc., I say no also; but it is true that certain parts o f fire and
374 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
feu et de terre sont perpétuelles par nature ou peuent estre, si comme il fu
monstré en la fin du premier livre. E t donques est ce possible55 de leur touz
qui sont de telle nature comme sont leurs parties, mais ce n’est pas possible
selon le cours de nature qui est de fait. E t a la seconde rayson d’Aristote qui
370 fu telle en vertu: les mouvemens naturel<(z)s6 des elemens ne sont pas per-
petuelz et donques les elemens ne sont pas // (95a) perpetuelz,57 je di que ce
ne vault, car les elemens ou leurs parties, si comme les parties de terre, ne ces­
sent pas a estre quant leur mouvement cesse, mais sont meues a leur lieu na­
turel afin que elle<s>58 y reposent et durent sanz corrupcion tant comme il
375 est possible. Item, par arguement prins de sens59 contraire, l’en pourroit dire
ainsi: l’element est perpétuel duquel le repos naturel est perpétuel; et le re­
pos60 de la terre est perpétuel selon Aristote en la seconde consequence. E t
donques est la terre perpétuelle contre ce que il dist ici.
La sixte consequence estoit: se generacion est, pluseurs mouvemens sont
380 ou ciel, etc. Je di premièrement que, posé que le ciel reposast, alteration et
generacion seroit, car se un feu estoit maintenant appliquié a une matière la­
quelle il eschaufast et ardist, il ne samble pas chose resonnable que il cessast
de eschaufer et de arder posé que tout le mouvement du ciel cessast. E t dire le
contraire est selon un article condempné a Paris.61 Item, selon vérité, quant
385 le soleil fu arresté au temps de Josué, tout le mouvement du ciel cessa, car
autrement tout le ciel62 eust apres esté desordené, si comme chascun qui se
entent en telles choses peut veoir clerement. E t l’Escripture meisme / (95 b)
dist que la lune se arresta, et toutevoies, generacion ne cessa pas lors ne cor­
rupcion, car ce pendant, ceulz qui estoient contre Gabaon furent occis.63
390 Item, selon une ancienne fable, quant Jupiter coucha avecques une appellee
Almena, il doubla celle nuit et la fist durer .ii. nuiz. E t ainsi le mouvement du
ciel cessa par l’espace d’une nuit. E t pour ce ne cessa pas generacion, car lors
Jupiter engendra Hercules en celle femme Almena.6* O r est il ainsi que plu­
seurs de telles fables sont fondées sus aucune vérité, si comme met Plato in
395 Tymeo de la fable de Pheton65 qui fu fondée sus la vérité d’un diluge de feu
qui fu ou temps et ou païs du roy Pheton. E t semblablement l’en peut dire
que ceste fable fu fondée sus la vérité de ce que le mouvement du ciel cessa ou
temps que Josué deffendoit la cité de Gabaon. E t c’est possible et vraisam-
blable, premièrement car quant le mouvement du ciel cessa a la requeste de
400 Josué, il estoit nuit en aucuns lieus habitables qui sont plus vers orient que
n’estoit Gabaon; et ne convient pas que entre ces lieus et Gabaon fust très
grant distance, car en Gabaon le soleil estoit près de rescouser, si comme il
ss B impossible. 60 F omits est perpétuel; et le repos.
56 A naturelles. 61 Art. i j 6, condemned in Paris in 1277:
57 B D E F orvdt et donques...perpetuelz. “ Quod si celum staret, ignis in stupam non
s8 A D E elle. ageret, quia Deus non esset.” Denifle et Cha-
59 D sen; E son. telain, Chartularium, vol. 1, 552. See note 60
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 95a~95b | 373
earth are perpetual by nature or can be so, as shown at the end o f Book I [see fob
6id]. So it is possibly true o f their sum total which is o f the same nature as their
parts, but it is not actually possible in the ordinary course o f nature. A n d I say to
Aristotle’s second argument, which was in effect that the natural motions o f the ele­
ments and therefore the elements themselves are not //(95 a) perpetual, that it is not
valid, for the elements or their parts, just like those o f the earth, do not cease to
exist when they stop m oving; but they are moved to their natural place to rest
there and they last without change as long as possible. Using an argument taken
from the opposite sense, we could say: the element is perpetual if its natural rest is
perpetual ; and, according to Aristotle’s second consequence, the earth is perpetual­
ly at rest. Therefore, the earth is perpetual, contrary to what he says here.
The sixth consequence was : if generation exists, there must be many motions in
the heavens, etc. In the first place, I say that, if the heavens were at rest, change
and growth would still exist, because if a fire were at the present moment applied
to a matter which it heated and burned, it is unreasonable to suppose that it would
stop heating or burning even should celestial motions be stopped. T o say the con­
trary is to support an article condemned in Paris. In truth, when the sun stopped in
Joshua’s time, the entire heavens ceased m oving; otherwise the whole heavens
would afterward have become completely disordered, as anyone who understands
such matters can clearly see. Th e Scripture even / (95 b) says that the moon stopped
moving ; but generation and destruction did not cease because during the period o f
cessation the enemies o f Gibeon were killed. According to an ancient fable, when
Jupiter slept with Alcmena, he doubled the length o f the night, making it last two
nights, so that the motion o f the heavens stopped for the duration o f one night.
But generation did not cease, for at that very time Jupiter engendered Hercules in
the woman Alcmena. N o w , several o f these fables are based upon some truth, like
the story about Phaeton which Plato tells in the Timaeus\ it is based upon the true
occurrence o f a deluge o f fire which happened at the time and in the country o f
o f K in g Phaeton. We can say that this fable is based upon the real occurrence o f the
cessation o f heavenly movement at the time Joshua was defending the city o f
Gibeon. A nd it is both possible and probable, first, because when the heavens
stopped at Joshua’s request, it was night in certain parts o f habitable land closer to
the orient than Gibeon ; and it must not be far from these places to Gibeon since in
above, fol. 93c. fuisti longior hac proxuma, / Tan to brevior
62 B tout le mouvement du ciel. dies ut fiat faciam, ut aeque disparet.” T. Macci
63 Jos. 10:10-13. Plauti comoediae, fasc. 1, ed. Goetz and Schoell
64 In his Amphitryon, Plautus relates that the (Leipzig: Teubner, 1902), p. 28, 11. 546-49;
night was lengthened for the delectation o f also 11. 271-82.
Jupiter: “ Nunc te, nox, quae me mansisti, 65 Timaeus, 22C.4— 22D.3. D de me qui; E
mitto ut(i) cédas diei, / Ut mortalis inlucescas d’Erme qui.
luce clara et Candida, / Atque quanto, nox,
 y/6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
samble par ce que dit l’Escripture : Sol ... non festinavit occumbere, etc.66
E t don- // (95 c) ques estoit ja nuit es parties d’orient. E t convint par necces-
405 sité que en ces parties la nuit <fust>67 plus longue de tant comme le jour fu
plus lon<c>68 en Gabaon. E t est vraisamblable que le mémoire ou la renom­
mée de ceste merveilleuse nuit dura entre les paiens siques a tant que Hercu­
les fu réputé un dieu ou déifié quant a eulz, et cuidierent ou figu<re)rent69 que
il avoit esté engendré celle nuit. E t de ce vint la fable devant mise. Item, la
410 sainte Escripture et les histoires des Grecs, quant a ceste matière, se concor­
dent en ce que par elles appert que Hercules fu engendré ou temps ou envi­
ron le temps que Josué estoit devant la cité de Gabaon. E t ce puet asséz ap­
paroir par ce que recite saint Augustin ou .xviii.e de L a C it é de D ie u .10 Item
encore, s’accordent il en ce que la saint Escripture dist que ce jour dura .ii.
415 jours: Sol ... non festinavit occumbere spacio unius diei71 et de ce dist en
Ecclesiastique: Una dies facta est quasi due72— le jour fu doublé. E t aussi
dist la fable que Jupiter doubla la nuit, et ce jour et celle nuit furent un meis-
me temps, si comme dit est. O r avons donques comment la vérité de la sainte
Escripture est declaree et tesmoingnie en ceste partie par la fable des poètes /
420 (95 d) paiens, et telles confirmations ou concordances loe et approuve saint
Jerome en une epistre «ad magnum oratorem urbis Romme.»73 Apres je di
que posé que ou ciel n’estoit mouvement fors seulement le journal, encore
seroient alteration et generacion, car le soleil et les autres planètes et estoil-
les avroient continuelment autre et autre resgart a la terre et aus choses de
425 cibas, et feroit plus grant chaut le jour que de nuit et a midi que au matin et a
une heure que a autre. E t ainsi seroit alteracion et, par consequent, genera­
cion et corrupcion, mes ce seroit d’autre maniéré que elles ne sont mainte­
nant. E t pour ce, je conclu et di que ceste consequence ou condicionelle: se
generacion est, pluseurs mouvemens celestielz sont, n ’est pas simplement
430 neccessaire, mais elle est vraie seulement en tant que se generacion est de telle
maniéré comme elle est ici-bas selon le cours de nature, il convient selon
l’ordenance de nature que pluseurs mouvemens soient ou ciel. E t la cause est
car telz mouvemens sont pour faire generacion comme pour cause final, et
generacion et toute autre transmutacion naturelle est pour honme, car nature
435 humaine est fin de toute creature corporelle // (96a) selon vérité et selon
Aristote ou secont de Phisique74 et en pluseurs lieus. E t est fin de generacion
et des autres mutacions, a parler de fin qui est fin de premiere intencion. E t
semblablement generacion est fin des mouvemens du ciel, fin de premerainne
intencion et non pas de seconde, en la maniéré que dist ici Averroïz.73
66 Cf. Jos. 10 :13 — Stetit itaque sol in m edio 69 A F figuirent; E figurent.
caeli, et non festinavit occumbere spatio unius 70 St. A ugustine, De civitate Dei, X V III. 12.
diei. 71 See above, footnote 66.
67 A omits fust. 72 Ecclus. 4 6:5— Una dies facta est quasi
68 A loing. duo.
Book II, Chapter 8, fols. 95c~96a | 777
the latter the sun was near to setting, as the Scripture makes clear: Th e su n ...
hasted not to go down the space o f one day. Thus // (95 c) it was night in parts o f
the east, and there the night must have been prolonged just as much as the day was
in Gibeon. It is probable that the memory o f this marvelous night dwelled among
the pagans up to the time when Hercules was reputed a god and deified by them,
and they thought or imagined that he had been conceived that night. From this
fact arose the fable just related. Th e H oly Scripture and the histories o f the Greeks
are in agreement on this subject and from them both it appears that Hercules was
conceived either at or nearly at the same time that Joshua was besieging the city o f
Gibeon. This is apparent from St. Augustine’s account in Book Eighteen o f the
C ity o f God. Th ey agree also in that the H oly Scripture says that this day was the
length o f tw o: S o l... non festinavit occumbere spacio unius diei; and again in
Ecclesiasticus : Una dies facta est quasi due— the day was doubled. In the same
manner the fable relates that Jupiter doubled the length o f the night and that day
and night were one and the same, as is said above. Thus we can see how the truth
o f the H oly Scripture is declared and witnessed in this passage from the fable by
the pagan poets; / (93d) St. Jerome praises and approves such confirmations and
agreements in a letter entitled “ T o the Great Orator o f the City o f Rom e.” Next, I
say that, even if there were only daily motion in the heavens, there would still be
change and growth ; for the sun and the other planets and stars would be in a con­
stantly changing position with regard to the earth and the things here below ; and
it would be hotter by day than by night, hotter at noon than in the morning, and
hotter at one time rather than at another. As a result there would be change, com­
ing-to-be, and ceasing-to-be, but it would occur otherwise than it does at present.
Therefore, I conclude by saying that this consequence or condition— namely, if
generation exists, there are many celestial motions— is not absolutely necessary ; it
is true only insofar as generation is conceived o f as it is known here below, accord­
ing to nature, and it follows that there must naturally be several motions in the
heavens. Such motions are made in order to produce generation as a final cause,
and generation and every other natural change is for man’s benefit since human
nature is the end or purpose o f every bodily creature, // (96a) in truth and accord­
ing to Aristotle in the second book o f the Physics and in several passages. Man is
the end o f generation and o f the other mutations, speaking o f end as an end o f the
first intention. Likewise, generation is the purpose o f celestial motion, the end o f a
primary and not o f a second intention, in the manner stated here by Averroes.
73 A ortatorem. Sancti Eusebii Hieronymi 74 Physicorum, II.8 .198b 8— 199a 20. Cf. also
epistulae (Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Pol. 1. 8. 1256b 15-22.
Latinorum, vol. 54), Epistula L X X , paras. 75 Juntas, t.c. 21, 109L-M.
2-6, esp. 4, pp. 7oo-8.'
 37 8 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
9. Ou nouviesme chapitre il monstre que le ciel est <de>1 figure
sperique par raison prinse de la priorité de ceste figure.
T . Il2 convient par neccessité que le ciel soit de figure sperique.
G . C ’est a dire très perfetement ronde, et il entent du souverain ciel. Apres
il touche les causes en general.
T . Car elle lui est très propre et est premiere selon substance et selon na-
5 ture.
G . Apres il prouve son propos par .iiii. raisons principales. E t pour la pre­
miere il met .ii. preamb<u)les3 ou supposicions.
T . O r disons donques universelement et generalment des figures laquelle
est la premiere, soit en superfices ou en corps.
10 G . Il £u dit ou premier chapitre du premier quoy est superfice et quoy est
corps. Apres il met une division.
T . E t toute figure plaine, ou elle est rectiligne ou elle est circulaire.
G . Il ne fait pas ici mencion des figures qui sont en superfice / (96b) speri­
i5
que ou courve, si comme en la superfice d ’une pomme ou d ’une pelote, mais
seulement de celles qui sont en superfice plainne, si comme est la superfice
d’une table ou du pavement d’une sale. Item, il ne fait pas mencion de celles
qui sont en telles superfices plainnes et sont contenues ou terminées de ligne
ou de lignes tortueuses et courves autrement que ligne circulaire, si comme
ainsi ou ainsi [Fig. 12a].4 Item, non fait il de celles qui sont contenues de
20 lignes droites ou tortueuses mesleement de .ii. ou de pluseurs, si comme
est la figure d ’un arc ou une tele,5mais il parle ici seulement de celles qui sont
en superfice plainne et droite et qui sont contenues de lignes droites ou de
ligne circulaire. E t la cause est car cestes sont plus simples que les autres. E t
donques, se figure circulaire est premiere et devant cestes, elle est premiere
25 que les autres.
T . E t se elle est rectiligne, il convient que elle soit contenue de pluseurs
lignes et se elle est circulaire, elle est contenue d’une seule ligne.
G . Il appelle rectilignes les figures qui sont contenues et terminées de li­
gnes droites desquelles la premiere est triangle qui est terminée par .iii. lignes
30 ainsi [Fig. 1 2b] ; la seconde est quadrangle, terminée par .iiii. lignes ; la tierce
// (96c) par .v., appelle<e>6 penthagone; la <quarte)7 par .vi. appelle<e>8
exagone et ainsi en procédant sanz fin, selon l’ordre des nombres . Mes figure
circulaire est contenue et terminée d’une seule ligne.
T . E t pour ce que en chascun gerre ou maniéré de choses un est par na-
1 A omits de. 5 A tele glose mais; D E telle. Item , mes.
2 G uthrie, ch. 4. 6 A F appellé.
3 A preambles. 7 A D E F la sixte par .vi.
4 Three o f the figures in fig. 12 occur in the 8 A B appellé.
text, three in the margin.
Book II, Chapter 9, fols. 96b~96c | 379
9. In Chapter N in e he shows the heavens to be spherical in
shape on the basis o f the priority o f this figure.
T . Th e heavens must o f necessity be spherical in shape.
G . That is, perfectly round. He means the sovereign heaven. N ext he touches
upon the causes in general.
T . For this shape is quite suitable to them and is primary both in substance
and nature.
G . Afterward, he proves his statement by four major arguments, the first o f
which he starts with tw o preambles or propositions.
T . N o w let us examine universally and generally which o f the shapes or figures
is first or primary either in plane surfaces or in solids.
G . In Chapter One o f Book I we defined planes and solids [see fols. 4a ff.]. Then
he makes a division.
T . A ll plane figures are either rectilinear or circular.
o 0 a
Fig. 12a
G . H e does not mention here the figures which have a spherical or curved sur­
face, / (96b) as, for instance, the surface o f an apple or a ball, but only those with
plain surfaces like tables or the floor o f a room. N o r does he mention the figures on
plane surfaces which are bounded or limited b y twisted or curved line or lines, un­
like a circular line, such as thus and so [see Fig. 12a]. N o r does he mention figures
with mixed straight and twisted lines o f two or more varieties, like the figure o f an
arc or o f [figures] such as this [see Fig. 12b] ; here he discusses only figures in plane
surface and rectilinear, contained within straight or circular lines, because these
figures are simpler than the others. Therefore, if spherical shape is primary among
these simple figures, it is primary with regard to all the others.
d A □
Fig. 12b
T . I f the figure is rectilinear, it must be contained within more than one line ; if
it is circular, it is contained within only one line.
G . He calls rectilinear the figures contained within straight lines, the first o f
these being the triangle bounded by three lines; the second is the quadrangle
bounded by four lines; the third // (96c) by five lines called the pentagon; the
fourth by six lines called the hexagon ; and so on endlessly, according to numerical
order. But a circular figure is contained within and bounded by only one line.
T . Since in each genus or class o f things one is naturally first or primary and
j8o | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
35 ture premier et avant que pluralité ou multitude et le simple devant les com­
posts, donques s’ensuit il que de toutes figures plainnes, celle qui est dite
cercle est la premiere.
G . Apres il conferme ceci par une autre raison.
T . Item, chose perfecte est de laquelle l’en ne peust rien prendre hors elle
40 des choses qui lui sont possibles, si comme nous avons dit devant.
G . O u premier chapitre du premier et ou tiers de Phisique.9 E t il veult dire
que la chose est perfecte a laquelle l’en ne peut adj ouster rien qui la parface,
etc.
T . E t a ligne droite et finie, l’en peut touz jours adj ouster, mes non pas a
45 ligne circulaire.
G . L ’en ne peust crestre une ligne circulaire, mais l’en peut bien faire en
une autre plus grant et il n’est pas ainsi de ligne droite.
T . E t donques appert que la ligne est perfecte de soy qui contient cede et
chose perfecte est devant chose imperfecte. E t pour ce, de toutes figures
5o plainnes, ce d e 10 est la premiere.
G . Il a diffe- / (9Ôd) rence entre ced e et ligne circulaire, car cede est la
superfice ou espace ou aere11 qui est contenue en la ligne circulaire appellee
circunference, aussi comme l’en diroit en gros exemple que le funs du ton­
neau est aussi comme le cede et ce que l’en seult appeller cede est aussi com-
55 me la circunference. E t par semblable, l’en doit savoir que espere est le corps
contenu en la superfice qui est appellee circunference sperique.
T . E t samblablement, espere est la premiere des figures solides ou corpo­
relles, car elle est contenue d’une seulle superfice, et les autres figures qui
sont rectilignes sont contenues de pluseurs superfices.
60 G . Si comme la premiere des figures corporelles rectilignes, qui est appel­
lee pyramide, est contenue de .iiii. triangles qui sont figures rectilignes com­
me devant12 est dit, et siet pyramide aussi comme fait ce que l’en appelle
cauquetrepe.13 E t la seconde corporelle apres ceste est appellee cubus, et est
aussi comme un dé et est contenue14 de .vi. superfices quarrees. E t ainsi chas-
65 cune autre apres est contenue de pluseurs superfices.
T . Car, si comme ced e est entre les figures plaines, ainsi est espere entre
les figures solides ou corporelles.
G . E t donques espere est la premiere // (97a) figure corporelle. E t ce con­
ferme il apres <par)IS une autre raison ou signe.
70 T . Item, il semble que a ce facent tesmoingnage ceulz qui dient que les
corps peuent estre divisés en superfices et que il sont engendrés ou compo­
sés de superfices.
G . E t samblablement, il disoient que les superfices sont composées de
lignes et les lignes de poinz indivisibles, mais ceste opinion est réprouvée ou
9 Physicorum, 111.6.207a 5-13. 11 D E rondesce.
10 B D E F plaines celle est. 12 D E sont figurées rectilignes ou devant.
Book II, Chapter 9, fols. 96d~97a | 381
precedes plurality or multiplicity and since the simple precedes the composite, it
follows that o f all plane figures the one called circle is first.
G . This he confirms with a further argument.
T . Also, a perfect thing is one outside o f which nothing that could possibly be­
long to it can be found, as we have said before.
G . In Chapter One o f Book I and in the third book o f the Physics. He means
that a thing is perfect to which we can add nothing to make it more perfect.
T . Straight lines can always be extended, but a circular line cannot.
G . W e cannot add to a circular line, but we can make o f it another larger circle,
which cannot be done with a straight line.
T . Therefore, it appears that the line which contains a circle is perfect and com­
plete o f itself, and a perfect thing comes before an imperfect thing. So the circle
ranks first among all plane figures.
G . There is a difference / (96d) between a circle and a circular line because the
circle is the surface or area or space contained within the circular line or circum­
ference. For a crude example, we say the bottom o f a barrel is like the circle and
what we usually call the circle is like the circumference. Likewise, we need to
know that a sphere is the body contained within the surface called a spherical cir­
cumference.
T . In the same way, the sphere is the first o f solid or corporeal figures, for it is
contained within a single surface or area and other rectilinear figures are bounded
by several surfaces.
G . Like the first o f the rectilinear bodies, called pyramid, which is contained
within four triangles or rectilinear figures, as stated above, and the pyramid has
the appearance o f a caltrop. T h e second body following the pyramid is called a
cube, like one o f a pair o f dice, and is contained within six square surfaces. In the
same way, each other solid in increasing order with regard to the number o f sur­
faces is contained within more and more surfaces.
T . For among solid or corporeal figures the sphere holds the same position as
the circle among plane figures.
G . Therefore, the sphere is the primary // (97a) solid figure. This he confirms
now with another argument or exposition.
T . It would seem that even those who state that bodies can be divided into sur­
faces and that they are generated or composed from surfaces agree with this last
statement.
G . A nd likewise these same persons used to say that areas are composed o f lines
and the lines o f indivisible points, but this opinion is refuted in the sixth book o f
13 D E om it cauquetrepe. 15 A omits par.
14 A contenuee.

ue.16 E t toutevoies, aucune fois en tenant un faulz opinion l ’en
l aussi comme contraint a confesser aucune vérité ; et pour ce,
îe cez ici en tesmoing de ce que il a dit.
Dûtes les figures solides ou corporelles, espere toute seulle est
eulz disoient que elle ne peut pas estre divisée en superfices,
le n’a pas pluseurs superfices mais une seulle.
soient que pyramide est divisé en .iiii. superfices qui sont .iiii.
ubus en .vi. superfices quarrees, etc. E t de ce sera dit plus a
ivre.
vision d’un corps en superfices ne peut estre fete telement que
înt samblables au tout, mais elles sont aussi comme autres en
soient il; et pour / (97b) ce, il mettoient que espere ne peut es-
uperfices pour ce que elle n’a fors une superfice. Comment que
Rendissent— car le texte est obscur18— toutevoies, il confes-
:rité que espere est plus simple et premiere que quelcunque
:11e.
:t donques que espere est la premiere des figures solides ou
met a ce la tierce raison ou persuasion,
te chose est très resonnable selon ceulz qui assignent et dispo-
s corporelles selon l’ordre des nombres, car il mettent cede
in ou selon unité et triangle selon dualité ou aussi comme .ii.
s .iii. angles valent .ii. angles drois, car se l’en attribuoit ou as-
î a un ou a unité, il s’ensuiroit que cede ne fust pas figure,
rect est si comme l’angle d’un instrument a mazon appellé
et quant .ii. lignes se entre-intersequent en une superfice a an-
maniere d ’une crois, il causent .iiii. angles d<r)ez*202
1environ le
1 de la croiz. Item, il appert par geometrie comment l’ordre des
:ielles rectilignes est selon le procès des nombres a commencier
jremiere est triangle, la seconde quadrangle, la tierce a .v.
arte .vi. Jj (97c) angles et la quinte .vii. et a<in)si22 en proce-
ïfig.13]. E t par ce appert que le nombre des anglez23 de la fi-
1 .ii. le nombre par quoy elle est denommee. Item, les .iii.
emiere figure valent .ii. angles drois et les .iiii. de la seconde
.iiii. angles drois et les .v. de la quinte valent .vi. angles drois
jia 21— 231b 18. formas diversas” (Juntas, 110M). Averroes
notes that Aristotle does not agree that the
as using is as follows : argument is true, but made use o f his oppo­
>rporum in superficies, nents’ arguments to further his own. See
>rporis in partes. D is­ Juntas, t.c. 24, 111A .
in superficies erit in 19 B F contain a crude figure representing a
Book II, Chapter 9, fols. 97^970 | 383
the Physics. However, in the process o f supporting a false opinion, one sometimes
feels and is actually constrained to confess some truth, and so here Aristotle cites
these persons as witnesses o f what he has said.
T . For they admitted the sphere to be the only one o f all the solid or corporeal
figures which cannot be divided into surfaces because it has not several surfaces,
but only one.
G . Th ey stated that the pyramid is divided into four surfaces or four triangles
and that the cube is divided into six square surfaces, etc. W e shall speak o f this
more fully in Book III [see fol. 170c].
T . For the division o f a body into surfaces cannot be done so that the parts are
similar to the whole, but they become specifically different.
G . This statement is theirs, and, therefore, / (97b) they held that a sphere cannot
be divided into surfaces because it has only one surface. H owever they meant this
.i. .ii. .iii. *i “ i- *£•
A @ Ô © ©
Fig. 13
— for the text here is obscure— they did confess this truth, namely, that a sphere is
simpler and more primary than any other corporeal figure [or shape].
T . It is thus evident that the sphere is the first o f solid or corporeal figures.
G . N ext he adds his third argument or opinion.
T . This opinion is very reasonable in the view o f those who assign and arrange
bodily shapes according to numerical order, for they assign the circle to the num­
ber one or to unity and the triangle to duality or the number two, because its three
angles are equal to tw o right angles. I f we attributed the triangle to number one or
unity, it would follow that the circle is not a figure at all.
G . A right angle is like the angle o f a mason’s tool called the square. When tw o
lines intersect each other on a surface forming equal angles in the shape o f a cross,
these lines form four right angles around the middle point o f the cross. It is clear
from geometry that the order o f rectilinear surface figures starts numerically with
three straight lines, for the first rectilinear figure is the triangle, the second the
square or quadrangle, the third with five angles, the fourth six // (97c) angles, the
fifth seven, and so forth to infinity [see Fig. 13]. From the above it appears that the
number o f angles exceeds by tw o the number which indentifies the figure. The
three angles o f the first figure are equal to two right angles, the four angles o f the
second are equal to four right angles, the five angles o f the fifth are equal to six
mason’s square. 22 A aussi.
20 A deez. 23 A angelz.
21 A angelz.
 384 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
<et les .vi. de la sixte .viii. angles droiz),24 et ainsi en procédant oultre sanz
fin par les figures selon l’ordre des nombres pers et non-pers, et par les an­
gles droiz selon les nombres pers seulement. E t donques [Fig. 14] convient
il que la figure qui est du tout sanz angle, c’est a savoir cercle, precede toutes
115 les autres et est aussi comme unité. E t a parler plus proprement, elle est
outre et precede unité quant est a angle et est ausi comme le cifre25 en argo-
risme qui est devant unité. E t par aventure, pour ce fu ordené que cifre fust
de figure circulaire. E t par ce que dit est appert que cede est la premiere des
figures superficielles et, par consequent, espere est la premiere des figures
120 corporelles. / (97d) E t ainsi Aristote a monstré par .iii. moiens que espere est
premiere figure corporelle. Apres il applique a propos.
T . E t pour ce que la premiere figure est deue au premier corps et le pre­
mier corps est celui qui est en la desreniere et souveraine circunference, don­
ques le corps qui est premier meu circulairement est sperique ou de figure
125 sperique.
G . Le ciel souverain est le premier en descendant et est le desrenier en
montant, et pour ce il est appellé le .viii.e espere, car selon Aristote nulle es­
pere n’est outre. Apres il conclut des autres cielz qui sont sous le premier.
T . E t donques convient il que le ciel qui est contenu26 a cestui et prochain
130 sans moien soit sperique, car a corps sperique est continué corps sperique. E t
samblablement convient il que il soit des autres qui sont en descendant vers
le milieu de cestui, car les corps qui sont contenuz27 et touchiés de corps
sperique, il convient par neccessité que touz soient speriques. E t les cielz des
planètes qui sont plus bas touchent l’espere qui est desus eulz et touchent28
135 un l’autre. E t pour ce, convient il que tout corps celestiel meu circulairement
soit sperique, car f f (98a) tous touchent et sont contenus29 les uns aus autres
en leurs esperes.
G . Aristote prent yci continu ou continué largement pour ce que est con-
ti< g)u 30 et prochain sanz31 moien, car les esperes du ciel ne sont pas propre-
140 ment continues une a l’autre, car elles ne sont pas meues d’un /(98b) meisme
mouvement. E t doit l’en savoir que chascun ciel ou chascune espere du ciel
qui environne le centre du monde a .ii. superfices : une dehors appellé super-
fice convexe, et jouste ce dist O vide: Convexum quociens claudit nox humi-
da celum [Fig. 1 5 ] ,32 // (98c) et l’autre dedens appellee superfice concave. E t
24 A omits et les .vi__droiz. 28 B omits l’espere...et touchent.
25 From Med. Latin cifra < Arabie sifr, 29 B D F continu and continus.
“ zero.” 30 A continu.
26 B D F continu and continus. This spelling 31 D E et pour ce .iii. sans moien.
conforms more to the sense o f “ contiguous” 32 Oresme, doubtless quoting this line from
and not “ contained” throughout this passage some florilegium, is mistaken in citing O vid as
o f text. its author. It is found, however, in a quotation
27 Ibid. in the Etymologiae o f Isidor o f Seville, without
Book II, Chapter 9, fols. \ 383
right angles, the six angles o f the sixth are equal to eight right angles, and so forth
to infinity through all odd and even numbered figures, but the number o f right
angles will be only in even numbers. Therefore, it is appropriate that the figure
[see Fig. 14] which has no angle whatever— the circle— should precede all the oth­
ers since numerically it is comparable to unity. More exactly, the circle is beyond
or precedes unity with respect to angles, being like the cipher zero in counting
which comes before or precedes the number one or unity. Perhaps this is w hy the
zero was made in the shape o f a circle. From the preceding, it is clear that the circle
is the first o f the plane figures and, consequently, the sphere is the first o f the solid
figures. / (97d) Aristotle has shown in three ways that the sphere is the first o f the
solid figures. Then he reverts to his subject.
T . Since the first figure is derived from the first body and since the first body is
that which stands in the farthest sovereign circumference, then the first body to
move in a circle is spherical or o f spherical shape.
Fig. 14
G . The sovereign heaven is the first, reckoning from top to bottom, and the
last, reckoning from bottom to top ; for this reason it is called the eighth sphere
since, according to Aristotle, there is no sphere beyond. N ext he concludes with a
discussion o f the other heavens below the first.
T . The heaven immediately contiguous to the first heaven, without any inter­
mediate body, must likewise be spherical, for what is contiguous to a spherical
body must also be spherical. Similarly, the other heavens proceeding downward
toward the center o f the primary heaven must also be spherical, for bodies conti­
guous to and touching a spherical body must all be spherical. The planetary heav­
ens farther below touch the sphere above them and one another. So, all celestial
bodies moved in circles must be spherical for // (98a) they are all contained one
within the other and their spheres touch one another.
G . Aristotle here uses continuous or continued very broadly meaning “ contig­
uous” or “ proximate” without intermediacy; for the spheres, properly speaking,
are not continuous with one another because they are not moved with one /(98b)
and the same motion. It should be made clear, too, that each heaven or celestial
sphere surrounding the center o f the world has two surfaces, one on the outer side
called convex surface o f which O v id said : H ow often does damp night encompass
the convex heavens? // (98c) The other, inner side [see Fig. 15] is called the con-
xndication o f its source. Cf. Isidori Hispalensis ed. W. M. Lindsay (Oxford, 1911), vol. I, 39.
eptscopi etymologiarum stve originum libri x x , III,
386 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Book II, Chapter 9, fols. 98d [ 387
145 Aristote a monstré par la raison devant mise que la superfice convexe du
cave surface. Aristotle has shown by the preceding argument that the convex sur­
souverain ciel est sperique. E t pour ce que <cest>33 ciel est meu circulaire-
face o f the sovereign heaven is spherical. Since this heaven moves in a circle and
ment et que celui que il touche est aussi meu circulairement et non pas du tout
since the heaven touching it is also moved in a circle but with an entirely different
samblablement, et avecques ce, pour ce que c’est impossible par nature que
motion and, moreover, because it is naturally impossible that the celestial bodies
les corps celestielz soient alteréz ne diminuéz, si comme il appert par le sixte
be altered or diminished, as we showed in Chapter Six o f Book I [see fols. 13a ff.],
i5o chapitre du premier, ou que entre eulz soit aucun lieu vieu, il s’ensuit par
or that there be any void or vacuum between them, it follows necessarily that the
neccessité que la superfice concave du souverain ciel et la superfice convexe
concave surface o f the sovereign heaven and the convex surface o f the second or
du secont apres soient très perfetement speriques sanz quelcunque aspérité
next heaven below must be absolutely spherical, with no roughness or humps, and
ou eminence et que eulz soient meuz un souz l’autre sanz aucune confrica-
cion, mes un passe sus l’autre très souef et très doucement sanz violence. E t
155 est par samblable quant a ce du secont ciel et du tiers et ainsi ensuianment
en descendant siques a la superfice concave du ciel de la lune, laquelle est
concentrique au monde et au corps du ciel qui contient ou comprent ou est
composé de touz les cielz parcialz, car autrement tout ce corps ensamble
seroit plus espés en une partie que en autre— laquelle chose n’est pas vrai-
160 samblable ne raisonnable. E t donques convient / (98d) il que la superfice con­
cave du ciel de la lune soit très perfectement sperique. E t pour ce que en ce
monde n’a lieu qui soit vieu, il s’ensuit que la superfice convexe de l’element
ou espere du feu, laquelle est sanz moien près du ciel de la lune, est très per­
fectement sperique. 34

that these heavens m ove one inside the other without any frictio n . Rather, the
passage o f one surface above the other must be as smooth, as gentle, and as effort­
less as possible. Th e same holds for the second and third heavens and thus through
all o f them in descending order down to the concave surface o f the lunar sphere,
which is concentric with the earth and with the heavenly body which contains or
comprises or is composed o f all the partial heavens ; otherwise, all this body taken
together would be thicker in one part than in another, which is neither probable
nor reasonable. Therefore, / (98d) the concave surface o f the lunar heaven must be
perfectly spherical. A nd since there is no vacuum nor void in this world, it follows
that the convex surface o f the element or sphere o f fire, which comes immediately
below the lunar sphere, is also very perfectly spherical.

10. Ou disieme chappitre il prouve ce meisme

par trois autres raisons.

T . Encore appert autrement que le ciel est sperique, car nous voions et est
10. In Chapter Ten he adds three further arguments
a supposer que tout le ciel est meu circulairement. E t il fu monstré devant
in support of his opinions.
33 A omits cest. estoit de figure rectiligne,” continuing to the
34 A t this point D E interpolate a passage gloss beginning in 99a. This passage is recop­ T . There is another reason to believe that the heavens are spherical in shape, for
beginning in the text just below: “ car se il ied in its correct position.
we can observe and assume the whole heavens to move circularly. We have al-
388 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 10, fols. 99a~99C j 389

que dehors la derreniere et souverainne circulacion, c’est a savoir dehors le ready shown [see fol. 34b] that beyond the highest and sovereign revolving heav­
souverain ciel, n’est vieu ne quelcunque lieu. E t pour ces causes, il convient en there is no void and no place. Therefore, the heavens must be spherical. I f they
5 de neccessité que le ciel soit sperique, car se il estoit de figure rectiligne ou were rectilinear or angular, there would have to be some other body and a void
qui eust angles,1 il convendroit que hors le ciel fust aucun corps et lieu vieu. beyond the heavens.
G . Car lieu est le corps ou la superfice du corps qui contient la chose qui G . For place is the body or surface o f the body which contains an object within
est en lieu, si comme met (A risto te)2 ou quart de P hi si que? the place, as Aristotle shows in the fourth book o f the Physics.
T . E t se le ciel avoit angle et supereminence qui fust meue circulairement, T . I f the heavens were angular or had any protuberance m oving circularly [on
10 cest angle ne demoureroit pas en un lieu, mes la ou il avroit esté devant et their surface], the angle would not stay in one place; in the place where it was be­
dont il seroit parti ne succederoit quelcunque corps, // (99a) et cel angle ou fore and whence it moved away there would be no bodily substance whatever, //
ceste partie qui est corps seroit meu a un autre lieu ouquel n’est aucun corps (99a) and that angle or bodily angular part would be moved to another place
pour la permutacion et transmutacion des angles. where no body is capable o f change and interchange o f angles.
G . Se le ciel estoit de telle figure angulaire et il fust meu circulairement
i5 comme si est, il convendroit que les angles (passassent)4 par une espace
wide et que il entrassent en (u n e )5 espace wide6 et lessassent apres eulz ou
derrière eulz espace wide; si comme, pour grace [Fig. 16] d’exemple, se le
ciel estoit de figure cubique ou quarree aussi comme est un dé et un de ses
angles fust .b. et le centre fust .a., cel angle .b. descriroit une ligne circulaire Fig. 16
20 et entreroit e(n > 7 wide espace et lesseroit apres soy wide espace— et c ’est
G . I f the heavens were angular in shape and were moved in a circle— as they are
ligier a entendre. E t ainsi seroit il de quelcunque autre / (99b) figure angu­
laire. — the angles would have to pass through a vacuum, enter a vacuum, and leave
behind them a vacuum. For example, if the heavens were square [see Fig. 16] or
T '. Samblablement se le ciel estoit d’autre figure que angulaire et que ( le s )8
cube-shaped like one o f a pair o f dice and if one o f its angles were b and its center a y
lignes qui vont du milieu a la circunference ne fussent pas equales, si comme
this angle b would describe a circular line and would enter empty space, leaving
25 seroit la figure d’une lentille ou d’un oeuf, il convendroit que dehors le ciel
behind it a vacuum— and this is easy to understand. This would be equally true o f
qui est meu circulairement fust lieu et vieu pour ce que tout le ciel ne seroit
pas touzjours en une espace. any other / (99b) angular figure.
T . In the same way, if the heavens were o f some shape other than angular, with
G . Car se le ciel estoit de telle figure, les parties de la circunference qui
the radial lines from the center to the circumference o f unequal length as in the
sont plus loing du centre par ce mouvement entreroient en espace wide,
figure o f a lentil or an egg, it would be necessary that outside the revolving body
30 et ainssi le ciel tout ensamble seroit une fois en un lieu et autre en autre. E t
o f the heavens there be a place and a void in order that the heavens not remain for­
maintenant, pour ce que il est de figure sperique perfetement, il est touzjours
ever in one place.
en un meisme lieu et est meu en son lieu et non pas meu de son lieu. Mais
contre ce semble estre une instance : car [Fig. 17] se le ciel estoit de figure qui
fust besloingne et sanz angle en se trahant // (99c) a figure de oeuf, et il fust

Fig. 17

G . For if the heavens were o f such shape, because o f this motion the parts o f the
circumference farthest from the center would enter empty space and, as a result,
the whole heavens would be at one time in one place and at another time in another.
angelz. 6 B omits et que il entrassent.. .wide. N ow , since it is o f perfectly spherical shape, it is always in the same place m oving
omits Aristote. 7 A et. The angle .b. is not indicated in the within but not out o f its proper place. However, there appears to be one instance
3 Physicorum, IV .4.2i2a 7-32. figure; it refers clearly enough to the angle when this is not so : if the heavens were oblong [see Fig. 17] in shape with no angle,
4 A omits passassent. formed by the line .a. to the circumference.
5 A F omit une. approximately // (99c) the shape o f an egg, and were moved in a circle around
8 A omits les.
390 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
35 meu circulairement environ le plus long’ dyametre de lui, et que les poles de
cest dyametre ou de cest essel et de cest mouvement soient .a. et .b. qui sont
aussi comme les bous de ceste figure, il s’ensuit que le ciel pourroit estre meu
ainsi en son lieu sanz ce que il le lessast ou en issist ne en tout ne en partie,
aussi bien comme se il estoit perfetement sperique, et sanz ce que il conve-
40 nist hors le ciel metre lieu ne plain ne vieu plus que se il estoit de figure spe­
rique. E t samblablement pourroit estre se le ciel estoit de figure comme len­
tille et il fust meu environ le dyametre de lui qui est le plus court, car il seroit
touzjours en un lieu, si comme l’en peut legierement entendre et experimen­
ter ou comprendre par exemple en figure corporelle. Je respon et di premiere-
45 ment que se le souverain et derrenier1° ciel estoit de telle figure ou près comme
est un oeuf et aussi les autres cielz qui sont souz lui et en lui, et touz ensamble
fussent meus d ’un seul mouvement environ le plus lo n g 11 dyametre qui es­
toit .ab.12 en la figure precedente, il ne convendroit ja pour ce hors le ciel
mettre lieu vieu plus que se il estoit du tout sperique. Apres je di que se ainsi
5o estoit que les cielz de planètes fussent de telle figure o- / (99d) vale lesquelz
sont meuz d’autre mouvement que le derrenier ciel et sus autres poles, les­
quelz soi<en)t13 .c. et .d. [Fig. 1 8J, il convendroit ou que ou ciel fust lieu
vieu ou penetracion— c ’est a dire que un ciel trespersast l’autre— ou condemp-
sacion et compression; et tout ce est impossible par nature. Tiercement, je di
55 que se le [Fig. 18 repeated] derrenier ciel estoit de telle figure ovale ou comme
est un oeuf e t f f (iooa) la superfice concave de lui fust de figure sperique, les
cielz des planètes qui sont en ceste superfice seroient speriques et pourroient
estre meuz sus les poles du zodiaque, lesquelz soient .c. et .d., et sanz ce que
il convenist mettre lieu vieu ne penetracion ne condempsacion; si comme en
6o gros exemple, nous voions que l’oeuf n’est pas de figure sperique et le mouel
de l’oeuf est sperique ou presque sperique. Mes se le ciel estoit telement dis­
posé, il convendroit que le derrenier ciel fust plus espés en une partie que en
autre ; et ce seroit un dit sanz raison et sanz apparence. E t avecques ce, il ap­
pert par les autres raisons que il est plus vraisamblable que il soit sperique et
65 meisme le derrenier ciel qui est le premier et le souverain corps de ce monde.
Apres il met la tierce raison principal.
T . Item, le mouvement du ciel est la mesure de touz m ouvem ens...
G . Si comme il appert ou quart de P hi si que. 14
T . Pour ce que ce mouvement seul et non autre est contenu et régulier et
70 pardurable.
G . Continu sans intervalle et sanz repos, réguler sanz estre plus isnel ou
plus hastif une fois que autre, et pardurable sanz fin.
9 A loing. 12 B D E F .a. et .b.
10 B D E F om it et derrenier. 13 A B soit; F sont.
11 A loing. 14 Physicorum, IV . 14 .223b 18-25.
Book II, Chapter 10, fols. 99d-iooa [ 391
their largest diameter, with the poles o f this diameter or axis and the poles o f the
movement called a and b also as the ends o f this figure, it then follows that the
heavens could m ove thus within their proper place without leaving it in whole or
in part, just as though it were a sphere, and without requiring any place either full
or void beyond the heavens more than a spherical shape would demand. Likewise,
if the heavens were shaped like a lentil and revolved on the axis o f its shortest
diameter, it could remain always in one place, as one can readily understand and
experience or comprehend from the example o f a material shape. I reply and say,
first o f all, that, if the highest sovereign heaven and the other lower heavens under
and within it had the shape, or approximately [the shape], o f an egg and that, i f all
these heavens moved with identical motions around the longest diameter ab, as
shown in the preceding figure [17], it would not be more necessary to posit a void
outside the heavens than in the case o f the spherical heavens. Next, I say that, if the
planetary spheres were oval / (99d) in shape, being moved in a manner different
from the sovereign heaven and on different axes which we will call c and d [see Fig.
Fig. 18
18], either there would have to be an empty place or penetration in the heavens—
that is, one heaven would pierce through the other— or there would have to be
condensation or compression, all o f which are impossible in nature. In the third
place, I maintain that, i f the highest heaven were oval in shape like an egg with //
(100a) its concave surface spherical, the planetary heavens within this surface would
be spherical and could move upon the poles o f the zodiac c and d without requiring
a void or penetration or condensation; as a rough example, we can see that the
outside surface o f an egg is not spherical, but its yolk is spherical or nearly so. I f
the heavens were like this egg in shape, the highest heaven would have to be thick­
er in one part than in another, and this would be an unreasonable and unlikely ar­
rangement. A ll in all, it appears from our other arguments that it is most probable
that the heavens are spherical in shape, even the highest heaven which is the pri­
mary and sovereign body o f this world. N o w he states his third principal argu­
ment.
T . Th e motion o f the heavens is the measure o f all m o tio n ...
G . A s shown in B ook Four o f the Physics.
T . Because this motion alone and no other is continuous, regular, and eternal.
G . Continuous without any interval o f rest, regular without being faster or more
rapid at one time than at another, and eternal without end.
 39* Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 10, fols, ioob-iood | 393

T . E t en chascun gerre ou ma- / (ioob) niere de chose, ce que { e s t)1* le
plus très petit est la mesure de telles choses.
75 G . Ce appert ou .x.e de Metaphisique^16 et selon ce nous disons que unité
ou un est mesure des nombres par la replicacion de elle. E t aussi l’en mesure
une longueur en replicant une petite chose, si comme est une aune ou un pié,
et un pois en replicant une livre ou une unce ou telle chose qui est petite ou
resgart de celle que l’en mesure par elle.
8o T . E t des mouvemens le très plus isnel, c ’est le très plus petit, et le très plus
isnel, c’est le mouvement du ciel.
G . C ’est a savoir le mouvement journal, qui est très merveilleusement is­
nel et qui est très grant ou resgart du corps meu ou du subject et très grant
ou resgart de l’espace que il descript ou trespasse, mais il est très petit ou
T . In every class or category / (100b) o f things, the smallest part or member is
the measure o f the entire class.
G . This is shown in Book Ten o f the Metaphysics, and, accordingly, we say that
unity or one is the measure o f numbers by its own repetition. Also we measure
length by repeating a small factor o f length like a yard or a foot, and in weight we
use a pound or an ounce or some small constituent number o f the whole category
which we measure in this way.
T . The fastest movement is the smallest measure, and the fastest is the motion o f
the heavens.
G . That is, daily motion, which is wonderfully fast; the speed is very great for
the size o f the m oving body or the thing being moved and very great for the dis­
tance which the heavens travel or pass through; but this motion is small with

85 resgart du temps, car en très pou de temps il passe très grant espace. E t selon respect to the time required because in very little time it covers a great distance.

ce, il est mesure17 des autres mouvemens, c ’est a savoir selon temps, et pour
ce, il est très petit en tant comme mesure.
T . O r est il ainsi que de toutes les figures qui retournent d’un point a celui
meisme, la ligne du cede ou de figure circulaire est la très plus petite, et le Fig. 19
90 mouvement qui est très isnel doit estre selon la ligne qui est très petite. E t
pour ce donques que le ciel est meu très isnelement, il convient // (100c) de Accordingly, it is the measure o f other movements, that is, with respect to time,

neccessité que il soit de figure sperique. and thus it is a very small measure.
T . Therefore, the circular line or figure is the shortest o f all figures which return
G . Pour ce miex entendre, l’en doit savoir que des figures superficielles la
to their starting-point, and the fastest motion must be along the shortest line.
circulaire est très plus petite en ceste maniéré, c ’est a savoir que se une super-
Since the heavens move very quickly, they must // (100c) necessarily be spherical
95 fice estoit transmuée de figure en autre sanz la acrestre ou appetider, elle ne
in shape.
pourroit estre contenue ne comprinse en plus petite ligne que est la circu­
G . T o understand this more easily, it should be noted that the circular is the
laire— a prendre touzjours ligne pour ce que est composé de toutes les lignes
smallest o f all plane or superficial figures in the sense that, if we transfer a surface
dont la superfice est environnée et enclose, se pluseurs sont. E t aussi, se plu-
from one figure to another without altering its size, this area could not be contained
seurs superfices equales estoient18 de diverses figures, nulle ne seroit enclose
within a smaller line than a circle, taking line to include all the possible lines which
100 en si petite ligne comme la superfice circulaire appelle<e>19 cede. E t ce pour­
could surround and enclose one area or even several areas. I f there were several
roit estre ligierement monstré par geometrie. Item, quelcunque superfice,
equal areas enclosed in several diverse shapes, none would be enclosed by such
(posé que elle soit circulaire, une superfice)20 equale peut estre contenue et
a short line as the circular area or circle. This can readily be demonstrated by
enclose précisément en ligne plus grande au double ou plus grande au qua­
geometry. A n y surface equal to any circular area whatever can be exactly con­
druple, et ainsi en acressant tant comme il plaist selon ymaginacion [Fig. 19]
tained and enclosed within a line twice as long, four times as long, and so forth as
105 mathématique; si comme posé que ces .iii. superfices, .a. et .b. et .c., soient
far as one desires by mathematical assumption. For example [see Fig. 19], the
equales et que .a. soit circulaire et les autres quadrangles plus longue<s>21
three areas a, b, and c are equal, a is circular, and b and c are quadrangles longer
que lees, je di que il est possible / (iood) que la ligne qui contient .b. est
than they are wide; I say that it is possible / (iood) that the line enclosing b is
double a la ligne qui contient .a. pour ce que .b. est de figure plus estroite et
double the length o f the line enclosing a because the shape o f b is narrower and
plus longue. E t est possible que la ligne qui contient .c. est double a celle qui
longer. The line enclosing c can be double that which encloses or limits b because c
110 contient ou termine .b. pour ce que .c. est a l’avenant plus longue et plus es-

15 A B D E F omit est. 18 A repeats estoient.

16 Metaphysicorum, X.1.1052b 15— 1053a 19 A B D appelé.
10. 20 A omits posé que...superfice.
17 D E meu. 21 A longue.
394 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
troite et, par consequent, ceste ligne est quadruble a celle qui termine .a. E t
ainsi quelcunque superfice, en la variant de figure en autre, peust estre a yma-
ginacion termine<e>22 par si grant ligne23 comme l’en veult, mes elle ne peut
estre terminée par plus petite que par circulaire ne contenue en plus petite.
115 E t si comme il fu dit ou chapitre precedent, tel resgart comme a figure cir­
culaire aus autres figures superficielles, tel resgart a espere aus autres figures
corporelles. E t par ce s’ensuit que espere est la plus petite figure de toutes
en la signification et entendement maintenant mis. E t donques est elle pro­
pre et convenable au mouvement du ciel qui est très petit, si comme dit est.
120 E t jouste ceste ymaginacion, je faiz une autre raison au propos principal, car
de ce que figure circulaire est la très plus petite en la maniéré desus dite, il
s’ensuit de neccessité que elle est la plus contenante // (101a) ou contentive et
de plus grant capacité : Minima ergo capacissima24 et e converso. Car pour ce
que la superfice .a. ne peut estre contenue en plus petite ligne que en circu-
125 laire, il s’ensuit que la ligne qui la contient ou superfice equale ne pourroit
tant contenir en autre figure, car se elle estoit autrement figurée, comment
que ce fust, elle contendroit mendre superfice; et tout ce pourroit estre li-
gierement demonstré par geometrie. E t donques des figures corporelles nul­
le n’est de si grant capacité comme est la sperique. E t ce appert par experien-
130 ce, car un vaiseau ne peut tant contenir comme il contient en telle figure, et
donques est elle convenable au ciel qui tout contient.
11. En le .xi.e 1 chappitre il met sa quarte raison a monstrer
que le ciel est sperique.
T . L ’en peut prendre foy que le ciel est sperique des corps qui sont collo-
quiéz vers le milieu du monde, car l ’eaue est environ la terre ...
G . Fors en la partie qui est descouverte pour l’abitacion des honmes et des
bestes.
5 T . E t l’aer est environ l’eaue et le feu environ l’aer, et les corps qui sont
desus2 selon ceste meisme raison environ-/ (101b) nent l’un l’autre, car eulz
ne sont pas continuz ou continuéz, mes touchent l’un l’autre.
G . D e ce fu dit vers la fin du .ix.e chapitre.
T . E t la superfice de l’element de l’eaue est sperique et ce qui touche a
10 corps sperique ou qui est meu environ corps sperique est sperique par nec­
cessité. E t pour ce appert il que le ciel est sperique.
G . Il est certain que se la superfice convexe de l’eaue est sperique, il con-
22 A B D terminé. 1 B .xii.
b ^
grant de ligne. 2 B desous.
capassissima. Unidentified.
Book II, Chapters 10-11, fols, io ia - io ib | 39J
is obviously longer and narrower so that this line is consequently four times as long
as that enclosing a. Thus by varying the shape from one figure to another, any
area whatever can be imagined to be enclosed by as long a line as one may wish;
but it cannot be demarcated or contained by any line shorter than a circle. A s we
stated in the preceding chapter [see fol. 96d], the relation o f the circular figure to
other surface shapes is exactly the same as that o f the sphere to other solid figures.
So it follows that the sphere is the smallest o f all figures within the meaning and
intention o f the present argument. Therefore, the spherical shape is proper and
well suited to the motion o f the heavens, which, as we have said, is very small. In
connection with this fantasy, I make one more remark regarding the principal sub­
ject of this discussion because, since the circular figure is the smallest in the sense
used above, it follows that it is also the most containing // (101a) or all-embracing
shape and possessed o f the greatest capacity: therefore the smallest figure and the
most capacious and conversely. For, since area a cannot be contained within any
line shorter than a circle, it follows that the line which contains it or an equal area
could not contain so much in any other shape or figure ; for, if the shape were dif­
ferent in any manner at all, it would contain less surface area. A ll this could easily
be demonstrated by geometry. So, o f all solid figures none is o f so great capacity
as the sphere. This is clear from experience because a receptacle made in any other
shape cannot contain so much. Consequently, the spherical figure is well suited
to the heavens, which contain everything.
11. In Chapter Eleven he presents his fourth argument to show
that the heavens are spherical.
T . W e can give credence to the opinion that the heavens are spherical in shape
from observation o f the bodies located around the center o f the world. For water
is found around the earth. . .
G . Save for the part which is exposed for the habitation o f men and animals.
T . A nd air is around the water and fire around the air, and the bodies which are
above these surround / (101b) one another in this same general pattern; for they
are not continuous or continuing bodies, but are contiguous, touching one an­
other.
G . This was discussed near the end o f Chapter Nine [see fol. 97d].
T . The surface o f the element o f water is spherical, and whatever touches upon
a spherical body or moves around a sphere is necessarily spherical itself. Thus it is
clear that the heavens are spherical.
G . It is certain that, if the convex surface o f the water is spherical, the concave
396 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
vient que la superfice concave de l’aer3 qui contient <Peaue>4 et la touche
soit sperique, mais il ne s’ensuit pas de neccessité par ce, que la superfice con-
i5 vexe de l’aer soit sperique ne des autres corps qui sont desus l’aer. Mais c ’est
une parsuasion legiere pour ce que il samble que l’element de l’aer ne soit pas
plus espés ou parfont en une partie que en autre. E t par aventure, le contraire
est vray, car premièrement nous voions que l’element de l’eaue n’est pas par­
tout d ’une parfondeur ou d ’une espesse. E t samblablement, toutes les lignes
20 qui procèdent du centre du monde a la superfice de la terre ne sont pas equa-
les, car se ainsi estoit, elle seroit toute couverte de eaue, et pour ce elle est plus
parfonde en un lieu que en autre. E t donques est ce possible que les autres .ii.
// (101c) elemens qui sont aer et feu ne sont pas tout environ d’une parfon­
deur. Item, avecques ce est chose prouvable par raison, car selon ce que il ap-
25 pert ou premier de Metheores5 et par ce que sera dit apres ou .xv.e chapitre,
l’isneleté du mouvement du ciel et la prochainneté du soleil sont causes de
chaut et de sec et de engendrer feu. O r est il certain que le mouvement du
ciel est très excellanment plus ysnel vers l’equinocial et vers les parties pro-
chainnes que vers les poles du monde. E t le soleil, selon l ’edrecement de ses
30 rayz, est plus prouchain des parties des elemens qui sont entre les deux tro­
piques et sous la partie du ciel la ou il a son cours, et yleucques est plus chaut
et plus sec que vers les poles. E t donques pour les dites causes, l’element du
feu doit estre plus parfont vers le milieu6 du ciel et souz le cours du soleil et
es parties prochainnes que vers les poles qui sont les bous du monde. E t se-
35 Ion ce, il sambleroit par raison que la superfice concave / (io id ) de [Fig. 20]
l’element du feu et la superfice convexe de l’element de l’aer fussent de figure
presque t<e>le7 comme est figure de oeuf. E t toutevoies, la superfice con­
vexe du feu est perfetement sperique et la superfice concave de l’aer est pres­
que sperique, et ainsi l’element de l’aer seroit plus parfont vers les poles que
40 vers l’equinocial. Apres il prouve une chose que il avoit supposée, c ’est a
savoir que l’eaue est sperique, et c’est a entendre que elle tent a figure8 speri­
que en partie, car elle n’est pas entièrement9 ronde ne sperique.
T . Mais que la superfice // (102a) de l’eaue soit sperique il appert se nous
prenons ceste supposicion, c’est a savoir que l’eaue est nee et incline a fluer et
45 courir tousjours au lieu qui est plus bas. E t le lieu est plus bas qui est plus
près du centre du monde. O r posons [Fig. 21] donques que du centre .a. pro-
X te
l’eaue. 7 A tôle.
lae leaeu. 8 B D E F elle est toute a figure.
5 Meteorologicorum, 1.3.341a 17-28. 9 B autrement.
6 A le mi le lieu.
Book II, Chapter 11, fols. io ic-io 2 a 397
surface o f the air which surrounds and touches the sphere o f water must be spheri­
cal also ; but it does not necessarily follow from this that the convex surface o f the
air or o f the other bodies above the air is spherical. Y e t it is easy to assume this to
be true because it seems that the element o f air is no thicker or deeper in one part
than in another. Possibly, the opposite is true; for, first o f all, we can see that the
element o f water is not equally deep or thick in every part. Likewise, not all the
lines which proceed out from the center o f the world to the surface o f the earth are
equal; if this were the case, the earth would be completely covered by water, and
therefore the water is deeper in one place than in another. It is possible then that
the two other // (101c) elements, air and fire, are not everywhere o f the same depth.
Another reason can be adduced to prove this, for, as it appears in Book I o f the
Meteors and from what we shall say in Chapter Fifteen [see fol. m b ] , the velocity
o f celestial motion and the proximity o f the sun are causes o f hot and dry and have
given birth to fire. N o w it is certain that celestial motion is very much faster near
the equinoctial and in its neighborhood than near the poles o f the world. A n d the
Fig. 20
sun, according to the elevation o f its rays, is nearer those parts o f the elements lying
between the two tropics and under that part o f the heavens where the sun runs its
course so that the climate is warmer and drier there than near the poles. For these
reasons, then, the element o f fire must be deeper near the middle o f the heavens
under the sun’ s path and in this general region than it is near the poles which are
the ends o f the world. Accordingly, it would seem reasonable to assume that the
concave surface / (10id) o f the element o f fire and the convex surface o f the ele­
ment o f air are shaped very nearly like the figure o f an egg. However, the convex
surface o f the element o f fire is perfectly spherical and the concave surface o f the
element o f air is almost spherical [see Fig. 20] ; thus the element o f air would be
denser toward the poles than near the equinoctial. N ext he proves something
which he had assumed, namely, that the element o f water is spherical; we are to
understand that it tends to be spherical in part, for it is not entirely round nor
spherical.
T . It appears that the surface // (102a) is spherical if we assume water to be born
and inclined by nature to flow and run always to the lowest place, which is that
located nearest the center o f the world. So let us assume [see Fig. 21] that fro m a at
the center two lines ab and ag proceed, that the third line bg be drawn above, and
that another line ^ p ro ce e d from the center to the middle o f the third line, with line
 398 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
cedent .ii. lignes, .ab. et .ag., et soit faite la tierce ligne par desus qui soit .bg. ;
et apres soit faite une ligne qui procédé du centre siques au milieu de ceste
tierce ligne et soit .ad. laquelle est plus petite que les autres .ii. qui procèdent
50 du centre. E t donques le lieu ou est le point .d. est plus parfont et plus bas
que les autres .ii. poins ou sont .b. et .g. E t donques fluera et ira l’eaue siques
a tant que toutes telles lignes qui procèdent du centre a sa superfice soient
equales, et vendra l’eaue siques ou point appellé .e., et sera la ligne .ae.
equale aus autres .ii. qui sont .ab. et .ag. E t lors l’eaue se reposera et touchera
55 ces .iii. poins par / (102b) lesquelz pourroit passer ligne circulaire. E t don­
ques la superfice de l’eaue en laquelle est la ligne .beg. est sperique.
G . Briefment, ce n’est pas fort a entendre que se la superfice de l’eaue
n’estoit sperique, il convendroit que une partie de elle fust plus près du cen­
tre que l’autre, et donques seroit celle partie plus bas que l’autre ou que les
60 autres et ne seroit pas l’eaue en repos. E t ceulz qui fréquentent la mer appar-
çoivent bien que la superfice de elle n ’est pas droite ne plaine, mais a super-
eminence et boce et tent a rondesce. Apres il conclut en declarant sa conclu­
sion.
T . O r appert donques par ces raisons que le monde est sperique et que il
65 est tourné selon diligence en telle maniéré que il n’est chose faite par main
d’onme tournee ou polie samblablement, ne chose quelcunque visible ou qui
nous apparoisse, car chascun des corps mixtes que nous voions est composé
d’autres dont nul ne peut telement recevoir régularité ne politure si diügan-
ment faite comme peut la nature du corps circulaire, c’est a savoir du ciel.
70 G . Les .iiii. elemens et les corps mixtes ou composés de eulz sont mate-
<ri>el<z>,10 et pour cause de la matière et d’aucuns accidens de telz corps, ce
n’est pas possible par nature ne par art //(102c) que quantité notable d’aucun
tel corps soit perfetment polie ne du tout onnie sanz aucune inequaüté ou
asperi<t)éII[ et supereminence, posé que tel corps soit de figure droite et
75 plainne ou de figure sperique ou autre. E t pour ce, ne acier ne verre ne pierre
precieuse ne autre corps materiel n’est du tout sanz aucune aspérité, combien
que elle soit aucune fois imperceptible ou insensible, excepté tant seulement
l’element du feu quant a sa superfice convexe qui est perfetement polie et
sperique. E t ce ne a pas le feu de soi meisme, mais de la superfice concave du
80 ciel de la lune qui le contient et qui est perfetement sperique, et a laquelle il
touche partout sanz moien quelcunque ne plain ne vieu.
T . E t est certain que chascun des elemens, en prenant tous jours la dis­
tance vers en haut, a telle proporcion12 a son prochain, quant a tendre ou a
aprochier a figure sperique, comme l’eaue a a la terre.
85 G . La terre qui est le plus bas element n’est pas sperique, car il y a monz et
vaulz, mais toutevoies, sa figure trait a sperique et est aussi comme ronde, si
mateuelles. 12 D E porcion.
asperique.
Book II, Chapter 11, fols. io2b -io2C | 999
^ sh o rter than the other two drawn from the center. Th e place at point d is deeper
and lower than at the other two points b and g. Thus, the water will flow until all
the lines drawn from the center to the surface are equal and the water will reach e
and the line ae will be equal to the other tw o lines ab and ag. Then the water will
touch and remain at the three points through / (102b) which a circle could be drawn
so that the surface o f the water described by beg is spherical.
G . Briefly, it is not hard to understand that, i f the surface o f the water were not
spherical, a certain part o f it would o f necessity be nearer the center than another,
that this part would be lower than the others, and that the water could not remain
at rest. Moreover, those who are familiar with the ocean recognize very readily
that its surface is not level or flat, but has a notable rise or hump and approaches
roundness. He ends now b y stating his conclusion.
T . For all these reasons, it is clear that the world is a sphere so accurately fash­
ioned that no man-made thing nor any visible object that we can observe is com-
e
à
Fig. 21
parably turned or polished; all the mixed bodies we can see are composed o f
various bodies none o f which is capable o f the regularity or polished smoothness
that nature has accomplished in the circular body— which is the heavens.
G . The four elements and the mixed or compound bodies formed from them are
material, and because o f the material and certain accidental properties o f such
bodies, it is not possible either by nature or by art // (102c) that any notable quan­
tity o f any such body be perfectly polished nor smoothed off without some irregu­
larity or roughness and hump, whether the body be rectilinear and flat or spherical
or otherwise. Therefore, neither steel nor glass nor precious stone nor any other
material body can be made without some roughness, although it is often imper­
ceptible to the senses, with the lone exception o f the convex surface o f fire, which
is perfectly polished and spherical. This is not due to the element o f fire itself, but
to the concave surface o f the lunar sphere which contains the fire and which is per­
fectly spherical, being everywhere in contact with the sphere o f fire without inter­
mediate plenum or vacuum.
T . A nd it is certain that the more distant each element is above the center, rela­
tive to the [contiguous] neighboring sphere, the more nearly it becomes a perfect­
ly spherical figure, just as water is more perfectly spherical than earth.
G . T h e earth, the lowest o f the elements, is not spherical because it has moun­
tains and valleys; however, its figure approximates the spherical and is nearly
 4oo J Le Livre du ciel et du monde
comme il appert par l’eclipse de la lune qui appert comme porcion de cede et
qui est causée de l’ombre de la terre. E t qui seroit ou ciel et verroit la terre,
elle sambleroit toute / (io2d) ronde. Item, l’eaue approche encore plus que la
90 terre a figure sperique sanz monz et sans vaulz, mais seulement sont en elle
aucunes fluctuacions sensibles a cause des venz ou autrement. Item, selon
Aristote en ceste partie, de tant comme l’eaue est moins boçue que la terre
et plus près ou plus tendante a figure sperique, de tant est l’aer, c’est a savoir,
la superfice convexe de l’aer plus onnie et plus polie que la superfice de l’eaue
o5 et plus prochainne de figure perfetement sperique. E t meismement car, selon
ce que il appert ou premier de Metheores , 13 celle superfice de l’aer est bien
loing de la ou sont vent et pluie et autres impressions, et par telles est fete
commocion ou perturbacion en la superfice de l’eaue. E t donques celle super­
fice de l’aer est paisible14 et sérié et presque sperique. Item, de tant seroit en-
100 core plus polie et plus près de sperique la superfice convexe du feu quant est
de soy, mais elle est du tout sperique pour la raison15 de ce qui la contient,
comme dit est. Item, il peut apparoir par le quart livre que proporcionelment,
de tant comme l’eaue est moins pesante et plus legiere que la terre, de tant
est l’aer moins pesant et plus legier que l’eaue, et le feu moins pesant et plus
105 //(103 a) legier que l’aer. E t pour ce, apres ce que Ovide a faite mencion de la
terre et de l’eaue, il16 dist ainsi: Imminet his aer; qui quanto pondéré terre,
pondéré aque est gravior, tanto est onerosior igné.17 O r voions nous sensi­
blement que une chose pesante de matière terreste, pour la figure dont elle
est composée, se tient sus l’eaue qui est moins pesante, si comme fet une nef
11o ou un vaissel de metal, et autres choses dedens tel vaissel qui sont de très
pesante espece, si comme or et plun. E t la cause est pour la difference de
l’aer a l’eaue en pesanteur et en legiereté, lequel aer est dedens le vaissel et
résisté a ce que il ne descende plus bas. Item, selon la science qui est ap­
pellee de ponderibus, 18 l’eaue qui seroit en la place que le vaissel occupe en
115 l’eaue peseroit en l’aer autant précisément comme feroit le vaissel et ce de
dedens ; si comme se le vaissel poise cent livres, l’eaue qui seroit en la place
que il occupe ou en la fosse que il fait en l’eaue peseroit cent livres. E t pour
ce, se le vessel pesoit plus que l’eaue qui seroit en l’espace que il occupe en
l’eaue, il descendroit aval. E t c’est la cause pourquoy l’eaue moins pesante
120 peut moins soustenir que l’eaue plus pesante, si comme l’eaue douce peut
moins / (103b) soustenir que l ’eaue de la mer, et aucun vaissel seroit seur en
la mer qui periroit en l’eaue douce. Je di donques par <la>19 raison devant
mise que se un vaissel de matière pesante et ouquel fust matière pesante, si
comme [Fig. 22] un honme ou pluseurs, estoit sus la superfice convexe de
13 Meteorologicorum, 1.3.340b 3— 341a 7. 17 Cf. Metam, I. 52-33: Imminet his aer;
14 B D E passible. qui, quanto est pondéré terrae, / Pondéré
13 D E omit elle e st.. .raison. aquae levior, tanto est onerosior igni. / Gravior
16 A eaue et il. in the text is a palpable mistake.
Book II, Chapter 11, fols. io2d-io3b | 401
round, as appears in a lunar eclipse which reflects a portion o f a circle caused b y the
earth’s shadow. T o a person in the heavens looking at the earth it would seem per­
fectly / (io2d) round. Water comes still closer than the earth to the spherical shape
since it is without mountains and valleys, only certain fluctuations caused b y the
winds or otherwise being perceptible in it. According to Aristotle in this section,
just as water is less irregular than earth and tends closer to the spherical, so is the
air or its convex surface proportionally more smooth and polished than the surface
o f the water and proportionally closer to the perfectly spherical shape. This is es­
pecially so, according to the first book o f Meteors, since the convex surface o f the
air is far from the region o f wind, rain, and other disturbances such as those which
cause commotion and perturbation on the surface o f the water. So the surface o f
the sphere o f air is calm, serene, and almost perfectly spherical. Still more polished
and more nearly spherical is the convex surface o f the sphere o f fire not by reason
o f its nature, but because o f the sphere above which touches and contains it, it is
perfectly spherical, as we have said. It is made apparent in Book IV [see fol. i89cd]
that as air is proportionally lighter than water, so fire is // (103a) lighter than air.
This is w hy O vid, after having mentioned earth and water, says: Th e air hangs
over these, being heavier than fire, just as the earth is heavier than water, which is
in its turn heavier than air. N o w we can observe with our senses that a heavy ob­
ject o f terrestrial composition can, because o f its shape, maintain itself above the
less heavy water, just as a boat or metal receptacle containing other very heavy
things such as gold or lead rides on the surface. The cause is the difference be­
tween the weight o f the air and the water, the air being inside the vessel and resist­
ing further descent. According to the science o f weight called de ponderibus, the
water displaced by the boat would weigh in the air precisely as much as the boat
and its contents; for instance, if the boat weighs 100 pounds, the displaced water
would weigh 100 pounds. Thus, if the receptacle weighed more than the water it
displaced, it would sink. This explains w hy lighter water can support less weight
than heavier water, just as fresh water can / (103b) support less weight than sea
water so that the vessel that is safe on the sea might perish in fresh water. For the
same reason, I say, therefore, that a vessel o f heavy material loaded with heavy ob­
jects such as a man [see Fig. 22] or several men, standing upon the nearly spherical
18 This is, o f course, an abbreviated state­ nard de Vinci” in his Etudes sur Léonard de
ment o f the Archimedean principle, first Vinci, vol. 1,257-316. See Clagett and Moody,
formulated in the fifth proposition o f the first The Mediaeval Science of Weights, where the
book o f Archimedes’ De corporibus fluitantibus ; principal mediaeval texts on the scientia de pon­
see Archimedes opera omnia, ed. J. L. Heiberg deribus are edited with copious critical explana­
tions. See also Clagett, “ The Impact o f Archi­
(Leipzig: Teubner, 19x3), vol. 2, 329. The
medes on Medieval Science,” Isis, vol. 50
work or works to which Oresme had reference
are doubtless those mentioned by Duhem in (1959)» 4I9-29-
19 A omits la.
his chapter “ La Scientia de Ponderibus et Léo­
 402 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
125 l’element de l’aer laquelle est presque sperique comme dit est et sanz per­
turbation, tel vaissel pourroit lasus reposer aussi naturelment comme une
nef repose en Seine. E t la cause est pour ce que l’element du feu est plus le-
gier que l’element de l’aer de tant comme l’aer est plus legier que l’eaue, com­
me desus dit est. E t par ce, le feuquiseroit en ce vaisselresisteroitacequele
130 vaissel ne descendist plus aval, aussi comme dit est de la nef qui est en l’eaue.
E t donques, se par nature est possible que une chose terrestre et pesante
peust reposer si haut, c ’est a savoir par desus tout l’element de l’aer, par plus
forte reson Dieu qui est aucteur, conditeur et gouverneur de nature peut
faire // (103c) que corps humain repose sus les cielz; et meismement car tel
i35 corps pesant qui seroit ou est hors ce monde ne avroit ou a quelcunque in­
clination au centre de ce monde, si comme il fu monstré et déclaré ou .xxiiii.
<e)chapitre du premier.20 Mes par aventure, aucun pourroit contre ce obi-
cier, premièrement car il n’est pas possible par nature que corps terrestre et
pesant soit mis ou fait si haut comme sus tout l’aer; item, se il y estoit, le feu
140 l’ard<r)oit21 tantost; item, se il y estoit et le feu ne l’ardoit, encore seroit il
lasus par violence, car ce n’est pas son lieu naturel. A u premier je di que ce
n ’est pas simplement impossible ne qui encloe contradiction que tel corps
soit lasus, combien que ce ne puisse estre fait par vertu naturelle qui soit a
present. E t ceste response appert plus a plain par ce que fu dit ou .xxiiii.<e>
145 chapitre du premier.22 D ’autre partie, quant a ce propos, il souffist dire sub
condition que se tel corps estoit lasus ou par nature ou par miracle ou autre­
ment, il y reposeroit aussi comme Aristote dist ou .xvi.e chapitre du premier
que la terre d’un autre monde, se il estoit, seroit meue a la terre de cestui. A u
secont, je di que, par aventure, le feu en son espere n’est pas for-/ (103d)
i5o ment ardant sensiblement. E t ce peut l ’en cuider parce que nous voions que,
de tant comme feu est en matière plus grosse et plus compacte et moins sub­
tille, de tant est il plus violent et plus actif, si comme en un fer chaut plus que
en un tison de busche et en un tison plus que en flamme. O r est ainsi que la
matière du feu en son espere est très clere et très soutille, et plus que celle de
155 l’aer de tant comme l’aer est plus soutil et plus transparent ou plus tier que
n’est l’eaue. E t pour ce disoient les Platoniens que le feu de lasus n’est pas
malfesant, mes disoient que il est innoxius, et que celui de cibas est corrupti­
ble et corrompant : Corruptibilis atque corruptor.23 D ’autre partie, posé que
20 A .xxiiii. doctrine o f the Platonists is to be found in
21 A ardoit. Timaeus, 58C, wherein Plato speaks o f a “ fire
22 A .xxiiii.
that does not burn.”
23 Unidentified. Possibly the source o f this
Book II, Chapter 11, fols. io3C-io3d | 403
convex surface o f the element o f the air, and with no perturbation, could remain up
there as naturally as a ship rests on the Seine. This is due to the fact that fire is light­
er than air just as air is lighter than water, as stated above. Thus the fire which
would be in the vessel would resist the vessel’s tendency to descend, just as, in the
case above, with the vessel on the water. Accordingly, if it is possible naturally that
a heavy earthen object can rest so high above the earth, actually above the element
o f air, there is all the more reason w h y God, the author, director, and governor o f
nature, can cause // (103c) a human body to repose above the heavens, especially
since such a heavy body outside the world would have no inclination whatever to
fall to the center o f this world, as we showed and explained in Chapter Tw enty-
four o f Book I [see fol. 38a]. Perhaps someone will object to this argument by say­
ing first that it is naturally impossible to put or make a heavy earthen object so high
above the element o f the air; that, if it were there, the fire would burn it up imme-
Fig. 22
diately; and that, if the object were there and not burned by the fire, it would still
be up there because o f violence since that is not its natural place. In answer to the
first objection, I say that it is not absolutely impossible nor does it imply contra­
diction that such a body should exist up there, although it cannot be accomplished
by natural power at the present time. This reply is more fully stated in Chapter
Twenty-four o f Book I [see fol. 39a]. Besides, it is pertinent to add a condition—
namely, if such a body were up there either naturally or miraculously or otherwise,
it would rest there conditionally— as Aristotle explains in Chapter Sixteen o f B ook
I [see fol. 26c] that the element o f earth in another world, if there were such, would
move toward the earthly element in our world. T o the second objection, I reply
that perhaps the fire in the sphere o f fire does not have a strong / (103d) flame per­
ceptible to our senses. W e may assume this because we can observe that fire is pro­
portionally more violent and active the more it is associated with the coarser, more
compact, and less subtile materials, as, for instance, a heated iron is hotter than a
kindling log and a live ember than a flame. Moreover, in its own sphere fire is very
pure and very subtile, more so than air, just as air is more subtile, more transparent
o r clearer than water. For this reason the Platonists used to say that fire in its ele­
mental sphere up above is not evil, but rather innocuous, while fire here below is
destructive and destroying : Corruptibilis atque corruptor. Besides, admitting it to

il fast très ardant, ce n’est pas impossible simplement que le vaissel qui se-
roit lasus fust de matière inconbustible et qui ne pourroit arder, ou que par24
vertu divine l’action de ce feu fust suspensé telement comment il fu en la for-
nese de Nabugodonosor.25 E t comment que soit, la chose est possible quant
est de par les qualitéz motivez qui sont legiereté et pesanteur, ou sub con-
dicion en disant : se tel corps estoit la et le feu ne le ardoit, il y reposeroit—
et il souffist, si comme // (104a) dit est. A u tiers, je di que tel vessel repose­
roit lasus aussi naturelment comme une nef repose en une eaue et samble que
ce soit sanz violence. E t appert par ce que se elle estoit perpetuele, elle y re­
poseroit perpetuelment. E t chose violente ne peut estre perpétuelle, si com­
me il appert ou quart chapitre du premier. D ’autre partie, il ne s’ensuit pas que
une chose pesante repose violentement pour ce se plus legiere chose est souz
elle, si comme il fu déclaré ou .xxiiii.e chapitre du premier. O r appert donques
comment par philosophie l’en peut estre enduit a soy assentir a aucune chose
que nous tenons de la foy.
12. Ou .xii.e chappitre il enquiert et met la cause pourquoy le ciel
est meu la voie que il tome plus que l’autre voie converse.
T . U n 1 corps peut estre meu circulairement en .ii. maniérés, si comme se
en un cede est signé un point et soit .a., et d’une part un autre point et soit
.b., et de l’autre part un2 autre et soit .g. [Fig.23]. E t donques .a. peut estre
meu en procédant vers .b. ou en procédant et alant vers .g.
G . Si comme de midi vers occident ou de midi vers orient.
T . E t il est dit devant que ces mouvemens ne / (104b) sont pas contraires.
G . Ce fu dit en le .viii.e chapitre du premier. E t par ce appert la difficulté3
de rendre cause pourquoy le ciel est meu en une maniéré plus que en autre,
car se ces mouvemens fussent4 contraires, l’en peust dire que il est ainsi meu
par l’inclinacion de sa forme. E t le mouvement contraire est naturel au corps
contraire au ciel aussi comme les choses pesantes sont meues en bas et les
contraires au contraire. E t donques ne souffist il pas dire que le ciel est ainsi
meu de sa nature, car se il estoit meu autrement, il ne convendroit pas que il
D E ardoir oncques par. 2 A une.
Dan. 3:50.
3 B D E F difference.
Guthrie, ch. 5. 4 A fuissent.
Book II, Chapters n - 1 2 , fols. io4a-io4b 40;
be a raging fire, it is nevertheless not absolutely impossible that a receptacle up
there be made o f incombustible material which could not burn or that by divine
power the action o f this fire be suspended, as was the fire in Nebuchadnezzar’ s
furnace. A t any rate, this is possible insofar as the m otive properties, lightness and
heaviness, are concerned or under the following condition : if such a body as the
receptacle were up there and the fire did not burn it, it would stay there and would
be quite sufficient, as // (104a) we have said. T o the third objection, I say that such
a vessel would remain up there just as naturally as a boat floating at rest in the
water and probably without requiring any violence. It seems that, if the receptacle
were perpetual, it would remain there eternally. N othing that is violent can be per­
petual, as was shown in Chapter Four o f Book I [seefol. 1 ic]. Moreover, it does not
follow that a heavy object rests by constraint because it is standing upon a lighter
object beneath it, as we showed in Chapter Twenty-four o f Book I [see fol. 34a]. It
is now clear how we can be led by philosophy to assent to something which we as­
sume from our faith.
12. In Chapter Twelve he inquires into and states the cause o f the
heavens’ moving as they do in one direction rather
than in the opposite way.
T . A body in circular motion can m ove in tw o possible directions. For example,
i f we set a point a in one part o f a circle [see Fig. 23], point b in another part, and g
in another, then a can m ove in the direction o f b or g.
G . A s from south to west or from south to east.
b
T . A nd we have already stated that these motions are f (104b) not contrary to
each other.
G . In Chapter Eight o f Book I [see fols. 156 ff.]. From this we can understand
the difficulty in explaining w hy the heavens m ove one way rather than the other;
for, if these motions were opposites, we could say that the motion is due to the in­
clination o f its form. A n d contrary motion in the heavens is natural to the contrary
body just as heavy things move downward and their contraries m ove in the oppo­
site direction. Thus, it is not enough to say that the heavens move in this manner
 40 6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 12, fol. 104c | 407

fust d’autre nature ou espece pour ce que ces .ii. mouvemens sont d’une es-
15 pece. Apres il reprouve l’opinion de E m ped(o)cles5 qui disoit que c’estoit
a casu et a l’aventure.6
T . Mes es choses pardurables rien n’est a cas d’aventure et le ciel est par-
durable et son7 mouvement.
G . Il appert ou secont de Phisique que choses qui sont a casu et fortuna ne
so sont pas tous) ours.8
T . E t donques convient il par neccessité que <ce q u e )9le ciel est meu ainsi
a une partie et non pas a l’autre soit principe et premiere cause, ou que de ce
soit aucun principe et cause.
G . E t ce ne peut estre premiere cause pour ce que ce n’est pas Dieu, et
25 pour ce que tout mouvement a cause efficiente et final autre que ce meisme
mouvement, si comme il appert // (104c) ou .vii.e de Phisique.10 Apres il s’ex­
cuse de ce que il parle de si forte question.
T . Mais tempter et soy efforcier de parler d’aucunes choses et de toutes
sanz rien lessier,...
30 G . Si comme dist un aucteur roumain : N il intemptatum nostri linquere
poete.11
T . Par aventure, ce sambleroit signe ou de grant folie ou de grant pre-
sumpcion.
G . Celui est fol qui ne scet mettre difference entre ce ou il a difficulté et ce
35 ou <il>12 n’a difficulté, et celui est presumpcieus qui cuide povoir tout bien
determiner. Selon A ve< r)ro ïz,13 .iiii. causes sont qui peuent mouvoir un
honme a enquérir de très fortes choses: une est deffaute de ve<(r)cunde14—
inverecundia— car il ne lui chaut se il dist bien ou mal. Autre est erreur, car il
cuide que de tout l’en puisse bien rendre cause. La tierce est ignorance et
40 fatuité, car il ne scet distinguier entre ce que est fort et ce que est legier a sa­
voir. La quarte est amour de vérité et désir de savoir les causes des choses.
E t ceste quarte maniéré est a louer. Ce est selon A ve< r)ro ïz.IS E t l’en peust
dire que quant aus .iii. premieres est a entendre ce que dist le Sage : In pluri-
bus D ei operibus noli esse curiosus,16 et Chatonet: M itte archana D ei celum
45 inquirere quid sit.17 E t pour ce dist Aristote apres :
because o f their nature; i f they m oved otherwise, it would not justify saying that
the heavens were o f a different nature or form since the two motions are o f one and
the same kind. N ext he refutes the opinion o f Empedocles, who used to say that
the direction in which the heavens move is a matter o f chance— casual and acci­
dental.
T . But with things that are everlasting, nothing is governed by chance, and so
the heavens and their motion are eternal.
G . In the second book o f the Physics, things which are accidental and fortuitous
are not everlasting.
T . Therefore, it must be that the motion o f the heavens in one direction rather
than the other is a principle or first cause or that it must depend upon some certain
principle and cause.
G . This cannot be the first cause since it is not G o d and also since every motion
has an efficient and final cause other than the motion itself, as stated // (104c) in
Book Seven o f the Physics. Then he apologizes for undertaking to speak about such
a difficult question.
T . But to attempt or force oneself to talk about certain things, leaving nothing
to silence,...
G . A s a Roman writer says : O ur poets have left nothing untried.
T . M ay perhaps appear either excessive folly or excessive presumption.
G . He is a fool w ho makes no distinction between the difficult and the simple,
and he is presumptuous who thinks he can settle every question correctly. Accord­
ing to Averroes, four causes may move a man to inquire into difficult problems :
one is lack o f shame or modesty, inverecundia, for he does not care whether he
speaks well or badly. Another cause is erroneous thinking, believing that we can
establish the cause for everything. The third is ignorance and fatuousness, for such a
person cannot distinguish between the difficult and the easy to know. Th e fourth
is the love o f truth and the desire to know the causes o f things and, according to
Averroes, this fourth cause is worthy o f praise. W e may say o f the first three what
the Sage [Solomon] says: In many o f G o d ’s works do not be inquisitive. A nd in
Cato’s D isticha we find : Leave the secrets o f the divine heavens undisturbed. So
Aristotle adds hereinafter :

5 A Empedecles. B loquere; D E F liquere.

6 A t this point D inserts from the following 12 A F omit il.
gloss: “ il appert ou secont de Phisique que 13 A F Avenroiz. ne se rencontre que dans un seul manuscrit. ing in the Notae criticae\ likewise, the edition
chouses qui sont a casu et fortuna ne sont pas 14 A vecunde. Un très grand nombre d’éditions du X V e o f W. J. Chase in University o f Wisconsin
tozjours. Glouse.” siècle donnent la suivante: ‘Mitte archana dei Studies in the Social Sciences and History, 7
15 A Avenroiz. Juntas, t.c. 34, 117E-H .
7 D E est d ’aventuret son. coelumque inquirere quid sit.’ C ’est cette der­ (Madison, 1922). On the other hand, several
16 Cf. Ecclus. 3 :24— In pluribus operibus
8 E et a fortuna. Physicorum, II. 5 .197a 29-31. nière leçon qu’Erasme avait adaptec.” Cf. early editions adopt the reading “ Mitte archa-
ejus non eris curiosus. E de pluribus.
9 A omits ce que. F que se le. Catonis disticha de moribus cum scholiis Des. hras- na.” See the editions by O. Arntzenius (Am­
17 B celum que inquirere. Cf. Catonis disticha,
10 Physicorum, VII. 5. 256b 14-20. mi (London, 1724), p. 16. The edition by G. sterdam, 1754), p. 152 and especially note 2;
II.2, ed. Joseph Nève (Liège, 1926): “ An di
11 Horace, De artepoetica, 285 : “ Nil intemp­ Nèmethy (Budapest, 1895), reads: “ An di by C. Hool (London, 1701), p.9; and Historia
sint coelumque regant, ne quaerere doceri.”
tatum nostri liquere poetae.” D E omit nostri. sint,” with no reference to the alternate read­ critica Catoniana (Amsterdam, 1759), p. i 85-
In a footnote, the editor adds: “ Cette leçon
40 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . E t toutevoies, ce n’est pas juste chose de blasmer touz sambla-/ (io4d)
blement, mes il convient resgarder la cause qui meut tel honme a ce dire
quelle elle est.
G . Se ce est pour amour18 de vérité ou pour autre chose.
50 T . E t encore convient il considérer comment il a creance et probacion de
ce que il dist et se c’est en maniéré humainne et commune19 ou se il le mon­
stre plus fermement. Car se aucun ataingnoit a ce que il nous peust faire plus
certains de choses neccessairement vraies, il feroit bien. E t doit l’en rendre
graces a ceulz qui treuvent de nouvel aucunes bonnes choses.
55 G . L ’en doit regarder a .ii. choses : a quelle fin, et comment il parle de si
hautes choses ; et se il treuve aucunes bonnes raisons, il est a recommender.
Apres il respont a la question devant mise.
T . O r disons de ceste chose ce que il nous samble. Premièrement, nature
fait touzjours des choses possibles ce que est le très miex.
60 G . E t pour ce, selon Averroïz,20 nature donna aus bestes aucunes choses
qui ne leur sont pas simplement neccessaires, mes le fait pour le miex, si com­
me est voiement ou <ouïr>.21 E t par plus forte raison elle doit avoir donné
au ciel ce que est le miex et est possible, car il est plus noble. Mais il dist que
toute chose qui est possible au ciel est neccessaire et aussi // (105a) en toutes
65 choses pardurables, car elles sont intransmuables22 selon leur essence, etc.
T . E t vérité est que aussi comme des mouvemens drois, celui qui est au
lieu plus haut est le plus hounorable et le plus n o b le.. .28
G . Car plus belle chose est monter que d’ <a)valer.*24
T . Car le lieu de haut est plus divin que celui de bas.
70 G . E t tout mouvement prent denominacion et espece du terme auquel il
tent.
T . E t en ceste maniéré est il de devant ou regart de derrière.
G . C ’est a savoir que devant est plus noble.
T . E t de dextre ou resgart de senestre, si comme il fu dit devant.
75 G . O u sixte chapitre.
T . E t par celle question app<er>t25 que ou ciel sont ces .ii. differences,
c’est a savoir devant et derrière. E t ceste cause donne solucion a ceste ques­
tion, car se le ciel est meu au très miex que il peut estre, c’est la cause pour-
quoy il est ainsi meu pour ce que c’est très bon que le mouvement qui est
3o simple et perpétuel sanz cesser soit entendant au plus hounorable.
G . E t pour ce, est ce miex que il procédé d’orient vers midi qui est devant,
que vers l’opposite qui est derrière, si comme il peut apparoir par le sixte
chapitre et par les autres ou est tractee la matière comment les .vi. differences
de posicion sont ou ciel. Mais il sambleroit que ce fust ici un procès / (105 b)
18 D E avoir. 21 A veue; F vioement pour ouyr.
19 A et com commune. 22 D E omit car elles sont intransmuables.
20 Juntas, t.c. 34, 117I-K . 23 D E des mouvemens celui qui est le plus
Book II, Chapter 12, fols, io q d -io ja 4 °9
T . However, it is not fair to censure all alike / (io4d) for it is proper to consider
the cause which moves a person to speak out on a subject.
G . Whether for love o f truth or for a different reason.
T . Again, it is fitting to consider what conviction or proof he is seeking to ex­
press, whether his idea is merely human or commonplace or whether he presents it
more soundly and convincingly. For if someone should discover proofs that would
make us more certain about the truth o f these matters, he would do well. We ought
to be grateful to those who discover new truths about such problems.
G . We should concern ourselves with two things : the purpose and the manner
o f his discussion o f such weighty problems. A nd if he presents good arguments, he
is to be recommended. N ext he answers the previous question.
T . Therefore, let us state our opinion with regard to the present matter. In the
first place, nature always does the very best possible with the resources available.
G . According to Averroes, nature thus provided animals with certain things
not absolutely essential to their life, but it does so for the best, as, for instance,
sight and hearing. For even better reason, nature must have given to the heavens
the best and the utmost possible, for the heavens are more noble than animals. But
he [Averroes] says that everything possible in the heavens and in all everlasting
things is necessary, // (105 a) for they are changeless in their essence, etc.
T . A nd the truth is that, just as with rectilinear motions, upward motion toward
the highest place is more honorable and more noble. . .
G . For it is a finer thing to go up than to go down.
T . Because the place above is more divine than the place below.
G . A nd every movement takes its denomination and form from the end or pur­
pose to which it tends.
T . In the same way, forward motion is finer than backward.
G . That is, the front is nobler.
T . Likewise, right motion with respect to left, as we said before.
G . In Chapter Six [see fol. 81c].
T . From this discussion, it appears that there are in the heavens these tw o posi­
tional differences, forward and backward. A n d this explanation solves the prob­
lem, for, if the heavens move in the best possible way, this will be the reason they
move as they do, since it is best that a simple and perpetual motion should take the
most honorable direction.
G . Therefore, it is best that the heavens proceed from the east to the south or
front rather than backward in the opposite manner, as can be seen in Chapter Six
and in the other chapters where the six positional differences o f the heavens are
discussed [see fol. 8id]. It would appear that we are dealing with a circular / (105b)
haut et le plus noble. Glose. 25 A F apparut; B apparu.
24 A B D F evaller.
4io j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
85 circulaire, car il avoit esté dit devant que orient est le destre26 et midi le de­
vant pour ce que le ciel est ainsi meu, et maintenant est dit que le ciel est ainsi
meu pour ce que orient est le destre et que midi est le devant. Je respon et di
que le premier procès est du signe a la cause et cestui est de la cause au signe,
car ce que le ciel est ainsi meu est signe que midi est le devant du ciel et plus
90 noble que l’opposite ; et ce que midi est le devant et orient le destre, c ’est la
cause pourquoy le ciel est ainsi meu. E t telle circulacion n’est pas inconve-
niente, aussi comme l’en diroit que l’en s<(ce)t27 que le cuer est chaut parce
que le poulz est hastif comme par signe, et ce que le cuer est chaut est cause
de ce que le peuls est hastif. Toutevoies, il appert par ce que je dis ou sixte
95 chapitre que ces .iii. differences, destre et senestre et devant et derrière, ne
sont pas ou ciel distinctees royaument ne absoluement, mais seulement en
relacion28 sanz difference roiale. E t pour ce, je di que la cause que met ici
Aristote est nulle.
13. Ou .xiii.e chapitre il monstre que le mouvement du
ciel est régulier1 par une reson.
T. Apres ce convient passer2 outre et dire du mouvement du ciel comment
il est régulier et non pas irrégulier.
< G .)3 Régularité // (105 c) et uniformité sont en mouvement et leur con­
traires aussi quant a son ysneleté, mais c’est differanment, car régularité et
5 irrégularité sont ou resgart du temps ainsi que se le mouvement est equal-
ment isnel en chascune partie de son temps, il est régulier et se non, il est ir­
régulier. Mais uniformité et difformité sont ou resgart du subject <ainsi que
se chascune partie du subject)* meu est meue aussi isnelement une comme
l’autre, le mouvement est uniforme et se non, il est difforme comment que il
10 soit du temps. E t pour ce, le mouvement du ciel n’est pas uniforme, car les
parties plus prochaines du centre et les parties plus prochaines des poles sont
meues plus tardivement que les autres, mais il est régulier, si comme il sera
monstré apres.
T. E t ce je entent du premier ciel et du premier mouvement, car es cielz
1.5 qui sont sous ce premier pluseurs mouvemens conviennent et sont concu-
renz en un.
G. Il fu monstré ou tiers chapitre du premier conment aucuns mouvemens
sont simples et aucuns composts et mixtes, et peuent estre mixtes de pluseurs
droiz mouvemens ou de pluseurs circulaires ou mesleement des uns et des
20 autres. Samblablement, aucun mouvement est régulier et aucun irrégulier,
26 B senestre. 28 C resumes at this point after lacuna from
27 A B F soit. 83a.
Book II, Chapters 12-13, fols, io jb - io jc | 411
process here, for he had said before that east is right and south is front because the
heavens are m oved this way; now he says the heavens are m oved this way be­
cause east is right and south is front. I answer that the former process moves from
the evidence to the cause while the latter moves from the cause to the evidence.
The fact that the heavens are thus moved is evidence that south is the front o f the
heavens and more noble than the opposite ; the fact that south is front and east is
right are the causes that the heavens m ove as they do. This circulation is not ab­
surd, just as we know that the heart is warm because the rapid pulse gives us this
evidence, while the fact that the heart is warm causes the pulse to become rapid.
However, from what I have said in Chapter Six [see fol. 86a] it is clear that these
four positional differences— right and left, front and rear— are not present distinct­
ly, really, and absolutely in the heavens, but only relatively, without real difference.
So, I say that the cause which Aristotle gives above is non-existent.
13. In Chapter Thirteen he presents one argument to show that
celestial motion is regular.
T . We must proceed to discuss next the fact that the motion o f the heavens is
regular rather than irregular.
G. Regularity // (105 c) and uniformity are present in motion, along with their
opposites, in relation to the speed o f the movement, but this case is different be­
cause regularity and irregularity are present with respect to time ; for instance, if a
movement is equally fast in each part o f its time, it is regular; if not, it is irregular.
But uniformity and difformity are concerned with the subject itself, just as when
each part o f the m oving object moves with equal speed, the motion is uniform ; if
not, it is difform, whatever may be the time relation. Thus the movement o f the
heavens is not uniform because the parts nearest the center and those nearest the
poles move more slowly than the others, but the motion is regular, as will be shown
later.
T. I refer here to the first heaven and to primary motion because, in the heaven
just below the first, several motions are appropriate and combine into one.
G. In Chapter Three o f Book I [see fols, yd-çb], we showed how some m ove­
ments are simple and others composite or mixed ; mixed movements can be made up
o f several rectilinear or o f several circular motions or o f both types mixed together.
3 A Tiexte.
1 A est le régulier.
2 B C F penser ; D pouser ; E poser. Guthrie, 4 A omits ainsi q u e .. .subject.
ch. 6.
412 Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 13, fols. io5d-io6b | 41j
et aucun peust / (105 d) estre mixte de pluseurs réguliers ou de pluseurs irré­
Similarly, some movements are regular, some irregular, and some can / (105d) be
guliers ou mesleement des uns et des autres. E t un honme subtil en telles
made up o f several regular or irregular motions, or o f regular and irregular mixed
choses peust legierement ymaginer comment ce est possible que .i. m ouve­
together. A person who is clever at such things can easily imagine how it is pos­
ment régulier peut estre mixte de (pluseurs)* mouvemens irréguliers, etaussi
sible for a regular movement to be combined with several irregular ones and how
25 comment un irrégulier peust estre mixte de pluseurs réguliers.6 E t ce menbre
an irregular movement can be combined with several regular ones. Th e latter sit­
est a nostre propos, car chascun mouvement du ciel singulier ou simple, prins
uation fits our present problem, for each movement o f a single or simple heaven is
par soy, est simplement régulier, si comme il appert par les raisons qui sont
by and o f itself absolutely regular, as later arguments will show. A n d the highest
apres ou texte. E t le derrenier ciel est meu d ’un seul simple mouvement ré­
heaven has simple regular motion, but each heaven beneath this primary one moves
gulier, mais chascun des autres qui sont souz lui est meu de mouvement com-
with compound motion, combining several simple regular movements. A n d this
30 posé et mixte de pluseurs dont chascun simple est régulier. E t ce mouve­
compound movement is irregular because each simple motion making up the com­
ment composé est irrégulier pour ce que les simples dont il est composé sont
bination has a different center and moves around a different pole or because o f both
environ divers centres ou sus divers poles ou pour ces .ii. causes ensamble;
these causes together; as, for example, the proper motion o f the sun in its eccen­
si comme, pour grace d’exemple, le propre mouvement du soleil en son ex­
tric and its daily motion are regular, but since the sun’s proper motion is around a
centrique est régulier et le mouvement journal régulier, mais pour ce que le
different center and especially since it is upon poles different from those o f daily
35 propre mouvement du soleil est environ autre centre et mais<me>ment7
motion, the body o f the sun must have // (106a) irregular motion which is faster at
pour ce que il est sus autres poles que n’est le mouvement journal, il convient
some times than at others. This is evident because the sun describes a smaller circle
que le corps du soleil soit meu irregulie- // (106a) rement et une fois plus in a natural day at the solstices than in the equinoctial, that is, on the longest or
tost que autre. E t ce appert clerement, car il descript mendre ced e en .i. jour
shortest day rather than at the time when night and day are equal. Therefore, its
naturel quant il est es solstices que quant il est en l’equinoctial, c’est a savoir
motion is faster at one time than at another, and the same applies to the other
4o ou plus lonc j our ou ou plus court, que quant la nuit et le j our sont equalz. E t planets, more to some than to others, depending upon the combination o f motions
donques est son mouvement plus isnel une fois que autre, et aussi des autres in their movements and the distance from the centers or poles around which they
planètes des unes plus, des autres moins, selon ce que elles sont meues de
rotate. Accordingly, some planets are stationary and have direct and retrograde
plus ou de moins89de mouvemens et environ centres ou sus poles differens et motion and are in such dispositions that they cannot avoid irregularity o f m ove­
distans plus ou moins. E t selon ce, aucunes sont stacionaires et plus drectes et ment. Here Averroes reprimands those who introduce eccentrics and epicycles into
45 retrogrades et en telles disposicions qu’i ne peuent estre sanz irrégularité de the heavens, and he promises to explain in another way the apparent motions o f
mouvement. E t Averroïz reprent ici6 ceulz qui mettent ou ciel excentriques
the heavenly bodies, but he is unable to do so. Aristotle now proves his statement
et epicicles et promet a declairer par autre voie les apparences qui sont es
by four arguments.
mouvemens du ciel; mais il ne peut. Apres Aristote prouve son propos par
r . In the first place, if the heavens moved irregularly, their motion would re­
.iiii. raisons.
quire change o f intensity and force or increase o f velocity, and they would need to
50 T . Premièrement, se le ciel estoit meu irrégulièrement, il convendroit que be able to exert control by reducing or weakening its greatest possible speed be­
son mouvement eust intension et enforcement ou accressement de isneleté,
cause all irregular motion / (106b) possesses these three characteristics.
et que il eust vertu et estât de sa plus grant isneleté et remission <ou>10 af-
G . O r at least two o f them.
flebiement de elle, car tout mouvement irrégulier / (106b) a ces .iii. choses.
T . A nd the maximum speed or climax o f such irregular motion is either at the
G . O u les .ii. au moins.
beginning or at the end or goal toward which the motion is directed or in the mid­
55 T . E t la vertu ou la plus très grant isneleté de tel mouvement irrégulier est
dle o f the m oving process ; for example, in natural motion the climax is toward the
ou vers le commencement ou vers la fin et terme a quoy il tent, ou en milieu
end or goal ; in violent motion the climax is near the starting point ; and in the case
du mouvement; aussi comme, par aventure, es mouvemens qui sont selon
o f something thrown the climax is at the mid-point o f the movement.
nature, la plus grande (isneleté)11 est vers la fin ou il tendent, et es mouve­
mens qui sont violens elle est vers le terme12 ou il commencent, et es choses
60 que l ’en jecte elle est ou milieu du mouvement.
moins de mouvement. 11 A omits isneleté.
omits pluseurs. 7 A maisment; C D F meisment. 9 Juntas, t.c. 35, 118 G -119 A . 12 D E omit ou il tendent... vers le terme.
irréguliers. 8 B C D E F meus les unes plus les autres 10 A en.
 414 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . E t Pen seult dire que les mouvemens naturelz sont plus isnelz en la fin
et les violens ou commencement et les voluntaires ou milieu. Mais pour ce
proprement entendre, l’en doit savoir que des mouvemens localz qui ont
commencement et fin sont .iiii. maniérés : les uns sont purement naturelz, si
65 comme quant la chose pesante descent droit en bas; les autres purement1*
violens, si comme quant chose pesante monte droit en haut; les autres sont
violens non pas purement, si comme quant une chose est gectee ou traicte en
travers comme seroit une secte; les autres sont faiz par vertu d’ame14 de bes-
te ou de honme, si comme aler, voler, noer. Les premiers ou le premier, qui
70 est pur naturel, va tous jours // (106c) en enforsant et en cresance de ysneleté
se les autres choses sont pareilles, si comme quant une pierre descent tout
droit par le aer. L e secont, si comme d’une secte traicte droit en haut, va au
commencement en enforçant et vers la fin en afflebliant et retardant ; et le tiers
aussi, fors que il va plus longuement en enforçant et est sa grant vertu ou
75 force plus loing du commencement que en celui qui est pur violent. E t le
quart est plus fort vers le milieu. E t pour entendre les causes de ces choses, je
di premièrement que tout mouvement de chose pesante ou legiere, quelcun-
que il soit, commence en enforçant telement que quelcunque degré de ysne­
leté donney ou signey15 en lui, il convient que il eust devant mendre ysneleté
80 et mendre et mendre outre toute proporcion ;16 et est ce que l’en seult appel-
ler commencier a nongradu. E t la cause est, en general, car le<s>17 excès de
la vertu motive sus la resistence ou l’application de elle a la resistence nepeu-
ent estre fetes soudainnement, mais convient que telles choses soient faites
partie apres autre et chascune partie aussi, et rien n’en peut estre fait soudai-
85 nement. E t se aucun obiçoit de ce que se une pesante mule descendoit et trou-
vast en sa voie une feive ou une petite pierre rep<o)santel8souz soy, ceste
meule commenceroit a mouver / (io6d) ceste pierrete par certain et grant
degré de isnelleté et non pas a non gradu \ je respon et di que, par aventure,
seroit elle meue plus tardivement que la meule vers le commencement et
90 commenceroit a non gradu avant que la mole la touchast. E t posé que elle
commençast a certain degré, ce ne seroit pas contre ce que dit est, car ceste
pierrete conjointe a la mole fait .i. corps mobile avecques elle, et un meisme
mouvement est du tout et de sa partie; et cest mouvement tout commença a
non gradu pour les causes desus dites. Item, par l’acressement de ceste isneleté
95 est acquise et causée en la chose meue une qualité motive nouvelle laquelle
nous poons nommer force ou redeur, et ceste qualité ou redeur fait aide en
mouvement naturel et meut la chose meue viole<n>tement19 quant elle est sé­
parée du premier moteur ou motif. Item, la generation de ceste qualité ou re­
deur crest et enforce tous jours tant comme l’acressement de l’isneleté crest et
100 enforce. E t quant l’acressement de l’isneleté20 afflebie, nonobstant que tel
13 D E premièrement. 13 £>E omit donney ou signey.
14 D E omit de ame. 16 fi porcion.
Book II, Chapter 13, fols. io6c-io6d | 414
G . It is customary to say that natural motion is fastest at the end, violent motion
at its inception, and voluntary motion in the middle. But in order to understand
this clearly, it should be borne in mind that there are four kinds o f local motion
that have beginning and end. The first are purely natural, as a heavy body falling
straight down; others are completely violent, as a heavy body m oving straight up
on high; others are not completely violent, as a thing thrown or drawn crosswise
or transversely like an arrow; and others are caused by the force o f will o f animal
or o f man, such as walking, flying, swimming. The first kind, purely natural, in­
creases I f (106c) in force and speed, other things being equal, as a stone falling
straight down through the air. The second kind, an arrow shooting straight up­
ward, increases in force at the beginning and weakens and slows down toward the
end o f the motion; the third likewise, except that it increases in force for a longer
time and its climax is farther from its starting point than in the case o f the com­
pletely violent kind o f motion. Th e fourth kind is strongest at the mid-point o f
the movement. T o understand the causes o f these things, I say, first o f all, that the
motion o f any heavy or light body whatever begins with increasing force so that
no matter what the speed originally given or assigned to it, it must previously have
had less speed and increasingly less and less beyond any ratio and this is what is
commonly called to begin at zero. Th e cause is, in general, the excess o f the motive
force over the resistance because the application o f this force to the resistance can­
not be made suddenly, but must be made one part after the other with each part so
affected that nothing can take place suddenly. I f someone objects that, if a heavy
grinding stone fell and on its way encountered a large bean or small stone lying
under it, this grinding stone would begin to m ove / (io6d) this small stone with a
certain high degree o f speed and not from zero, I reply that perhaps this small
stone would be moved more slowly than the grinding stone at the beginning and
would start m oving from zero before the grindstone touched it. Supposing it be­
gan m oving at a certain speed, what we have said would not be altered, for the
small stone in combination with the grinding stone forms one mobile body, and
the same motion governing the whole governs the part ; and all this motion began
at zero speed for the causes stated above. B y the increase o f this speed a new mo­
tive quality is acquired by and created in the mobile body which we may call force
or rigidity; this quality or tension assists in natural motion and propels the object
moved violently after it is separated from the prime mover or agent. The genera­
tion o f this quality or tension increases and grows as long as the acceleration or
speed increases and grows stronger. When the acceleration weakens, in spite o f the
A le. 20 B omits crest et enforce. E t quant...
18 A B repesante. l’isneleté.
19 A violetement.
 4i 6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
acressement dure, aussi appetice l’acressement de ceste qualité nonobstant que
elle cresse. E t pour ce, en mouvement violent a .iii. estas ou .iii. parties : une est
quant la chose meue est // (107a) conjointe avecques l’instrument qui fait la
violence et lors l’isneleté va en cressant, <et la generacion ou acressement de
105 isneleté va aussi en cressant)21 se il n’i a empeeschement par accident. E t
par ce que dit est s’ensuit que l’acressement de ceste qualité ou redeur va
aussi en cressant. Secondement, quant la chose meue violentement est sépa­
rée de tel instrument ou premier motif, encore va l’isneleté en cressant, mais
la generacion, enforcement ou cressance de ceste isneleté vient en appetizant
110 et finablement cesse, et lors l’isneleté ne crest plus ne celle qualité ou redeur.
E t commence le tiers estât. E t lors la qualité naturelle de la chose meue, si
comme est pesanteur, fait appeticier ceste qualité ou redeur qui enclinoit
contre le mouvement naturel de la chose, et va le mouvement en retardant et
la violence en appetiçant et finablement cesse. E t par ceste maniéré et non par
115 autre quelcunque, l’en peut rendre cause de toutes les apparences et de toutes
les experiences que l’en voit en mouvemens violens, soient droit en haut ou
droit en bas ou en travers ou circulaires, quant a leur isneleté et tardiveté et
reflexion ou retour et quant a toutes teles choses desquelles l’en ne peut as­
signer autre cause soufissante, si comme je ay autrefois declairé plus a plain.22
120 Item, par ce appert pourquoy le coup d’une chose jectee ou traicte est plus
grant non pas ou / (107b) commencement du mouvement ne en la fin, et
pourquoy aucune fois près du commencement,23 si comme de ce qui est gec-
té ou trait droit en haut, et aucune fois plus loing du commencement et plus
vers le milieu, si comme de ce que est trait en travers, car le coup est plus fort
125 la ou l’isneleté est plus grande. Item, et pourquoi une chose qui est compacte
et plus pesante, si comme pierre ou fer ou plum, donne plus fort coup et est
plus fort gecté que une moins compacte, comme seroit drap ou laine, car la
cause est pour ce que telle chose compacte reçoit plus l’impression de celle
qualité nouvelle qui fait la cressance de l’isneleté, comme dit est, que ne fait
130 autre chose. Item, et pourquoy la chose qui peut estre gectee par une vertu
miex que quelcunque autre chose est de certain pois telement que la vertu ne
pourroit si bien gecter plus pesante ne moins pesante, et aussi pourquoy plus
grant vertu requiert24 chose plus pesante quant au miex gecter et mendre ver­
tu moins pesante. E t la cause est car se la chose est trop petite ou trop legiere,
135 elle ne peut tant recevoir de celle impression ou qualité nouvelle que j’ay de­
vant nommee radeur ; et se la chose gectee est trop pesante, la vertu ne peut
faire grant violence a si grant pesanteur. E t pour ce, qui veult très bien gecter
une cho- // (107c) se, il convient que la vertu qui gecte et la chose soient deue-
ment proporcionees une avecques l’autre. Item, en25 mouvement naturel, si
ho comme quant une pierre descent, ceste qualité est touzjours conjointe avec-
21 A omits et la generacion... en cressant. plified statement o f the impetus theory, which
22 This gloss presents a condensed and sim- is exhaustively examined in Maier, Zwei Grund-
Book II, Chapter 13, fols. 107a-!07c | 417
fact that it continues to exist, the acceleration o f this quality diminishes although
the quality continues to grow. Therefore, violent movement has three stages or
parts: one stage is when the mobile object is // (107a) in contact with the agent
causing the violence ; at that moment the speed increases and, if there is no acciden­
tal hindrance, the generation or acceleration o f the speed increases. From this, it
follows that the growth o f this quality or tension also increases. Secondly, when
the violently moved body is separated from the agent or prime mover, then the
speed increases, but the generation, strengthening, or increase o f speed become
less and less and finally stop; and at that moment the speed itself and the quality
or tension no longer increase. The third stage begins ; then the natural quality
o f the m oving object, its weight, reduces this quality or tension which militates
against its natural motion so that the movement slows down and the violence
diminishes and finally stops. In this way and in no other can we explain the appear­
ances o f all the experiments we can observe with violent motion, either straight up
on high, straight down below, crisscross, or circular, with respect to their speed
and slowness and reflexion or return and with respect to all such matters for which
we can assign some other sufficient cause, as I have previously explained more
fully. This is the reason that the blow received by an object thrown or shot is
greatest not at / (107b) the beginning nor end o f the motion, and the reason that it
is sometimes greatest near the beginning if the object is thrown or shot straight up,
and also the reason that it is sometimes farther from the beginning and nearer the
middle, as in the case o f transverse motion; for the blow is strongest where the
speed is greatest. It also explains w hy a compact and heavier thing like a stone or
an iron or lead object produces a stronger blow and is thrown with greater force
than a less compact body like cloth or w ool; for the cause is that the compact
object receives a greater amount o f this new quality or tension, which increases
the speed, than the other kind o f object, as stated above. Also it explains w hy the
object which can] be thrown by a certain force better than any other object must
have a certain weight since a lighter or heavier object could not be thrown by the
same force, and it also explains w hy a greater force requires a heavier object to
throw for the maximum result and w hy a lesser force requires a lighter object. This
is caused by the fact that, if the object is too small or too light, it cannot receive or
utilize so much o f this new quality or impression which I have called rigidity] or
tension; if the object thrown is too heavy, the force is not equal to producing the
violence required for such great weight. Thus, if one wishes to throw a thing //
(107c) most effectively, the thing to be thrown and the force to throw it must be in
proper proportion to each other. In natural motion, as when a stone falls, this
problème, pp. 113-314. On Oresme’s contribu- 24 D E vertu ne quiert.
tion to this theory, see especially pp. 236-58. 25 A Item et pour ce que en.
23 B omits ne en la ...d u commencement.
418 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ques la pesanteur naturele, et ce est la cause pourquoy la generacion de l’isne-
leté et de ceste qualité viennent tous jours en cressant, car la pesanteur et la
nouvelle qualité tendent a un terme. <Item>,26 et pour ce dist Aristote ou
.xviii.e chapitre du premier que se une chose pesante descendoit touzjours
145 sanz fin, l’isneleté de elle crestroit <tousjours)27 sans fin et aussi la pesanteur
de elle; et par ceste pesanteur doit estre entendue ceste qualité nouvelle, car
elle est comme pesanteur accidentele pour ce que en ce cas elle encline a des­
cendre, combien que en autre cas elle enclinast en haut ou en travers ou au­
trement. O r avons donques que nul mouvement de chose pesante ou legiere
150 ne peut estre régulier du tout, car il est moins isnel au commencement que
apres, combien que il soit possible, au moins selon ymaginacion, que la vertu
motive et la resistence soient tellement proporcionees et moderees que au­
cune partie de tel mouvement seroit reguliere, nonobstant celle qualité desus
dite. E t appert assés par ce que dit / (ioyd) est et par Aristote que ceste irre-
155 gularité desus dite est pour ce que telz mouvemens ont commencement et
fin, car les uns sont plus isnels vers le commencement et les autres vers la fin
et les autres ou moien.
T . E t la circulacion du ciel n’a lieu ou terme dont elle commence ne lieu
ou elle fine ne milieu, et aussi le mouvement du ciel n’a commencement ne
fin ne moien simplement, car il est pardurable selon temps. E t avecques ce,28
la longueur de la ligne que il descript est réduite en se meisme et ne peut estre
divisiee ne froissiee.
G . Car ligne circulaire est partout de samblable maniéré et n’est pas une
partie de elle plus commencement que autre. E t donques tel mouvement n’a
165 commencement ne fin, tant par raison de la figure comme par raison du
temps, car selon Aristote, il est perpétuel. E t s’ensuit par ce que dit est que il
n’est pas plus isnel une fois que autre.
T . E t donques se l’isneleté du mouvement du ciel29 n’est pas en plus grant
vertu une fois que autre, il n’est pas irrégulier, car irrégularité est faite pour
170 ce que l’isneleté est une fois plus fieble et autre foys plus forte.
14. Ou .xiii<i).ei chapitre il monstre que le mouvement du ciel
est régulier par .iii. autres resons.//
(108a) T . Encore appert autrement que tel mouvement est régulier, car
toute chose qui est meue est meue par aucune vertu.
G . Si comme il appert par le .vii.e et par le .viii.e de Phisique?
►k^ X
omits Item. 29 B C D E F omit du ciel,
omits tousjours. 1 A .xiii.e
avecques ce ce la. 2 Physicorum, VII. 1.241b 24; 242a 3-5 ;
Book II, Chapters 13-14, fols. io7d-io8a | 419
quality is always associated with the natural weight, and for this reason the gener­
ation o f speed and o f this quality increases continuously because the weight and
the new quality tend toward a single limit. This explains Aristotle’s statement in
Chapter Eighteen o f Book I [see fol. 29c] that, if a heavy object fell continuously
without stopping, its speed would increase endlessly and, likewise, its w eig h t; by
this weight we must understand this new quality. It is like an accidental weight
since in this case it would tend to fall, although in another case it might incline up­
ward or transversely or otherwise. N o w we conclude therefore that no motion o f a
heavy or light object can be entirely regular because it is slower at the beginning
than afterward, but it is possible, at least to the imagination, that motive force and
resistance should be so proportioned and so carefully arranged that some part o f
the motion would be regular, in spite o f the aforesaid quality. A nd it is clear enough
from what has been said / (ioyd) here and by Aristotle that the above irregularity is
due to the fact that such motions have beginning and end because some are faster
at the start, others at the end, and still others in the middle course o f the m ove­
ment.
T . The rotation o f the heavens has no point or locus from which it starts to
move nor any end point nor any midpoint, and heavenly motion has no beginning,
no end, and no middle whatever because the motion is eternal in time. Besides, the
length o f the line this motion describes is limited to itself and can be neithet divided
nor disturbed.
G . For a circular line is alike throughout and no part o f it is more a beginning
than any other. So, such circular motion has no beginning nor end, as much by
reason o f its shape as b y reason o f time, because, according to Aristotle, it is per­
petual. A nd it follows that at one time it is never faster than at another.
T . Therefore, if there is never any change o f speed in celestial motion, then the
speed is not irregular, for irregularity arises when the speed is weaker at one time
and stronger at another.
14. In Chapter Fourteen he shows that the movement o f the
heavens is regular by three arguments. //
(108a) T . There are other reasons to believe that heavenly movement is regular
because every m oving thing is moved by some force or power.
G . A s appears in the seventh and eighth books o f the Physics.
242 13-14; V III.4 .234b 7— 256a 3, passim and especially 255b 31— 236a 3.
420 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . E t donques il convient par neccessité que irrégularité soit faite ou par
5 raison de la vertu qui meut ou par raison de la chose meue ou pour un ou
pour l’autre, car peut estre que une chose est meue irregulairement ou pour
ce que la vertu motive n’est pas tousjours equale, ou pour ce que la chose
meue est alteree, ou pour ce que l’un et l’autre sont transmuéz.
G . L ’isneleté du mouvement ouquel est resistence ensuit la proporcion de
io la vertu motive a la resistence, et ceste proporcion peut estre muee pour la
variacion de la vertu3 ou de la resistence ou de tous les .ii. se c’est differan-
ment, car se les .ii. cressoient ou appetiçoient sanz varier la proporcion, et4
l’isneleté seroit touzjours equale. Mais comment qui soit, se l’isneleté est
variée, il convient que variacion et mutacion soit fete en la vertu motive ou
i5 en ce qui est meu.
T . E t nulle telle mutacion n’est possible vers le ciel, car nous avons mon-
stré que le corps du ciel meu est premier et que il est simple et que / (io8b)
il n’ot onques commencement et est incorruptible et du tout sans transmu-
tacion par neccessité.
2o G . Tout ce fu dit ou quart et ou sixte chapitre du premier. E t ce que il dist
san% transmutacion est a entendre de telle qui muast l’isneleté, car le ciel en au­
cune partie est transmué selon lumière.
T . O r est il molt plus resonnable que la vertu qui meut le ciel soit tele, et
que ce qui meut le corps qui est premier et simple et incorruptible soit pre-
25 mier et simple et perpétuel.
G . Par le premier corps il entent tout le ciel ensamble qui est meu de mouve­
ment journal, ou le .viii.e espere laquelle il reputoit la premiere.
T . E t donques, puisque ainsi est que ce que est meu ne peut estre trans­
mué et si est corps, il s’ensuit que la vertu qui le meut ne peut estre trans-
30 muee laquelle est incorporelle,5 et donques est ce impossible que le m ouve­
ment du ciel soit irrégulier.
G . Il fu dit ou tiers chapitre que ou mouvement du ciel ne a quelcunque
resistence, et pour ce il convient que il soit meu par vertu voluntaire. E t se­
lon Aristote, ceste vertu ne peut estre transmuée meismement car elle est in-
35 corporelle. Mais selon vérité, se ceste vertu est un angel, sa volenté peut
estre // (io8c) muee; et se ce est Dieu, il ne convient pas que II soit trans­
mué pour ce se II transmue ses creatures, mais si comme dit Boëce: Sta-
bilisque manens dat cuncta moveri.6 E t la cause est car II est en son éter­
nité laquelle est indivisible et sanz succession et de laquelle fu dit ou .xxiiii.e
40 chapitre du premier et ou premier de ce secont. E t pour ce, aussi comme le
ciel peut estre arresté ou temps de Josué et estre retourné ou temps du roy
Ezechie,7 samblablement porroit son mouvement estre avancey ou8 re­
tardé, se il plaisoit a Dieu. E t est certain que se le mouvement du ciel estoit
3 D E variacion. 4 B C D E omit et.
Book II, Chapter 14, fols. io8b-io8c | 421
T . A nd so it must be that irregularity is caused by the motive force or by the ob­
ject moved or by changes in either, for an object can be moved irregularly either
because the motive power is not always equal or because the m oving object has
changed or because both factors have changed.
G . The speed o f movement in the presence o f resistance follows the proportion
o f the motive power to the resistance, and this proportion may be changed by the
variation in the force or resistance or in both, if differentiated ; for, if both in­
creased or diminished without altering the proportion, the speed would remain
equal. However, if the speed varies, it must be that some change has taken place in
the motive force or in the thing moved.
T . N o such mutation is possible with respect to the heavens, for we have shown
that the m oving heavens are primary, simple, / (108b) without beginning, inde­
structible, and completely devoid o f necessity for change.
G . This was stated in full in Chapters Four and Six o f Book I [see fols. 9d, 1 3c].
In saying without change, Aristotle means any change in the speed o f the movement;
for certain parts o f the heavens are transmuted by light.
T . It is much more reasonable to think that the force which moves the heavens is
o f this nature and that the power m oving the primary, simple, and indestructible
body is likewise primary, simple, and perpetual.
G . B y primary body he refers to the whole heavens together moved in daily mo­
tion or to the eighth sphere, which he considered primary.
T . Thus, since the object— which is the body— that is moved cannot be changed,
it follows that the motive force— which is incorporeal— cannot change, and so it
is impossible that the motion o f the heavens be irregular.
G . In Chapter Three [see fol. 73 b] we said that there is no resistance to the mo­
tion o f the heavens; therefore, they must be moved by voluntary force. According
to Aristotle, the force cannot be changed in any way since it is incorporeal. But, in
truth, if this force is an angel, its will can be // (108 c) changed; if the force is G od,
it is not fitting that He should change because, although He changes His creatures,
He remains stable, giving motion to all things, as Boethius says. The cause is that
He is in His eternity which is indivisible without succession, o f which we spoke in
Chapter Twenty-four o f Book I and in Chapter One o f this second Book [see fols.
34c, 67c ff.]. Therefore, just as the heavens could be stopped in the time o f Joshua
and could turn backward in the time o f K in g Hezekiah, in the same way could its
motion be stepped up or retarded if it so pleased God. Certainly if the motion o f
5 D E corporelle. ri.”
6 Cf. De consolatione philosophiae, III.M 9.3, 7 IV Reg. 20:9-11.
ed. Stewart and Rand (London: Loeb, 1918), 8 D E mouvement avant soy ou.
p. 262: “ stabilisque manens das cuncta move­
422 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
plus isnel ou plus tardif au double ou plus, combien que ce fust, et touz les
45 autres mouvemens et alteracions de cibas desquelz il est cause selon Aristote
estoient samblablement plus isnelz ou plus tardis, nul ne pourroit apparce-
voir ceste mutacion, mais tout sambleroit comme maintenant selon appa­
rence humaine. Apres il met la tierce raison principal a son propos.
T . Item, se ou mouvement du ciel estoit irrégularité, ou ce seroit selon
5o tout le ciel ou selon les parties de lui.
G . Aussi comme il peut estre que le mouvement d’une nef est régulier ou
près et les honmes qui sont en la nef peu<en)t9 estre meuz irrégulièrement en
approchant ou <en>10 esloingnant / (io8d) les uns des autres, samblablement
l’en pourroit ymaginer que le ciel ou sont les estoilles fichiees fust meu irre-
55 gulierement ou reguüerement11 selon soy tout, et que aucune de ses parties
comme sont estoilles se avançassent ou retardassent irrégulièrement et ap­
prochassent ou esloingnassent les unes des autres.
T . E t les parties du ciel ne sont pas irregulieres quant a mouvement, car
se les unes eussent esté meues en avançant et les autres en retardant par le
60 temps infini passé, elles fussent maintenant en autre distance que devant. E t
l’en ne apparçoit en rien que les estoilles fichiees soient esloingniees les unes
des autres autrement que devant.
G . Car leurs distances apparoissoient telles ou temps d’Aristote et font
encore maintenant comment il estoient observées et escriptes es plus an-
65 ciens livres d’astrologie. Apres il reprouve12 l’autre membre.
T . Mais aussi ne peut l’en dire que tout le ciel ensamble soit meu autre­
ment que devant, car toute retardacion de mouvement est par impotence.
G . Se la resistence n’estoit creue ou enforciee.
T . E t impotence est contre nature, car es bestes nous voions que toutes
70 impotences, si comme envieillir et appeticier, sont contre nature.
G . Elles sont contraires // (109a) a la nature de la chose particulière qui
est encline a durer et a sa permanence, mes elles sont selon nature universele
qui appete continuacion de generacion et corrupcion. E t c’est, par aventure,
le ciel et la premiere matière.
75 T . E t la cause de telles impotences est pour ce que les bestes sont compo­
sées, par aventure, de choses teles qui ont lieus propres differens.
G . C ’est a savoir des .iiii. elemens qui sont contraires et tendent chascun a
son lieu naturel. E t est possible que il dist p a r aventure pour ce que aucuns
faisoient doubte se les elemens sont es corps mixtes en leur propre forme.
80 T . Car nulle des parties de telz corps mixtes n’est en sa propre region.
G . Fors, par aventure, le aer qui est es bestes et l’eaue qui est es poissons.
T . E t donques, se es premiers corps, c ’est a savoir es corps du ciel, n’est
chose contre nature— et ainsi est il, car il sont simples et non pas mixtes et
peut. 11 B omits ou reguüerement.
omits en. 12 D E prouve.
Book II, Chapter 14, fols. io8d-i09a 423
the heavens were twice as fast or twice as slow or more, however it may be, and i f
all the other movements or changes here below, which Aristotle attributes to the
influence o f the heavens, were proportionally faster or slower, no one would be
able to perceive this mutation; for everything would appear to us humans exactly
as at present. N ext he states the third main argument in his discussion.
T . I f there were irregularity in heavenly motion, it would affect either the whole
heavens or their parts.
G . A s with a ship, its motion can be regular or nearly so, while the men on the
ship can move about irregularly, approaching or m oving away from / (io8d) one
another; in the same manner we can imagine the heaven o f the fixed stars m oving
regularly or irregularly as a whole, while some o f its parts, like the stars for in­
stance, move irregularly faster or more slowly toward or away from one another.
T . The parts o f the heavens are not irregular in their motions, for, if some had
moved faster and some more slowly through infinite past time, they would at pres­
ent be in different positions than formerly; but we cannot observe that the fixed
stars have moved the smallest degree from their former positions.
G . Because the distance from one to another appeared in Aristotle’s time exactly
as it does today, as noted in writings in the oldest books on astronomy. Then he
refutes the other part o f the objection.
T . A nd also it cannot be said that the heavens as a whole move in any way dif­
ferent from before, for any slowing down in a movement is due to impotence or
reduction o f force or power.
G . That is, provided that the resistance is not increased or strengthened.
T . Impotence is unnatural, against nature, for in animals we can clearly see that
all types o f impotence— like growing old or becoming smaller in size— are against
nature.
G . Impotence is contrary // (109a) to the nature o f the individual subject, which
is inclined to permanent duration, but impotence is a part o f universal nature which
seeks continuity through generation and disintegration— including, perhaps, the
heavens and primary matter.
T . The cause o f such impotence is perhaps that animals are compounded o f those
things which have different places proper to them.
G . That is, compounded o f the four elements which are contrary to one another,
and each o f which tends toward its natural place. Possibly he says perhaps because
some people doubted that the elements are present in mixed bodies in their proper
form.
T . For none o f the parts o f such mixed bodies is in its proper region.
G . Save, perhaps, the air which is in animals and the water in fish.
T . Therefore, if there is nothing contrary to nature in the primary or celestial
bodies— and this is the case because they are simple and not compounded in their
424 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
sont en leur propre region et n’ont chose contraire ne en eulz ne hors eulz— il
85 s’ensuit que en eulz n’est quelcunque impotence. E t donques leur mouve­
ment ne se retarde onques, et aussi il ne se avance onques, car se il se retardoit,
il se pourroit avancier puisque mutacion i 13 pourroit estre.
G . E t se au- / (109b) cun disoit que le ciel se peut retarder sanz impotence
aussi comme un honme se retarde par volenté,14 la response seroit selon
90 Aristote, car la volenté de l’intelligence qui meut le ciel peut estre muee.
Apres il met la quarte reson en reprouvant .iii. membres d’une division: le
premier est que le mouvement du ciel fust venu en cressant par temps infini
passé et que il alast en retardant par temps infini a venir.
T. Item, c’est chose desresonnable que la vertu qui meut le ciel doie ac-
95 crestre l’isneleté de son mouvement par temps infini, et que elle eust impo­
tence pour quoy le mouvement se retardast par un autre temps infini, car rien
qui est hors nature ou contre nature ne dure par temps infini, et chose qui est
contre nature et celle qui est selon nature ne durent pas par temps equal; et
aussi non font puissance et impotence. E t il convient par neccessité, se le
100 mouvement du ciel15 procedoit ou temps a venir touzjours en retardant, que
ce fust par temps infini.
G . Car selon Aristote, tout le temps passé est infini et aussi celui qui est a
venir. E t impotence ne peut durer par temps infini, car chose naturelle, si
comme est puissance, dure plus que chose desnaturele. // (109c) E t tout le
105 temps passé n’est pas plus grant que tout le temps a venir. Mais a parler pro­
prement, il ne sont pas equalz, car un infini n’est pas plus grant ne plus petit
que l’autre ne equal a l’autre, si comme je monstrai evidanment pieça sus le
tiers de Phisique. 16 Apres ce, Aristote reprouve le secont membre de la divi­
sion qui est tel : que l’isneleté du mouvement du ciel fust venue et procedast
no encore touzjours en acressant perpetuelement sanz commencement et sans
fin, ou perpetuelment en appetisant. E t ce reprouve17 il par .ii. resons.
T. Mais encore n’est ce pas possible que l’isnelité du ciel creust et enfor-
çast tous jours perpetuelment, car ainsi le mouvement du ciel s<er)oitl8 in­
fini et non déterminé. E t nous avons autrefois dit que tout mouvement est
n5 déterminé et est de aucun terme et en aucun terme.
G . D e ce fu dit ou sixte de Phisique19 et est a entendre quant a isneleté, car
il convient20 que elle soit terminée21 a aucun certain degré ou autrement elle
procederoit en cressant sanz fin ou en appetiçant sanz fin. Apres il met a ce la
seconde raison.
120 T. Item, ce ne pourroit estre se ainsi est que il conviengne prendre aucun
temps ouquel le / (io9d) ciel fait un circuite ou une circulacion lequel est si
13 A B C F il. 39c): “ Consequenter queritur utrum infinitum
14 B violence. sit alio maius aut equale sive minus, vel utrum
15 D E temps. esset si ellement infinitum vel utrum infinitum
16 Cf. Questiones, Bk. Ill, Quest. i2(ff. 37c!- sit infinite comparabile.” Oresme’s argument
Book II, Chapter 14, fols. io9b-io9d | 424
own region, nor is there anything contrary within or outside them— then it follows
that they possess no lack o f power. A nd so their motion is never retarded nor in­
creased, for, if it could slow down, it could also speed up since this would be in the
nature o f change.
G . I f it were / (109b) said that the heavens can slow down without loss o f power
just as a man slows himself down at will, Aristotle’s reply would be that the will o f
the intelligence m oving the heavens can be moved. Afterward he sets forth the
fourth argument in refutation o f three sections o f one division: the first is that the
movement o f the heavens has been increasing in speed through infinite past time
and will slow down in infinite future time.
T . It is unreasonable that the power which moves the heavens should increase in
speed through infinite time or that it should suffer loss o f power so that the motion
will slow down through infinite time; for nothing contrary to nature can exist
through infinite time, and the thing contrary to nature does not last as long as that
which is in its natural state— a fact applicable both to power and to impotence. If
celestial motion were to slow down continuously through future time, it would
necessarily do so through infinite time.
G . According to Aristotle, all past time and all future time are infinite [see fol.
49cd]. Lack o f power cannot last through infinite time because a natural endow­
ment like power lasts longer than an unnatural quality. // (109c) A n d all past time
is not greater than all future time. But, properly speaking, they are not equal, for
one infinite is not greater nor less than the other nor equal to it, as I showed clearly
some time ago in discussing the third book o f the Physics. Aristotle next refutes by
two arguments the second member o f the division which is : that the speed o f ce­
lestial motion came to exist and continues to increase perpetually without be­
ginning or end or is perpetually slowing down.
T . Again, it is not possible that the speed o f celestial motion should increase and
become stronger perpetually, for in such case this motion would1 be infinite and
unlimited. But we have stated earlier that every motion is finite and from one limit
to another.
G . This was taken up in the sixth book o f the Physics and refers to speed because
if speed is [not] stopped at a certain degree or rate or otherwise, it would continue
to increase or to decrease to infinity. Then he states the second argument.
T . If there is a certain minimum time required /(io9d) for the heavens to make a
includes the so-called “ sphere-wrapping argu­ MS. Lat. 14723.
ment” which he employs in D u d e l, fol. 5 5cd; 17 D E prouve.
this same “ puzzler” appears in Albert o f Saxo- 18 A soit.
ny’s Questiones super librum De caelo, Bk. I, 19 Physicorum, V I.4 .234b 10-18; 5.235b
Quest. 8. See Quaestiones Alberti de Saxonia in 6-17.
libros de caelo et mundo Aristotelis, ed. Hierony­ 20 A avient.
mus Surianus (Venice, 1492), and Bibl. Nat., 21 B C D E F determinee.
426 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
petit que il ne la pourroit faire en mendre temps. E t il est ainsi, car aussi
comme il n’est pas possible de dire une chanson ou de aler a un lieu en quel-
cunque temps tant soit petit, mais est de chascun tel fait le temps déterminé
125 que l’en ne22 peut exceder en isneleté ne faire tele chose en mendre temps,
donques n’est il pas possible que le ciel soit meu ainsi que il face un circuite
en quelcunque temps. E t se c ’est vérité, comme si est, donques ne peut venir
son isneleté touzjours en cressant ne, par consequent, touzjours en appeti-
çant, car c’est samblable de l’un et de l’autre pour ce que se23 l ’isneleté du ciel
130 enforçoit touzj ours sanz fin, aussi pourroit elle afflebier et que une revolucion
fust fete en plus grant temps et en plus grant et ainsi sans fin.
G . E t c ’est impossible, car aussi comme il est un temps si petit que elle ne
peut estre fete en mendre, aussi est un temps si grant que elle ne peust estre
faite en plus grant ne plus tardivement, car les choses naturelles sont termi-
135 nees en grandeur et en petitesce, si comme il appert ou premier de Phisique.2*
Mais il me samble que ceste raison par soy ne // (n o a) conclut pas, car se
l’isneleté du mouvement du ciel a esté et soit touzjours en cressant sanz com­
mencement et sanz fin, il ne s’ensuit pas que elle passe onques ou attaigne si-
ques a certain degré, si comme, pour exemple, siques au double. Car se le ciel
ho estoit meu demain plus tost que hui de la moitié de l’isn<el>eté2S du jour de
huy et que l’isneleté fust au jour de hui comme .ii. et demain comme .iii. et
elle creust le tiers jour de la moitié de la premiere moitié26 et fust comme .iii.
et demi, et ainsi sans fin en adjoustant tousjours de jour en jour mendre de­
gré d’isneleté selon proporcionalité soudouble, il est certain que l’isneleté du
145 ciel ne attaindroit onques en temps du monde siques a isneleté double; et
samblablement en retournant vers le temps passé et en rabatant de l’isneleté
selon proporcionalité soudouble, si comme que le ciel fust hier meu plus
tart que hui de la moitié de l’isneleté du jour de hui et avant-hier plus tart de
la moitié de ceste moitié et ainsi en oultre sans fin. E t encore pourroit estre
i5o la maniéré telement ym agine(e)27 que onques n’avroit esté par tout le
temps infini passé que le ciel n’eust esté meu oultre certain degré d’isneleté./
(110b) E t samblablement, se le mouvement avoit procédé et procedast sans
commencement et sans fin touzjours en retardant, il ne s’ensuit pas que il soit
onques meu plus tart au double que maintenant et aussi de quelcunque autre
155 proporcion, car je ay parlé de ceste proporcion pour cause d’exemple. Je di
donques de la consequence que fait ici Aristote que elle n’est pas bonne, com­
bien que le consequent so{it)>28 vrai, c ’est a savoir que le mouvement du ciel
n’est pas telement irreguüer et est souffissanment prouvé par les autres rai­
sons. Apres il met la quarte raison.
160 T . Item, or demeure donques que se le mouvement du ciel est irreguüer,
il convient que ce soit telement que il soit une fois plus isnel et autre foiz
22 B D E omit ne. 24 Physicorum, I.4.187b 7— 188a 5.
23 D E omit se. 25 isneté.
Book II, Chapter 14, fols, n o a - n o b | 427
circuit or revolution which cannot be reduced, then the above could not be true.
But it is true; for just as it is impossible to sing a song or go from here to there in a
fixed minimum time since the time required for each separate action must be deter­
mined in order that one does not exceed the speed nor complete the action in less
time, so in the same way it is not possible for the heavens to move and make their
circuit in an indeterminate amount o f time. I f this is true, as it is, then the speed o f
the celestial motion cannot accelerate continuously nor, on the other hand, de­
crease continuously because the situation is the same in both cases ; if the speed be­
came infinitely stronger, it could also grow weaker so that a complete revolution
would require a greater span o f time increasing to infinity.
G . A n d this is impossible; for, as there is a time so short that it cannot be less,
there is also a time so great that it cannot be longer nor the rate slower, because na­
tural things are limited in magnitude both large and small, as is stated in the first
book o f the Physics. But it seems to me that this reason is not o f itself // (1 10a) con­
clusive, for, if the speed o f celestial motion has been and will always be increasing
endlessly without beginning or end, it does not follow that it will exceed or reach a
certain rate as, for example, double its speed. For if the heavens were to increase
their speed tomorrow by one-half o f today’s rate and the speed today is as 2, then
tomorrow it would be as 3 ; and if they increased the third day by half the first half
the speed would be as 3^, and if they continued thus indefinitely adding each day
a degree that is smaller by one-half, it is certain that during the existence o f the
world the speed o f the heavens would never attain twice its original velocity. The
same would be true if we were to proceed similarly in reverse toward past time,
reducing the speed proportionally by one-half successively day after day so that the
heavens m oved yesterday half as fast as today, the day before yesterday slower than
yesterday by one-half o f yesterday’s reduction, and so forth without ceasing day by
day in reverse. One could even imagine such a situation where the heavens would
not have m oved beyond a certain rate o f speed throughout all infinite past time. /
(n o b ) Likewise, if the motion had proceeded and were to continue without begin­
ning or end, slowing down constantly, it does not follow that it would ever have
moved twice as slowly as at present or at any other proportion o f its present rate,
for I have spoken o f this proportion merely as an example. I say, therefore, that
the conclusion which Aristotle draws here is not correct, although the consequent
is true, namely that the movement o f the heavens is not irregular in this manner,
and it is sufficiently proved by the other arguments. N ext he states the fourth ar­
gument.
T . N o w it remains for us to maintain that, if the celestial motion is irregular, it
must be so in such a way that it is faster at one time, slower at another, then faster
26 B omits de la premiere moitié. 28 A soy.
27 A ymaginé.
 428 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
tardif, et apres plus isnel et que il se change ainsi puis d’un, puis d’autre. E t
ce samble un dit du tout desraisonnable et samblable a une fiction. Item, il ne
pourroit ainsi estre que ce ne fust apparceu meismement en ces choses qui
165 sont opposites, et de tant sont elles plus sensibles et plus apparcevables com­
ment elles sont plus prochaines les unes des autres.
G . Car il samble se le mouvement du ciel estoit hui plus isnel et demain //
( i i o c ) plus tardif, que l’en le apparcevroit bien. Mais non feroit en .ii. cas: un
est se il se retardoit ou avançoit insensiblement, si comme il est possible a
170 ymaginacion; autre est se les autres mouvemens de cibas se retardoient ou
avançoient proporcionelement, car lors tout sambleroit comme il est mainte­
nant, si comme il est dit devant. O r avons donques <que le mouvement du
ciel est régulier et par le chapitre precedent)29 que le mouvement des choses
pesantes et des legieres est irrégulier. Mais a parler de uniformité et de diffor-
175 mité de mouvement dont fu touchié ou chapitre precedent, .ii. choses sont
a considérer ou ciel, c ’est a savoir mouvement et circuite, et .ii. es choses
pesantes, c’est a savoir mouvement et descente,30 et pareillement es legieres.
Je di donques que le ciel est difforme en mouvement et uniforme en circuite;
et la cause est car les parties devers les poles et celles qui sont vers le centre
180 sont meues plus tardivement que les autres, mais toutes font leur circuite et
les parties de leur circuite31 ou de leur circulacion ou revolucion equalment
une aussi comme l ’autre. E t pour ce, les astrologiens divisent chascun ced e
du ciel par equal nombre de degrés, soit petit, soit grant. E t au contraire, le
mouvement d’une chose pesante / (n o d ) peut estre uniforme et que chas-
185 cune partie soit meue equalment et aussi isnelement32 une comme l’autre, mais
la descendue est difforme, car la partie qui est ou milieu de la chose descent
et approche plus isnelement du centre que ne font celles qui sont es bous ou
es extrémités, et si n’est pas meue plus isnelement; si comme, pour exemple,
soit .a. le centre du monde et .b.c.d. soit la chose pesante, et que ces .iii. par-
i9o ties soient meues equalment en descendant selon .iii. lignes droites. Il appert
asséz clerement que .c., qui est ou milieu et qui va tout droit vers le centre,
approche plus isnelement du centre que ne font .b. et .d., qui descendent
par lignes qui ne tendent pas tout droit vers le centre, mais aus costés [Fig.
24].33 Apres il recapitule.
i95 T . E t donques en tant soit dit du ciel comment il est un seulement...
G . T o u t ensamble et non pas pluseurs en pluseurs // ( m a ) mondes.2
0 these three parts bed m ove along three straight lines with equal speed. It is clear
20 A omits que le m ouvem ent.. .precedent. 33 D E add : Apres s’ensuit la figure de ceste
30 B distance.
ymaginacion présentement declairee. The fig­
31 B omits et les parties de leur circuite.
ure is not executed in either MS.
32 D E equalement.
Book II, Chapter 14, fols, i i o c - m a | 429
again, changing from one speed to another. This seems to be a wholly unreasonable
statement in the nature o f fiction. It could not be thus without its being readily ap­
parent in those things which are opposites and all the more so when they follow
each other closely in time.
G . For it seems likely that, if celestial motion were faster today and slower to­
morrow, [I ( h o c ) we should perceive this change quite easily. But there are two
possible cases in which this would not be true. One is the case in which we can imag­
ine the motion to be retarded or to accelerate imperceptibly; the other involves the
proportional retardation or acceleration o f movement here below, in which case
everything would appear exactly as it does at present, as we stated above. So now
w e have shown that celestial motion is regular and, in the preceding chapter [see
fol. 106b ff.], that the motion o f light and heavy objects is irregular. But in speak­
ing o f the uniformity and difformity o f motion, which we touched upon in the pre­
ceding chapter, two matters concerning the heavens need to be considered, namely
b c c
c3
Fig. 24
motion and revolution and, in the case o f heavy and light bodies, motion and fall.
I say, then, that the motion o f the heavens is difform, but uniform with respect to
their revolution, the cause being that the parts o f the heavens near the poles and
center move more slowly than the others, but all parts, as well as the whole, revolve
equally with one another. A s a result, the astronomers divide each circle in the
heavens, whether large or small, into an equal number o f degrees. O n the contrary,
the motion o f a heavy body / (n o d ) may be uniform and each part may move at
the same uniform rate, but the fall o f a heavy body is difform or varies in velocity
because the part in the middle falls and approaches the center sooner than the
parts at the ends or extremities, although the middle part is not moved faster. For
example [see Fig. 24], let a be the center o f the world and bed the heavy body; let
that c in the middle o f the body, falling straight toward the center, reaches it sooner
than b or d, which fall along lines that do not tend straight toward the center, but to
the sides. N o w he recapitulates.
T . Let this suffice for our discussion o f the uniqueness o f the world which is one
and only one w o rld . . .
G . Considered together as a whole and not as several separate bodies in several //
( m a ) separate worlds.
4jo | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . E t <que>34 il n’ot onques commencement et est pardurable et encore
que il est meu reguüerement.
15. Ou .xv.e chapitre il commence a determiner des estoilles et
premièrement de leur substance et comment elles
sont cause de chaleur.
T . Apres1 convient dire des estoilles de quoy elles sont et de quelles figu­
res et comment elles sont meues.
G . Il entent par estoilles generalment le soleil et la lune et les autres estoilles.
E t ce segnefie en latin astrum.
5 T . E t dire que chascune des estoilles est de la substance et de l’espece tele
comme est le corps meu en quoy elle est, c ’est très resonnable et consequent
ou ensuiant aus choses dites par nous, car nous avions dit devant que aucun
corps est qui est meu et qui est nay et enclin naturelment a estre meu circu-
lairement.
10 G . Ce fu dit ou quart chapitre du premier et la fu dit que c’est le ciel. E t
donques, puisque les estoilles sont meues circulairement aussi comme le ciel,
il s’ensuit que elles sont de la nature du ciel, combien que elles soient plus
luisantes et plus sensibles, car nous voions presque samblables differences en
pluseurs choses quant a leurs parties. / (11 ib) Apres il monstre comment ce
i5 s’acorde aucunement aus dis des anciens.
T . Car aussi comme les anciens dient que les estoilles sont de nature de feu
pour ce que il dient que le corps qui est lasus en haut est feu, aussi comme ce
soit raisonnable que chascune chose soit de la nature de celles ou elle est, et
samblablement disons nous.
20 G . C ’est a savoir que les estoilles sont de la nature du ciel ou elles sont, et
pour ce que les anciens cuidoient que le ciel et les estoilles fussent de nature de
feu pour ce que il eschaufent et enluminent aussi comme fait feu. E t il sont
d’autre nature, si comme il fu monstré ou quart chapitre du premier. Aristote
met apres une cause pourquoy le ciel et les estoilles sont cause de chaleur.
25 T . Mais chaleur est causée de eulz et lumière aussi parce que de leur mou­
vement le aer est escommeu et triblé, car mouvement est naturelment nay et
apte a eschaufer et affouer et boies ou fustes et pierres et fer.2 E t donques est
ce plus raisonnable que mouvement eschaufe ce que est prochain de feu. E t
c’est aer.
30 G . Car il est près du feu et quant a lieu ou region et quant a qualité, car il
est de sa nature chaut et moiste. Apres il monstre par signe que mouvement
I] (11 ic) est cause de chaleur.
34 A omits que.
Book II, Chapter 15, fols, n i b - i n c | 431
T . Which never began, but is eternal, and whose motion, moreover, is regular.
15. In Chapter Fifteen he begins to examine the nature o f the
stars, first their substance and how they produce heat.
T . Let us take up next our inquiry into the nature o f the stars, their composition,
their shapes, and their movement.
G . In general he uses the word stars to mean the sun and moon and other stars,
which is the meaning o f astrum in Latin.
T . It is most reasonable, consistent, and apposite from what we have said to as­
sume that each o f the stars is composed o f the same substance as the m oving body
in which it is housed; for we have been saying that there is a body whose nature it
is to be moved and which is designed especially by nature to m ove in a circle.
G . This was stated in Chapter Four o f Book I [see fol. 9d] where the body in
question was the heavens. Thus, since the stars m ove in a circle as the heavens do,
it follows that they participate in the nature o f the heavens, although their shine is
brighter and more perceptible to the senses; and if we consider their parts, we can
observe similar differences in many objects. / ( m b ) N ext he points out that this
opinion agrees somewhat with that o f the ancient philosophers.
T . The ancients used to say that the stars share the nature o f fire, declaring that
the uppermost body is fire and that it is reasonable to suppose that each thing par­
ticipates in the nature o f the objects where it exists ; and so say w e also.
G . That is, that the stars are o f the same nature as the heaven in which they are
located; and the] ancient philosophers] thought that the heavens and stars were o f
fire because they give off heat and light exactly as fire does. But they are o f a dif­
ferent nature, as was shown in Chapter Four o f Book I [see fol. iib cd ]. Aristotle
next posits a cause as to w hy the heavens and stars are a source o f heat.
T . Heat as well as light is caused by the heavens because the air is circulated rap­
idly and disturbed by their movement, and it is the nature and function o f move­
ment to produce heat and to set fire to wood or logs and even to ignite stones and
iron. Therefore, it is reasonable that motion should heat that which is nearest to
fire, and this is the air.
G . For the element o f air is near the element o f fire both as to its proper place or
region and as to its properties, being naturally hot and moist. Then he gives an
example o f movement // ( m e ) causing heat.
1 Guthrie, ch. 7. 2 D E omit et boies... et fer.
432 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Aussi il appert es sëetes qui sont traictes, et par ce elles sont fetes chau­
des comme feu en tant que le plun qui est en aucunes remet et decourt. E t
35 pour ce que ces sectes eschaufent, il est neccessité que le aer qui est environ
elles eschaufe.
G . Aucuns sont ici a descort, car les uns dient que le mouvement de la
secte est cause d ’eschaufer le aer et les autres dient au contraire, et, par aven­
ture, que le mouvement de la sëete eschaufe l’aer et l’aer chaut eschaufe la
40 sëete et apres la sëete et l’aer s’entre-eschaufent; et de ce apparoistra plus par
ce que sera dit apres. E t apres il met comment le mouvement des choses ma-
teriales et le mouvement du ciel sont differentement cause de chaleur.
T . E t ces sëetes eschaufent pour ce que elles sont meues en Paer, et pour la
percussion ou confricacion du mouvement l’aer3 est affoué et eschaufe com-
45 me feu. Mais des corps du ciel qui sont lasus chascun est meu en son espere
telement que il ne sont en rien faiz chauz ne affouéz. Mais Paer qui est desous
ceste espere circulaire du ciel, il convient par neccessité que il soit eschaufé
par le mouvement de elle.
G . Le ciel ne peut estre altéré ne transmué selon quel- / (i i id) cunque qua-
50 lité active ou passive, si comme sont chaleur, fredure, etc., et ce fu dit ou sixte
chapitre du premier. E t pour ce, il n’est chaut ne froit ne sec ne moiste, etc.,
formeement, mes seulement en vertu et puissance que il a de causer et faire
chaleur ou telle qualité es choses materiales de cibas par son mouvement ou
autrement, si comme il sera declairé apres. E t combien que son mouvement
55 soit régulier, il ne s’ensuit pas pour ce que il eschaufe Paer tousjours et par­
tout equalment. E t de ce Aristote met la cause apres.
T . E t meismement le ciel eschaufe Paer par le mouvement de la partie ou
le soleil est fichié. E t pour ce, quant il approche de nous et il est eslevé et sus
nous, adonques est chaleur engendree. E t en tant soit dit par nous que les
6o estoilles ne sont pas de nature de feu et que elles ne sont pas meues en la
region ou espere de l’element du feu.
G .4 E n ce chapitre est doubte contre ce que dit est que les estoilles sont de
telle nature comme le ciel. E t apres sont .ii. difficultés: une est comment
mouvement local de corps materiel5 est cause de chaleur; l’autre est comment
65 le mouvement du ciel est cause de chaleur es choses de cibas. Quant au pre­
mier, il sam-f/ ( 1 1 2a) bleroit que les estoilles et le ciel ou les cielz ou elles sont
ne soient pas d’une nature et d’une espece très especial aussi comme sont les
parties de aer pur et simple et d’eaue pure et simple; premièrement, car les
estoilles sont luisantes et sensibles et le ciel es autres parties n’est pas luisant
70 ne sensible, et ce dist ici Averroïz.6 E t nous ne voions pas telles differences es
parties des autres corps simples, c’est a savoir des .iiii. elemens, et toute-
voies le ciel est encore plus simple corps. E t donques les estoilles ne sont pas
3 B mouvement de l’aer. s A materielz.
4 A .B C D omit Glose. 6 j untaS) t.c. 42, 125B ff.
Book II, Chapter 15, fols. m d - i i 2 a j 435
T . This is clearly evident in the case o f arrows which are shot and which, be­
cause o f this motion, become as hot as fire so that the lead in some o f them melts
and runs out. Since these arrows get warm, it must be that the air surrounding
them is also heated.
G . There is some disagreement on this point, for some say that the motion o f
the arrow heats the air while others say the opposite ; and it may be that the motion
o f the arrow heats the air and then the hot air heats the arrow and finally the arrow
and the air heat each other ; on this matter more will appear later on [see fol. 115b].
Afterward, he states how the motion o f material bodies and o f the heavens are
causes o f heat, but in different ways.
T . These arrows become hot because they m ove in the air; and because o f the
collision or friction o f the m oving air against the m oving arrow, the air is ignited
and heats just like fire. However, each o f the heavenly bodies upon high moves in
its own sphere in such a way that it is not heated nor ignited; but the air below this
circular sphere o f the heavens must necessarily be heated by its motion.
G . The heavens cannot be altered nor changed with respect to / ( m d ) any ac­
tive or passive quality like heat, cold, etc., and this was stated in Chapter Six o f
Book I [see fol. 13d]. For this reason, the heavens are not formally hot, cold, dry,
nor moist, etc., but have only the capacity to cause or create heat or such qualities
in material objects here below by means o f their motion or otherwise, as we shall
explain later [see fol. 114b]. Although their motion is regular, it does not follow
that they heat the air equally at all times and in all places. For this Aristotle gives
the following reason.
T . Certainly the heavens heat the air by the motion o f that part in which the sun
is located. Thus, when it comes near and rises above us, then heat is generated.
This is all w e need to say here about the stars : they are not o f the nature o f fire, nor
do they move in the region or sphere o f the element o f fire.
G . In this chapter doubt is expressed with regard to the statement that the stars
are o f the same nature as the heavens. There follow two difficulties : one is how
local movement o f a material body can cause heat ; the other is how celestial motion
can cause heat in bodies here on earth. As for the first difficulty, it would seem //
(112a) that the stars and heavens and each separate heaven in which the stars are
located are not o f one nature or one special species like the parts o f pure and simple
air or water. For, in the first place, as Averroes says at this point, the stars give out
light and are perceptible to our senses, and the other parts o f the heavens are nei­
ther luminous nor visible. W e cannot observe such differences in the various parts o f
the other simple bodies, that is, in the four elements ; and the heavens are neverthe­
less a still simpler body. So the stars are not parts o f the heavens, but rather bodies
434 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
parties du ciel, mais sont corps d’autre espece qui sont dedens le ciel. Item,
les impressions appellees estoilles courantes ou qui cheent, stelle cadentes, ne
75 les estoilles co<m>ees7 ou les commetes qui sont en l’aer ne sont pas de la
nature de l’aer, si comme il appert ou premier de Metheores .8 E t donques par
samblable, les estoilles qui sont ou ciel ne sont pas de la nature du ciel. Item,
Aristote veult conclurre que elles sont de la nature du ciel pour ce que elles
sont meues circulairement aussi comme est le ciel; et il ne s’ensuit pas, car les
80 estoilles comees sont meues aussi comme l’aer ou elles sont, si comme il ap­
pert ou premier de Metheo- /(112b) res* et si ne sont pas de la nature de l’aer,
si comme dit est. Je respon en soustenant l’opinion d’Aristote qui est plus
vraisamblable et plus raisonnable en ce que n’est l’opposite, et di, quant au
premier, que les estoilles sont la plus dempse ou la plus espesse partie de leur
85 ciel et non pas de dempsité ou espesseur qui soit de telle nature ou de telle
maniéré10 comme est l’espesseur des corps de cibas, laquelle est quant ou la
ou plus de matière est en moins de quantité, mais est d’autre guise qui ne peut
pas bonnement estre exprimée. Toutevoies, nous povons dire que en l’es-
toille est plus comprins de la nature du corps du ciel que en autre partie de
90 lui et, pour ce, elle est plus noble et plus vertueuse que autre partie et est
plainne de lumière. E t ne s’ensuit pas pour ce que elle soit d’autre espece, car
nous voions que aucunes parties de bûches pourries sont luisantes et autres
non et sont toutes d’une espece. Item, Remigius en son comment sus Mar-
ci<a>n11 recite comment les Grecs disoient que les bons angelz forment les
95 corps en quoi il apparoissoient du haut aer et les mauvés du bas aer. E t ainsi,
l’aer quant est de soy peut bien estre condempsé ou fait espés en tant que il
est visible combien que, par //(112c) aventure, ce ne puisse estre fait par ver­
tu naturelle. E t tel aer n’est pas d’autre espece que les autres parties qui sont
invisibles. E t donques ne convient il pas que les parties du ciel qui sont visi-
100 blés et les autres different en espece. E t encore ne s’ensuit il pas pour ce, que
le ciel ne soit corps simple sans ce que il soit composé ou mixte de pluseurs
simples, mais est encore plus simple que nul des .iiii. elemens qui sont com­
posts de .ii. su<bst)ances12 appellees forme et matière. E t le corps du ciel est
d une seulle substance laquelle, se elle est appellee forme ou matière, toute-
105 voies est elle d’autre raison et d ’autre maniéré que la forme ou la matière
de<s>13 choses de cibas. A u secont, des estoilles commees et<c>.,14 je di que
ce n’est pas samblable, car Aristote monstre ou premier de Metheores15 com­
ment les cometes sont d’autre matière et d’autre nature que n’est aer. A u tiers
samblablement, et car elles sont faites de nouvel en l’aer et d’autre matière et
no sont meues au mouvement de l’aer aussi comme une chose qui est portée en
une nef, fors en tant comme elles sont aucune fois traictes par l’influence des
7 A conrees; E semees. 9 Ibid., 1.4. 342a 12-27.
8 Meteorologicorum I.4.341b 6-28 ; 7. 344a 10 E matière.
1 1_33- 11 A marcion. Cf. Remigii Autissiodorensis
Book II, Chapter 15, fols. ii2b-ii2C 43J
o f another species which are within the heavens. The spectacles called shooting or
falling stars— stellae cadentes— and the long-haired stars or comets which are in the
air are not o f the nature o f this element, as appears in the first book o f M eteors. In
like manner, the stars in the heavens are not o f the nature o f the heavens; but
Aristotle would like to conclude that they are, simply because they have circular
motion like the heavens. However, it does not follow, because, although long­
haired comets move like the air in which they are, as stated in Book One o f Meteors, /
(112b) they still are not the same as the air, as has already been stated. T o this I
reply in support o f Aristotle’s opinion, which is more probable and reasonable
than the contrary opinion; and I say, with regard to the first doubt, that the stars
are the densest or thickest part o f their heaven, but not a density or thickness to be
confused with these qualities in bodies here below, which means when or where
the most matter exists in the least space; rather, the density in the heavens is o f an­
other sort which cannot very well be explained. However, we can say that in the
star the nature o f the heavenly body is more compressed or compact than in its
other parts, and, thus, the star is nobler and more powerful than any other part and
it is filled with light. It need not follow therefrom that it is different in species, for
we can see that some parts o f rotten logs are shiny and others not, but they are not
therefore o f different species. Remigius, in his commentary upon Martianus Capel-
la, relates how the Greeks used to say that the good angels form from the upper air
the bodies in which they appear, while the evil angels use the lower air. So the air in
and o f itself can surely be condensed or thickened so as to become visible, although
// ( 1 12c) this cannot be done by natural power. A n d such air is not really different
from its other invisible parts. It is thus not appropriate that the visible parts o f the
heavens should differ in kind from the invisible parts. N or does it follow that the
heavens are not a simple body without being composed or mixed o f several simple
ones ; it is actually simpler than any one o f the four elements which are compounded
from two substances called form and matter. Th e body o f the heavens consists o f a
single substance which, although called form or matter, is in fact o f essence and
significance different from the form or matter o f mundane things. T o the second
opinion regarding the long-haired stars, etc., I say their situation is not similar, for
Aristotle shows, in the first book o f Meteors, the matter and nature o f the comets
to be different from that o f the air. Likewise to the third opinion, for the comets
are formed in another manner directly in the air, m oving with the motion o f the
air just as an object is carried on a ship, except as they are sometimes affected by the
commentum in Martianum Capellam 66.2 (p. 184) : 12 A superances.
“ Corpulenti, id est crassi et corporel natura 13 A de.
enim spiritus sunt, sed cum volunt apparere 14 A B et.
hominibus boni genii de aethere, mali de aere 13 Meteorologicorum 1.7.344a x 1—33.
corpus sumunt.” See above, fol. 71c, no. 66.
 436 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
estoilles du ciel. Mais les estoilles du ciel sont perpetuelment et naturelment
meues avecques le ciel comme aveques leur tout et / (ii2 d ) d’un meisme
mouvement. O r avons donques que chascune estoille est de telle espece corn­
us me est le ciel ou elle est. Mais se touz les cielz et estoilles sont d’une espece,
c’est une autre question dont je dirai apres.
Quant au secont p oint : pourquoy et comment mouvement local de choses
materielles est cause de chaleur; premièrement, en aucun mouvement se
fredeur est fete, ce n’est pas proprement pour tel mouvement, mais est par
120 accident parce que la vraie cause de fredeur est renouvelée par ce mouvement
si comme par souffler ou par venter. E t aussi est ce par accident que une eaue
courante est plus froide que la dormante aucune fois. Mais nous voions en
pluseurs experiences que mouvement eschaufe, si comme de pierres hur-
tees une a l’autre ou a fer ou a acier et des tisons qui sont meuz. E t Victru-
125 vius16 ou secont livre D e A r c h ite c tu r a l recite comment en un bois espés,
parce que le vent faisoit les branches freer une a l’autre, feu fu engendré et
flamme : Arbores agitate inter se terentes ramos ignem excitaverunt et flam-
mam.18 E t le mouvement des gens et des bestes les eschaufe. E t pour ce que
longue chose // (113 a) seroit reciter les opinions, reprobacions, alteracions
130 des causes que pluseurs assignent en ce, je suppose premièrement une ex­
perience que je cuide estre vraie, et est ceste: que se un corps ferme est meu
très isnelement de quelcunque mouvement local, chaleur n’est pas pour ce
causée es parties de ce corps qui sont en parfont dedens lui se n’est, par
aventure, bien pou par l’eschaufement des parties de lui qui sont vers dehors.
135 E t ce pourroit estre esprouvé en la mole du feivre et en pluseurs autres cho­
ses. Item, se une mole est dedens une autre, si comme .a. en .b., se celle de
dedens est meue19 isnelement et l’autre se repose ou est meue circulaire- /
(113 b) ment au contraire, chaleur sera engendree et faite en une mole et en
l’autre es parties de elles qui sont près apres et qui freent ensamble. Mais se
140 celle de dehors estoit meue samblablement comme celle de dedens sanz freer
une a l’autre, ja par ce ne seroit engendree chaleur entre elles .ii. E t tout ce
appert par experience. E t par ce peut l’en legierement reprouver les opinions
des autres qui mettent que mouvement local est cause de chaleur selon soy—
les uns pour ce que il est premier, les autres pour ce que il fait rarefaction,20
145 les autres pour sa perfection ou telles choses. E t par les causes que eulz assi­
gnent, l’en peut conclure contre l’experience desus dite. E t par ce appert que
celles causes sont fauses. Je di donques que ce n’est pas voir generaument
16 B Victurinus. tam exigebant. Interea quodam in loco ab tem-
17 D E Architecture. pestatibus et vends densae crebritatibus arbo­
18 D flammen. Cf. Vitruvius, De architecture, res agitatae et inter se terentes ramos ignem
II.33, ed. Valentinus Rose et Herman Müller-
excitaverunt, et eo flamma vehementi perter-
Strübing (Leipzig, 1867): “ Homines veteri riti qui circa eum locum fuerunt sunt fugati.”
more ut ferae in silvis et speluncis et nemori- 19 A repeats de dedens est meue.
bus nascebantur ciboque agresti vescendo vi- 20 B omits les autres.. .raréfaction.
Book II, Chapter 15, fols. ii2 d -ii3 b | 43J
influence o f the stars. But the stars are moved constantly and naturally with the
heavens as a whole and / (1 n d ) with the same motion. N o w we can maintain that
each star is o f the same species as the heaven in which it is lodged. Whether all the
heavens and stars are o f the same species is another question, which I shall discuss
later [see fol. 120b ff.].
A s to the second point: w hy and how local motion causes heat. First, if in any
motion cold results, it is not due to the motion but to accident, for the true cause o f
the cold is restored or renewed by this motion, just as is the case with blowing or
from the action o f the wind. It is also accidental that running water is often colder
than dormant water. But we can observe in several experiments that motion pro­
duces heat, as in the case o f stones moved in contact with each other or in that o f
iron or steel or burning logs. In the second book o f his treatise on Architecture,
Vitruvius relates how, in a thick wood where the wind was causing the branches
Fig. 25
to rub against one another, fire burst into flame : The agitated trees, their branches
rubbing together, burst into fire and flames. Th e motion o f people and animals
makes them warm. Since it would be a long task // (113a) to recite the opinions,
rebuttals, and varieties o f causes assigned to this phenomenon, I shall present an
experiment which I believe to be true, and it is this : if a solid body moves very fast
with local motion, no heat is thus produced in the parts o f this body deep inside,
save perhaps a small amount transmitted from the outside parts. This can be
proved from the example o f the blacksmith’s wheel and several other things. For
instance, if one wheel turns inside another, as a inside h [see Fig. 25], if the inner
wheel turns rapidly and the other stands still or moves in the contrary /(113b) cir­
cular motion, heat will be generated in both wheels in the parts in close contact
that rub together. But if the outer wheel moves in the same way as the inner one
without rubbing together, no heat will be produced in either wheel. A nd all this is
apparent from experience. In this way we can readily dispose o f the opinions o f
those who state that local motion o f itself is a cause o f heat— some say because it is
primary, others say because it causes rarefaction, and still others say because it is
perfect or other such things. O n the basis o f their explanations we would conclude
against the evidence o f the experiment noted above ; therefore, their explanations
are false. So I say it is not universally true that all motion causes heat, but only such
 43 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 15, fols. ii3<:-ii3d | 439

motion in which strong friction or violent rubbing o f one body against another
que tout mouvement soit cause de chaleur, mes seulement tout mouvement
produces heat in the parts exposed to the friction. This is adequately clear from the
ouquel est faite vehemente confricacion ou freement d’un corps a autre et
experiences related above and from others, such as the rubbing together o f car­
i5o violence et es parties ou est la confricacion. E t ce appert assés par les expe­
penters’ tools or iron instruments and o f wheels and millstones or such things
riences desus mises et par autres, si comme de la confricacion des instru-
where there is friction or rubbing from which heat and sometimes even fire are pro­
mens ou ferremens des charpentiers et des roes et des moles ou de telles cho­
duced. When the bodies in contact // (113c) are soft and tender, they do not pro­
ses par la confricacion ou freement desquelles est engendree chaleur et au­
duce much heat, but the firmer and harder they are the more heat they give out,
cune fois feu. Item, quant les corps qui fre-// (1 1 3c) ent ensamble sont moulz
since there is more friction and violence. The more polished or smoothed they are,
155 et tendres, il ne font pas grant chaleur, mes tant plus sont fermes et durs et
the less friction and violence result and also the less heat they produce, other
plus eschaufent, car plus y a de confricacion et de violence. Item, tant plus
things being equal. O n the contrary, the rougher they are, the greater the friction
sont poliz et onniz, tant moins freent et moins y a de violence, et aussi tant
and the more they heat up, other things being equal. In those parts o f millstones
mains eschaufent se les autres choses sont pareilles. E t au contraire, tant plus
and cart wheels where they rub, people put water or grease to prevent the cause o f
sont aspres21 et plus freent et de tant eschaufent plus aussi, ceteris paribus.
the heating; by this method the violence o f the friction is prevented or reduced.
160 Item, es roes des moulins et en celles22 des charretes es parties ou elles freent,
A ll things being equal, the faster the speed, the more heat generated for no other
l’en met ea<u)e23 ou oingnement pour empeeschier la cause de l’eschaufe-
reason than the greater violence o f the friction. Thus, when this frictional situation
ment, et c’est la violence de la confricacion qui par ce est empeeschie ou ap-
is not present, heat is not produced; when present, heat is produced; and i f the
peticie. Item, se les autres choses sont pareilles, de tant comme le mouvement
friction increases, so does the heat, and when the friction is reduced, caléfaction or
est plus isnel, de tant eschaufe il plus et ce n’est pas pour autre chose fors
generation o f heat diminishes ; and as a result we may conclude that such violent
165 pour ce que de tant est la confricacion et la violence plus grande. E t donques,
friction is the cause o f heat. It seems likely that this was the meaning intended by
puisque telle chose non-mise,24 chaleur n’est pas faite en mouvement, et elle
Aristotle / (113d) in the text where he says: Tricto aere, meaning that the air is
mise, chaleur est faite, et se elle crest, chaleur crest et quant elle appetice, ca­
troubled or disturbed by the motion. Then he says : Propter plagam, meaning, ac­
léfaction ou generacion de chaleur appetice, l’en peut conclure que telle con­
cording to the expositors, because o f the concussion o f the two bodies the air is
fricacion violente est cause de chaleur. E t samble que ce fu l’intencion d’A -
heated by the friction which the particles o f the soft body o f the air create one
170 ris<(t o ) te25 par ce que / (113d) il dist ou tiexte: Tricto aere, c’est a dire que
against another, which would not produce much heat or caléfaction i f it were not
l’aer est triblé ou triboulé par le mouvement. Item, il dist : Propter plagam,
for the high speed o f the motion (as will be stated later) and if it were not that the
c’est a dire pour la percussion, selon les expositeurs,26 que il est eschaufé
air is naturally disposed to this heating, as Aristotle says : because it is quite near
combien que la percussion ou confricacion, que les parties de l’aer qui est un
the sphere o f fire. St. G regory also assumes that friction causes heat, saying in one
corps mol font les unes contre les autres, ne feissent pas grant eschaufement
o f his homilies : The spirit becomes heated as though by friction by that which
175 ou caléfaction, se ne fust la très grant isneleté du mouvement, si comme il
custom teaches. In the movements o f men and animals heat is caused by the bodily
sera dit apres, et ce que l’aer est disposé a ce, si comme dist Aristote : Quia
spirits, which are naturally warm and which are moved by the members, and also by
propinquius27 igni, etc. E t aussi saint Grégoire suppose que confricacion est
the friction o f various parts o f the body, such as flesh, nerves, eyes, and that pro­
cause de eschaufement en une omelie ou il dist ainsi : Anim us28 per ea que usu
duced by the rapid motion o f the spirits. I f asked further w hy and how friction
didiscit quasi confricatus incalescit.29 E t ou mouvement des gens ou des bes-
causes heat, one could perhaps answer : by reason o f the violence in friction, nature
180 tes chaleur est causée par les esperis corporelz30 qui sont chauz de leur nature
et sont meuz lors par les membres, et aussi par la confricacion des parties du
corps comme sont char et nerfz et olz et de celle qui est en l’isneleté du mou­
paraphrasis, ed. Samuel Landauer (Berlin, Simplicius and Alexander.
vement des esperis. E t se aucun demandoit en outre la cause pourquoy et la 1902), P- n o ; Juntas, t.c. 42D, mentions the 27 B propinqus; C F propinquus.
maniéré comment confricacion fait chaleur, par aventure pourroit l’en dire interpretations o f Themistius and Alexander, 28 D E anime.
185 que, par la violence qui est en elle,31 nature est escommeue et aussi comme refuting Themistius; B. Alberti Magni...opera 29 Sancti Gregorii Magni X L homiliarum in
omnia, ed. Auguste Borgnet (Paris, 1890), vol. evangelia, I, Homilia xi, I, in P L 76, 1115A .
21 D E plus près apres et plus. 25 A Ariste 4, 169-71 ; Sancti Thomae Aquinatis commentaria 30 A corporelles.
22 A moulins et es roes et en celles. 26 The comments o f the principal expositeurs in libros Aristotelis de caelo et mundo, vol. 3 o f 31 A qui en est elle.
23 A eaeu. on this moot passage will be found in the fol- the Leonine ed. (Rome, 1886) p. 157, mentions
24 D chouse non mie; E chose nommee. low ing: Themistii in libros Aristotelis de caelo
 4 40 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
airee // (i 14a) et pour ce elle se eschaufe et engendre et cause chaleur qui est
une premiere qualité perfecte et active. E t selon vérité, pluseurs effeiz natu-
relz sont dont l’en ne32 pourroit assigner les causes particulièrement et de-
termineement, et meismement de pluseurs experiences que l ’en voit en ge-
190 neracion de chaleur et de feu, si comme il appert par saint Augustin ou
.xxi.e livre33 de L a C ité de D ie u 34 ou il met pluseurs telles experiences mer­
veilleuses et dist que l’en n’en peut rendre cause. O r est ici une doubte : véri­
té est que confricacion de corps dont un ou les .ii. sont mixtes et ont en soy
chaleur ou feu est cause de chaleur pour ce que, par aventure, par ce est es-
195 commeue et exitee la chaleur qui est en eulz ; mais a savoir mon se par la con­
fricacion de .ii. corps qui seroient simplement sanz chaleur seroit fete cha­
leur, si comme sont .ii. porcions de terre qui est pur element simple, et par
aventure pourroit l’en dire que si seroit. Car se confricacion peut causer .vi.
ou .vii. degrés de chaleur la ou il n’avoit que un seul, si comme en marbre
200 ou en fer ou telles choses qui sont moult froides, il samble que elle peut don-
ques bien causer un degré de chaleur la ou il n’avoit point,35 car la matière a
/ ( 1 14b) en soy puissance de recevoir chaleur. E t la terre pure a puissance de
engendrer chaleur moiennant tel mouvement et telle violence.36 E t par aven­
ture, l’en pourroit dire que ceste raison ne conclude pas.
205 Quant au tiers point : se le mouvement du ciel est cause de chaleur et en
quelles choses et comment; je di premièrement que il ne fait ou ciel quelcun-
que chaleur pour .ii. causes : une est car le ciel n’est pas recevable de telles
qualités actives et passives, si comme il fu dit ou sixte chapitre du premier, et
n’est pas le ciel chaut formeement mais se<ulem)ent37 en vertu aussi comme
210 le vin ne samble pas chaut a touchier et si a vertu de eschaufer. Mais ce n’est
pas du tout samblable, car il a ou vin chaleur38 formeement. Une autre cause
est car mouvement n’est pas cause de chaleur fors la ou est violence et con­
fricacion, si comme il est dit devant, et ou ciel n’est quelcunque violence, si
comme il appert assés par le quart chapitre du premier et par le sixte. D ’autre
215 partie, les cielz sont très perfectement speriques et polis, si comme il appert
par le .xi.e chapitre, et donques il ne freent en rien un a l’autre ne a autre
chose par leurs mouvemens, et par consequent, il ne se entre-es- // (114c)
chaufent en rien par ce. Apres le ciel en descendant39 est l’espere de l’ele-
ment du feu, si comme il fu dit en la fin du tiers chapitre du premier. E t sam-
220 ble que le mouvement du ciel ne face en ce feu quelcunque chaleur pre­
mièrement, car, si comme il fu dit en le .xi.e chapitre, la superfice concave du
ciel en laquelle est contenu l’element du feu est souverainnement polie et si
32 B C D E F omit ne. 37 A sel eurent.
33 B chapitre. 38 B omits samblable... chaleur.
34 Augustine, De civitate Deit II, 495-97. 39 D E apres en descendant le ciel est; F
35 A repeats point. omits le ciel.
36 B volente.
Book II, Chapter 15, fols. 114a-114c 441
is disturbed and as though angered // (114a) and therefore nature becomes heated
and generates and causes heat, which is a primary, perfect, and active quality. T o
tell the truth, there are several natural effects for which we do not know the precise
and particular causes, and especially those concerning several phenomena that can
be observed in the generation o f heat and fire, just as St. Augustine explains in
Book Twenty-one o f The C ity o f G od, where he relates numerous marvelous hap­
penings the cause o f which he says we cannot discover. Here, then, I wish to state
a doubt : it is true that heat is caused by the friction o f two bodies, one or both com­
posed o f mixed elements having within themselves heat or fire, because by this
friction, perhaps, the heat contained within is disturbed and excited. But would the
same apply to tw o bodies not possessing within themselves any heat which are
rubbed together, as, for example, two clods o f earth, which is a pure and simple
element? Perchance some would claim that rubbing such heatless bodies together
could produce heat. For i f friction can produce six or seven degrees where pre­
viously there was only one, as for instance in marble or iron or such very cold ob­
jects, it would seem that friction could cause at least one degree o f heat where none
had existed before, because the substance or matter has / (114b) within itself the
power to receive heat. Pure earth has the capacity to generate heat through the ap­
plication to it o f such motion and such violence. However, it could be maintained
that this argument is not conclusive.
T o the third point which questioned whether the motion o f the heavens causes
heat and if so, in what things and in what way, I say, in the first place, that there is
no heat whatsoever in the heavens for tw o reasons : one is that the heavens are not
receptive to such active and passive qualities, as we stated in Chapter Six o f B ook I
[see fol. 13c]; and the heavens are not formally, but only virtually or potentially
hot, just as wine does not seem warm to the touch but has the capacity to produce
heat. This analogy, however, is false, for in wine the heat is formally present. A n ­
other cause is that movement does not cause heat unless there is violence or fric­
tion, as stated above, and there is no violence in the heavens, as explained in Chap­
ters Four and Six o f Book I [see fols, n d , i3cd]. Moreover, the various heavenly
spheres are very perfectly spherical and polished, as shown in Chapter Eleven [see
fol. 102b] ; thus in their movements there is no friction o f one sphere against an­
other and, consequently, they do not heat one another // (114c) by this motion.
Just below the heavens is the sphere o f the element o f fire, as stated at the end o f
Chapter Three o f Book I [see fol. 9c]. It appears that the motion o f the heavens
produces no heat in this fire because, first, as stated in Chapter Eleven [see fol.
102b], the concave surface o f the heavens which contains the sphere o f fire is su-
 44* I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
est aussi la superfice convexe de l’element du feu, et donques par ce mouve­
ment n’est faite confricacion ne distraction ne violence ne eschaufement par
225 consequent, comme dit est. Item, le feu en son espere est très perfectement
chaut en souverain40 degré et de sa propre nature— posé que il ne fust en
rienmeu— et donques il ne peut par nature estre fet plus chaut. E t posé que il
peust estre fait plus chaut par aucune cause forainne et dehors, ceste chaleur
adjoustee seroit desnaturelle et pour nient ou sans cause final; et Dieu et na-
230 ture ne font rien pour nient, si comme il fu dit en le ,viii.e chapitre du premier.
Apres, en descendant, est la region de l’element de l’aer qui est haute,41 car,
si comme il appert par le premier de Metheores,42 l ’aer est divisé en .iii. parties
en regions— une haute, l’autre basse et l’autre moienne— et ne sont pas equa-
les. E t celle43 haute region est meue comme le ciel, mais plus tar- /( 1 146) di-
235 vement pour ce que les causes de ce mouvement sont plus fiebles et plus re­
misses touzjours en descendant. E t peust l’en dire raisonnablement que une
de elles est l’influence du ciel ou la vertu de l’intelligence qui le meust qui
encline cel aer a ensuir le mouvement du ciel. L ’autre cause est car la super­
fice concave de l’element du feu, qui est meue moût plus isnelement44 que
240 l’aer, n’est pas perfectement sperique ne souverainnement polie, mais est
aspre et aussi comme endentee en45 la superfice convexe de l’aer. E t ainsi elle
fait confricacion et distraction et violence en l’aer qui est meu moins isne­
lement selon l’inclinacion desus dite. E t par ce est causée en cel aer chaleur
qui est très grant pour .iii. circunstances : une est la vélocité du mouvement
245 par quoy la distraction et la violence sont fetes plus grandes. E t ce entendoit
Aristote par ce que il disoit: Tricto aere. E t les autres .ii. il note en ce que il
dist : Propinquius46 autem aer igni, car cel aer est prochain du feu selon lieu
et prochain en qualité, car de sa nature il est chaut et moiste. Mais celle mois-
teur ou humidité est gastee et consumée par l’excès de la chaleur. E t ainsi cel
250 aer est affoué // ( 1 1 5a) et ardant et chaut outre la nature de aer qui seroit pur
element ausi comme l’aer de la region moienne est froit hors la nature de aer
qui seroit pur et simple element, si comme il appert ou premier de Metheores.47
E t Dieu et nature ont telement disposée celle haute region pour la generacion
ou inflammation d’unes impressions qui sont fetes lasus comme sont come-
255 tes, et sont causes ou signes d’aucuns effés notables ici-bas, aussi comme la
region moienne de l’aer est froide pour la generacion d’autres impressions
profectables aus frais de terre et a autres choses comme sont les pluies et tel­
les choses. Apres en descendant sont la region moienne de l’aer et la basse
ou nous sommes, et l’eaue et la terre qui ne sont pas meues circulairement.
260 Mais samble que la chaleur de l’aer de la haute region ne fait ici-bas quel-
cunque chaleur, car corps chaut qui est sanz lumière ne peut causer chaleur
loing de soy sanz eschaufer les corps moiens materielz. E t la region de l’aer
40 D E son. 42 Meteorologicorum, 1.3.340b 24-36.
41 B D E est plus haute. 43 D et si la haute; E et se la haute.
Book II, Chapter 15, fols. ii4 d - ii5 a | 443
perexcellently polished as the convex surface o f the element o f fire also is ; there­
fore no friction, tearing, violence, nor heating o f any kind can occur, as already
said. In its own sphere fire is hot to the very highest possible degree by reason o f
its very nature, even assuming that it were not moved at all, and so it cannot be
made hotter naturally. E ven i f it could be made hotter by some external agent, this
added heat would be unnatural and purposeless and lacking a final cause. G o d and
Nature, as we have stated in Chapter Eight o f Book I [see fol. 16b], do nothing
without a purpose. Just below the sphere o f fire stands the region o f the element o f
air; this lofty region is divided, according to Book One o f Meteors, into three parts
or regions— one above, one below, and one in the middle— and they are unequal.
The highest region moves like the heavens, but more slowly, / (ii4 d ) because the
forces causing the motion are weaker and more tenuous as they extend farther and
farther down below the heavens. One might reasonably state that one cause is the
influence o f the heavens or the motive power o f the intelligence which inclines
the air toward following the motion o f the heavens. Another cause is that the con­
cave surface o f the sphere o f fire, which is above and which moves much faster
than that o f air, is not perfectly spherical nor superexcellently polished, but rough
and saw-toothed where it comes in contact with the convex surface o f the sphere o f
air. Thus, it produces friction and tearing and violence in the sphere o f air,
. which then moves less rapidly because o f the inclination noted above. In this
way, the air becomes heated to a high degree because o f three conditions : one is
the velocity o f the motion which makes the tearing and violence even greater, and
this is what Aristotle meant when he used the phrase: Tricto aere [the air is dis­
turbed]. The other two circumstances he notes by saying: Propinquius autem aer
igni, because the air is near the fire in both position and property since it is by na­
ture hot and moist. But this moisture or humidity is wasted and consumed by the
excess o f heat. Accordingly, this air is ignited, // (115 a) burning, and hot beyond
the pure and natural state o f air, just as the air in the middle section is unnaturally
colder than air as a pure and simple element, as stated in the first [book] o f Meteors.
G o d and Nature have arranged this higher region for the generation or burning o f
spectacular sights which occur on high such as the comets, which are the causes or
signs o f notable events here below much as the middle region o f the air is cold for
the purpose o f generating other effects helpful to the fruits o f the earth as well as to
other things such as rain and similar occurrences. M oving downward, there are the
mid-region o f the air and next the lower region where we are and then the water
and the earth, which are not moved circularly. It seems that the heat in the higher
tegion o f the air produces no heat down here because a heated body not possessing
light cannot create heat at any distance from itself without heating the intervening
44 D E tost. 46 B C F propinquus.
45 D E et est aussi comme en tendence en. 47 Meteorologicorum, 1.3.341a 17-28.
444 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
moienne est touzjours froide et plus que l’aer de cibas. E t donques l’aer de
lasus ne nous eschaufe pas. Je di donques que le mouvement du ciel est cause
265 de chaleur non pas sanz moien, mais en .ii. / (115 b) maniérés qui ensuient:
une est car il eschaufe le haut aer parce que le ciel meu meut le feu et le feu
fait en le aer confricacion, distraction et violence par quoy il est fet plus
chaut comme dit est. Item, les corps du ciel lumineus par leur lumière et par
leur influence eschaufent les corps contenus ou ciel qui sont48 a ce disposés
270 et selon ce que il sont disposés. E t pour ce que les raiz et les influences de
telz corps du ciel sont appliquiéz et esdreciés sus les corps de cibas par le
mouvement du ciel et par ce l<es> eschaufent,49 comme dit est— pour ce
dist l’en que le mouvement du ciel est cause de chaleur. E t ceste voie est plus
concordable a raison et aus experiences que celles que les autres mettent,
275 lesquelles je ne recite pas a present pour cause de briefté. E t ne appert par
raison ne par quelcunque experience que le mouvement du ciel soit ou puisse
estre autrement cause de chaleur.
16. Ou .xvi.e chapitre il monstre que les estoilles sont meues
au mouvement des cielz ou elles sont et non autrement.
T . Pour1 ce que il samble que les estoilles sont meues et tout le ciel ausi, il
convient par neccessité que le ciel et les estoilles ne se meuvent et que ceste
mutacion apparoisse //(115 c) pour autre cause. . .
G . Si comme pour ce que la terre est meue circulairement selon l’opinion
5 d’aucuns.
T . O u que le ciel et les estoilles ensamble soient meus ou que un soit meu
et l’autre non. E t c’est impossible se la terre repose que le ciel et les estoilles
reposent, car les apparences que l’en voit ne seroient pas faites. E t nous sup­
posons que la terre repose.
10 G . E t de ce sera dit apres.
T . O r demeure donques que le ciel et les estoilles soient meuz ou que un
soit meu et l’autre non. E t dire que le ciel est meu et que les estoilles sont
meues par elles de leur propre mouvement, et que le ciel et une estoille fus­
sent aussi comme .ii. honmes qui vont un chemin d’une equaüté, c ’est chose
I5 desresonnable, premièrement, car des estoilles fichies chascune a aussi tost
perfete sa revolucion en son circuite comme a l’autre. E t donques, celles qui
sont2 vers l’equinocial sont meues très plus isnelement et font en un meisme
temps très plus grant circuite que ne font celles qui sont vers les poles. E t
48 D E corps qui sont ou ciel et qui sont. 1 Guthrie, ch. 8.
49 A par ce l’eschaufent. 2 E vont.
Book II, Chapters 15-16, fols. 115b-! 15c j 44j
material bodies. Th e middle region o f the air is always cold, more so than the air
around us, with the result that the air o f the higher region does not heat us at all.
Therefore, I say that the motion o f the heavens produces no heat without an inter­
mediate agent, but does so in the following two /(115b) ways : one is that the upper
air is heated because heavenly motion moves the sphere o f fire and the sphere o f
fire causes friction, along with tearing and violence, with the sphere o f air, heating,
as we have stated, the air still more. Secondly, the light-bearing heavenly bodies
warm with their light the bodies receptive to heat contained therein to the extent o f
their receptivity. Since the rays and influences o f such celestial bodies are directed
and pointed toward the bodies here below by the heat -producing movement o f the
heavens, as we noted above, then we can say that celestial motion is the cause o f
heat. This explanation is more in accord with reason and our experiences than
those offered by others, which, for reasons o f brevity, I shall not now recite. It
does not appear by reason or from any experience whatever that celestial motion is
or can be the cause o f heat in any other manner.
16. In Chapter Sixteen he shows that the stars move with
the motion o f the particular heaven in which
they are stationed and not otherwise.
T . Since it seems that the stars and also the entire heavens move, it must be that
the heavens and the stars do not move and that this change or mutation is //(115 c)
due to another cause...
G . For example, because the earth moves in a circle, as some people believe.
T . O r that the heavens and stars move together or that one moves and the other
does not. It is impossible that the heavens and stars should remain at rest i f the
earth is not m oved; otherwise the phenomena we can see would not occur. A n d we
assume the earth to remain unmoved.
G . This will be discussed later [see fol. I48d].
T . So it follows that the heavens and stars move or that one moves and the other
does not. It is unreasonable to say that the heavens and stars are moved by their
own proper motion and that they are like two men both walking along a road to­
gether because, in the first place, the fixed stars complete their revolution in their
circuit all together at one time. Therefore, those stars near the equinoctial move
much faster, making a much larger circle in the same time as those near the poles.
446 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ainsi une petite estoille qui est vers l’equinocial est meue plus isnelement que
20 une grande qui est vers le pole, et toutevoies nous voions es autres corps que
le plus grant est meu plus / ( 115 d) isnelement de mouvement naturel. Item,
se une estoille qui est vers le pole estoit transportée et mise plus vers l’equi-
nocial, elle seroit meue plus isnelement et se elle estoit mise encore près du
pole, elle seroit meue plus tardivement. E t donques <elle>3 n’est pas ainsi
25 meue par soy, mais seroit et est portée et meue ou mouvement du ciel. Item,
se aucun disoit que les estoilles fichiees, grandes et petites, font leurs circui-
tes grans et petis toutes en un meisme temps a casu et a l’aventure, ce n’est pas
dit selon raison, car posé que ce peust estre de .ii. ou de .iii., toutevoies dire
que il soit ainsi de toutes, c ’est chose desraisonnable et samble une fiction.
30 Item, chose qui est a cas d’aventure ou de fortune n’est pas selon nature et
n’est pas partout ou en touz les supposts4 d’une espece. E t toutes les estoilles
fichiees sont meues d’une ordenance, et c’est signe que elles sont meues non
pas par soy, mais au mouvement du ciel ou elles sont fichiees.
G . Aussi comme les clous qui sont fichiés en une nef. Ce sont en sentence
35 les raisons d’Aristote a impr<o)vers le premier membre de la division devant
mise. Apres il improuve l’autre membre par .ii. raisons.
T . Item, // ( 1 16a) se aucun disoit que le ciel repose et ne se meut et que les
estoilles sont meues, les choses devant dites s’ensuiroient lesquelles ne sont
pas raisonnables, c ’est a savoir que aucunes petites estoilles seroient meues
40 plus isnelement que celles <qui>6 sont assés plus grandes. E t donques, puis­
que le ciel et les estoilles ne sont meuz chascun de soy et que les estoilles ne7
sont meues de soy sans ce que le ciel soit meu, mes que telz dis sont desrai­
sonnables, il demeure et reste que le ciel est meu et que les estoilles reposent
ou ciel fors tant comme elles sont meues et portées aus mouvemens des cielz
45 ou elles sont enfichiees. Car seulement a dire en ceste maniéré et non en au­
tre, il ne s’ensuit chose desraisonnable, car ainsi l’estoille qui est ou plus
grant cede est meu<e>8 plus isnelement, soit grande ou petite, pour ce que
cel cede ou partie du ciel est meu plus isnelement9 environ son centre. Car
aussi comme nous voions en autres corps que le plus grant est meu plus is-
50 nelement que le petit de leur propre mouvement, samblablement est il es
corps circulaires, car celui qui descript plus grant cede ou porcion de plus
grant ced e1° en equal temps est meu plus isne-/ ( 1 1 6b) lement.
G . Aussi comme la grande pierre descent plus tost que la petite, se les
autres choses sont pareilles. Apres il met la seconde raison contre le secont
membre de la division devant mise.
T . Item, le ciel ne peut estre divisé ne une partie de lui separee de l’autre,11
car il est tout continué ensamble, si comme il fu monstré devant.
ÎL ^ îk
omits elle. 6 A B C F omit qui.
et ne sont pas par tous les sup. 7 B C D E omit ne; F omits et que les estoil-
Aristotez a imprever. les ne sont meues de soy.
Book II, Chapter 16, fols. 1 1 5d -i 16b | 447
Thus a small star near the equinoctial moves much more rapidly than a large star
near the pole ; nevertheless, we observe with other bodies that the larger moves /
(115 d) naturally faster. Then if a polar star were transported nearer the equinoctial,
it would m ove faster and, if placed back near the pole, it would move more slowly.
So, it does not m ove o f itself, but would be and is carried along and moved with
the motion o f the heavens. I f it were said that large and small fixed stars travel in
their respective large and small circuits all within the same time quite by accident
and haphazardly, this would not be reasonable because, even i f it could perhaps be
said o f two or three, it nonetheless would be unreasonable and simply fantastic to
say that it applies to all fixed stars. Things that happen by chance or luck are ruled
out o f natural events, and they do not happen generally or in all the representatives
o f one species. A ll fixed stars move according to one order, which is evidence that
they are moved not by themselves, but rather by the motion o f the heavens in
which they are located.
G . Just as the nails that are fastened in a boat. These are in brief the arguments
Aristotle proposes for rejecting the first member o f the division mentioned above.
Afterward, he disproves the other member with two arguments. //
(116a) T . Should someone say that the heavens rest and the stars move and that
the results noted above are outside the bounds o f reason— for instance, that certain
small stars would m ove faster than the much larger stars— and should someone
then declare that statements such as, the heavens and stars do not m ove independ­
ently o f one another and the stars do not m ove without the heavens m oving, are
quite unreasonable, it still remains that the heavens move while the stars rest m o­
tionless in the heavens, save as they are moved and carried along with the motion
o f the heaven in which they are fixed. This is the only assumption that is not ab­
surd because, in this way, the star, whether large or small, moves faster within the
greatest circle for the reason that the larger circle or sphere moves faster around its
center. Just as we can see in the case o f other bodies that the larger moves faster
than the smaller with their proper motion, so is it with circular bodies since the
body that describes the largest circle or portion o f one in equal time must move the
fastest. /
(116b) G . Just as a big stone falls faster than a small one, other things being
equal. Next, he presents his second objection to the second section o f the division
stated above.
T . T h e heavens cannot be divided nor can one part be separated from another,
for they are completely and perfectly continuous, as w e have already demonstrat­
ed.
8 meu. 11 B E divise en une partie; D E séparé de
9 F omits soit grande... plus isnelement. luy car.
10 B omits ou porcion de plus grant cede.
 1
44 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . O u sixte chapitre du premier, ou il fu dit comment il est inalterable et
impassible. E t se ainsi estoit que il n e12 fust meu circulairement et que les
6o estoilles courussent et passassent parmi, aussi comme un oisel est meu par
l’aer et un poisson par l’eaue, il convendroit que elles divisassent et persassent
le ciel. O r avons donques que les estoilles sont meues avecques le ciel sanz
le diviser, mais ce nonobstant, encore pourroit l’en ymaginer que en leur
lieu que elles ont ou ciel elles fussent meues en une de .ii. maniérés. E t ce
65 improuve Aristote apres.
T . Item, les estoilles sont de figure sperique et ronde, si comme les autres
le dient et confessent, et nous le devons dire, car elles sont de la nature du
ciel et le ciel est sperique ...
G . T o u t ce appert par le .ix.e et par le .xv.e chapitre.
70 T . E t de /J ( 1 16c) corps sperique par soy .ii. mouvemens peuent estre: un
est circumgiracion et l’autre volutacion ou titubacion.15
G . L e premier est quant tel corps est meu environ son centre, si comme un
bacin qui tourne sus un bastonnet, et est dit en françois tournier ou virer,
deg ir a r i;1* et ainsi sont meus les cielz epicicles dedens le ciel. L ’autre mouve-
75 ment est comme d ’une roe de charete que l’en maine par le chemin et est dit
en françois roeler ou comme une pelote roele.
T . E t pour ce, se les estoilles sont meues par elles en leur lieu, il convient
que ce soit par une de ces .ii. maniérés ; et il n’est pas ainsi, car se elles fus­
sent meues seulement par circumgiracion ou tourniement, elles demouras-
80 sent15 en un lieu et ne fussent pas translatées d’orient en occident, et touz
dient le contraire.
G . E t se aucun disoit que elles sont meues ainsi en tourniant et, non pas
seulement mes aveques ce, elles sont meues au mouvement du ciel environ
le centre du monde aussi comme le bacin qui tournie, et avecques ce est porté
85 de lieu en autre— a ce improuver Aristote met la seconde raison.
T . Item, c ’est raisonnable que toutes soient meues d ’un mouvement.
G . Pour ce, selon Averroïz,16 que / (n 6 d ) Aristote entent que elles sont
toutes d ’une nature et d’une espece, et de ce sera dit apres plus a plain.
T . E t de toutes les estoilles ou corps du ciel visibles, le soleil tout seul ap-
90 pert estre ainsi meu et seulement quant il lieve et quant il rescouse ou près de
cel temps. E t ce n’est pas pour ce que il soit ainsi meu, mais est pour ce que il
est loing de nous, car pour la fleblesce de notre veue qui est loing du soleil
a grant distance elle tremble. E t par aventure, c ’est la cause pourquoy il
samble que les estoilles fichiees sintillent et oilletent et les planètes ne sintil-
95 lent pas, car elles sont près ; et pour ce, le voiement ataint a elles puissan-
ment. Mes en regardant les estoilles fichiees, pour ce que elles sont très loing,
12 E omits ne. ** D E giray.
13 C tibubacion, D E turbacion; F bacion, 15 E elles ne demourassent.
marginal. 16 Juntas, t.c. 48, 1 30K.
Book II, Chapter 16, fols. n 6 c - n 6 d | 449
G . In Chapter Six o f Book I [see fol. 13a], where they were described as inal­
terable and insensible to motion. I f they were not m oved in circles and if the stars
moved transversely among them like a bird in the air or a fish in the water, the
stars would have to divide and pierce through the spheres o f the heavens. So we
conclude that the stars m ove along with the heavens without dividing them; this
deduction notwithstanding, we can still imagine that in their proper place in their
heaven they are m oved in one o f tw o ways. N o w , Aristotle discards this possibili­
ty*
T . T h e stars are round or spherical in shape, as others have held and asserted,
and we must needs concur, for they participate in the nature o f the heavens which
are spherical in shape. . .
G . This is all explained in Chapters Nine and Fifteen [see fols. 96a, m a ] .
T . A n d // (1 1 6c) there are two possible motions proper to a spherical body : one
is circumgiration and the other volutation [i.e., spiral motion] or titubation [i.e., a
staggering or reeling motion],
G . The first, circumgiration, means motion o f a spherical body around its cen­
ter, as a round bow l turning about on a stick ; in French we say tournier or virer
from Lating ira ri; and this is the way epicycles m ove inside the heavens. Th e other
motion is like that o f a wheel on a cart drawn through the street ; in French we say
roeler or as a ball rolls.
T . Thus, if the stars are moved in their proper places by the heavenly spheres, it
must be in one o f these tw o ways ; and it cannot be so, for, if they were moved by
rotation alone, they would remain in only one place and would not be transferred
from east to west. A ll authorities say the contrary.
G . Aristotle presents his second argument to refute the following opinion:
someone might say that they are moved not only b y rotation, but also by heavenly
motion around the center o f the earth like the bow l turning on a stick, and in this
way could move from one place to another.
T . It is reasonable that they should all move alike.
G . Because, as Averroes says, / (1 i6d) Aristotle holds them all to be o f the same
nature and species. W e shall speak more fully o f this later [see fol. 1 18a].
T . O f all the stars or celestial bodies we can see, only the sun seems to m ove in
this manner, and then only when it rises and sets or near these times. It is not be­
cause the sun actually moves thus, but because it is so far from us ; our vision is
unsteady because o f the weakness o f our sight so far from the distant sun. Possibly
this is also the reason that the fixed stars seem to scintillate and sparkle while the
planets do not; they are near and our sight is strong enough to reach them per­
fectly well. However, when we look at the fixed stars which are so very far away,
 4jo Le Livre du ciel et du monde
la veue tremble. E t ainsi le tremblement de la veue fait sambler que l’estoille
soit meue, car se la chose que l’en voit est meue ou se le voiement est meu, ce
ne fait difference.
ioo G . L ’en voit souvent que une chose qui ne se meut samble estre meue
pour aucun mouvement qui est en nostre veue. Mais quant est du soleil qui
samble aucune foiz tournier en son lieu, la cause //(117a) n ’est pas seulement
pour ce que il est loing, car il nous appert moult plus grant que Venus ou
Jupiter qui ne samblent pas estre ainsi meus. E t me samble que de ce sont .ii.
105 causes principales : une est l’excellence et la force de la lumière du soleil qui
grieve les ouilx et par ce les esperiz corporelz de l’instrument de nostre veue
sont meuz et tournent, et pour ce il samble que le soleil tourne. Une autre
cause est concurrente17 et sont les vapeurs ou exalacions qui sont entre nous
et le soleil, lesquelles sont meues et font adonques apparoir ou soleil aucun
110 mouvement, lequel samble tourniement pour la premiere cause. E t pour ce
appert plus telle chose au matin ou au vespre quant nous regardons le soleil
par plus de vapeurs m oi<en)nes.18 E t de ce que les estoilles semblent sin-
tiller ou ouilleter, je cuide que avecques ce que elles sont loing, que le mou­
vement d’aucunes exalacions ou vapeurs parmi lesquelles nous les voions,
115 soient cause de telle apparence. E t pour ce et selon ce, elles samblent aucune
fois oilleter et aucune foys non et une fois plus, autre moins. E t se aucun di­
soit que c’est bien possible que les estoilles tourment/ (117b) en leur lieu,
mais nous ne l ’appercevons pas pour ce que nous sommes trop loing, aussi
comme qui seroit un pou loing d ’un bacin qui tom e l’en ne appercevroit pas
120 que il tournast— contre ceste response et contre le secont membre de la divi­
sion desus mise est la raison qui s’ensuit.
T . Mais encore appert que les estoilles ne sont pas meues en rouelant ou en
tumbant, car toute chose qui tournie ou qui rouele,19 il convient par nec-
cessité que elle tourne ce desus desouz ou ce devant derrière. O r est il ainsi
125 que ce que l’en appelle la face de la lune appert touzjours en une maniéré.
G . E t donques la lune n’est pas meue par soy ne en tourniant ne en rouel-
lant et, par consequent, ainsi est il de toutes les estoilles et planètes ; car, selon
Averroïz,20 c ’est l ’intencion d’Aristote que elles sont toutes d’une espece.
T . O r est ce raisonnable que toutes choses qui sont meues par soy meisme
130 aient aucuns propres mouvemens. E t 21 l’en ne voit pas que les estoilles soi­
ent meues de propres mouvemens, par quoy il s’ensuit que elles ne sont pas
meues par soy meisme.
G . Si comme selon les fables des poiens et des poètes qui mettent que le
soleil rouele et est tiré et meu comme la roe d ’un char par // (117c) .iiii.
135 chevaus, lesquelz l’aube du jour attele et arregne au matin, si comme Ovide
descript.22 Apres il prouve encore son propos principal par une autre raison.
T . Item, dire que nature n’eust donné aus estoilles aucuns membres ou
17 B contrariété. 18 A C moines; F moinnes.
Book II, Chapter 16, fols, i iy a - n y c | 4J1
our sight becomes unsteady. A n d so our wavering sight makes the star appear to
move, and it makes no difference whether the object o f sight or the sight itself
moves.
G . It often happens that a thing which does not move appears to be m oving be­
cause o f some motion in our vision. But the reason that the sun sometimes seems
to rotate is // (117a) not only its distance from us, for the sun seems much larger
than Venus or Jupiter, which do not appear to m ove this way. In my opinion there
are two principal causes for this : one is the excellence and strength o f the sun’s
light which pains the eyes and causes the bodily spirits o f the instrument o f our
vision to m ove and roll, making it seem as though the sun were turning or rotating.
Another cause is concurrent with the one above, and it is the vapors or exhalations
which exist between us and the sun. These m ove and make it appear that the sun is
moving, rotating, as in the first case. Therefore, this effect is more apparent in the
morning or evening when we are looking at the sun through more intermediate
vapors. Concerning the scintillation or twinkling o f the stars, I think that, in addi­
tion to the distance, there is also the motion o f certain exhalations or vapors
through which we see them which causes this appearance. Accordingly, at times
they seem to twinkle and again they seem not to, and sometimes more, sometimes
less. I f it be said that quite possibly the stars rotate / ( 1 17b) in their places and that
the great distance prevents our seeing their movement, just as a person at some
distance from a rotating bow l would not be able to see it turning, against this reply
and against the second member o f the previous division he presents the following
argument.
T . It is clear that the stars do not roll or stagger because everything that rolls or
staggers must turn upside down or head backwards. A n d what we call the face o f
the moon always appears to us face on and in this way only.
G . Therefore, the moon does not move o f itself or by turning or rolling and,
consequently, it must be the same with all the stars and planets, for, according to
Averroes, it is Aristotle’ s contention that they are all o f the same species.
T . N o w it is reasonable to assume that all things which move by themselves have
their proper motions. W e cannot observe that the stars have any proper motions,
and it follows from this fact that they cannot m ove o f themselves.
G . A s the fables o f the pagans and the poets relate that the sun rolls along like
the wheels o f a cart pulled and turned by / / ( 1 17c) four horses which D aw n [Auro­
ra] harnesses and drives forth each morning, as O v id describes. N ext he proves his
principal argument with another reason.
T . It is absurd to say that nature would have withheld from the stars the organs
19 D E tumbe. 21 E que.
20 Juntas, t.c. 49, 131F-132A. 22 Metam. II. 108-21.
 4J2 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
instrumens naturelz pour leur mouvement, se mouvement avoient par elles,
ce seroit chose desresonnable, car nature ne fait rien pour nient ne a l’aven-
140 ture ou tellement quelement. E t ne pourroit estre que, quant a ce, elle <eust>23
eu cure et sollicitude des bestes et que elle eust eu en despit si precieus
corps comme sont les estoilles.
G . Car, selon Aristote, elles sont corps vivans de vie intellective. Mes de
ce fu dit la vérité ou quint chapitre. E t donques se elles se meussent par soy,
145 nature leur eust donné membres motifs comme elle a aus bestes, et encore par
plus forte reson.
T . Mais il samble que nature ait ainsi fait a encient et ainsi comme de bon­
ne science en leur ostant ou non-donnant toutes choses par quoy elles peus-
sent soy mouvoir et procéder par soy, car, quant a leur figure, elles sont
150 moult loing des corps qui ont instrumens habiles a tel mouvement.
G . Car elles n’ont pié ne queue24 ne elle.
T . E t pour ce, il samble raisonna-/ (iiy d ) blement fait que tout le ciel est
de figure sperique et chascune des estoilles aussi, car de toutes figures la spe-
rique est la plus utile, apte et abile a mouvement de corps qui est meu en son
155 lieu, car, par ce et ainsi, tel corps sera meu très isnelement et si retendra
meismement son lieu. E t ceste figure est très inhabile et très inepte ou mal
taillie pour mouvement qui est devant soy, car elle n’est en rien samblable
aus figures des corps qui sont meues par soy pour ce que une partie de elle
n’a quelcunque eslevement sus l’autre, si comme ont les figures longues ou
160 autres que speriques ou rondes, mais est très differente de figures des corps
qui procèdent25 et vont de lieu en autre.
G . Si comme sont les bestes, car se il estoient de figure sperique, il ne pour­
raient ne aler ne voler, car de tant comme elles approchent plus26 de figure
ronde, de tant sont elles moins habiles a tel mouvement. E t pour ce dist l’en
165 de telz que eulz sont miex tailliéz a roueler que a courir. E t devant est mon-
stré que les estoilles ne rouelent pas. Apres il conclut.
T . E t pour ce, afin que le ciel soit meu en son lieu et que les estoilles ne
procèdent ou voisent // (118a) par elles, c’est chose raisonnable que l’un et
l ’autre soit de figure sperique, car meismement en ceste maniéré un sera meu
170 en son lieu— c’est le ciel— et l’autre reposera— ce sont les estoilles.
G . Fors tant comme elles <sont>2? meues au mouvement du ciel ou elles
sont comme parties de lui et aucunement aussi comme est un clou qui est
fichié en une nef. E t est a savoir que ce nom Stella ou s te lie en latin signifie
seulement les estoilles, mes astrum ou astra signifie generaument estoilles et
175 lune28 et soleil. E t pour ce, comme je dis au commencement en ce chapitre
et apres, l’en doit entendre par estoilles generaument les choses desus dites.
Ici sont .ii. choses a declarier: une est de la face de la lune par quoy Aris­
tote prouve que elle ne tourne pas en son lieu ; l’autre est se la lune et toutes
23 A omits eust. 24 B C D E F omit ne queue.
Book II, Chapter 16, fols. ii7 d - n 8 a | 443
or means o f movement if they had been required to move, because nature makes
nothing without purpose nor by accident or in haphazard fashion ; and it could not
happen that she would provide for and look after the animals but neglect such
superior bodies as the stars.
G . According to Aristotle, the stars are living beings with an intellectual life.
However, we stated the truth about this attribution in Chapter Five [see fol. 7yd],
So, if the stars moved o f themselves, nature would have given them for this purpose
such bodily parts as she has given to animals, and with even greater reason.
T . Still it seems that Nature did knowingly and with good wisdom deny or de­
prive them o f the power o f m oving or proceeding o f themselves, because in shape
they resemble but little the bodies that possess organs suitable for movement.
G . Th ey have neither foot nor tail nor wing.
T . It appears entirely reasonable / (ii7 d ) then that the heavens and also each o f
the stars are spherical in shape, for o f all bodily shapes the spherical is the most
useful, suitable, and capable o f m oving in local motion; a spherical body can move
very fast while remaining completely within its proper place. But this same spheri­
cal figure is quite incapable and inept or badly shaped for forward motion, being
totally different from those bodies capable o f self-propulsion, because it has no part
projecting beyond another, as is the case with rectilinear and other non-spherical
bodies; its shape is very different from those bodies which move forward and
which proceed from one place to another.
G . For example, like animals. If they were shaped like a sphere, they would not
be able to walk or fly; the closer they are to this round shape, the less suited they
are to such movement. This explains why it is said o f some animals that they are
better designed to roll or stagger than to run. It has been shown already that the
stars do not roll. N o w he concludes his argument.
T . Therefore, in order that the heavens may m ove in their places and that the
stars do not proceed or go / / ( i i 8a) by themselves, it is reasonable that they should
all be spherical in shape; for on this assumption the heavens will move within
their proper place and the stars will remain immobile.
G . Save to the extent that they move with the heaven o f which they are a fixed
part, somewhat like a nail that is lodged in a ship. Indeed, the word Stella or stelle
in Latin means only star or stars, but astrum or astra is used to mean the stars, the
sun, and the moon in general. Thus, as I said at the beginning o f this chapter and
hereafter, stars is used here to mean generally the things stated above.
A t this point there are two things which need to be explained : one concerns the
face o f the moon [see Fig. 26], by which Aristotle proves that the moon does not
25 D E qui sont meuz et vont. 27 A omits sont.
26 B C D E F omit plus. 28 A et et lune.
4J4 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
les estoilles sont d’une meisme espece. Quant au premier point, celle figure
180 ou obscurté ou tache qui appert en la lune et est appellee macula lune, selon ce
que aucuns ont regardé et considéré ou temps seri et cler vers les matins en­
viron plainne lune, si comme recite Albert sus Metheores,29 elle est telle : y-
leuques est aussi comme l’ymage d’un lyon / (i 18b) qui a la teste vers orient,
et sus le dos de ce lion aussi comme la figure d’un arbre transversal qui s’en-
i85 cline vers occident30, et au costé de cest arbre aussi comme l’ymage d’un
honme qui seroit appoué a cel arbre et qui avroit ses piés vers le derrière du
lyon. Ce dist Albert en sentence; et me samble que l’en ne peust pas bien
proprement comprendre ne aviser distincteement ceste figure mes confusé­
ment, si comme aucuns ymaginent es nues similitude de bestes et de chas-
190 teaus [Fig. 26]. Apres convient considérer de la cause et de ce furent pluseurs
opinions. Aucuns ont dit que pour ce que elle est près de l’espere du feu, elle
est ainsi gastee, bruslee et enfumee ; mais ce ne peut estre, car celle tache fust
creue en .iii.m ou en .iiii.m ans et non est. Item, selon philosophie le ciel et
ses parties sont inaltérables et impassibles, si comme il fu dit ou sixte chapi-
I95 tre I f (1 1 8c) du premier. Les autres dient que pour ce que la lune est de froi­
de nature en vertu, elle attrait continuelment vapeurs grosses qui sont entre
nous et elle et sont causes de celle apparence. Mais ce ne vault, car telles im­
pressions ou vapeurs ne demeurent pas longuement en un estât et celle tache
appert touzjours sanz crestre et sanz appeticier et sans mutacion ou varia-
2oo cion de figure ne autrement. Les autres dient que c ’est la similitude de la terre
et de la mer et des montaingnes qui appert en la lune aussi comme en un
mireeur. Mais ce ne peut estre, car les montaingnes ne font pas boce en la
terre en telle proporcion31 ne en figure si loing de sperique comme est la figure
desus dite. Item, les boces que font les montaingnes ne apparoissent pas de si
205 loing, mais tout samble ront, si comme l’en voit par experience quant la lune
est en eclipse. Item, posé que les boces ou montaingnes fussent si grandes,
elles apparoistroient autrement ou mireur de la lune quant elle est en orient
et quant elle est a midi, etc., et nous voions le contraire. Item, la lune ne re­
présente rien par maniéré de reflexion et comme mireur, si comme je dirai
210 tantost apres. O r lessons donques ces opinions et autres qui n’ont/ (n 8 d )
apparence, et pour entendre celle qui est la plus raisonnable nous devons sa-
29 E Albertus. Oresme has given the wrong 188.
reference. The passage quoted is found in A l­ 30 Fig. 26 must refer to the moon’s face,
bert’s commentary on De caelo et mundo, II. fol. n8ab.
iii.8; cf. B. Alberti Magni...opera omnia, vol. 4, 31 D E porcions.
Book II, Chapter 16, fols. ii8 b -n 8 d | 445
turn around in its proper place; the other is the question whether the moon and
stars all belong to the same species. A s to the first, the face or shadow or spot which
appears on the moon is called macula lune\ according to certain persons who have
watched and observed the full moon early in the morning in calm, clear weather
— as Albert relates in his commentary on the Meteors \sic\— the cause o f this shad­
ow is as follows : there is also the figure o f a lion / ( 1 18b) with its head toward the
east, and on the lion’s back something that looks like the shape o f a tree lying on
its side and pointing west; by the side o f this tree there seems to be the figure o f a
man leaning against it, with his feet pointing at the lion’s hind end. This is briefly
what Albert says. It seems to me that we cannot easily understand nor interpret
precisely this figure, but only confusedly, just as some people imagine they see
things in the clouds that look like animals and castles. N o w we must consider the
cause [of lunar spots] and the many opinions expressed about them. Some have
la l u n e
said that because the moon is near the sphere o f fire it has been laid waste, burned,
and smudged with smoke ; but this cannot be true, for, if it were, then the spot
would have grown larger in three or four thousand years, and it has not. Accord­
ing to philosophy, the heavens and their parts are unchanging and insensitive, as
was stated in Chapter Six // ( 118c) o f Book I. Others say that, since the moon is
cold by virtue o f its nature, it continually attracts heavy vapors which lie between
us and it, causing this appearance. However, this is not valid because such phenom­
ena or vapors do not long remain in one state and the spot never seems to grow,
diminish, change, or vary in shape or otherwise. Others say it is the reflection o f the
earth, the sea, and the mountains mirrored in the moon. But this is not possible
because the mountains on earth are not humped up in such proportion, nor is the
earth’ s shape so far removed from the spherical as is the moon’s face. The humps
made by terrestrial mountains would not be reflected at such a distance and the
whole earth would appear absolutely round, as we can observe when the moon is
in eclipse. E ven if we assume the humps or mountains were very high, they would
still have a different appearance in the lunar mirror when the moon is in the east
than when it is in the south, etc., and we can see that this does not happen. So, the
moon does not represent anything by reflection or as a mirror, as I shall say pres­
ently. Let us abandon these and other opinions which offer /(n 8 d ) no semblance
o f fact. T o understand the more reasonable opinion, we must know, first o f all,
 4 j6 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 16, fols. 119a-! 19b | 4)7

voir premièrement que la lumière de la lune vient du soleil et appert legiere- that the moon’s light comes from the sun, a readily apparent fact because the por­
ment parce que la partie de elle qui regarde le soleil luist et l ’autre non, et tion o f the moon turned toward the sun shines and the other does not ; also, when
parce que quant elle est eclipse<e>32 l’ombre de la terre lui <o>st<e>33 sa lu­ the moon is eclipsed, the shadow o f the earth deprives it o f its light. N or do we see
2«5 mière. Item, nous ne voions pas la lumière du soleil en la lune aussi comme the sun’s light on the moon as in a m irror, for we should then not see the moon as
en un mireur, car l’en ne verroit pas la lune ainsi comme l’en la voit, mais le we do; rather, the sun would appear in only a small portion o f that part o f the
soleil apparoistroit tant seulement en une petite partie de la porcion de la moon which seems lighted to us, and at times it would appear in no part at all;
lune qui nous appert enluminee et aucune fois en nulle, et seroit veu de cer­ and it would be seen in different parts at different times, and not from every point
tain lieu une fois et autre fois d’autre, et non pas de partout de la ou l’en voit from which the illuminated portion can be seen. It would be exactly as though we
la porcion de la lune enluminee.34 E t seroit tout aussi comme quant l’en res- were looking at the sun in a mirror or in the water ; we do not see it from every
garde le soleil en un mireur ou en une eaue, l’en ne le voit pas de chascun position from which we can see the mirror, nor from every angle, but only from a
lieu dont l ’en voit le mireur ne en chascun endroit, mais en certaine partie et certain position and at a certain distance, and from another distance we see it in
de certaine distance, et de une autre distance35 l’en le voit en un autre lieu. another place. Th e cause is easily understood : in conformity with the laws o f per­
E t la cause est assés legiere a entendre, car, selon la science de perspective et spective and our own experience, the line passing from the eye to the mirror and
225 selon experience, la ligne qui va de le ouil au mireur et celle qui retourne du
mireur au soleil par reflexion, // (119a) ces .ii. lignes font .ii. angles equalz
sus un point de la superfice du mireur la ou appert le soleil. E t pour ce con­
vient il que d’un lieu ou d’une distance le soleil apparoisse en .i. endroit ou
en une partie du mireur, et d’un autre lieu ou distance qui ne seroit en la
ligne qui va de le ouyl a ce point, il apparaistroit en une autre partie du mi­
reur, si comme l’en peust considérer en exemple et en figure [Fig. 27].36 E t
selon ce que recite Averro'iz, un appellé Avennartha37 fist un especial tractié Fig. 27
a monstrer que la lumière que la lune a du soleil n’est pas par fraction ou par
that returning from the mirror to the sun by reflection // (119a) make two equal
reflexion. Item, aucuns corps sont non-diafa<n)es38 et non-transparenz ou
angles above a point on the surface o f the mirror where the sun appears. It must
235 sont obscurs, si comme fer ou poiz noire ou telles choses, et les raiz ou lu­
follow, then, that from one position or distance the sun will appear in one place or
mière du soleil ne autre ne passe<nt>39 tout oultre parmi telz corps / (119b)
part o f the mirror, and from another position or distance not in the line passing
se il ne sont tenves, car en telz corps la lumière se parfonde pou ou nient, mais
from the eye to this point the sun will appear in another part o f the mirror, as can
elle retourne par reflexion ou par refraction. E t se telz corps sont bien poliz,
be shown by example or in a diagram [see Fig. 27]. According to the remarks o f
les raiz de lumière retournent ou sont froissiéz par un meisme ordre, et ainsi
Averroes, a certain Avenartha wrote a special treatise to show that the moon does
telz corps sont mireurs. E t se il ne sont poliz, la reflexion ou refraction est
not receive light from the sun by refraction or reflection. Some bodies are not di­
faite sans ordre, diversement, et vont ou tournent les uns raiz de ça et les
aphanous and not transparent or they are dark like iron, black peas, or such things,
autres de la. E t pour ce, tel corps n’est pas mireur représentant figure com­
and neither the rays or light o f the sun nor o f anything else can pass completely
bien que il représente couleur ou lumière. Item, autres corps sont dyaphanes
through them / (119b) if they are not very thin. In such bodies light penetrates
ou transparenz ou clers, si comme sont verre et cristal et eaue, et en telz corps
little or not at all, being turned back by reflection or by refraction. I f such bodies
245 se profonde la lumière et perce et passe tout oultre, se il ne sont parfonz et
are highly polished, the light rays are returned or are pushed aside in a perfectly
espés. E t donques, selon ce que eulz sont transparenz ou clers plus ou moins,
regular order so that such bodies act as mirrors. I f they are not polished, the reflec­
selon ce se profonde en eulz la lumière plus ou moins et fait telz corps estre
32 A B C F eclipse. tion or refraction is not orderly but the contrary, with some rays m oving and turn­
ymaginacion qui est devant mise et declairee.
33 A ests. The figure is not executed in either MS. ing about in one way and some in another. Such a body is not a mirror [for] re­
34 A partout de la lune la ou l’en voit la 37 D E aventnarcha. Juntas, t.c. 49, 131H. flecting a shape, although it may reflect color or light. Other bodies are diaphanous,
porcion enluminee. 38 A non-diafaires ; B non-dyalphanes; D E transparent, or clear like glass, crystal, and water, and, i f such bodies are not too
35 B omits et de une autre distance. omit non.
wide or thick, the light penetrates, pierces, and passes completely through. Thus,
36 D E considérer et ymaginer en exemple 39 A passe.
et en ceste présente figure pourtraicte selon the light penetrates these bodies in proportion to their degree of transparency and
4J 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
visibles. Item, la lune est corps sperique perfetement poli, si comme il sera
dit apres ou .xx.<e>40 chapitre, et donques, par ce que dit est, se elle fust corps
250 non-transparent et obscur aussi comme est fer ou acier, elle representast la
lumière du soleil en maniéré de mireur; et devant est monstré que non fait
par quoy il s’ensuit que elle est corps transparent // (119c) et cler comme se­
rait cristal ou verre au moins es parties qui sont vers la superfice de elle. E t
avecques ce, telz corps sont aucunement obscurs. E t en outre il s’ensuit que
255 la lumière du soleil se profonde en la lune aucunement, mes elle ne perce ou
passe pas tout outre pour la grande quantité et parfondeur du corps de la
lune. Mes ceste lumière entre dedens bien pou ou resgart de la quantité du
corps de la lune, car aussi nous voions que parmi eaue qui est bien clere, se
elle est moult parfonde, la lumière du soleil ne descent pas siques au fonz.
260 Item, se la lune estoit equalment transparente ou clere es parties de elle qui
reçoivent ceste lumière, elle seroit equalment enluminee en une partie comme
en autre; et le contraire appert par la tache ou figure de quoy nous parlons.41
E t donques convient il que les parties de la lune de leur propre nature ne
soient pas toutes samblables et uniformes ne equalment transparentes ou
265 cleres, mais differanment, aussi comme nous voions aucunes differences ou
ciel en aucunes autres parties. E t c’est la cause de la tache et apparence desus
dite. Mais l’en doit savoir que aussi comme d’une pierre d ’albastre les vaines
ou parties qui sont plus cleres et parmi / (ii9 d ) lesquelles l’en verroit ausi
comme parmi cristal, icelles samblent plus obscures et moins blanches que
270 les autres, samblablement est des parties de la lune. E t donques, de tant
comme elles sont plus cleres aucunes et que la lumière du soleil se profonde
plus en elles, de tant apparoissent elles plus obscures et les autres moins, pro-
porcionelment. E t selon ce est celle tache de la figure ou maniérés desus mi­
ses. Mais contre ceste opinion laquelle est en ce propos la plus vraiesamblable
275 et la plus raisonnable, est une forte instance: car selon les experiences cer­
taines qui ont esté pieça par les anciens observées et gardées quant au mou­
vement de la lune, l’en ne pourroit salver les apparences que l’en voit et a
veues touz temps sans metre cede epicicle ou ciel de la lune, si comme met­
tent les astrologiens. E t donques, se ceste tache est ou corps de la lune, il
280 convendroit que elle apparust une foiz en une maniéré et autre fois en autre,
selon ce que la lune seroit une fois en la basse partie de son epicicle et autres
fois es costés ou desus. E t ce appert legierement par exemple en figure, [Fig.
40 .4 .xx.
41 D Figure que voions; E figure que nous voions.
Book II, Chapter 16, fols. H 9 c-ii9 d | 449
makes them conspicuously visible. The moon is a perfectly polished spherical
body, as will be stated in Chapter Tw enty [see fol. 130a] ; so, from what we have
said, if it were a non-transparent and dark body like iron or steel, it would reflect
the sun’s light like a mirror, which fact we have already shown to be not true; con­
sequently, it follows that the moon is a transparent // (119c) and clear body such
as crystal or glass, at least in those parts near its surface. However, such bodies are
somewhat dark. It follows, moreover, that the sun’ s light penetrates the moon to
some degree, but it does not pierce nor pass completely through because o f the
great size and depth o f the lunar body. The sun’s light does not penetrate very far
with relation to the size o f the moon, for, as we can see in very clear water, if the
water is quite deep, the sun’s light does not reach the bottom. I f the moon were
equally clear or transparent in those parts which receive the sunlight, it would be
evenly and equally illuminated in one part as in another ; and the contrary is evi­
dent from the presence o f the dark spot or shadowy figure o f which we are speak­
ing. Therefore, the parts o f the moon by their very nature cannot be all uniformly
transparent and clear, but rather in different degrees, just as we observe certain
differences in other parts o f the heavens. This is the explanation for the appearance
o f the spot mentioned above. But it should be noted that, just as in the case o f an
alabaster stone, those veins or sections which are most clear and through / (ii9 d )
which one can see almost as clearly as through crystal seem darker and less white
than the other parts; and the same is true o f parts o f the moon. Thus, the clearer
some parts are, so that the sun’s penetration is deeper, the darker those parts ap­
pear, and the others proportionally lighter. Th e shape o f the spot on the moon,
then, is o f this kind just explained. A strong case, however, can be made against
this most probable and reasonable opinion; on the basis o f certain observations
with regard to the motion o f the moon made long ago and preserved by the an­
cients, it is impossible to keep those phenomena which occur and have regularly
occurred without assuming an epicycle to be present in the lunar heaven, as astron­
omers habitually do. I f the spot is on the lunar body, it should appear one way at
one time and another w ay at another time, depending upon whether the moon is in
the lower part of, on the sides of, or above its epicycle. This can be readily seen in
the diagram [see Fig. 28] where we assume the spot to be shaped like a tree stand-
 460 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
28] supposé que celle tache fust aussi comme un arbre lequel fust tout droit
quant // (120a) la lune seroit en la basse partie de son epicicle. E t donques,
285 quant la lune seroit es costés de l’epicicle, cel arbre sambleroit tourné de tra­
vers. E t par experience, nous voions touzjours ceste tache en une maniéré,
aussi comme se la lune ne fust pas meue au mouvement de l’epicicle. E t par
ce sambleroit que ceste tache n’est pas ou corps de la lune. Je respon que si
est, mes il convient dire que le corps de la lune, en recompensant contre le
290 mouvement que elle a en son epicicle, tourne telement42 en son lieu que
touzjours sa face regarde vers nous en une maniéré. E t ainsi, quant elle fait
/ (120b) un tour ou circuite environ le centre de son epicicle, elle en fait un
autre au contraire en son lieu environ le centre de son corps. O r appert don­
ques que par le signe par lequel Aristote veult prouver que la lune ne tourne
295 pas en son lieu, c ’est a savoir parce que la face de elle nous appert touzjours
en une maniéré, par ce signe meisme appert que il convient mettre le con­
traire de ce que Aristote dist, supposé que la tache soit en la lune comme dit
est et que elle soit meue en l’epicicle comme si est, car autrement ne pourroit
l’en sa<l>v<er>43 les apparences, si comme il fu touchié ou .xiii.e chapitre.
300 Quant au secont point: a savoir mon se tous les corps du ciel sont d’une
espece, si comme il samble que Aristote suppose en cest chapitre et en autres
apres ; et Averroïz et Macrobes et autres tiennent que eulz sont touz d’une
espece très especiale, mais Avicenne et Albert et autres dient le contraire.44
E t pour declairer ce que m’en samble, je di que aucunes choses sont d’une
305 espece très especiale, si comme touz honmes ou touz buefz et telles choses ;
mais, quant a propos, autres choses sont d’une espece presque // (120c) très
especial et toutevoiez, elles sont de diverses especes très especialz, si comme
pour grace de exemple sont les pommes dont les unes sont de Pepin et
les autres de Blancdurel45* ou d’autre complant; et ainsi de pluseurs autres
310 plantes, herbes, arbres ou fruiz et ausi de pluseurs bestes qui sont de ,ii. ou
pluseurs especes prochainnes et pou differentes et sont d’un gerre, si com­
me sont, par aventure, aucuns chiens. Je di donques que, posé que les
corps du ciel soient d’une espece general ou de pluseurs especes prochaines,
toutevoies ne sont eulz pas d’une meisme espece très especial aussi comme
315 dist Averroïz, ne aussi comme seroient les parties ou porcions d ’une eaue
ou d’un aer. Premièrement, car aussi comme toutes porcions de terre des­
cendent et sont meues d’une meisme maniéré quant elles sont meues de
42 D E omit en son epicicle tourne telement. Chapter 20, footnote 7. Albert’s discussion is
43 A F savoir; C sauvoir. found in Lib. II, Tr. Ill, 4, o f his commentary
44 Juntas, t.c. 49, 132A and t.c. 59, 138F; on De caelo, in Opera omnia, vol. 4, 174-77.
also Metaphysica (Juntas, vol. 8), ch. XII, t.c. The various discussions on this point are sum­
41, and Macrobius, Commentariorum in S om­ marized by Duhem, Le Système du monde, vol.
nium Scipionis, I.14 22, in Macrobius, ed. F. 4, 545D9, especially 351.
Eyssenhardt (Leipzig: Teubner, 1893), p. 544, 45 B blandurel. Pippin apples are still a
11. 1-3. For Avicenna reference, see Book I, popular variety and are grown in many local-
Book II, Chapter 16, fols. i2oa-i2oe | 461
ing upright at the time // (120a) the moon is at the bottom o f its epicycle. When
the moon is on the sides o f its epicycle, this tree would then seem to have turned
crosswise on its side. But from experience we see this spot always in the same posi­
tion just as if the moon did not m ove with the motion o f the epicycle. From this
fact we might assume that the spot is not on the body o f the moon. I reply that it is,
but it must be said, to compensate for the motion o f the moon within its epicycle,
that the body o f the moon turns in its place in such a way that its face is always
directed toward us in a fixed position. Thus, when it makes / (120b) its tour or cir­
cuit around the center o f its epicycle, it makes another circuit in the opposite di­
rection around the center o f its own body. Th e evidence Aristotle uses to prove
that the moon does not turn in its place— that is, its face always appears to us in the
same way— seems actually to point to the opposite conclusion, if we assume the
spot to be on the moon, as said above, and the moon to move on the epicycle, as
it does ; otherwise, we could not explain these phenomena, as mentioned in Chap­
ter Thirteen.
O n the second point, namely whether all celestial bodies are o f one and the same
species, as Aristotle seems to assume in this chapter and also in later ones, A ver-
roes and Macrobius maintain that they are all alike o f a very special species, but
Avicenna and Albert maintain the opposite. T o express my own opinion on this
question, I say that certain things do belong to very special species, for instance,
all men, all oxen, and other such things ; but, with respect to the subject under dis­
cussion, some things belong to a very special species // (120c) and yet are o f spe­
cial diverse kinds, as, for example, apples o f which there are Pippins, Blancdurels,
or others, and the same is true o f many other plants, grass, trees, or fruits and also
o f several animals which belong to two or more similar or only slightly different
species so that all are o f one genus, as is the case with certain dogs. Therefore,
I say that, if we assume the heavenly bodies to constitute a general species or sever­
al similar species, they are nevertheless not o f one very special species, as Averroes
maintains ; nor are they like the different parts or portions o f a quantity o f water or
air. In the first place, since all parts o f the earth fall downward and have the same
kind o f natural motion, then if the heavenly bodies were o f one and the same spe-
ities in Europe and America. The origin o f manner as blanc d’ œuf. The species o f apple
the name is obscure, but the word pepin, cited by Oresme is mentioned for the first time
meaning fruit or vegetable seed, is found in in 1371 according to Charles de Beaurepaire,
the twelfth century (see Diet. Général) ; that the Notes et documents concernant F état des campagnes
meaning o f the term should have been ex­ de la haute Normandie dans les derniers temps du
tended to include the fruit and ultimately the Moyen-Age (n.p., n.d.), pp. 48, 396, 398. See
tree bearing the fruit is in accordance with one also H. Moisy, Glossaire comparatif anglo-
o f the most common phenomena o f semantics. normand (Caen, 1889), Art. “ Blandureau,” p.
Blancdurel is a compound o f blanc + Hurel, the 124, and F. Godefroy, Dictionnaire, vol. 4, Art.
latter used as a proper name in parts o f lower 3, “ Hurel,” 530c.
Normandy (Sartilly, Avranches), in the same
 462 j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
mouvement naturel, samblablement se touz les corps du ciel fussent d’une
espece très especial, touz fussent meuz d’une guise. E t l’opposite est vray, car
320 les planètes de leur propre mouvement sont meues autrement que le premier
ciel ou souverain ciel et presque en maniéré contraire, si comme il fu dit ou
,vii.e chapitre. E t les planètes meismes entre elles sont meues en diverses ma­
niérés. Item, selon Averroïz en cest chapitre ou / (i2od) .xlix.e comment,46 se
les corps du ciel estoient meuz sus divers centres, il seraient differenz en es-
325 pece. E t vielle Averroïz ou non, il convient confesser que eulz sont meuz en­
viron divers centres, si comme il fu dit tantost devant et est la vérité. Item,
Averroïz confesse47 que les corps du ciel sont meuz sus divers poles ; et don-
ques par ceste diversité, l’en doit conclure que il different en espece, car ceste
difference qui est en leurs mouvemens naturelz ne peut estre fors pour la dif-
330 ference de la nature48 de telz corps et non pas par accident ne a cas de for­
tune. Item, les corps du ciel sont differens en vertu, si comme il appert par
les livres d’astrologie, et nous voions par experience que le soleil seche et que
la lune46 amoistist et pluseurs telles operacions differentes ; et donques parce
que les effiz des corps du ciel sont ainsi differenz, nous devons croire que telz
335 corps ne sont pas touz d’une meisme nature. Item, Aristote dist ou L ivre des
bestes*° que la nature de la lune est samblable a la nature de la terre, selon ce que
Averroïz allégué en cest chapitre,*1 et dist en autre lieu en ce secont livre que
les corps du ciel ont vertus samblables aus vertus des elemens;5
152 et donques
5
0 ies are not only different but also are contraries, for, as astrological tracts tell us>
puisque les elemens different en espece, les corps du // (121a) ciel different
340 en espece combien que en autre maniéré. Item, les vertus*3 des corps du ciel
ne sont pas seulement differentes mes sont contraires, car, selon les livres
d’astrologie, les uns corps du ciel sont benivoles ou de bonne influence et les
autres malivoles, et aussi les uns sont cause de chaut et les autres de froit; et
se les effecz naturelz sont contraires, les causes qui les font ne sont pas d’une
345 espece ou d’une nature. Mais a ce responnent aucuns et dient que nul corps
du ciel n’est malivole, mais ceulz qui sont moins benivoles sont dis malivoles ;
et ce disoit Macrobes.54 E t peut estre que ce est vérité. Mais il dient que
samblablement les corps du ciel touz sont cause de chaleur et nul de fredeur,
mais celui qui moins eschaufe est dit froit en vertu. E t il me samble que il
350 n’est pas ainsi, car fredeur est une qualité positive opposite a chaleur comme
son contraire, si comme il fu dit en le .viii.e chapitre, et est une qualité active
et corruptive de chaleur, si comme il appert ou quart de Metheores.** O r est il
ainsi selon Aristote ou premier de Metheores56 que toute la vertu de ce monde
yci-bas est gouvernée par les mouvements et par les corps du ciel; et don-/
355 (121b) ques l’operacion que fait ici-bas .i. corps froit, c ’est a savoir refroider
ou infrigidacion, est fete principalment et causée de l ’influence du ciel comme
46 Juntas, t.c. 49, 131L-M . C .xlix.e comme 4? Juntas, t.c. 49, 131L-M .
le comment se; D .xlix.e dit que se; E .xlix.e 48B C D E F omit de la nature,
chapitre dit que se; F .xlix.e comme se les. 49 £>£ solail.
Book II, Chapter 16, fols. i2 o d -i2 ib | 46j
cial species, they likewise would all move in the same way. A n d the opposite is
true, because the planets m ove naturally in a way different from and almost the
opposite o f that o f the primary or sovereign heaven, as noted in Chapter Seven
[see fols. 88d ff.]. Th e very planets themselves move in various ways. N o w Aver-
roes states in that chapter containing / (i2od) his forty-ninth comment that, if the
heavenly bodies m oved on different centers, they would be o f different species.
Whether Averroes likes it or not, we must admit that they move around various
centers, as stated many times before, and this is the truth. Averroes confesses that
they m ove around different poles, and by this diversity o f motion we must con­
clude that they are o f different species because such differences in their natural mo­
tion can be attributed only to the difference in their bodily nature, and not to any
accident or casual occurrence. Celestial bodies differ in their inherent powers, as is
shown in books on astrology, and we can actually observe that the sun dries and
the moon moistens and that there are various other differences. Since the effects
produced by celestial bodies differ in this manner, we are forced to believe that
such bodies are not all alike in nature. In his B ook o f A n im a ls Aristotle says the
moon’s nature is like that o f the earth, as Averroes points out in this chapter ; and
he says elsewhere in this second book that celestial bodies have powers similar to
those o f the elements ; and so, since the elements are o f different species, the celes­
tial bodies //(121a) also differ, but in another manner. Th e powers o f celestial bod­
some heavenly bodies are benevolent or exercise a good influence and others are
malevolent; some cause heat and others cause cold; if the natural effects are oppo­
sites, then the causes which produce these effects are not o f the same species or
nature. There are some who answer that no celestial body is malevolent, that only
those less benevolent are called malevolent; and this is Macrobius opinion. Possi­
bly it is the truth. But they also say that all heavenly bodies produce heat and none
produces cold, that only the body producing less heat is said to have the quality o f
coldness. It seems to me that this is not so, for cold is a positive quality, the oppo­
site and contrary o f heat, as stated in Chapter E igh t [see fol. 9oc]> an<^ 3S an active
quality destructive to heat, as stated in Book Four o f Meteors. Aristotle says in
Book One o f Meteors that all the powers o f this world here below are governed
by the movement o f the celestial bodies ; therefore, /(121b) the action o f a cold body
here below— that is, its cooling and refrigerating activity— is principally accom-
50 N ot found in De animalibus. cially 26 (Eyssenhardt, pp. 362-63).
51 Juntas, t.c. 49, 131G. 55 Meteorologicorum, IV.1.378b 10—28; I V .1
52 Ibid., t.c. 32, 115K . 379a 19-22.
53 B uns. 36 Ibid., 1.2.339a 21-23.
54 In Somnium Scipionis, I.19 19-27, espe­
 464 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
de cause qui est premiere que n’est la nature du corps froit. E t selon l’auc-
teur D e s Causes ,57 la cause qui est premiere influe et fait plus a l’effect que
celle qui est secondaire. E t par ce appert que aucuns corps du ciel ont vertu
360 refrigerative ou de causer froidure et autres sont cause de chaleur, et par con­
sequent comme dit est, il sont differenz en espece. Item, il n’est pas vray-
samblable que corps lumineus de soy perpetuelment, si comme est le soleil de
soy, et non pas <par>59 pourreture ou par accident, et corps non-lumineus et
obscur de soy, si comme est la lune, soient d’une espece et d’une nature. Mais
365 aucun pourroit dire encontre : car le ciel ou est le soleil et le corps du soleil
sont d’une espece, si comme il fu dit ou .xv.e chapitre, et toutevoies le soleil59
est lumineus et le ciel non; je respon que se il estoit possible que une autre
partie du ciel du soleil60 fust fete aussi condempsee ou aussi espesse comme
est le soleil, elle seroit lumineuse ou luisant; et donques sont il d’une espece,
370 car condempsacion et rarefaction ou rarum et dempsum ne diversifient pas
l’espece, si // (121c) comme il fu dit ou .xv.e chapitre. Mais se une autre partie
du ciel de la lune estoit aussi condempsee comme est la lune ou comme est le
soleil, celle partie seroit obscure de soy et par ce appert que elle différé du
soleil en espece. Item, selon Averroïz ou .xii.e de M ethaphisiquep1 l’orde-
375 nance du ciel est en telle maniéré comme est le gouvernement d’une cité la
ou est un prince qui a une operacion souveraine, et les autres officiers chascun
la sieue en obéissant au prince. E t met encore Averroïz une autre similitude de
p lu seu rs artifices qui so n t s o u z u n principal auquel il serven t. E t ausi sem­
blablement les intelligences font les mouvements du ciel souz la souveraine
3R0 laquelle fait le mouvement journal. E t par ce s’ensuit que aussi comme les
offices et princeps de la cité different en espece, et aussi comme les ars qui
sont souz un art principal et les instrumens de telz ars62 different en espece,
samblablement les mouvemens du ciel et les corps du ciel qui sont instru­
mens des intelligences different en espece, et aussi comme font les membres
385 d’un corps, car, selon Averroïz, le ciel est un corps vif. Item, selon Averroïz,
en choses inmaterieles ne peuent estre pluseurs supposts en une espece et
donques chascune intelligence / (i2 id ) diffère de l’autre en espece. E t les
corps du ciel63 sont vifs par les intelligences selon Averroïz,64 et donques
sont eulz differenz en espece, car avecques ce, telle comparoison ont les corps
390 du ciel un a l’autre comme les intelligences qui les meuvent ont une a l’autre,
Mais Averroïz ou ceulz qui sont de son oppinion pourraient arguer au con­
traire : premièrement, car touz les mouvemens du ciel sont d’une espece pour
ce que mouvement circulaire ne a aucun contraire, si comme il fu dit en le
.viii.e chapitre du premier. E t les corps naturelz simples qui ont un mouve-
57 Liber de causis, ch. 1, p. 163 : “ Omnis causa 59 £■ ciel.
primariaplus est influens super causatum suum 60 B omits du solail.
quam causa universalis secunda.” 61 Metaphysica, Juntas, vol. 8 (1574), t.c. 44,
58 A omits par. 328B-C.
Book II, Chapter 16, fols. I2 ic -i2 id | 464
plished and caused by the influence o f the heavens, a more important factor than
the nature o f the cold body itself. According to the author o f the Treatise on Causes,
the primary cause has greater influence and effect than the secondary cause. It ap­
pears, then, that certain celestial bodies have a refrigerative or cooling effect while
others cause heat; consequently, such bodies are o f different species, as we have
stated. It is unlikely that a perpetually self-luminous body like the sun— not glow ­
ing from its own deliquescence or from accidental cause— should be o f the same
species or nature as a non-luminous, dark body like the moon. Someone may ob­
ject that the heaven in which the sun is fixed and the sun itself are o f the same spe­
cies, as was said in Chapter Fifteen [see fol. m a ] , but that nevertheless the sun is
luminous and its heaven is not. I reply that, if one part o f the sun’s heaven could pos­
sibly be as condensed or as thick as the sun itself, it would be luminous and shining ;
and so they are both o f the same species, for condensation or dempsum and rarefaction
or rarum do not diversify the species, //(121c) as was stated in Chapter Fifteen [see
fol. 112b ff.]. I f some portion o f the lunar heaven were as condensed as the moon
itself or as the sun, it would be dark, and thus it is clear that it differs in species
from the sun. In B ook Tw elve o f the Metaphysics, Averroes states that the regularity
o f the celestial system is o f the same sort as the government o f a city, with a prince
who acts as sovereign and the other officers each following in obedience to him.
Averroes makes another analogy comparing the order o f the heavens with several
crafts all o f which serve under the principal one. In the same way, the intelligences
cause the movement o f the heavens under the sovereign intelligence which causes
the daily movement. It follows then that, just as the offices and leaders o f the city
differ in species, just as the arts are placed under a principal art, and just as the in­
struments o f such arts differ in species, in this same way the motions o f the heavens
and o f the heavenly bodies— the instruments o f the intelligences— differ in species,
exactly like the different members o f a body; and Averroes states that the heavens
are a living body. Again, according to Averroes, in the case o f immaterial things,
several individually independent members [supposita] cannot subsist in one species,
and, therefore, each intelligence / (12id) differs from another in species. Th e heav­
enly bodies are animated by the intelligences, also according to Averroes, and thus
they are o f different species ; in addition, the heavenly bodies may be compared one
to another in the same manner as the intelligences which move them. But A ver­
roes or those o f his opinion m ight argue to the contrary : first, because all celestial
movements are o f the same species since circular motion has no contrary, as stated
in Chapter E igh t o f Book I [see fol. i4d]. And the simple natural bodies which have
62 D E omit principal e t ...telz ars. t.c. 61, 140A-B; Metaphysica, Juntas, vol. 8
63 D E omit du ciel. (1574), ch. XII, t.c. 35, 318H, and t.c. 42 and
64 For this question see 31b and also Juntas, 43, 326C-327B.
466 [ Le Livre du ciel et du monde
395 ment simple sont d’une espece, si comme il samble par ce que65 fu dit ou
tiers chapitre du premier. Item, touz corps simples qui ont un lieu sont d’une
espece, si comme il samble par ce que fu dit ou .xiii.e chapitre du premier.
E t le lieu de toutes les esperes celestielz, c’est le centre66 du monde meisme-
ment de toutes celles qui sont concentriques au monde. Item, .iiii. elemens
400 corruptibles et materielz sont et le quint element incorruptible, c’est le ciel et
est appellé la quinte essence. E t donques aussi comme de chascun des autres
elemens toutes les parties sont d’une espece très especial, si comme les par­
ties de pure // (122a) terre et de pure eaue et ainsi des autres, samblablement
toutes les parties de tout le ciel67 sont d’une meisme espece, et encore par
405 plus forte raison, car le ciel est plus simple que nul des autres elemens du
monde. A u premier, je di que il ne convient pas que touz mouvemens cir­
culaires soient d’une espece pour ce se tel mouvement ne a contraire, et peut
l’en dire que les mouvemens du ciel sont differens en espece selon ce que il
sont environ divers centres ou sus divers poles. D ’autre partie, il ne convient
410 pas se .ii. corps du ciel sont meuz de mouvemens samblables en espece que
telz68 corps soient pour ce d’une espece, car une meisme espere69 du ciel est
meue de pluseurs mouvemens et n’est pas pour ce de pluseurs especes.70 A u
secont, je di que lieu est dit en .ii. maniérés, si comme il fu dit ou .xvii.e cha­
pitre du premier : une est de ce selon quoy un corps est dit deuement assis en
415 son lieu, a prendre lieu en autre maniéré, c’est a savoir pour ce que contient71
.i. corps ou une chose. E t en la premiere maniéré, le centre du monde est lieu
de la terre et du ciel et selon ce, pluseurs corps simples ont un lieu. Mais a
prendre lieu pour ce qui contient un corps sanz moien, chascune espere72 du
ciel / (122b) a son lieu fors la derreniere et ainsi, se les esperes different en es-
420 pece, leurs lieus different en espece. A u tiers, je di que ce n’est pas samblable
quant a ce du ciel et des autres elemens, car par le ciel sont gouvernés touz
les autres elemens et les corps mixtes selon Aristote ou premier de Metheores,73
et telz corps gouvernéz sont moult differens. E t pour ce, convient il que ou
ciel selon ses parties soit difference non pas tele ne si grande comme entre les
425 corps desus dis, mais plus grant que entre les parties d’un des autres elemens.
E t nientmoins, le ciel est plus simple corps que quelcunque autre element,
car eulz sont compost de matière et de forme qui different plus que les parties
du ciel lequel n’est pas de matière selon Averroïz.747
5Une autre response
seroit que toutes les parties d’un element ne sont pas d’une espece, si comme
430 les parties de la terre qui sont de pluseurs maniérés ou especes selon ce que
met Plinius ou .xviii.e livre de ILstoire naturel.1* Mais aucun pourroit dire que
65 A par ce que qui fu. 69 B D E espece.
66 D E esperes celestieles sont les centres du 70 C esperes; F omits especes.
m. 71 B que il contient.
67 D E omit toutes les parties de tout le ciel. 72 B espece.
68 B C D E touz. 73 Meteorologicorum, 1.2.339a 21-23.
Book II, Chapter 16, fols. I22a-i22b | 46y
simple motion are o f one species, as it seems from the statement in Chapter Three o f
Book I [see fol. yd]. A ll simple bodies which have a proper place are o f the same
species, as stated in Chapter Thirteen o f Book I [see fol. 22d]. A n d the proper
place o f all the celestial spheres is the center o f the world, especially o f all those that
are concentric with the world. There are four perishable and material elements
and the fifth element is imperishable— that is the heavens, called the quintessence
or fifth element. Just as all the parts o f each o f the other elements are o f a single
very special species, like the parts o f pure // (122a) earth, pure water, and the oth­
ers, in the same way all the parts o f all the heavens are o f the same species, and for
the even stronger reason that the heavens are simpler than any o f the other ele­
ments in the world. T o the first opinion, I answer that, simply because circular mo­
tion has no contrary, it does not follow that all such motion is o f the same species,
for we can say that celestial motions are different as to species depending upon
whether they turn around different centers or poles. Moreover, just because two
heavenly bodies have similar movements, it does not follow that such bodies are o f
the same species, for one particular sphere o f the heavens has several motions, but
it is not for this reason o f several species. T o the second opinion, I answer that
place is said in two meanings, as stated in Chapter Seventeen o f Book I [see fol. 28 c] :
one meaning refers to what is indicated when a body is properly established in its
place; taking place in another sense, it means that which contains a body or thing.
In the first meaning, the center o f the world is the place o f the earth and o f the
heavens, and in this sense several simple bodies have a place. But taking place for
that which contains a body without an intermediary, each sphere o f the heavens /
(122b) has its place except for the last sphere; and, thus, if the spheres are o f differ­
ent species, their places are likewise different. A bou t the third opinion, I say that
this comparison between the heavens and the other elements is not justified be­
cause all the sublunar elements and mixed bodies are governed by the heavens, as
Aristotle himself states in the first book o f Meteors, and these bodies so governed
are all very different in species. So, there must be less difference between the parts
o f the heavens than between the bodies mentioned above, but greater than be­
tween the parts o f any one o f the elements. However, the heavens are simpler than
any other element because the elements are compounded o f matter and form and
differ more than the parts o f the heavens which are not composed o f matter, ac­
cording to Averroes. Another reply would be that all the parts o f an element are
not o f the same species ; for example, Pliny states in Book Eighteen o f his N a tu ra l
H istory that there are many kinds or species o f earth. We could reply that these
74 De substantia orbis, ch. II, 5M-6B. ^ 46,'ed. o f D. Detlefsen, vol. 3, 135.
75 C. Plinii Secundi naturalis historia, X VIII.
468 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
celles parties ne sont pas pure terre qui soit pur element, mais comment qui
soit, la premiere response souffist, car c’est raisonnable que entre les parties
du ciel soit plus grande diversité que entre les parties d’un des autres // (122c)
435 elemens qui sont touz gouvernés par le ciel. E t selon ce, en la sainte Escrip-
ture souvent la terre est nommee en singulier et les cielz en plurie<r>,76 si
comme la ou est dit: Audite celi, et auribus percipe terra;77 item: Audite,
ceH, que loquor: audiat terra.78 O r avons donques que touz les cielz ne sont
pas d’une espece très especial.
17. O u .x v ii.e chapitre il repro u ve l’opin io n d ’aucuns qui
disoient que les corps du ciel par leurs
m ou vem ens fo n t sons m elodieus.
T . D ire1 que les corps du ciel meus2 font armonie, c ’est a dire sonz melo­
dieus et consonans, il appert par ce que nous dirons que c ’est un dit legier et
superflu, car la vérité n’est pas telle, si comme aucuns cuident au<s)quelz3 il
samble que il convient par nécessité que son4 soit fait par le mouvement de si
5 grans corps. Car nous voions des corps qui sont ici-bas près de nous que par
leurs mouvemens il font son,5 et toutevoies il ne sont pas si grans ne meuz de
samblable isneleté, si comme sont le soleil et la lune. Item, c’est impossible
que si grande multitude d’estoilles et la grandeur des corps meus et de telle
isneleté ne facent son qui soit très fort et très grant.
10 G . Ceste opinion tenoient Pytagoras6 et ses ensuians et peut estre entendue
/ (i22d) en .ii. maniérés: une est pour ce que aucuns cuidoient que les es-
toilles fussent meues parmi le ciel en le divisant sanz ce que le ciel fust meu
circulairement, aussi comme une sëete est meu parmi l’aer ou un oyseau. E t
se ainsi estoit, le soleil et les estoilles feroient son7 très grant et très fort de
15 tant comme telz corps sont plus grans et plus isnelement meuz sans compa­
raison que une sëete ou telle chose qui fait son par l’aer. Mais le soleil ne
les estoilles ne sont pas meuz en ceste maniéré, si comme il est déterminé
ou .xvi.e chapitre.8 Une autre maniéré de entendre cest opinion est que tout
le ciel du soleil soit meu et ainsi des cielz des autres estoilles, et que ces cielz
20 par leurs mouvemens facent son;9 et ce entent Aristote a reprouver. Mais il
monstre ici apres comment il metroient10 que telz sonz font mélodie.
T . E t supposoient que selon ce que11 les isneletés sont plus loing ou plus
76 A plurient. 3 A auquelz.
77 Isai. 1 :z. D E omit audite...item . 4 D E ce.
78 Deut. 32:1. 5 Ibid.
1 Guthrie, ch. 9. 6 C F Pytagores; D Pithagoires; E Pitagoi-
2 B C D E F omit meus. res. Cf. the myth o f Er in Plato, Republic, 617B.
Book II, Chapters 16-17, fols. m c - iz z d | 469
parts are not pure earth o f the nature o f the pure element; however, the first an­
swer is enough, for it is reasonable that there should be greater diversity among the
parts o f the heavens than among the parts o f one o f the other // (122c) elements
which are all governed b y the heavens. Accordingly, in H oly Scripture, the earth is
often mentioned in the singular and the heavens in the plural; for instance: Hear,
O ye heavens, and give ear, O earth. . . ; or again : Hear, O ye heavens the things I
speak ; let the earth give ear__ Thus, we opine that all the various heavens in gen­
eral are not o f some very special species.
17. In Chapter Seventeen he rejects the opinion o f those who said
that the heavenly bodies make musical sounds
by their movements.
T . The opinion that the motions o f the heavenly bodies create a harmony, that
is, melodious and harmonious sounds, seems to us to be a vain and superficial
theory; for the truth is not such as some believe— namely, that the movement o f
such vast bodies must give rise to sound. W e can, o f course, observe that bodies
here below cause sounds when they are moved, and certainly they are not so huge,
nor do they m ove so rapidly as the sun and the moon. It seems impossible, there­
fore, that such’a multitude o f stars, so enormous in size and m oving at such speed,
should fail to produce a strong and powerfully loud sound.
G . This opinion was held by Pythagoras and his followers, and it can be under­
stood / (i22d) in two ways: one concerns the belief o f certain persons that the
stars move through the heavens dividing them without the latter being moved in
circles, like the motion o f an arrow or a bird through the air. I f it were so, the sun
and the stars would make a great noise, loud and strong, since such bodies are
very large and move incomparably faster than an arrow or similar object which
makes a sound [in passing] through the air. But neither the sun nor the stars move
in this manner, as was demonstrated in Chapter Sixteen [see fol. 115c]. The second
way to interpret this opinion is to assume that the sun’s heaven and the heavens o f
the other stars move and in so doing create a sound ; this is what Aristotle objects
to here. N ext he indicates how this idea about the music o f the heavenly spheres is
expressed by its adherents.
T . [Those who hold this theory] supposed that in proportion as the speed o f
7 D E ce. 10 D E om it comment il metroient.
8 A .xvi. 11 A repeats selon ce que.
9 D E ce.
4J0 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
grandes une ou resgart de l ’autre, que selon ce elles ont proporcions de con-
sonancieus. E t pour ce disoit il que la voiz des estoilles qui sont meues en
a5 circuite est armonique.
G . C ’est a dire consonante et mélodieuse. Mais si comme dit est, les es­
toilles sont f l (123a) meues avecques le ciel ou espere ou elles sont aussi
comme le clou de la nef est meu au mouvement de la nef. E t donques ce que
il dist des estoilles est a entendre des cielz ou elles sont, lesquelz sont très
30 grans corps et meuz très isnelement. E t pour ce disoient les Pithagoriens que
il font très grant son lequel il appelloient voie% pour ce que les cielz sont choses
vivez et qui ont ame selon leur opinion et de Aristote meisme, laquelle fu
réprouvée ou quint chapitre. Apres il met comment il faisoient sattisfacion
a une doubte.
35 T . E t pour ce que ce samble chose desraisonnable que nous ne oiions ceste
voiz, il dient que la cause est car des ce que nous sommes engendrés et que
nous avons vie, tantost nous oiions continuelment ce son et pour ce nous ne
le povons appercevoir ou resgart de la silence contraire, car voiz et silence
un apres l’autre font avoir congnoissance un de l’autre. E t donques aussi
40 comme les martelleurs ou bateurs de arain et de cuivre ne mettent en ce dif­
ference ou ne apparçoivent le son que il font pour l’acoustumance, telement
est il a touz honmes ou resgart du son du ciel.
G . Ceste cause ne souffist pas, car telz bateurs ne peuent/ (123b) ouïr un
petit son moût mendre que n’est leur martelleiz et sont aussi comme assour-
45 déz, mais nous oiions12 bien petis sons trop mendre que ne devroit estre le
son du ciel. Apres Aristote reprouve leur dit encore autrement.
T . Mais si comme nous avons dit devant, teles choses attraient par plai­
sance et par maniéré du musique ceulz a qui elles sont dites ; mais c’est im­
possible que il soit ainsi, car ce n’est pas vray dont il cuidoient prendre cause
50 de respondre, si comme dit est. Mes aveques ce, c’est inconvenient que les
corps qui n’ont quelcunque sens et ne oiient rien ne eussent a souffrir de ce,
car nous voions que les sons excellenz destruissent les corpulences des corps
meismes qui sont sans vie,13 si comme le son du tonnerre dissipe les pierres
et les plus durs corps qui soient.
55 G . Ce n’est pas pour ce que telles choses sentent ou apparçoivent le son,
mais c’est pour la force du mouvement de l’aer qui est féru et meu des corps
qui sonent.
T . E t comme ainsi soit que les corps du ciel sont si très grans et sont meuz
si très isnelement, il convendroit que leur son passast et fust plus fort que le
60 son du tonnerre, de tant comme leur quantité est plus grant // (123c) et l’is-
neleté de leur mouvement. E t donques par plus forte raison il seroit necces-
saire que le son des cielz attainsist et venist ici-bas et que il feist très grant
force de violence.
12 D E avons. ' 13 D E en vie.
Book II, Chapter 17, fols. 123a-!23c | 471
these bodies is less or greater on the basis o f their distance from one another, the
speeds would produce the sounds o f the harmonic ratios. For this reason they said
that the voice o f the stars m oving in their courses is harmonic [or concordant],
G . That is, harmonious and melodious. But as we have said, the stars // (123a)
move with the heaven or sphere in which they are fixed, just as a nail in a boat is
moved with the boat’ s motion. What he says about the stars applies likewise to the
spheres o f the heavens in which they are located and which are extremely large
bodies m oving very fast. This explains w hy the Pythagoreans used to say that they
make a loud sound ; they called it voices for the reason that, in their opinion— and
also in Aristotle’s— the heavens are animated and have a soul, which was refuted in
Chapter Five [see fol. 77d]. He next shows how they managed to satisfy a doubt.
T . T o meet the objection that it is strange that we cannot hear this sound, they
say the cause is that from the moment o f our birth we hear this sound continuously
and thus cannot perceive it since there is no silence against which it can be con­
trasted; it is the contrast o f voice against silence following each other in succession
that makes us aware o f the existence o f each opposite. Thus, with regard to the
music o f the spheres, all men are like those artisans who hammer or beat out brass
or copper and who, by long habituation, lose the power to sense and so remain
unaware o f the din their hammering produces.
G . This explanation is inadequate, for such hammerers cannot / (123b) hear a
sound less loud than their hammering and are as though deafened; but we can
hear sounds much feebler than those produced by celestial motion should be. Then
Aristotle rejects their argument in a different way.
T . However, as we have said before, such theories are agreeably attractive and
suggest the pleasure o f music to those who will listen ; but they cannot be true, for
there is no evidence to support their belief. There is also the difficulty that inani­
mate objects with no sense o f hearing would not be affected by these sounds, al­
though we can see that excessively loud sounds destroy the materials o f such ob­
jects; for instance, thunder shatters rocks and the hardest o f material bodies.
G . The reason is not that such objects sense or perceive the sound, but rather it
is the force o f the motion o f the air which is torn apart and m oved by the bodies
which make the sound.
T . Since the heavenly bodies are so extremely large and move so rapidly, then in
proportion to their size and speed their sound should be far louder than thunder.
II (123 c) Thus, for an even stronger reason the sound o f the heavenly bodies
should be o f extreme force and violence when it reaches down here below.
 4J 2 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . E t que il rompist tout. Mais Simplicius en son comment14 veult dire
65 que Ten pourroit bien soustenir que le ciel fait son, et dire que tel son n’est
pas corrompant ne violent mais est confortatif et vivifiant aussi comme sont
les mouvemens du ciel. E t la cause pourquoi nous ne le oiions pas, ce n’est
pas pour l’acoustumance, si comme aucuns disoient, mais est pour ce que
nos sens ne sont pas bien disposée a ce, aussi comme les chiens veneurs sen-
70 tent et oudourent telles choses que nous ne povons sentir. E t pour ce disoi­
ent les Pythagoriens que Pythagoras avoit aucune fois ouÿ le son du ciel,
car il avoit pour lors les sens et l’entendement purifiéz et très bien ordenéz
a ce. E t tout ce recite et reprouve saint Thomas d’Aquin longuement et proli-
xement;15 mais briefment, il appert clerement par ce que sera dit ou chapi-
75 tre ensuiant que c ’est impossible naturelment que le ciel sonne et face son
sensible.
18. O u .x v iii.e chapitre il m onstre que les cielz par leurs
m o u v e - / (123 d) m ens n e fo n t aucun son.
T . Mes c’est chose raisonnable que nous ne oiions pas le son du ciel et que
les corps de cibas n’ont a souffrir de tel son, car le ciel ne sonne pas ; et avec-
ques ce, les choses que nous avons dites devant sont cause manifeste et font
tesmoing que nous disons vérité, et sont arguement a respondre a la doubte
5 que font les Pitagoriens en disant que les corps du ciel meuz font symphonie.
G . Car il fu dit ou .xvi.e chapitre que les estoilles ne sont m e u (e )zI fors
au mouvement des cielz ou elles sont et, en ce supposant, Aristote prouve a-
pres son propos par .ii. raisons dont la premiere est prise de la cause efficiente
de son.
10 T . Car touz corps qui sont meuz par soy font son et plaie.
G . C ’est a dire division et violence, et est a entendre des corps qui sont
meuz parmi autres corps.
T . Mais quelconques corps qui sont fichiés en corps meu et qui sont par­
ties de tel corps aussi comme sont les clous ou les parties d ’une nef, telz corps
15 ne peuent faire son ne aussi la nef se elle est portée en l’eaue, combien que par
les raisons de Pytagoras c’est inconvenient se corps meu ne sonne. E t // (124a)
bien est vérité que le maast ou autre partie de la nef ou la nef2 toute fait au­
cune fois grant son par son mouvement, mais c ’est ce qui est meu en corps
20 non-meu ou autrement meu ; car ce que est meu en corps meu continuelment
14 Simplicii in Aristotelis de Coelo Commenta- xiv.
ria, II.9, ed. o f I. L. Heiberg (Berlin, 1894), 1 A meuz.
pp. 463-65, especially 6, p. 464. 2 B omits ou la nef.
15 Aquinas, Commentaria. . . De caelo, II.9.
Book II, Chapter 18, fols. 123d-! 24a | 47)
G . W hich should break everything. Simplicius in his commentary suggests,
however, that we can indeed support the theory o f the music o f the spheres by
saying that the sound is not destructive nor violent, but, rather, comforting and
animating, like the motions o f the heavenly bodies themselves. The reason for our
not hearing these sounds is not, as some say, that w e are so accustomed that we are
oblivious to them, but rather that our senses are not naturally receptive to them,
just as hunting dogs can sense and smell things that we cannot. The Pythagoreans
used to say that Pythagoras had once heard the sound o f the heavens at a time
when his senses and mind were completely purified and ideally prepared for such
an experience. St. Thomas Aquinas relates and refutes all this at great length and
prolixity. Briefly, it is clear from what will be stated in the next chapter [see fol.
124b] that it is impossible by nature that the heavens make a sound which could be
perceptible to us.
18. In Chapter Eighteen he shows that the movements o f the
heavenly bodies / (123 d) produce no sound.
T . But there is a good reason w hy we hear no sound from the heavens and why
earthly bodies suffer no violence from it; the reason is that the heavens produce no
sound whatever. Besides, what we have already said is sufficient evidence o f the
truth o f this conclusion and answers the dubious argument o f the Pythagoreans
that the motion o f the heavenly bodies produces a symphony [of musical sounds].
G . It was stated in Chapter Sixteen [see fol. 115b] that the stars do not move
save with the movement o f the spheres in which they are fixed and, assuming this,
Aristotle proves his theory by two arguments, the first o f which is based upon the
efficient cause o f sound.
T . A ll bodies m oving o f themselves create a sound and a percussive noise o f
impact.
G . That is, o f division and violence, for he refers to bodies m oving among
other bodies.
T . A n y bodies whatever fixed within other m oving bodies o f which they form a
part, like the nails or other parts o f a ship, can make no noise; nor can the ship
itself if it is borne through the water, in spite o f Pythagoras’ arguments that bodily
motion must produce a sound. // (124a) It is o f course true that the mast or some
other part o f the ship or the ship as a whole may sometimes make a loud noise in
moving, but this sound is caused by motion o f one body within a stationary body
474 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
et samblablement et sanz faire plaie, c ’est a dire percussion et division, c’est
impossible que il face son. E t pour ce, nous devons dire en ceste maniéré en
cest propos.
G . C ’est a savoir que les estoilles ne sonnent pas, car elles sont portées
25 aveques le ciel comme souvent est dit. E t de ce que dit est de la nef, il est
vérité que quant la nef et le fleuve sont meuz samblablement d ’une isneleté,
la nef ne fait pas son contre l’eaue ; mais quant elle est meue autrement et elle
divise l’aer ou l ’eaue aucune fois fait son et noise, ou elle toute ou aucune partie
de elle. E t briefment, il appert ou secont de L ’A.m e que son ne peust estre
30 sans ce que division soit faite et percussion et violence.3
T . E t se les estoilles estoient meues par elles en la multitude ou parmi la mul­
titude de l’aer qui est espandu partout lasus ou du feu, si comme touz dient qui
ne4mettent le ciel d’autre nature que les elemens, il convendroit par neccessité
que elles feissent son /(124b) qui passast la force et la grandeur naturelle de
35 tout autre son. E t se ainsi estoit, il convendroit que ce son attainist siques ici
et que il destruisist tout et nous feist tou<s>5 sourz. E t comme tel accident ne
appere pas, donques s’ensuit il que nulle des estoilles ne soit6 meue par soy de
mouvement qui soit fait d’ame ou d ’entendement ne qui soit fait par vio ­
lence.
40 G . Apres il met une autre raison prinse de cause final.
T . E t est aussi comme se nature avoit pourveu pour le temps qui estoit a
venir, car se le mouvement des estoilles n’estoit en la maniéré que nous avons
dit, nulle chose de cest monde ici-bas ne dureroit en samblable maniéré.
G . Car se les estoilles estoient meues parmi le ciel en le divisant, elles fe-
45 roient si grant son et si fort que les corps de cibas ne pourroient durer et
pour ce ordena nature que elles ne fussent meues fors au mouvement des
esperes ou elles sont fichiees afin que les corps de cibas fussent saufz. Mais
il me samble que combien que la conclusion soit vraie et que les estoilles et le
soleil soient ainsi fichiés comme souvent dit est, toutevoies la raison ou con-
50 sequence que font Aristote et A verroïz7 n’est pas bonne. Car posé que le ciel
fust de na- JJ (124c) ture de aer ou de feu et que les estoilles courussent8 ou
volassent parmi et le divisassent et que par ce elles feissent violence et très
grande sonnerie, noientmoins tel son seroit imperceptible a nous et ne pour-
roit estre ouÿ de cibas pour ce que il seroit trop loing de nous, et par conse-
55 quent, il ne estonneroit pas et ne corromproit pas les corps de cibas. E t ce
appert par raison, car le mouvement du soleil et des estoilles est très merveil­
leusement isnel toutevoies, pour ce que il est si loing de nous, il n’est pas ap-
percevable par sens dehors,9 c’est a savoir par nostre voiement précisément
3 De anima, 11.8.419b 9-25. 7 Juntas, t.c. 52-56, 133K-136B.
4 B omits ne. 8 D E concurrent.
5 A tout. 9 For another reason that we do not hear
6 E estoilles une soit. the celestial harmony, see Macrobius, In Som-
Book II, Chapter 18, fols. 124b-!24c 47J
or by motion in another direction; for it is impossible for a body m oving within
a continually m oving body with the same identical motion and producing no im­
pact or percussion and division to produce any sound. This much must be said
with respect to this problem.
G . That is, the stars make no noise because they are borne along with the heav­
ens, as often stated above. A n d with respect to the ship, it is true that, when ship
and river move in the same direction at the same speed, the ship makes no sound
in the water ; but when it moves against the current, dividing the air or the water,
it often makes a noise, that is to say, the ship as a whole or some part o f it. Brief­
ly, it is explained in the second book o f D e anima that sound cannot be produced
without division, percussion, and violence.
T . I f the stars m oved o f themselves in the mass o f air or fire spread all about
there on high, as all those say who do not claim the heavens to be naturally differ­
ent from the elements, then the stars would o f necessity create a sound / (124b)
whose intensity and natural force would surpass all other sounds. I f such a sound
were to exist, it would inevitably reach us down here, destroying everything and
making us all deaf. Since this accident does not happen, it must follow that none o f
the stars moves o f itself with a motion attributable to the soul or intelligence or to
external force or violence.
G . N ext he presents another argument based on final cause.
T . It is as though nature had foreseen for all future time that, if the movement o f
the stars were other than we have outlined here, nothing in this terrestrial world
could remain as it is at present.
G . He is saying that, if the stars moved transversely through the heavens cleav­
ing them in various parts, they would create such a tremendous sound that bodies
here below could not endure ; therefore, nature ordained that the stars should move
only with the motion o f the spheres in which they are fixed so that terrestrial bodies
m ight be safe. H owever it seems to me that, although the conclusion is correct and
the sun and stars are fixed in the manner so often stated previously [see fols. 115c
ff.], the reason or consequence given by Aristotle and Averroes still is not correct.
Even though we assume that the heavens are o f the same nature // (124c) as air or
fire and that the stars rush or fly through the spheres and pierce or penetrate them,
creating havoc and tremendous noise, nevertheless the sound thus created would
be imperceptible to us and could not be heard here below because it would be too
far away from us, and, consequently, would not produce thunderous effects and
destroy objects in our world. Reason makes this clear. Th e movement o f the sun
and stars is marvelously swift; yet because it is so far away from us, such motion is
imperceptible to our external senses— more precisely to our visual sense— were
nium Scipionis, II.4 14-15 (Eyssenhardt, pp. 598-99).
 47 6 j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
sanz l’aide de la vertu memorative que se recorde que le soleil ou l’estoille10
60 fu veue en un lieu et puis est veue en autre ou en autre resgart, car qui les
resgarde de prime face, il samble que elles ne se mouvent. E t donques l’en
pourroit dire par samblable que le son des estoilles qui est tant loing et qui
est causé par ce mouvement ne peust estre apparceu par nostre ouïe pré­
cisément et la vertu memorative ne autre ne peust faire que il soit ouÿ puis-
65 que il ne vient siques a nos oreilles. Item, encore par plus forte raison, car
l’isneleté du mouvement des estoilles est plus grande ou resgart de quelcun-
que isneleté de cibas,11 si comme de / (i24d) la foudre, que ne seroit la vio ­
lence du mouvement des estoilles ou resgart de la violence du mouvement
de la foudre, de tant comme le ciel qui est selon leur opinion de nature de
70 feu est plus rare ou plus cler et plus aesé ou plus legier a diviser que n’est
l’aer ou le feu de cibas. E t donques le son qui est fait par la violence du mou­
vement des estoilles ne excede pas tant le son du tonnerre comme l’isneleté
des estoilles qui est imperceptible excede le isneleté de la foudre. E t donques
par plus forte raison le son des estoilles seroit imperceptible, et par conse-
75 quent, il ne corromproit pas les corps de cibas.
T . E t ainsi est dit que les estoilles sont de figure sperique et que elles ne
sont pas meues par soy mais au mouvement12 du ciel.
G 7 3 Pour ce que pluseurs anciens de grant auctorité tenoient que ou ciel
est armonie et musique, je veul declairer et adrecier l’opinion que aucuns
80 telz povoient avoir. E t premièrement, l’opinion de ceulz qui cuidoient que
les estoilles feissent son en courant parmi le ciel, aussi comme un oyseau vole
par l’aer, est souffisanment reprouvé, car les estoilles ne sont pas ainsi meues,
si comme souvent //(125 a) dit est. E t se aucuns disoient que non pas les es­
toilles mais touz les cielz meuz font son sensible,14 c’est naturelment impos-
85 sible : premièrement car tout son sensible est fait avecques violence, si comme
il appert ou secont livre de U T i m e 15 et les mouvemens du ciel qui sont per-
petuelz sont du tout sanz violence, si comme il fu dit ou tiers chapitre. Item,
en tout son sont percussion et division, si comme il appert ou secont de
L ’A m e ,16 et les corps du ciel ne fièrent en rien un l’autre et sont meuz sanz
90 diviser aucun moien quelcunque, si comme il appert en pluseurs lieus de
philosophie et de astrologie. Item, touz corps qui resonent tremblent et fré­
missent,17 si comme il appert des campanes et des instrumens de musique, et
ou ciel ne peut estre tel tremblement qui n’est pas mouvement simple, car le
ciel est meu tant seulement de mouvement purement circulaire. Item, quant
95 aucuns corps meuz circulairement passent un sus l’autre et il font son, c ’est
pour l’aer ou autre chose qui est enclose entre telz corps, si comme il peust
10 D E la lune. 12 D E soy meismes au m.
11 Plato emphasized the rapidity o f move- « B C D E F omit Glose.
ment o f the celestial spheres in the myth o f *+ B font son semblable; D E cielz ensem-
Er, Republic, 617B. ble font son.
Book II, Chapter 18, fols. I24d-i25a | 477
our observations not seconded by the power o f memory which recalls to us that
the sun or star appeared in one place and afterwards in still another position or
aspect, for at first glance it does not seem that they move at all. So, we could say by
analogy that the sound produced by the motion o f the stars and which is so far
from us cannot be precisely sensed by our ears and that neither the power o f mem­
ory nor o f any other is o f any aid to us since the sound has never yet reached our
ears. A ll the more is this true because the rapidity o f stellar motion is proportion­
ally so much greater relative to any speed with which we are acquainted here be-
low— for example, the speed o f / (i24d) lightning— so that the violence o f the m o­
tion o f the stars would be proportionally greater relative to the violence o f light­
ning, just as the heavens— which they hold to be naturally similar to fire— are rarer
and clearer, easier and thinner to penetrate than terrestrial air or fire. Then, the
sound caused by the violence o f stellar motion does not exceed the noise o f thun­
der proportionally as much as the imperceptible speed o f the stars exceeds the
speed o f lightning. This offers an even stronger reason w hy the sound o f stellar
motion is imperceptible and, consequently, would not destroy objects here be­
low.
T . Thus, we have concluded that the stars are spherical in shape and that they
do not move o f themselves, but only with the motion o f the heavens.
G . Since several ancient thinkers o f great authority maintained that there is har­
mony and music in the heavens, I should like to explain and set aright some o f
their opinions. First, the opinion o f those who held that the stars make a noise as
they rush through the heavens, just as a bird flies through the air, has been suffi­
ciently disproved above because, as has been repeatedly said here, the stars do not
move in this manner. // (125 a) I f someone were to claim that not the stars but the
whole heavens cause a perceptibly audible sound by their movement, this is nat­
urally impossible because, first, every audible sound is produced by violence, as
stated in Book T w o o f D e anima, and the eternal movements o f the heavens are ab­
solutely without violence, as we said in Chapter Three [see fols. 73b ff.]. In every
sound there are percussion and sunderance, as stated in Book T w o o f D e anima,
and the heavenly bodies do not strike against one another, and they m ove without
sundering any intermediate matter whatever, as is explained in several parts o f phil­
osophy and astronomy. A ll bodies capable o f reasonance tremble and quiver, as
we can observe in the case o f bells and musical instruments ; such trembling, which
is not a simple movement, cannot exist in the heavens because they move only
with strictly circular motion. When certain bodies move in a circle one above the
other and cause a sound, it is due to the air or some other thing which is enclosed
15 De anima, 11.8.419b 9-13. 17 D E qui recevent tremblement et fr.
16 De anima, 11.8.419b 11-13.
 47 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
apparoir par le secont de L ’A m e , 18 et entre les esperes du ciel ne a chose
moienne quelcunque mais sont conjointes sanz moien. Item, toute fois que
telz corps qui passent un contre l’autre ou un sus / (125 b) l’autre resonent,1*
100 c’est pour ce que il sont aspres et que il freent un a l’autre. E t pour ce, quant
l’en met entre telz .ii. corps oincture, le son appetice ou cesse, si comme il
appert par experience. O r est il ainsi que les corps du ciel sont si très perfec-
tem entonnizetpolizqueriennepeustplus sanz quelcunque aspresce, si com­
me il fu dit en le .xi.e chapitre, et donques passent il un sus l’autre très souef
105 et très seriement sanz confricacion quelcunque et, par consequent, très pai­
siblement sanz noise et sanz son. O r avons donques que les corps du ciel par
leurs mouvemens ne font pas son sensible. E t peut estre que aucuns anciens
qui mettoient ou ciel armonie ne entendoient pas que le ciel feist tel son, mais
entendoient que ou ciel est une maniéré de musique laquelle est es propor-
no cions des quantités et des qualités et des mouvemens et des vertus et des in­
fluences des corps du ciel. Item, selon ce l’en pourroit dire que aussi comme
les sens naturelz des honmes et des bestes sont d’autre raison et d’autre ma­
niéré que l’entendement des intelligences ou des honmes, samblablement les
sons sensibles sont d’autre guise et d’autre maniéré que ne sont les sons ce­
ns lestielz lesquielz sont insensibles. E t pour ce, Cassiodorus en une epistre qui
se commence «cum rex // (125c) francorum» disoit ainsi: Armonia ceü
humano sermone ydonee non potest explicari, quam20 racio tantum animo
dédit, sed auribus mortalium natura non prodidit.21 Il dist que nature n’a
pas fait sentir la musique du ciel aus oreilles des mortelz et pour ce l’en ne peut
120 pas dire proprement quelle elle est. Item, les proporcions des sons celestielz
sont armoniques. E t doit l’en savoir que toute proporcion est armonique la­
quelle est entre nombres qui sont de proportionalité double ou qui sont de
proportionalité treble ou qui sont procreéz et faiz par multiplication de
nombres de l’une et de l’autre22 des proporcionalités desus dites. E t pour ce
125 miex entendre soit faite une figure en maniéré de eschequier, et ou premier
angle ou premier quarré soit .i. et ou secont en la ligne ou renc desus soit .ii.,
[Fig. 29] / (i2 5d) et apres soit .iiii. et puis .viii. et ainsi touzjours en doublant
et en procédant selon proportionalité double tant comme il plaist sanz fin.
Item, en descendant desouz .i. soit .iii., etdesouz apres soit .ix. et puis .xxvii.23
18 De anima, 11.8.419b 33— 420a 26. vero caeli humano sermone idonee non potest
19 B omits resonent. explicari, quam ratio tantum animo dédit, sed
20 D E quem. auribus natura non prodidit.”
21 Epistulae Theodericianae variae, X L, Boe-
22 B C D E F multiplicacion de l’un et de
thio Patricio Theodericus Rex, ed. Th. l’autre.
Mommsen (Berlin, 1894), p. 72: “ Harmonia 23 B .xxiiii.
Book II, Chapter 18, fols. I25b-i25d | 479
between them, as explained in Book T w o o f D e anima\ between the heavenly
spheres there is no intermediate body whatsoever, but they are in contact without
any intervening thing. Every time such bodies come in contact, one above or one
beside the other, / (125 b) they resonate because they are rough and rub against one
another. When we put a lubricant between two such bodies, the sound diminishes
or stops, as experience shows. The fact is that the heavenly bodies are so perfectly
smoothed and polished without any roughness whatever remaining, as stated in
Chapter Eleven [see fol. io2bc], that they pass over one another very evenly and
quietly with no friction whatever and, consequently, silently and noiselessly.
Therefore, we can say that celestial motion produces no perceptible sound. Per­
haps some o f the ancient thinkers who held that there is a celestial harmony did
not mean that the heavens produce a sound, but rather that there is a kind o f music
. i . ■i i. . i i i i . . v iii. .X V i. XXX i f
.3 . . v i . . x i i. x x iiii. M V ÏIÏ
.9. X V iii- XXXVi.
xxvii .L liii. c.viii.
Ml iii. J.
ÇXLlii.
vii5m) ■
Fig. 29
in the heavens to be found in the ratios between the quantity and quality o f the mo­
tions, the forces, and the influences o f the heavenly bodies. Accordingly, we could
say that, just as the natural senses o f men and animals are o f a sort and kind dif­
ferent from the mind o f the intelligences or o f men, likewise perceptible sounds are
o f a sort and kind different from celestial sounds, which are imperceptible. This
explains the statement o f Cassiodorus who wrote in a letter beginning “ Since the
K in g /I (125 c) o f the Franks” : Armonia celi humano sermone ydonee non potest
explicari, quam racio tantum animo dédit, sed auribus mortalium natura non pro­
didit. He says that nature has not equipped the ears o f mortals to perceive the mu­
sic o f the heavens, and therefore we cannot say exactly what this music is. The pro­
portions o f the celestial sounds are harmonic. It should be explained here that all
ratios are harmonic between numbers o f double or triple proportionalities or
which are produced and made by multiplying the numbers o f each o f the above
proportionalities. T o understand this better, let us look at the checker board fig­
ure [see Fig. 29] where we let the first angle or square be equal to 1, the second
square on the same line or row equal to 2, / (125 d) the next equal to 4, then to 8,
and proceeding thus in accordance with a double proportionality to whatever limit
we please or endlessly. N o w m oving downward below 1, let us put 3, under 3 put
480 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
130 et ainsi en outre tant comme il plest sanz terme en procédant selon propor-
cionalité treble.242
5Item, en l’angle commun de .ii. et de .iii. soit .vi., <et en
l’angle commun de .iiii. et de .iii. soit .xii.),23 et en l’angle commun de .ii. et
de .ix. soit .xviii. et ainsi en procédant selon cest ordre et selon ceste maniéré26
l’en peut multeplier telz nombres et croistre la figure tant comme l’en veult.
135 E t vérité est que ceste figure est plainne de très grans misteres et peust l’en
prendre en elle consideracions très excellentement belles et merveilleuses, et
contient en vertu toute musique speculative. E t chascun des nombres de ces­
te figure est dit armonique et nul autre ; et chascune proporcion qui est entre
.ii. de ces nombres est dite armonique et non autre. E t ces proporcions ne
140 sont pas toutes consonantes, mais tant seulement .iiii. desquelles les premiers
nombres different par seule unité et n’est ainsi de quelcunque autre propor­
cion armonique. E t de ces .iiii. proporcions une est dyapason ou double qui
est de .ii. a .i. ; l’autre est dyapente qui est de .iii. a .ii. ; la tierce est dyathe-
saron qui <est>2? // (126a) de .iiii. a .iii. ; et la quarte est ton qui est de .ix. a
145 .viii.28 E t ainsi sont tant seulement .iiii. proporcions qui sont consonantes ou
consonancies simples, mais pluseurs sont ou peuent estre composées de ces-
tes. Item, aucuns des anciens qui mettoient son es cielz disoient que le ciel qui
est le plus bas, c’est a savoir l’espere de la lune, resone le plus accu ou gresle
et que la plus haute espere resone le plus gros son ou le plus bas et les autres
150 moiennement par ordre touzjours la plus basse plus acuement.29 E t les autres
mettoient le contraire et avoient plus grant couleur, car la grosseur du son
ensuit la quantité ou grandeur des corps qui sonent avecques leur figure,
mais la force de son ensuit l’isneleté du mouvement, ceteris paribus. E t don-
ques la plus haute espere soneroit le plus gros ou le plus bas, mes elle son-
155 neroit plus fort que celle qui est plus basse. Item, selon vérité, il est vraisam-
blable que aucuns des mouvemens du ciel soient incommensurables, si com­
me je ay monstré autrefois en un tracté pour ce fait. 3° E t ce posé, il convient
par neccessité que les corps du ciel soient continuelment et tous jours en
nouvelle disposicion tele que c ’est impossible naturelment que onques fus-
160 sent en / (126b) semblable,31 ne que il y soient autrefois, supposé que il eus­
sent esté et fussent meuz perpetuelment sanz commencement et sanz fin.
Item, selon ce peut estre que les corps du ciel parce que il sont touzjours en
nouvelle disposicion que onques ne fu samblable, ainsi il font continuelment
nouvelle musique insensible : E t canticum novum ,32 si que onques33 ne fu tel.
i65 Item, pour ce que les corps de cibas sont gouvernéz par les corps celestielz
et par leurs mouvemens selon nature, si comme dist Aristote ou premier de
24 D E double. 29 Cf. Macrobius, In Somnium Scipionis, II.iv
25 A omits et en l’angle... soit .xii. 1-5 (Eyssenhardt, p. 596).
26 B C D E F omit et selon ceste maniéré. 30 Reference to De commensurabilitate et in-
27 A B C omit est.
commensurabilitate motuum coelestium.
28 B omits a .viii. 31 D E fussent ensemble ne.
Book II, Chapter 18, fols. 126a-! 26b | 481
9, then 27, and proceed in the same manner as far as we please or to infinity, in a
triple proportionality. Then the square touching 2 and 3 will stand 6 ; in the square
common to 4 and 3 will be 12; and in the square common to 2 and 9 will be 18 ;
following this order and method, we can multiply the numbers and increase the
size o f the checker board figure as much as we want. Truly, this figure is full o f
very great mysteries and from it we can draw extremely attractive and marvelous
conclusions, for it contains virtually the whole formation o f speculative music.
Each o f the numbers in this figure and no other is called harmonic; each propor­
tion between tw o o f the numbers and no other is called harmonic. N o t all the pro­
portions, but only four, are consonant, o f which the first member is one unit less
than the other, an occurrence to be found in no other harmonic proportion what­
ever. These four consonant proportions are: first, diapason or double, i.e., 2:1;
the next is diapente, which is the ratio 3:2 ; the third is diatessaron, which is //
(126a) the ratio 4:3 ; the fourth is the tonal ratio 9:8. So there are only four propor­
tions which are consonant or simple consonances, but many can be constructed on
these four. Some o f the ancient thinkers who theorized about the music o f the
spheres used to say that the lowest o f the heavens, the lunar sphere, has the sharp­
est or highest pitched sound, the topmost sphere has the loudest and lowest sound,
and the other spheres intermediate between these two, with the lowest sphere al­
ways having a sound sharper and higher pitched than the one above it. Other
thinkers held the contrary opinion and it had greater probability ; for the amplitude
o f the sound depends upon the quantity or magnitude o f the bodies which pro­
duce the sound and upon their shapes, but the loudness o f the sound depends upon
the speed o f spherical motion, other things being equal. Therefore, the highest
sphere should produce the heaviest and lowest sound, but it would sound louder
than that o f the sphere just beneath it. Indeed, it is probable that some o f the celes­
tial movements are incommensurable, as I have formerly demonstrated in a treatise
dealing specifically with this problem. Assuming this to be true, it follows neces­
sarily that the heavenly bodies are continually and always in new positional rela­
tionships with one another so that it is naturally impossible that these positions
ever repeat themselves again / (126b) and that they should ever have done so in the
past, taking it for granted that they have existed and have been m oving perpetually
without beginning or end. Accordingly, it could well be that these heavenly bodies,
being constantly in new positional relationships never previously experienced, are
continuously producing new but imperceptible music [that mentioned in H oly
Scripture such as] canticum novum, a new song, such as never existed before. Since
the bodies o f our world are governed by heavenly bodies and by their natural
32 Cf. Ps. 39:4; 143:9; 149:1; Apoc. 3:9; 33 D E sicques que oncques.
14:3-
482 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 18, fols. i 260-12Ôd | 483

M etheores^ il s’ensuit que, selon ce, les choses de cibas sont touzjours en nou­
velle ordenance si que3
35 onquesnefu telle, et que les faiz humains, excepté ce
4 terrestrial bodies are continuously in new and different arrangements such as never
que est de volenté hors inclination naturelle, sont continuelment nouviaux et
170 telz que onques ne furent aucuns du tout samblables. Item, aussi comme mu­
tation ne peut estre que elle ne soit en miex ou en non-miex combien que aucu­
ne fois tout ensamble soit très bien, si comme un chant de pluseurs voiez très
bon ne seroit pas si bon se les voies36 estoient tousjours ou très meilleur a-
cort, samblablement selon la variacion de la musique insensible du ciel les
175 choses de cibas sont une fois en meilleur disposition que en autre, et selon ce
une // (126c) fois est pais, autre guerre, si comme dit l’Escripture : Tempus
belli, et tempus pacis;37 une fois stérilité, autre fois fertilité et ainsi des autres
mutacions. Item, par aventure pourroit l’en dire que le ciel est aussi comme
celui qui chante ou fait mélodie et, aveques ce, dance et fait double musique :
180 cantu etgestu, en chant et en deport. E t le monde de cibas fait seulement mu­
sique de deport, aussi comme celui qui dance et ensuit la mesure du chant que
il escoute. E t peut estre que ce entendirent saint Augustin et Boëce et autres
qui parlent de musique mondaine laquelle il appellassent celestiele, ne fust
ce que elle se estent aus corps de cibas en la maniéré desus dite.
185 E t donques par ce que dit est et par ce que s’ensuit, nous povons raison­
nablement dire que de musique sont .iii. maniérés : une est humaine, autre
mondaine et la tierce est divine. La premiere est sensible as oreilles et les
autres non, mes de la seconde l ’en vient en cognoissance par raison humaine,
et de la tierce ont experience les angelz et les âmes beneurees. Item, de la
190 seconde font mencion, comme dit est, saint Augustin et Boëce et Macrobes38et
autres et meisme la sainte Escripture, si comme il pourroit f ( i z 6 d ) sambler par
ce que Job .xxviii.e est ecript: Concentum celi quis dormire faciet?39 aussi
comme qui diroit que le chant acordable du ciel dure continuelment sanz
cesser. Item, pour ce que, selon les philosophes, les intelligences meuvent les
195 cielz, il s’ensuit que par elles est fait ceste musique. E t de ce recite Macrobes
que Plato disoit que en chascune espere du ciel est une syrene qui chant a Dieu :
Plato— singulas ait Syrenas singulis40 oribus insidere. . . nam Syren deo
canens Greco intellectu valet.41 Item, de la tierce musique meisme firent men­
cion pluseurs anciens paiens qui establirent que l’en menast les corps a se-
movements, as Aristotle says in the first book o f Meteors, it follows therefore that
previously existed and that human affairs, except those that depend upon the will
as opposed to natural inclination, are continuously different and such as they never
were before in any way at all. Just as change cannot exist unless it is for better or
worse— although both better and worse are sometimes for the best— and just as
choral singing by excellent voices is not so good if the voices always sing in abso­
lute harmony, in the same way things here below are sometimes in better state
than at other times, depending upon the variations in the imperceptible music o f
the spheres ; accordingly, sometimes //(i 26c) we have peace, sometimes war, as the
Scripture says : Tempus belli, et tempus pacis ; one time sterility, another time fertil­
ity, and so on with all the other changes. W e could perhaps say that the heavens
are like a man who sings a melody and at the same time dances, thus making music
in both ways— cantu et gestu— in song and in action. Our world makes only the
music o f action, like the man dancing and following the rhythm o f the song to
which he is listening. This may possibly be the meaning o f St. Augustine, Boethius,
and those others who call mundane music celestial : it might have spread to bodies
here below in the manner just described.
From what has been said here and from what follows, we can conclude that there
are three kinds o f music : one human, another mundane, and the third divine. The
first is audible to our ears, but the others are not; the second we come to know by
human reason; and the third is experienced by the angels and souls o f the blessed.
St. Augustine, Boethius, Macrobius, and others have written about the second
variety or mundane music; even the H oly Scripture mentions it, / (i26d) as may be
seen in J ob where we read : W ho shall make the harmony o f heaven to sleep ? as
though it meant that the harmonious song o f the heavens endures continuously
without stopping. Since, according to the philosophers, the intelligences move the
heavenly bodies, it follows that it is they who make this music. In this regard, M ac­
robius relates that Plato used to say that in each and every sphere there is a siren
singing to G o d : Plato says that a single siren is delegated to reside in each and
every sphere, for a siren singing to a Greek god is comparable to an intelligence.
Many ancient pagans make mention o f the third or divine variety o f music ; they
established the custom that, when bodies were carried away for burial, people

34 Meteorologicorum, 1.2.339a 21-23. Timaeus regarding the ratios o f the spheres to

35 B C D E F disposicion; D E sicques onc-
ques.
36 D E omit très b o n ...se les voies.
37 Eccles. 3 :8. B C D E F omit et.
38 The doctrine o f the harmony o f the spheres
is doubtless o f Pythagorean origin, but the
source upon which these writers drew was
quite certainly Plato’s myth o f Er {Republic,
617B) to which was added the speculation o f
one another {Timaeus, 35B ff.), these ratios
being arranged in harmonic sequences and
appearing to have musical significance. See
Plato, Timaeus, ed. R. G. Bury, in Plato -with
an English Translation (Loeb Classical Library,
1929), vol. 7, footnotes to pp. 66-72. Oresme
has reference here to the musical treatises o f
St. Augustine, D e Musica, P L 32, 1081 ff.; o f
Boethius, De Musica, especially I, 2, P L 63,
1171 ff. ; and to that contained in Macrobius,
In Somnium Scipioms, II. 1-4, especially 1, pp.
583-89.
39 Job 38:37. Oresme’s reference is incor­
rect in all MSS.
40E Plato ait singulas; B singulas orbibus.
41 B F grece intellectu. Macrobius, In Som­
nium Scipionis, II.3 1 (Eyssenhardt, p. 592):
“ Hinc Plato in Republica sua cum de sphaera-
rum caelestium volubilitate tractaret, singulas
ait Sirenas singulis orbibus insidere, signifi-
cans sphaerarum motu cantum numinibus
exhiberi, nam Siren deo canens Graeco intel­
lectu valet.”
 484 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
200 pulture en chantant en signe que les âmes retournent a la douceur de la mu­
sique divine selon ce que recite Macrobes.42 E t la sainte Escripture parle
souvent de la musique divine des angelz et des âmes beneurees laquelle est
musique divine causée de D ieu: Cantabant canticum novum ante sedem,43
etc. Item, si comme je ay touchié devant et selon les anciens philosophes, la
205 musique insensible des corps du ciel est selon les proporcions armoniques
dont je ay faite mencion et desquelles est composée musique humaine et sen­
sible laquelle se conforme444
5et a une colligance et // (127a) affinité a la musi­
que celestiel. E t ceste conformité ou aliance peust apparoir par un merveil-
leus signe lequel je n’ay pas apris par doctrine d’autre et est tel: car, selon
210 les astrologiens, es corps du ciel sont .iiii. prinripaulz resgars, c ’est a savoir
le sixtil ou sixte, et le quart, et le trine ou tiers et l’opposite ; et les lignes ou
cordes de ces .iiii. resgars, une ou resgart de l’autre, sont es proporcions qui
ensuient et sont ici apres descriptes en figure [Fig. 30].43 E t premièrement
soit fait un demicecle sus le dyametre46 .ab. et c’est le resgart opposite ; item,
215 soit fete la ligne .ac. qui soit le resgart trine ou treble; item, la ligne .ad. qui
soit le regart quart; item, la ligne .ae.47 qui soit le resgart sextile ou sixte. Je
di donques que entre ces .iiii. lignes, en comparant48 une a l’autre, sont .vi.
proporcions, c ’est a savoir de .ab. a .ac., ou pour miex entendre, entre .ab.
et .ac. la moitié de la proporcion qui est de .iiii. a .iii. qui est appelée la moitié
220 de sequitercie ; item, entre .ab. et .ad. la moitié de proporcion double qui est de
.ii. a .i.; item, entre .ab. et .ae. proporcion double; item, entre .ac. et .ad. la
moitié de proporcion sequialtere, laquelle sequialtere est de .iii. a .ii. ; item, en­
tre .ac. et .ae. est la moi- / (127b) tié de proporcion triple ou treble ; item, entre
.ad. et .ae. la moitié de proporcion double. E t tout ce ay je autrefois declairé
225 evidanment en un livret que j e nomma y A lg o r is m deproporcions49et par demons-
traison pure mathématique a laquelle nul ne pourroit par raison contredire.
O r appert donques que les proporcions qui sont entre les resgars du ciel sont
toutes armoniques ou parties de armoniques et non pas seulement armoniques,
mais consonantes ou parties de consonantes. E t donques est ce bien signe que
42 Ibid.y II.3 6 (Eyssenhardt, p. 593). 46 D E un cercle sanz le dy.
43 B C D E F sedem Dei. Cf. Apoc. 14: 3— Et 47 B .ac.
cantabant quasi canticum novum ante sedem,
48 D .iiii. figures signes en .c.; E F .iiii.
et ante quatuor animalia. signes en .c.
44 B D E conferme 49 Algorismus proportionum (see Bibliogra­
45 Fig. 30 is executed on fol. 127c. phy).
Book II, Chapter 18, fols. 127a-!27b | 48;
should sing as a sign that the souls were returning to the sweetness o f the divine
music, as Macrobius relates. A n d H oly Scripture often speaks o f the divine music
o f the angels and blessed souls caused by G o d Himself: Th ey were singing a new
canticle before the throne, etc. A s I have previously noted and according to the an­
cient philosophers, the inaudible music o f the heavenly bodies is based upon the
harmonic proportions which I mentioned above, and so is audible human music,
which conforms to and has a close relationship and affinity with heavenly music. //
(127a) A n d this conformity or close relationship can be demonstrated by a marvel­
ous sign or evidence o f truth which I did not learn from the teachings o f others,
and it is the following: according to the astronomers, there are four principal as­
pects or regards associated with the heavenly bodies ; first, the sextile or sixth, the
quarter, the trine or third, and the opposite. Th e lines or chords o f these four as-
■ Ur ■
V-4 WL----- -- ■--------------------------------------- . ~
dfo m e d ie ta s s e [ s ] q u ite rc ie - d o
db medietae d u p le - d d
d b d Lip id —d o
dc medietas sepjqujqltere-od
d c medietas triple - a e
dd medietas d u p l e - a e
Fig. 30
pects in relation to one another are in the follow ing ratios and are shown in a fig­
ure [see Fig. 30]. T o begin, let a half-circle be drawn on the diameter ab— this is
the opposite aspect; let the line ac be drawn to represent the trine or third aspect;
the line ad represents the quarter; and ae the sextile or sixth aspect. N o w , I say that,
between these four lines or chords when we compare one with another, there are
six proportions, as follows : ab to ac, or stated more clearly, between ab and ac the
proportion is one-half the proportion between 4 and 3 and is called a half-ses-
quitertial; between ab and ad the proportion is one-half the double proportion or
2:1 ; between ab and ae the proportion is double ; between ac and ad the proportion
is one-half o f the sesquialtera, and the sesquialtera is the ratio o f 3: 2 ; between ac
and ae is one-half / (127b) the proportion called triple or treble; between ad and ae
the proportion is one-half o f double. A ll this I have explained clearly in a little
book which I called Algorism o f Proportions, in which purely mathematical demon­
stration that no one could reasonably contradict is used. So it is evident that the
proportions between the different aspects o f the heavens are all harmonic or partial
harmonic ratios ; not only are they harmonic, they are also consonant or parts o f
consonants. Then this is surely a sign that there is music in the heavens and that
 486 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
230 ou ciel est musique et que entre elle et musique humaine de laquelle elle
est cause sous Dieu est colligacion. E t elle est causée et depent sanz moien
de la tierce musique divine et de Dieu, duquel dist l’Escripture que il fait con­
corde en ses choses hauteines— Job ,xxii.e : Q ui facit concordiam in sublimibus
suis.50Aspectus celi distant moderamine tali: sextilis,quartus, trinus et oppo-
235 situs.51//
(127c) 19. Ou .xix.e chapitre il traicte de Tordre
des cielz des planètes.1
T . Es livres d’astrologie est soufissanment dit de Tordre des estoilles, com­
ment les unes sont plus hautes et plus loing de nous et les autres sont plus
basses et plus près.
G . Ce suppose Aristote des astrologiens qui ont trouvé2 par observances
5 et par experiences comment le ciel .viii.e ou sont les estoilles fïchies est par
desus les esperes des planètes. E t apres est l’espere de Saturne en descendant;
apres est Jupiter et puis Mars et apres est le soleil et puis Venus et puis Mer­
cure et apres est la lune. E t ne convient ja de ce faire figure, car tout ce appert
ou commencement du Tractej de T espere.3 Apres il met ce de quoi doit consi-
10 derer le philosophe.
T . E t la cause de ceste ordenance par quoy les unes sont / (12yd) plus
haut et plus loing de nous que les autres est pour ce que les unes sont meues
plus isnelementetles autres plus tardivement, car Ten suppose que la derre-
niere et souverainne circulacion ou mouvement circulaire est simple et très
15 isnel.
G . O u temps d’Aristote Ten ne avoit encore apparceu que le .viii.e espere
ou sont les estoilles fichies fust meu<e>4 d’autre mouvement que de journal,
et pour ce tenoit Aristote que c ’est le souverain ciel meu très isnelement d’un
seul mouvement très simple. Mes depuis a esté trouvé que elle est meue de
20 mouvement composé de pluseurs, et pour ce les astrologiens mettent que par
dessus elle est une noviesme espere. E t de ce sera dit apres plus a plain. E t il
fu declairé ou tiers chapitre du premier comment un mouvement peust estre
composé de pluseurs et comment un corps peust estre meu de pluseurs mou-
vemens.
25 T . Mes des autres, c ’est a savoir des planètes, les mouvemens sont plus
tardis et de chascune sont pluseurs, car chascune s<el>on5 propre cercle et
50 B C D E F in sublimis suis. Job 25:2; the Guthrie, ch. 10.
chapter reference is incorrect in all MSS. 2 D E tenu.
51 B omits aspectus c e li...et oppositus. 3 D e l ’espere, ed. McCarthy, ch. Ill, 11. 175-
1 A omits chapter heading; B ou .xx. c. 80; ed. Myers, ch. 3, pp. 7-8.
Book II, Chapter 19, fols. i27C-i2yd | 487
there is a close relationship between the music o f the spheres and human music, o f
which the former, under G od, is the cause. A n d heavenly music is caused by and
depends upon the third kind or divine music whose cause is God. Th e Scripture
says that He makes peace [or harmony] in His high places : Q ui facit concordiam
in sublimibus suis— Job. Th e aspects o f the heavens are spaced according to the
following arrangement: sextilis, quartus, trinus, et oppositus. //
(127c) 19. In Chapter Nineteen he deals with the
order o f the planetary heavens.
T . Th e relative order or disposition o f the stars is adequately described in astro­
nomical tracts, showing that some are higher and farther from us and others lower
and nearer.
G . Aristotle refers to the works o f the astronomers who, by observation and
long experience, have discovered how the eighth heaven with the fixed stars is
situated above the planetary spheres ; then in descending order are the spheres o f
Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the sun, Venus, Mercury, and, last, the moon. It is not neces­
sary to show this in a diagram, for it is all explained in the beginning o f my Treatise
on the Sphere. Next, he states the problem confronting the philosopher.
T . The cause o f this order or disposition which places some stars / (12yd) higher
and farther from us than others is that some are m oved more rapidly and others
more slowly; it is assumed that the final and highest circular movement is simple
and extremely fast.
G . In Aristotle’s time it had not become known that the eighth sphere with the
fixed stars m oved with other than daily motion, and therefore Aristotle believed
that this sovereign heaven moved extremely fast with only one simple motion.
However, it has since been found that this sphere has a compound movement
made up o f several different motions, and for this reason the astronomers assume
the existence o f a ninth sphere above the eighth. W e shall speak o f this again later
[see fol. i28cd]. In Chapter Three o f Book I it was explained how a movement can
be compounded o f several others and how a body can have several motions [see fol.
8a].
T . Th e movements o f the other celestial bodies or planets are slower, and each4
4 A meu. 5 A son.
488 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
par son propre mouvement est meu<e>6 au contraire du // (128a) souverain
ciel.
G . E t aveques ce, chascune est meue de mouvement journal aveques le
30 souverain ciel.7 E t doit l’en savoir que le propre mouvement des planètes
n’est pas droitement ne proprement contraire au mouvement journal, car
mouvement circulaire n’a point de contraire, si comme il appert par le .viii.e
chapitre du premier, mais il est aussi comme contraire improprement pour
ce que le mouvement journal est de orient en (o)ccid ent8 et le propre mou-
35 vement des planètes est e converso, de occident en orient, et encore sus au­
tres poles par quoy il est encore moins contraire.
T . E t pour ce, est ce chose raisonnable que la planete qui est très prochaine
au ciel meu de mouvement circulaire simple et premier, parface son cercle ou
circuite par son mouvement propre en plus lo n g9 temps et plus tardivement;
40 et que celle qui est toute la plus loing du ciel qui est ainsi meu de mouvement
simple et premier parface son cercle en moins de temps et plus isnelement;
et des autres qui sont moiennes, que celle qui est plus prochaine ou souve- /
(128b) rain ciel parface son circuite en plus grant temps; et que celle qui est
plus loing de ce ciel en mendre temps. Car le souverain ciel a très grande
45 puissance sus le ciel qui est très près de lui, et a petite puissance sus celui qui
est loing de lui pour cause de la distance.
G . D e ce propos ont esté .iii. opinions : une est que le ciel souverain est
meu d ’un simple mouvement lequel est journal et très isnel. E t pour ce, par
sa force il ravist et trait aveques soy les cielx10 des planètes qui sont souz soy,
50 et retarde leur11 mouvement propre qui est aussi comme au contraire, com­
me dit est. Mais ceste opinion n’est pas du tout vraie ou peut estre mal en-
rendue, car combien que le mouvement journal des planètes puisse estre dit
ravissement par similitude en maniéré que parlent les poètes, toutesvoies, se­
lon vérité, ou ciel n’est quelcunque ravissement ne violence, mes chascunmou-
55 vement du ciel est très naturel et voluntaire franchement et purement. Une
autre opinion fu que le .viii.e ciel la ou sont les estoilles fichies, est le souve­
rain meu de simple mouvement // (128c) journal et les autres cielx des pla­
nètes l’ensuient sans violence, ainsi que le plus prochain de lui l’ensuit plus
et est plus tardif en son mouvement propre et le plus loing l’ensuit moins,
60 comme devant dit est. La tierce opinion est samblable a ceste fors tant que,
pour ce que le .viii.e espere n’est pas meue seulement de mouvement simple
journal, ceste opinion met une autre espere novisme par desus le .viii.e, la­
quelle .ix.e est meue seulement de simple mouvement journal et les autres
l’ensuient12 comme dit est. Mais autrefois je avisay une opinion telle: que ja
65 soit ce que le .viii.e espere soit meue de .ii. mouvemens; par aventure, ne
convient il pas pour ce mettre une espere par desus elle en laquelle ne appert
quelcunque estoille, mais peut estre que le .viii.e est la souveraine et que elle
6 A meu. 7 B C D E F omit Et aveques ce...ciel.
Book II, Chapter 19, fols. 128a-! 28c | 489
planet has several motions, for in its own circuit and movement each planet moves
contrary to the motion o f the // (128a) sovereign heaven.
G . In addition, each planet moves in daily motion with the primary heaven. It
must be explained that the proper motion o f the planets is not directly nor properly
contrary to their daily motion, for circular movement has no contrary, as stated in
Chapter Eight o f Book I [see fol. i4d]; it is improperly called contrary because
daily motion is from east to west, and the proper motion o f the planets is the oppo­
site or from west to east and, moreover, upon different poles, rendering it less con­
trary.
T . Therefore, it is reasonable for the planet nearest the primary heaven, which
moves with simple circular motion, to require a longer time with slower motion to
complete its proper motion around its circumference or circuit; the planet farthest
from the primary heaven completes its circle in less time and much faster. O f those
planets intermediate between these extremes, it is reasonable that the planet nearer
the primary heaven / (128b) should require more time to complete its circuit and
that the one farther from this heaven should require less time, because the sover­
eign or primary heaven has great power over the heaven very near it, but little
power over the one far removed from it by reason o f the great distance.
G . There have been three opinions concerning this theory: one is that the sover­
eign heaven moves with a very fast, simple daily motion; and so by its force it
seizes hold o f and drags along with it the planetary heavens underneath, slowing
down their proper motion, which is, so to speak, in the opposite direction, as stated
above. But this opinion is not at all true— or it can be misunderstood. Although
the daily motion o f the planets can be called a kind o f seizure as a figure o f speech
such as poets use, nevertheless, as a matter o f fact, seizing and violence do not exist
in the heavens ; rather every movement is absolutely natural and freely and simply
willed. Another opinion held that the eighth heaven with the fixed stars is primary
and sovereign, m oving with simple daily motion, // (128c) and that the other
planetary heavens follow it without violence and in such a manner that [Saturn]
the planetary heaven nearest the primary heaven follows closest with the slowest
proper motion while the moon or the farthest planetary heaven is least influenced by
the sovereign heaven, as we stated above. The third opinion is similar to the sec­
ond, except that, since the eighth sphere does not m ove only with simple daily mo­
tion, this belief posits a ninth sphere situated above the eighth and being moved
only by simple daily motion which the other spheres follow. I have suggested an­
other explanation in an earlier work, namely that the eighth heaven has two different
8 A accident. 11 A retarde de leur.
9 A loing. 12 A autres le l’ensuient.
10 B cedes.
490 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
et les autres sont meues de mouvement journal, mais les autres en descen­
dant plus tardivement de leurs mouvemens propres comme dit est. E t ne sont
70 pas toutes meues selon l ’autre mouvement de celle ,viii.e espere qui est, selon
aucuns, / (i28d) en cent ans d’un degré contre le mouvement journal. E t de
ce sera dit apres plus a plain. Item, encore pourroit l’en assigner autre cause
pourquoy les planètes plus hautes font leurs cours ou leur propre mouvement
en plus lonc temps, et est pour ce que tant plus sont hautes, tant plus grant
75 cede descrivent elles et font plus grant circuite.
T . E t les planètes moiennes entre la plus haute et la plus basse parfont
leurs cours ou leur circuite selon la proporcion de la distance que elles ont au
souverain ciel, si comme monstrent les astrologiens.
G . Par aventure que les astrologiens de ce temps mettoient que le soleil et
bo Venus et Mercure estoient touz .iii. en un meisme ciel pour ce que il font
leurs cours13 aussi comme en un meisme temps. E t semble que ce dit soit
raisonnable et que une meisme intelligence soit appropriée a ce ciel total et le
meuve d’un mouvement commun a ces .iii. planètes. Mais aveques ce, ce ciel
total est divisé en autres pluseurs cielz parcials qui sont comme membres de
85 lui, aussi JJ (129a) comme le .viii.e est membre de tout le ciel, et selon ce sont
pluseurs autres mouvemens de ces cielx parcialz— les uns de Mercure, les
autres de Venus, etc.— et autres intelligences qui font ces mouvemens. Item,
il ne convient pas que selon ce que les planètes sont plus basses et plus loing
du souverain ciel que elles soient pour ce meues plus isnelement de leur pro-
90 pre mouvement proporcionelment ou selonc proportionalité precise, car
aveques ce est a considérer et a compenser la puissance et la volenté ou désir
de la vertu motive.
20. Ou .xx.e chapitre il monstre que les estoilles
sont de figure sperique.
T . L ’en1 doit cuider raisonnablement que de chascune estoille ou de chas-
cun corps du ciel visible la figure est sperique.
G . Si comme la figure du soleil et celle de la lune et des autres estoilles ; et
ou .ix.e chapitre fu dit quelle est figure sperique ou espere et est un corps ou
5 milieu [Fig. 31] du- / (129b) quel est un point dont toutes les lignes droites
qui vont a la circonférence son equales. Mais de telz corps sont .ii. maniérés :
un est creous ou concave et contient en soy autre<s>2 corps, si comme est le
ciel qui contient les .iiii. elemens en sa superfice concave; autre corps sperique
est qui est tout masseiz, si comme seroit une pelote d’or perfaitement ronde.
13 D leur corps. 2 A autre.
1 Guthrie, ch. 11.
Book II, Chapters 19-20, fols. I28d-i29b | 491
movements, a situation which makes it unnecessary to posit a ninth with no star
whatsoever in it ; but possibly the eighth is the sovereign one and it and the others
m ove with daily motion, while the lower heavens m ove more slowly with their
own proper motion. Thus, not all the spheres m ove in common with the secondary
motion o f the eighth sphere, which is, according to some opinions, / (i28d) one
degree contrary to daily motion every hundred years. This will be explained more
fully later [see fols. 133d ff.]. There is possibly still another explanation w hy the
higher planets complete their course or execute their proper motion in a longer
time— namely, they describe a much larger circuit because they are so high up.
T. A n d the planets in between the highest and the lowest complete their courses
or circuits in proportion to their distance from the sovereign heaven, as the astron­
omers demonstrate.
G . It may be that the astronomers o f Aristotle’s time placed the sun and Venus
and Mercury all in the same sphere because all make their circuits in approximately
the same time. It seems that this assumption is reasonable and also that one and the
same intelligence should be assigned to this entire heavenly sphere to cause it to
m ove with a motion common to all three planets. In addition, this whole sphere is
divided into several partial heavens which are to be considered as its members, just
f l (129a) as the eighth heaven is a member o f the entire heavens ; and, accordingly,
there are several other motions for these partial heavens— some for Mercury, oth­
ers for Venus, etc.— and other intelligences causing these different motions. With
this theory, it is not necessary to assume that the planets’ being lower than or
farther from the sovereign heaven causes their proper movement to be faster pro­
portionally or in a precise proportion, for, in addition, we must consider and com­
pensate for the force and will or desire o f the motive power.
20. In Chapter Twenty he shows that the stars
are spherical in shape.
T . We may reasonably believe that each star and each visible body in the heav­
ens is spherical in shape.
G . Like the shape o f the sun and moon and other stars ; in Chapter Nine [see fol.
96a] it was pointed out that a spherical figure or sphere is a body in whose center
[see Fig. 31] / (129b) there is a point from which all straight lines drawn to the cir­
cumference are equal in length. There are two kinds o f such bodies : one is hollow
or concave and contains inside itself other bodies in the way that the heavens con-
 02 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
io E t en ceste maniéré doit l’en entendre que les estoilles sont speriques, car
dire que elles sont creuses ou concaves et que elles contiennent autres corps
aussi comme un vaiseau contient vin ou eaue, ce samble chose fainte et divi-
nee. E t pour ce, l ’en ne doit pas ainsi entendre ce que dist l’Escripture qui ap­
pelle le soleil: Vas admirabile opus Excelsi.3 Apres il prouve son propos par
15 .iii. raisons.
T . Car nous avons monstré devant que les estoilles ne sont pas nees ou ha­
biles a estre meues par elle<s> meisme<s>,4 car nature ne fait rien desraison-
nablement ne pour nient. E t pour ce, aus corps qui sont de soy immobiles,
elle a donné telle figure qui est immobile et ce est figure sperique pour ce que
20 elle ne a quelcunque instrument // (129c) ordené a mouvement. E t donques
appert que les corps des estoilles sont speriques.
G . Ceste raison fu mise ou .xvi.e chapitre a monstrer que les estoilles ne
sont pas meues par soy et de soy aussi comme sont les bestes, car figure spe­
rique est a ce inhabile, mes elle est très habile a mouvement qui est fait par
25 violence ou par vertu dehors, et pour ce sont de telle figure les pierres d’en­
gin et les pelotes ou esteufs5 dont les enfans se esbatent. Item, encore le ay je
autrefois monstré par une belle ymaginacion, car se une espere d’or ou d’au­
tre metal très perfaitement polie6 estoit sus une table très onnie et très equal-
ment haute selon toutes ses parties et rien ne resistast au mouvement de ceste
30 espere sus celle table fors seulement la pesanteur de l ’espere, je di que il ne
pourroit estre vertu pulsive quelcunque si petite ou vertu motive dehors tant
fust petite qui ne peust mouver ou faire roueler ceste espere sus celle table,
et que une très petite vertu la pourroit mouver et si pourroit mendre ver­
tu mile foiz et mendre cent mile fois et / (i29d) ainsi sans fin. E t la cause est
35 pour ce que la pesanteur de ceste espere qui trait et encline d ’une part et celle
qui résisté et encline d’autre sont equales en ce cas. Apres il met une autre rai­
son.
T . Item, selon raison, toutes les estoilles sont figurées samblablement aussi
comme est une de elles.
40 G . Car selon Averroïz, elles sont toutes d’une espece très especial aussi
comme sont tous honmes, mes ce fu reprouvé ou ,xvi.e chapitre.7 Mais vérité
est que elles sont toutes d ’une espece general selon laquelle il est raisonnable
3 Ecclus. 43:2. balle de paume and appears in Godefroy, Com­
4 A elle meisme.
plement, as estius; the etymology is uncertain.
5 Apparently the expression pierres d’engin
6 B omits très perfaitement polie.
means rounded stones used in a slingshot; 7 See also Juntas, t.c. 59, 138F; t.c. 49,
esteuf, modern êteuf, is an obsolescent term for 131K -M .
Book II, Chapter 20, fols. i29C-i29d | 499
tain the four elements within their concave surface. Th e other type o f spherical body
is a solid mass, like a perfectly round golden ball. We are to understand the spheric­
ity o f the stars in the latter manner, for to imagine them as hollow or concave or
as containing other bodies just as a receptacle contains wine or water seems quite
improbable and pure guesswork. W e should not, then, understand in this way the
Scriptural passage which calls the sun: Admirable vessel, the instrument o f the
M ost High. There follow three arguments in support o f his opinion.
T . For we have already shown that the stars are not naturally capable o f self-
movement because nature makes nothing without a reason or purpose. Therefore,
nature has provided an immobile shape to bodies incapable o f m oving themselves,
and this shape is spherical, because a sphere has no instrument // (129c) to serve
the purpose o f self-movement. So, it appears that stellar bodies are spherical in
shape.
Fig. 31
G . This argument was used in Chapter Sixteen [see fol. 115c] to demonstrate
that the stars are not self-moving like animals, for the spherical shape is not adapt­
ed to this end, but is well adapted to motion impelled by external violence or force ;
this is the reason that stones for slingshots and the hard balls or hand balls with
which children play are spherical in shape. I have previously shown in a well-con­
ceived hypothesis to the effect that, if a perfectly polished sphere made o f gold or
o f some other metal were stood upon an absolutely smooth table o f equal height in
all its parts and if nothing resisted the motion o f the sphere save its own weight,
then I say that no impulsion however weak nor external motive force however
small exists which could not make this sphere roll upon the table, that an extremely
small force— a one-thousandth or one-hundred-thousandth part as great, and so
forth to infinity— could move it. / (129d) The cause o f this phenomenon is that the
weight o f the sphere which pulls and inclines it in one direction and the weight
which resists and inclines it in another are in this case everywhere equal. N ext he
presents another argument.
T . It is reasonable to suppose also that all stars are shaped alike.
G . According to Averroes, they are all o f one very special species, just as are all
men; but this was refuted in Chapter Sixteen [see fols. i2o b-i22c]. However, it is
true that they are all o f one general species, and so, just as they all move in circles,
494 Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 20, fols. i3oa-i3ob 49 J

que elles soient toutes d ’une figure, aussi comme elles sont toutes meues de it is reasonable to assume that they are all shaped alike. Indeed, among perishable

mouvement circulaire. E t meisme es choses corruptibles de cibas voit l’en objects here below we can observe that several o f different species are nearly o f the

45 que pluseurs qui different en espece sont presque d ’une figure. E t donques se same shape. Thus, if we maintain that one star is spherical, we must conclude that

nous voions que une estoille est8 de figure sperique, nous devons cuider que the others are likewise so.
si sont les autres. T . From what we can observe with the naked eye, it is clear that the moon is a

T . E t il appert parce que l’en voit a le ouil que la lune est corps sperique, spherical body, for, i f it were o f any other shape, it would not seem to increase
car ce que elle samble creistre et descreistre en lumière ne pourroit apparoir and decrease in luminosity // (130a) as it does.
5o ainsi corn- // ( 1 30a) me nous voions se elle estoit d’autre figure. G . For instance, i f it were round and flat like a drum or o f any other shape what­

G . Si comme se elle estoit ronde et plate comme une tabour ou d’autre fi­ ever, for one half o f the moon, or approximately that, always faces our eyes and the

gure quelcunque, car tous jours une moitié de la lune ou près est devers nostre other half, or nearly that, is always facing the sun and is luminous, if not in an eclipse.
voiement, et aussi touzjours une moitié de elle ou environ est devers le soleil Depending upon whether the tw o halves o f the lunar surface participate to­

et enluminee se elle ne est eclipse<(e>.9 E t selon ce que ces .ii. moitiés de la gether, the moon appears to us more or less luminous and to increase and decrease,
s5 superfice de la lune participent ensamble, la lune nous appert plus ou moins and it could not appear thus if it were other than spherical in shape. One can test
enluminee et croistre et appeticier, et ne pourroit ainsi apparoir se elle estoit
de quelcunque figure autre que sperique. E t l’en pourroit esprouver legiere-
ment chose samblable en une espere d’or ou de cuivre a la lumière d’une chan­
delle, car telle espere sambleroit plaine et enluminee toute quant nous serions
60 entre elle et la chandelle, et quant elle seroit aussi comme entre nous et la
chandelle10 elle sambleroit obscure. E t je disoie notablement que près de11
la moitié de la superfice de la lune est devers nous et non pas la moitié, et se­
roit veue se elle estoit enluminee, car toutes fois que un corps sperique /
(130b) plus grant que l’espace de entre .ii. ouylz est devant nous, l’en ne pour-
65 roit voier fors moins de la moitié de la superfice. E t donques nous ne pour­
rions veoir la moitié de la superfice de la lune posé que elle fust toute en­
this fact quite easily by using a sphere o f gold or copper in candlelight; such a
luminee. Item, toute foiz que .i. corps sperique est enluminé d’un autre corps
sphere would appear fully illuminated when we were between it and the candle and
sperique plus grant de lui, il convient que plus de la moitié de cel corps soit en
dark when it was between us and the candle. I just stated in particular that approx­
lumine<e>.12 E t donques plus de la moitié de la superfice de la lune est enlumi-
imately half and not the entire half o f the lunar surface faces us and that it could be
70 nee du soleil. Item, tant plus est tel corps sperique près de celui qui l’enlumi­
seen if it were illuminated; for always when a spherical body / (130b) larger than
ne aussi comme la lune près du soleil, tant plus grande partie de sa superfice
the space between our two eyes stands before us, we can see only less than half o f
est enluminee. E t donques plus grande partie de la lune est enluminee13 quant
its surface. Thus, w e could not see the whole half o f the lunar surface even i f it
elle est en conjunction que en opposicion, et plus en approçant de la conjunc­
were entirely luminous. Each time a spherical body is illumined by another larger
tion et moins que elle en est plus loing. E t par ce s’ensuit que tant plus de la
sphere, more than half o f the first body is illuminated. A s a result, more than half
75 lune nous appert enlu(m)ine<e>,14 tant moins en est enlumine<e>15 et, e
o f the moon’s surface is lighted by the sun. The nearer the spherical body is to the
converso, tant moins nous appert de elle enlumine <e>,16 tant plus en est en­
illuminating body, as in the case o f the moon and sun, the larger the part o f its sur­
lu m in e ^ ),17 et ce n’est pas fort a entendre.18 Apres il met la tierce raison qui
face which becomes luminous. Therefore, more o f the lunar surface is illumined
est aussi comme confirmation de la seconde.
3 B C D E F omit Et donques... est. 15 A D E F enluminé. when the moon is in conjuction than when in opposition, and more when ap­
9 A B C F eclipse. 16 A B C F enluminé. proaching conjunction and less when m oving away. And it follows that the more
10 D E omit et quant elle...la chandelle. 17 A B C F enluminé. D E omit tant plus... o f the moon that appears luminous to us, the less it actually is illumined and, con­
îk ba X îk

11 A près et de. enlumine(e). versely, that the less it seems luminous to us, the more it actually is ; and this is not
12 A enluminé. 18 D E entendre en regardant ceste présente
hard to understand [see Fig. 32]. His third argument, which follows, is in the nat­
13 B omits Et donques.. .enluminee. figure ici mise. The figure is not executed, but
14 A enluniné. doubtless the reference is to Fig. 32, fol. 130c. ure o f a confirmation o f the second.
496 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Item, il appert par les demonstracions d’astrologie que les eclipses du
80 soleil ne seroient pas // (130c) lu<n>aire<s>,19 ce est a dire teles comme la
lune appert, se ainsi ne estoit que la lune et le soleil20 ne fussent corps speri-
ques.
G . Car eclipse de soleil est pour ce que la lune est pour lors entre nous et le
soleil. E t ceste raison prove que telz corps sont de figure ronde, plate ou spe-
85 rique. Mes, par aventure, elle ne conclut pas evidanment que eulz soient de
figure sperique.
T . E t donques se un de telz corps est sperique, il s’ensuit que les autres
sont speriques.
G . Car eulz sont tous d’une espece general, si comme dit est devant. E t
90 nons-obstans cestes [Fig. 32] raisons, aucun pourroit dire que la lune n’est
pas perfaitement sperique ne les autres estoilles, car la terre n’est pas sperique,
et toutevoies / (i3od) il sambleroit que elle le fust qui la veroit d’ausi
lo < i)n < g )21 comme nous voions la lune. E t ce appert par l’ombre de la terre
en l’eclipse de la lune. Mais //(131a) dire que en la superfice de la lune sont
95 mons et valees lesquelles nous ne appercevons pas pour ce que elle est si
loing, ce est une divinaille. E t si doit l’en cuider que les corps lumineux du
ciel sont de figure noble et parfaite et telle est figure sperique, si comme il fu
dit ou .ix.e chapitre.
21. Ou .xxi.e chapitre il propose deux fortes questions.
T . N o u s1 tempterons a dire de .ii. questions ce que il nous en semble des­
quelles chascun doit bien faire doubte. E t ce que nous voulons si prestement
parler de si haute matière, l’en doit reputer que nous le faisons aveques ver-
conde, par désir de enquérir vérité plus que par trop grant hardiesce ou par
5 presompcion. E t ainsi doit faire tout honme qui pour amour de philosophie
est diligent et désirant d’avoir aucunes petites souffissances des choses dont
nous avons très grans doubtes.
G .2 Apres il propose la premiere question.
T . E t comme pluseurs teles doubtes soient, toutevoies entre les autres ce
10 n’est pas petite merveille pour quelle cause les planètes qui sont / (13 ib) plus
loing du ciel qui est meu de premier mouvement, ce est a savoir seulement
de mouvement journal, ne sont meues de tant de pluseurs mouvemens comme
elles sont plus loing de ce premier ciel. Mes est ainsi que aucunes planètes
moiennes entre ce souverain ciel et les plus basses sont meues de pluseurs
15 mouvemens que ne sont les plus basses. E t toutevoies, il sambleroit raison-
>k X hk
luminaire; C D E F lunaire. 1 Guthrie, ch. 12.
soleleil. 2 B C D E F omit Glose,
lonc; D E de ainsy loing.
Book II, Chapters 20-21, fols. i3 o c-i3 ib | 497
T . It appears from astronomical proofs that solar eclipses would not be // (1 30c)
crescent-shaped like lunar eclipses such as we observe them to be, if the sun and
moon were not both o f spherical shape.
G . For a solar eclipse is brought about by the fact that the moon during the
period o f the eclipse is between us and the sun. This provides proof that such
bodies are round, flat, or spherical, but not conclusive evidence that they are
spherical in shape.
T . So, if one o f these bodies is spherical, it follows likewise that the others are.
G . Since they are all o f one general species, as stated before. In spite o f these ar­
guments, one could say that neither the moon nor any star is perfectly spherical,
because the earth is not spherical but / (13od) would appear so to anyone seeing it
from the same distance that we see”the moon ; this is clearly true because o f the
earth’ s shadow in a lunar eclipse. However, // (13 ia) to say that there are mountains
and valleys on the moon’s surface which we cannot see because o f its great dis­
tance from us is pure guesswork. W e certainly can believe that the luminous bodies
in the heavens are o f noble and perfect figure and that such a figure is a sphere, as
was said in Chapter Nine [see fol. 9yd].
21. In Chapter Twenty-one he proposes two difficult problems.
T . W e shall now attempt to answer as best we can two questions, both o f which
give rise to serious doubts. I f we seem too eager in our willingness to discuss such
difficult problems, this should not be attributed to any immodesty on our part,
but, rather, to our desire to seek out the truth and surely not to excessive boldness
or presumptuousness. A ll men who thirst for knowledge desire to possess even a
little wisdom regarding matters which give rise to very grave doubts.
G . N ext he presents the first question.
T . Although there are many doubtful matters, none is more incomprehensible
than by what reason the planets / (131b) farthest from the prime mover or pri­
mary heaven— which moves only with daily motion— have less complex motions
when they are farthest away. Actually certain planets intermediate between the
sovereign and lowest heavens have more different motions than the lowest planets
[the sun and moon]. However, if the primary has but one movement, it would
498 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
nable se le premier et souverain corps est meu d’un seul mouvement, que le
secont très prochain de lui fust meu de pou de mouvemens, si comme de .ii.,
et le tiers apres de .iii. ou selon un autre ordre de nombres. O r est le contraire
vrai, car le soleil et la lune sont meuz de moins de mouvemens que ne sont
20 aucunes des autres planètes, combien que elles soient plus loing du milieu
du monde et plus près du premier corps que ne sont le soleil et la lune.
G . Selon Averroïz,3 au devant de Ptholomee4 les anciens tenoient que la
lune avoit .iii. mouvemens seulement, et Ptholomee5 met que elle en a .v. et
Mercure .ix. et chascune des autres planètes .viii. excepté le soleil; et dit //
25 (13 ic) Averroïz que les anciens disoient que le soleil est le premier audesus
de la lune. Mais a declarer de chascune planete quans mouvemens elle a, ce
seroit longue chose et, par aventure, incertaine et appartient plus aus astro-
logiens. E t quant a propos, il souffist supposer comme chose certaine par
astrologie que aucunes planètes plus basses sont meues de moins de mouve-
30 mens que ne sont aucunes autres qui sont plus hautes. E t est grant merveille
pourquoy ce peust estre. Apres il monstre que la lune est plus basse que au­
tres qui sont meues de pluseurs mouvemens que elle n’est.
T . E t l’ordre d’aucunes planètes appert a regarder, car nous avons veu que
la lune estoit demie ou en quartier, et que la planete appellee Mars entra et fu
35 mucie desriere la partie de la lune qui estoit noire et sans lumière et issist de­
vers la partie qui estoit clere et enluminee.
G . Il convenoit que ce fust quant la lune estoit ou premier quartier devant
la plaine lune pour ce que la lune est meue moult plus isnelement de son pro­
pre mouvement que n’est Mars. / (13 rd) O r appert donques que la lune es-
40 toit lors entre nous et Mars et donques est Mars6 plus haut que n’est la lune.
T . E t samblablement dient des autres planètes les anciens Egipciens et
Babiloniens qui ont jadis et par pluseurs ans pris garde a telz choses et en ont
faites observacions.
<G.>78Apres il propose la seconde question.
45 T . 8 Item, encore n’est ce pas merveille se aucun fait doubte pour quelle
cause ou premier ciel est si grant multitude de estoilles que elles sont, quant
a nous, innombrables.
G . E t pour ce dist de Dieu l’Escripture : Qui numerate multitudinem stel-
larum, etc.10
50 T . E t en chascun des autres cielz a tant seulement une singulière estoille et
ne voions que en un de ces cielx ou esperes soient .ii. estoilles ou pluseurs
fichies.
G . Il entent par le premier et souverain ciel le .viii.e espere ou sont les es­
toilles que nous appelions fichies, si comme souvent dit est. Apres il monstre
55 que il est bon de faire teles questions.
3 Juntas, t.c. 60, 139F. C Avenrois. 3 Ibid.
4 C D E F Tholomee. 6 B omits et donques est Mars.
Book II, Chapter 21, fols. I3 ic -i3 id 499
seem natural that the second body next to it should have few movements, perhaps
only two, and that the third might have three, and so on in numerical order. But
the contrary is true ; for the sun and moon have fewer movements than some o f the
other planets, although the planets are farther from the center o f the world and
nearer the primary body than is either the sun or the moon.
G . Averroes states that before Ptolemy’s time the ancients believed that the
moon had but three motions, while Ptolemy granted the moon five motions, Mer­
cury nine, and all the others, except the sun, eight; and // (131c) Averroes states
also that the ancients used to maintain that the sun is the first planet above the
moon. T o fix the number o f movements attributable to each planet would be a
long task and would possibly give uncertain results ; it belongs best to the astrono­
mers. For the present problem, it is enough to assume as certain in astronomy that
some o f the lower planets have fewer motions than some o f the higher ones, and it
is certainly strange that this should be so. N o w he shows that the moon is lower
than the other planets which have more motions.
T . The relative order o f some o f the planets must be considered, for we have
seen that the moon was halved or quartered and that the planet Mars disappeared
and was hidden behind the dark, unlighted portion o f the moon and then moved
toward the clear and luminous portion.
G . This must have occurred when the moon was in the first quarter before the
full moon, because the moon’s own proper motion is much faster than that o f
Mars. / (13 id) Accordingly, it appears that the moon at that time was between us
and Mars and, consequently, Mars is higher than the moon.
T . The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians reported similar events concerning
the other planets, about which for many years they kept records and made obser­
vations to investigate their causes.
G . N ext he states the second question.
T . A g ain, it would be strange if someone demanded to know why there is such
a great multitude o f stars in the primary heavens, for they seem to us to be beyond
counting.
G . This explains the Scriptural statement about G o d: He who telleththe num­
ber o f the stars, etc.
T . In each o f the other heavens there is only one single star, and in any one
celestial sphere we can never see two or more fixed stars.
G . B y the first and sovereign heaven he means the eighth sphere in which are lo­
cated the stars we call fix e d , as often stated above. Then he shows that it is good to
pose such questions.
7 A B C D E F omit Glose. 9 E nuerat.
8 D E omit Tiexte. 10 Ps. 146:4.
 joo | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . E t faire questions de ces choses est bien et est profitable a intelligence
ou a entendement qui se // (132a) estent a plus.
G . Selon autre translacion,11 il dist que par ce est acreue la vertu de nostre
entendement, ce est a dire que entendement12humain, qui se excercite et estu-
60 die en telles nobles questions, est par ce aussi comme eslevé et miex ordené
et disposé a la cognoissance de plus hautes choses, si comme sont les choses
divines ; car si comme dist le Sage : A magnitudine speciei et creature, cog-
noscibiliter poterit creator13 horum videri.14 Apres il touche la difficulté de
telles choses.
65 T . E t combien que de ces choses nous ne puissons avoir ou assigner fors
très petites causes, tant pour ce que elles sont si loing de nous comme pour ce
que nous povons bien pou cognoistre de leurs accidens, toutevoies par ce que
nous dirons pourra apparoir que faire ces doubtes n’est pas desraisonnable.
G . Encore, selon Averroïz,15 peust l’en assigner autre cause de leur diffi-
70 culté, car les corps du ciel sont très merveilleusement differenz des corps que
nous sentons ici-bas en excellence de noblesce.
22. O u .xxii.e chapitre il met la solucion de
la premiere question. /
(132b) T . Mes nous faisons ces doubtes pour ce que nous enquerons des
corps du ciel aussi comme se eulz fussent corps qui fussent seulement corps
et qui eussent tel ordre comme ont les corps qui sont du tout sans ame.
G . Car se ce <f)ussentI corps qui fussent meuz par embruissement, ou in­
clination de nature, si comme sont les .iiii. elemens, et non pas par vertu in­
tellective ou voluntaire, l’en ne peust pas bien assigner cause pourquoy leurs
mouvemens ne fussent autrement ordenéz.
T . Mais nous devons avoir opinion des corps du ciel comme de corps qui
participent en action voluntaire et en vie,2 et ainsi il ne samblera pas que il
s’ensuive rien qui soit hors raison.
G . Selon l’autre translacion,3 il dist que les corps du ciel sont corps vi-
vans de vie intellective. E t ce est la premiere de .iiii.4 supposicions que il met
a son propos. E t la prouve Averroïz par .ii. raisons :5 une est car il convient
par nécessité que tout corps ait ame et vie qui est plus noble que tel a ame et
11 The Arabie-Latin version by Michael 14 Cf. Sap. 13:5— A magnitudine enim spe­
Scot. Given in italicized text in Juntas, 139I- ciei et creaturae, cognoscibiliter poterit creator
K. horum videri.
12 B omits ce est a dire que entendement. 15 Juntas, t.c. 61, 139M.
13 C D E F orator. 1 A eussent.
Book II, Chapters 21-22, fols. 132a-132b | jo i
T . T o make inquiries about these matters is proper and profitable for the pur­
pose o f /I (132a) extending our knowledge and understanding.
G . In the other translation, he says that such investigations increase the power
o f our understanding, that is to say that the human mind which devotes itself to the
study o f such noble questions is trained and disciplined and disposed to the know­
ledge o f the highest things such as the divine, as the Sage [Solomon] says : B y the
greatness o f the beauty and o f the creature, their Creator may be seen. Afterward
he indicates the difficulty o f such problems.
T . A n d although we can know and assign but a small part o f the causes o f these
phenomena because they take place at such a great distance from us and also be­
cause we can know but little o f their contingent or accidental states o f being,
nevertheless, from our discussion it may emerge that our arguments and ques­
tionings are not devoid o f reason.
G . According to Averroes, still another reason may be found to explain the
difficulty o f this problem, namely, that the heavenly bodies are so extremely dif­
ferent in their excellence and nobility from the bodies we can sense and know here
below.
22. In Chapter Twenty-two he presents the solution
to the first question. /
(132b) T . However, we do not investigate these problems because we think o f
the celestial bodies merely as so many bodies o f the same category or order as those
objects without soul and consequently completely lifeless.
G . For if they were bodies m oved by compulsion or by natural inclination, like
the four elements, and not by intellectual or voluntary power, we could then ex­
plain w hy their movements were so ordered and arranged.
T . But we have to conceive o f the celestial bodies as having will and initiative
exactly like animated bodies ; from this point o f view, their activities will present
nothing unfathomable or surprising.
G . In the other translation, he says that the heavenly bodies are alive with in­
tellectual life, and this is the first o f the four hypotheses he presents in his treatment
o f the problem. Averroes offers two arguments in proof : one is that each body
must have a soul and life that is more noble than another having soul and life;
2 E omits vie. 4^
3 Cf. Juntas, 139L for the Arabic-Latin 5 Juntas, t.c. 61, 140A-D.
version.
 j 02 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
i5 vie; et le ciel est plus noble que // (132c) les corps de cibas qui ont vie intel­
lective. Item, les corps du ciel ont determineement figure sperique, et corps
non-vifz ne6 requièrent determineement une figure plus que autre ; et donques
le ciel est corps vif. Mais ceste opinion fu réprouvée ou quint chapitre et les
raisons devant mises ne concludent pas, car il ne convient pas que tout corps
20 soit v if qui est plus noble que cel est vif, car un saphir ou une esmeraude est
plus noble que une mousche ou que un ort verm et que pluseurs corps vifz
d’ame materiele. D ’autre partie, corps v if d’ame intellective, si comme est
corps humain considéré sans ame, n’est pas si noble comme est le ciel qui est
corps perpétuel, mais l’ame qui est perpetuele, esperituele7 est plus noble
25 que le corps du ciel. E t si est par8 la raison de l’ame, car aveques ce que dit
est, les corps et les mouvemens du ciel sont ordenés de Dieu et de nature
pour creature humaine, si comme il fu dit en la fin d<u>9 .viii.e chapitre. E t
la seconde raison a petite apparence, car l’en pourroit dire que pluseurs corps
non-vifz requièrent determi- / (13 2d) neement certaine figure, si comme sont
30 marguerites et aucunes autres pierres précieuses et autres choses. E t donques
le ciel n’est pas pour ce corps vif. Mais comment que soit, posé que il fust
corps v if aussi comme est un honme ou que il soit sanz vie aussi comme est
un horloge, toutevoiez selon philosophie l’en doit supposer que il est meu par
choses qui ont entendement et volenté et vie, si comme sont intelligences ou
35 angelz. Apres il met la seconde supposicion.
T . Item, il samble que la chose qui a le plus grant bien qui puisse estre a et
possiet ce bien sanz quelcunque action.
G . Ce est Dieu, et10 selon A verroïz,11 les autres choses purement incor-
poreles, car leur action est leur substance. E t donques doit l’en ici entendre
40 ce que il dist san% action, ce est a savoir par laquele tele chose soit transmuée.
T . E t la chose qui est très prochain<e>12 de ceste a et poussiet son bien et
sa fin par pou de action13 ou par une seule action, et celles qui en sont plus
loing ont leur bien et leur fin par pluseurs actions, si comme nous // (133a)
voions es corps humains que un corps a santé sans soy excerciter et un autre
45 corps a santé par aler .i. pou, et un autre pour santé a mestier de courir et de
luitter et d ’autre labour.
G . Apres il met la tierce supposicion.
T . Item, un autre corps est lequel ne peust avoir parfaite santé pour quel­
cunque labour ou excercitacion que il face, mes il attaint a une14 autre dispo-
50 sicion qui n’est pas si bonne ; car ce est fort de faire pluseurs operacions ou
une operacion souvent, si comme gecter pluseurs grosses pierres, mais ce est
plus ligier gecter une de elles ou .ii. E t samblablement venir a aucune fin par
6 B omits ne. 9 A de; B C F de le.
7 D E ame qui est corps esperitual et esp. 10 D E c’est a dire et.
8 D E F E t si est honme par; C honme, 11 Juntas, t.c. 61, 140B.
marginal gloss. 12 A prochain.
Book II, Chapter 22, fols. 1320-1332 | jo$
and the heavens are more noble than //(132c) terrestrial bodies having intellective
life. Celestial bodies have a distinctly spherical figure, and inanimate bodies do not
require one definite figure more than another; therefore the heavens are a living
body. But this opinion was rejected in Chapter Five [see fols. 7yd ff.], and the
reasons just advanced are not conclusive ; for it is not necessary that every body be
animate in order to be nobler than a living one. A sapphire or an emerald is nobler
than a fly or a dirty earthworm or several other living bodies with a material soul.
Moreover, an animated body with an intellectual soul is not as noble as the heavens
which are an eternal body; but the spiritual, eternal soul is nobler than the celestial
body. This is due to the soul itself, for, in addition to what has been said here, the
celestial bodies and their movements are governed by G o d and nature on behalf o f
humanity, as was stated at the end o f Chapter E igh t [see fol. 93d]. A n d the second
argument has but slight probability, for we could say that many inanimate bodies
require a certain definite / (13 2d) figure, as, for example, pearls and other precious
stones and other things also. Therefore, this reason does not convince us that the
heavens are a living body. Y et, even assuming them to be an animate body like a man
or an inanimate body like a clock, nevertheless, in philosophy we must suppose
that they are m oved b y things having a mind, a will, and life, such as the intel­
ligences or angels. N ext he states his second hypothesis.
T . It seems that the thing possessing the greatest amount o f good imaginable
does so without any effort or action on its part.
G . This is G o d and, according to Averroes, also the other purely incorporeal
substances, for their action constitutes their substance. Therefore, here we need
to understand what he means by without action, that is to say, the action by which
the thing is changed or transmuted.
T . A n d the thing nearest to this animated body possesses its good or purpose
with little or with a single action, while those things at a distance from it produce
their goodness and their objectives by many actions, as we // (13 3a) can see in the
case o f human beings that one body is healthy without exercise, another is healthy
with a certain amount o f walking, and another requires running and wrestling or
some other heavy exercise to keep in good health.
G . His third hypothesis follows.
T . Then, another human body may not obtain perfect health by means o f any
kind o f work or exercise whatever, but may achieve something far less worth­
while; for it is difficult to repeat many times and often several actions or the same
one, such as throwing heavy stones, while it is quite easy to throw one or tw o o f
them. Likewise, to arrive at the desired end with slight expenditure o f energy is
D E par double action; B C F par par de 14 E il actement une.
action.
 j 04 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
p o u 15 de moiens est plus ligier ou plus aisié a faire, mais ce est plus grant
difficulté de venir a ce par pluseurs moiens.
55 G . Si comme se un vouloit empetrer une grace du prince, se il convenoit
que il suppliast a un et cestui a l’autre, et l’autre au tiers ou au quart,16 et le
quart ou le quint au prince, ce seroit plus fort que se il la povoit obtenir sans
moiens par supplier17 au prince. E t pour ce, aucun est /(i 33b) qui ne pourroit
obtenir telle grace ne par une supplication ne par moiens. O r avons donques
60 .iiii. degrés : le premier est la chose qui a très grant perfection sanz transmu­
tation; le secont est ce que approche du premier par une seule transmutacion
ou operacion; le tiers est ce qui en approche par pluseurs; le quart qui n’en
pot approchier mais attaint ou approche a une autre perfection plus petite par
une ou par .ii. ou par pluseurs operacions. E t encore sera dit apres du quint
65 degré qui n’a operacion ne perfection fors très petite. Apres il met la quarte
supposicion.
T . E t nous devons cuider que l’action des estoilles ou des cielz est tele
quant a propos comme est celle des honmes et des bestes et des plantes,18 car
honme a pluseurs operacions et, par la multitude de elles, il aquiert moult de
70 biens qui sont ordenéz a une fin et a un bien. Mais la chose qui a le plus grant
bien qui puisse estre ne a mestier de action.
G . Ce est a entendre de action qui est accident par quoy telle chose est
transmuée. E t Dieu est intransmuable et son action est sa // (13 3c) substance.
T . E t action est en .ii. choses: une est la fin pour quoy elle est; l’autre est
75 ce qui oevre pour la fin.
G . E t est accident et, comme dit est, honme a pluseurs telles actions ten­
dantes a une fin principal qui est félicité.
T . Mais les autres bestes ont moins d’operacions et les plantes19 encore
moins et, par aventure, une seule et petite.
80 G . Les bestes ont operacions de vie sensitive et de vie vegetative, et les
plantes20 seulement de vie vegetative.
T . E t ainsi est une fin principal a quoy l’en tent aussi comme honme tent
a une fin ou pluseurs fins et operacions qui toutes sont ordenees a une.
G . Apres il répété en declarant ce que dit est.
85 T . E t donques une chose est qui participe en souverain bien et autre qui
attaint pres de tel bien par pou de mouvemens, et autre par pluseurs et autre
qui est moult loing de perfection, mais il lui souffist estre près de imperfec­
tion; ausi comme se santé estoit fin et un honme fust tousjours perfaitement
sain, et un autre en approchast par estre atte- /(133d) nué, et l’autre par estre
90 atténué et par courir ou par une autre operacion qui fust ordenee pour miex
courir. E t ainsi sont pluseurs mouvemens et operacions ordenees pour san-
15 D E moins. 18 D E planètes.
16 D E om it ou au quart. 19 Ibid.
17 D sous sup.; E sans sup. 20 E F planètes.
Book II, Chapter 22, fols. 133b—133d | joj
quite easy or simple, but it is very hard to attain the same end when much effort is
required.
G . For example, if one wished to wangle a favor from a prince and if he had to
ask one courtier, who in turn had to ask a third or a fourth, and the fourth or fifth
man had to beg the favor, it would be much more difficult than being able to ob­
tain the favor by asking for it himself without intermediaries. This explains w hy
there are some / (133 b) who cannot obtain such favors either by direct applica­
tion or through intermediaries. Thus, we have four degrees : the first is the thing
which has great perfection without any change; the second is the thing which
approaches the perfection o f the first with only one change or action; the third
draws near the first by means o f many changes or actions ; the fourth cannot ap­
proach the perfection o f the first in any way, but it achieves perfection o f a whol­
ly different and less perfect kind by means o f one, two, or more actions. He will
speak also o f a fifth degree having but little action or perfection [see fol. 134a].
N ext he presents the fourth hypothesis.
T . W e must consider that the action o f the stars or o f the heavens in this regard
is like that o f men, animals, and plants, for man performs many different acts the
total result o f which is the acquisition o f many benefits which are ordered to a def­
inite purpose and a final good; but the greatest possible good requires no action
whatever.
G . He means the accidental action by which such a thing is changed or trans­
muted. A n d G o d is intransmutable and His action is His // (133c) substance.
T . Action consists o f two parts : one is the end for which it exists, and the other
is that which works for such an end.
G . A n d it is an accident; and, as said above, man performs many such actions
tending to a principal end or purpose, which is happiness.
T . But the other animals perform fewer acts, end the plants still fewer, perhaps
only one and that one small.
G . Animals perform the acts proper to their senses and to vegetative existence,
while the plants are limited to those o f vegetative life.
T . Thus, there is a principal or primary end which all things seek, just as men
seek one or several ends and actions which are all ordered toward this one and pri­
mary end.
G . He repeats for clarification what he has said above.
T . So, one thing participates in the sovereign good; with little effort another
approaches the same good ; another does so with great effort ; and yet another re­
mains far from perfection, but seems satisfied to exist in a state close to imperfec­
tion. In this same way, if health were the ultimate purpose o f man’s existence, there
is always one man completely healthy; another keeps healthy only by reducing;
/ (133 d), and another does so by reducing, running, or some other action which
aids in running. Therefore, there are several movements and actions prescribed for
 / o6 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
té. E t un autre fust qui ne peust venir ne approchier a parfaite santé, mais par
courir ou par atténuation ou evacuacion, il attainsist a une petite santé qui
fust fin de celle operacion; et maismement a toutes choses fust très bon de
95 attaindre21 la fin principal et se elles ne peuent, tous jours tendent elles a la
meilleur que elles peuent avoir. E t elle est meilleur de tant comme elle est plus
prochaine de la fin qui est très parfaitement bonne.
G . Apres il applique a propos.
T . E t pour ce, la terre est du tout sanz mouvement et les choses prou-
ioo chaines de elle ont pou de mouvemens, car elles ne attaignent pas ou appro­
chent au souverain, mais seulement tant comme elles peuent, il approchent
et pou a celui qui est très divin principe.22 E t le premier ciel attaint a grant
perfection par .i. seul // (134a) mouvement et les choses moiennes qui sont
entre le premier ciel et les autres très basses attaignent a perfection, mes ce
105 est par pluseurs mouvemens.23
G . Si comme il fu dit tantost devant, .v. degrés de choses sont : la premier
et le quint sont D ieu et la terre, et sont du tout sans mouvement, un pour sa
très grande et infinie perfection et l’autre par sa très petite perfection. E t est a
entendre que la terre toute ensemble ne se meust: Terra autem in eternum
110 stat.24 Le secont degré est le premier25 ciel qui a sa perfection par un seul
simple mouvement. Le tiers a sa perfection par pluseurs mouvemens et le
quart ne peut ataindre a si grant perfection,26 mes le a mendre27 par pou de
mouvemens ou par pluseurs. E t chascun de ces .iii. degrés moiens a grant la­
titude et peust estre devisé et subdivisé en pluseurs. E t par ce Aristote veult
113 donner a entendre la solucion de la question, car aucun ciel moien est meu de
moins de mouvemens que tel ciel est plus haut28 et que tel ciel est plus bas,
pour ce que par ce petit nombre de mouvemens il aquiert / (134b) aussi grant
perfection ou plus grande que tel ciel est plus haut de lui ou il ne peut pas
ataindre a si grant perfection, mes a une petite laquelle il aquiert par pou de
120 mouvemens. Mais, en vérité, il me samble que ceste response a pou d’ap­
parence, car les esperes du ciel ne sont pas en ordre de perfection selon ce que
elles sont ordenees en siege et que une est plus haut que l’autre, car tout le ciel
est aussi comme un corps et les esperes celestielx sont aussi comme les mem­
bres ou les pieces de ce corps. E t pour ce, le soleil qui est ou milieu des pla-
125 netes est le plus noble corps du ciel et est plus parfait que Saturne ne que
Jupiter ne que Mars qui sont plus haut que lui, et aussi est vraysemblable que
Jupiter est plus parfait que Saturne et la lune que n’est Mercure. Item, Aris­
tote suppose que le .viii.e ciel soit celui a qui est approprié29 le premier mou­
vement, c’est a savoir le journal. Mes supposé que ce soit le souverain et pre-
130 mier ciel et que il ne fust meu d’autre mouvement, toutevoies ce mouvement
21 D E entendre. vemens.
22 D E prince. 24 Eccles. 1:4. B omits autem.
23 D E omit et les choses moiennes... mou- 25 D E omit premier.
Book II, Chapter 22, fols. 134a-!34b | joy
good health. Still, there might be another person unable to attain perfect health, but
by running, reducing, or evacuation he manages to achieve a modicum o f health
which is the object o f his actions; it is indeed an excellent accomplishment for all
things to attain their principal end or purpose, and if they cannot do so, neverthe­
less they seek the best they can possibly attain. This best is better the closer it ap­
proaches the final end, which is perfection.
G . N o w he applies this general principle to his specific subject.
T . This explains w h y the earth does not m ove and w hy things near it have few
movements, for they do not reach or approach the primary body; but in so far as
they can, they seek to reach a little w ay toward the divine principle. Th e first heav­
en achieves great perfection with one single // (134a) motion, and intermediate
things between the first heaven and the lowest heavens achieve perfection, but
only by means o f several motions.
G . A s we have just now pointed out, there are five degrees o f things : the first
and fifth are G o d and the earth respectively, and both are absolutely motionless,
the one because o f His great and infinite perfection and the other because o f its very
small degree o f perfection. W e are to understand that the earth as a whole does
not m ove : But the earth standeth forever. The second degree is the first heaven
which obtains its perfection by a single simple movement. The third achieves
its perfection b y means o f several movements, and the fourth cannot attain such
perfection, but obtains a lesser degree by a smaller or larger number o f motions.
Each o f these three intermediate degrees has great latitude and can be divided
and subdivided into several parts. B y this line o f reasoning, Aristotle wishes to
give the solution o f the question ; each intermediate heaven moves with fewer mo­
tions the higher up it is, because by this smaller number o f its motions it acquires /
(134b) perfection as great as or greater than the heaven just above; or else it can
obtain only a small degree o f perfection by reason o f its fewer motions. In truth,
this reply seems to me quite inconclusive, because the perfection o f the heavenly
spheres does not depend upon the order o f their relative position as to whether
one is higher than another; the whole heavens are like one single body and the
celestial spheres are like the separate members or pieces o f this single body. The
sun, placed in the center o f the planets, is the most noble body in the heavens
and is more perfect than Saturn or Jupiter or Mars, which are all higher up than
the sun; likewise, it is probable that Jupiter is more perfect than Saturn, and
the moon more so than Mercury. Aristotle supposes the eighth heaven to be in
sole possession o f the primary movement— that is, o f daily motion; granting this
to be the primary and sovereign heaven and that it has no other motion, neverthe-
26 D E a sa très grande perfection. 28 B C D E F omit haut.
27 E mes a la mendre. 29 B attribué.
 jo 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ne lui est pas approprié ne l’in- // (134c) telligence qui le fait, car ce est le
propre mouvement de tout le ciel et la masse de toutes les esperes est le
corps meu de ce mouvement, combien que ses parties soient meues d ’autres
mouvemens. E t se il estoit autrement, le mouvement journal des planètes
135 seroit violent ou desnaturel et ravissement; et ce ne30 peut estre, si comme il
fu dit ou tiers chapitre. Item, il suppose31 que les cielz soient corps vifz et que
il se meuvent de soy meisme par les intelligences qui sont comme les âmes par
quoy telz corps vivent, mais ce fu reprové ou quint chapitre. Item, Averroïz
suppose en le .viii.e chapitre et ici32 que les cielz sont meuz de premiere in-
i40 tencion et principalment pour soi meisme afin de leur perfection aquerir ou
maintenir et garder, et sont meus de seconde intencion pour les choses de
cibas. E t met de ce exemple ou .xii.e de Methaphisique*3 de un honme qui se
exercite en aucun artifice principalment pour garder sa santé, et moins prin­
cipalment et comme pour fin seconde pour le guaing qui vient de l’artifice,
ns Mais ceste opinion fu réprouvée / (134d) en le .viii.e chapitre, car toutes cho­
ses corporelles sont pour honme principalment meisme selon Aristote en se-
cont livre de Phisique34 et ou premier de Politiques.3S E t pour ce, selon vérité,
les corps du ciel ne attaignent ou aquierent par leur mouvement quelcunque
perfection fors tant seulement que par telz mouvemens il sont appliquiéz
i5o deuement pour oevrer a la fin pour quoy il sont ou furent créés ; ausi comme
une pierre precieuse ou une herbe qui par mouvement est mise sus le ouil ou
sus autre membre ne aquiert en soy par ce mouvement36 autre perfection fors
que par ce est appliquié a oevrer a la fin que entent celui qui ainsi l’applique.
E t samblablement, je di que les corps du ciel sont très précieux et ont en soy
155 très merveilleuses et très nobles vertus tant sensibles comme insensibles,
mes il sont meuz par choses incorporeles lesquelles ne sont pas formes ne
âmes de cez corps, si comme il fu dit ou quint chapitre. E t est aussi comme
un char qui est meu par les //(135a) chevaulz qui le mainent selon ce que les
poètes37 fignoient que .iiii. chevaux mainent le curre du soleil, fors tant que
160 les cielz sont meuz par vertus incorporelles, comme dit est, selon vérité et
sanz labour, sans travail, sanz difficulté et sanz resistence. E t par ces m ouve­
mens les intelligences ou angelz les appliquent deuement pour la tra<(n)s-
mutacion,38 generacion et conservacion des corps de cibas. E t le souverain et
principal moteur est Dieu qui ainsi les demaine comme ses instrumens ; et de
165 ce disoit un poète: Organa sunt primi, sunt instrumenta supremi.39 E t selon
ce, par les mouvemens du soleil sont faiz jour et nuit, esté et yver; de quoy
dist l’Escripture40: Frigus et estus, estas et hyemps, nox et dies non requies-
30 B omits ne. 328B.
31 A supposent. 34 Physicorum, 11.2.194a 34-35.
32 Juntas, t.c. 64, 142H -K. Cf. also 91 d ff., 35 Politicorum, 1.1.1253a 1-4.
and Juntas, t.c. 21, 108L-M. 36 D E soy autre mouvement.
33 Metaphysicorum, (Juntas, 1574) t.c. 44, 37 Ovid, Metam. II. 1-328, the fable o f Phae-
Book II, Chapter 22, fols. i34C-i3 5a | jop
less, this motion, together with the //(134c) intelligence that causes it, is not the
unique possession o f the primary heaven; rather, it is the proper motion o f the
heavens as a whole, and the mass o f all the spheres is moved with this same move­
ment although its parts have other motions. I f it were otherwise, the daily motion
o f the planets would be violent or unnatural and coercive, a possibility we have
excluded in Chapter Three [see fol. 73b]. He assumes also that the heavens are liv­
ing bodies, each moved by the intelligences or souls which give them life ; but this
theory was refuted in Chapter Five. In Chapter Eight [see fols. 7yd ffi] and also
here, Averroes assumes that the heavens are m oved with primary intention and
principally to acquire, maintain, and guard their own perfection and that they are
moved with the second intention on behalf o f the terrestrial bodies here below. In
B ook Tw elve o f the Metaphysics, he gives an example o f a man who exerts himself
at some task principally to keep his health and secondarily for the profit or gain
which his work produces. But this opinion was rejected / (134d) in Chapter E igh t
[see fols. 9 id ff.] because all material things exist, according to Aristotle in the
second book o f the Physics and also in the first book o f the P olitics, in the first place
for man himself. Therefore, in truth, the heavenly bodies do not attain or acquire
any perfection by reason o f their motions, save in so far as such motions are duly
applied to operate toward the end for which they are or were created; just as a pre­
cious stone or an herb, laid by motion upon the eyes or some other part o f the
body, does not acquire b y this movement any additional perfection beyond the
fact that in this way it has been applied for the purpose intended by the person ap­
plying it. Similarly, I say that the heavenly bodies are very precious and possess
within themselves very marvelous and noble virtues both perceptible and imper­
ceptible, but that they are moved by immaterial forces which are not forms nor
souls o f these celestial bodies, as we said in Chapter Five [see fols. 77d ff.]. A n d it is
the same as in the case o f a cart moved by the //(135 a) horses which draw it, like
the four horses which the poets pretend are pulling the sun’s chariot, except that
the heavens are m oved by immaterial forces, as truthfully stated above, without
effort, labor, difficulty, or resistance. B y means o f these movements, the intelli­
gences or angels apply their force in the correct manner to procure the transmuta­
tion, generation, and preservation o f terrestrial bodies. Th e sovereign principal
motor or mover is G o d , who directs them as His instruments. A poet once said o f
this : Th ey are the instruments o f the prime mover, they are the instruments o f the
Supreme Being. Accordingly, day and night, summer and winter are made by the
sun’s movements, as the Scripture says : Cold and heat, summer and winter, night
ton. F omits selon ce que les poëtes... mainent. Sylvester. See 69a, fn. 40. B primi et sunt.
38 A transmutacion. 40 Cf. Gen. 8:22— Frigus et aestus, aestas et
39 Unidentified; a quotation from Bernard hiems, nox et dies non requiescent.
 JIO Le Livre du ciel et du monde
cunt. E t par les mouvemens de la lune sont faiz autres effeiz ; et de ce est
escript: Luna ... ostensio temporis, et signum evi.41 E t samblablement, par
170 les mouvemens des autres estoilles et planètes sont causéz certains effiz en ce
monde cibas. Je di donques que l’assiete et ordenance des / (135 b) corps du
ciel, le nombre, l’isneleté, la qualité, la diversité ou difference de leurs mou­
vemens— toutes ces choses sont telement fetez selon ce que il est expedient et
que il compete a la generacion et conservacion des corps de cibas, et comme
175 pour fin. E t ne convient diviner ne assigner autre cause ne autre response a
la question proposée, salve la grace d’Aristote.
23. Ou .xxiii.e chapitre il respont a la seconde question.
T . E t de la seconde doubte, ce est a savoir pourquoy ou premier ciel qui
est meu d’un seul mouvement est si grant multitude d’estoilles, et es autres
cielz des planètes qui so n t meuz de leurs propres mouvemens en chascun ne
a que une singulière estoille : premièrement, aucun pourroit cuider raysonna-
5 blement que le ciel meu du premier mouvement ha par sus les autres moult
grant excellence quant a vie et quant a estre, principe ou cause.
G . L ’estoille est plus noble partie de son ciel que ne sont les autres parties,
et pour ce ou ciel qui est plus noble est telle multitude d’e- //(135c) stoilles. E t
le ciel qui est meu du premier mouvement est le plus noble, tant pour ce qui il
10 est par desus touz (co m m e)1 pour ce que il est le plus estendu et est meu
<l)e2 plus isnelement; et, selon Aristote, ce est le .viii.e espere. Mes ce que il
dist que ce ciel ha vie a esté souvent reprouvé devant. Item, aucun pourroit
dire que l’espere du soleil lequel est moien entre les planètes et est le ouyl du
monde: Sol oculus mundi,3 est plus noble que ne est le ,viii.e espere. E t pour
i5 ce les anciens le tenoient et reputoient le souverain Dieu.4 E t Macrobes, ou
livre appellé D e saturnalibus,5 allégué a ce propos les théologiens paiens et
recite comment par Joves il ne entendoient autre chose que le soleil, et par
Saturne le soleil et par Mars et par Venus et Mercure et Dyane et Hercules et
Juno, et ainsi de touz les autres principalz diex <o)u6 deësses. E t toutevoies,
20 en l’espere du soleil ne a que un corps lumineus. E t, par aventure, l’en pour­
roit dire que la perfec- / (13 5d) tion du soleil excede la perfection de toutes les
estoilles fichies, mais la perfection de le .viii.e espere excede les perfections
des autres planètes pour les causes desus mises. Apres il met une autre res­
ponse a la question principal.
41 Cf. Ecclus. 43 :6— E t luna in omnibus in 2 A se.
tempore suo, ostensio temporis, et signum 3 Cf. Ovid, Metam. IV .227.
aevi. 4 Cf. Macrobius, In Somnium Scipionis, I.17
1 A omits comme. 12-16 (Eyssenhardt, p. 554).
Book II, Chapters 22-23, fols. 13 yb—13 yd | jii
and day shall not cease. Other effects are produced by lunar movements, o f which it
is written: The moon [in all the aspects in her season] is for a declaration o f time
and a sign to the world. Likewise, by the movements o f the other stars and planets
certain effects are produced in the world here below. I say, therefore, that the posi­
tion and grouping o f the /(135b) heavenly bodies, the number, speed, quality, and
diversity or difference o f their motions are all arranged expediently and have for
their principal purpose the generation and preservation o f terrestrial bodies. A n d
with our apologies to Aristotle, it is vain to guess or assign any other cause or
reply to the question under consideration.
23. In Chapter Twenty-three he replies to the second question.
T . Concerning the second question— that is, in the first heaven, which has only
one movement, w h y are there so many stars, while in the heavens o f the other plan­
ets, moved with their proper motion, there is only one single star— in the first
place, one might find it quite reasonable to think that the heaven m oved with pri­
mary motion would have priority over the others with regard to life, to essence, to
principle or cause.
G . The star is a nobler part o f its heaven than the other parts, and for this reason
the great multitude o f stars is in the noblest heaven ; //( 135c) and the heaven moved
by primary motion is the noblest, not only because it is above all the others, but
also because it is the greatest in extent and moves the fastest, and, according to
Aristotle, this is the eighth sphere. But his statement that this heaven is alive has
been refuted several times before [see fols. 9 id ff., 134c]. It could be said that the
solar sphere which is midway between the planets is the eye o f the world— sol oculus
mundi— and is thus nobler than the eighth sphere. Accordingly, the ancient people
considered the sun to be the sovereign God. In the book called Saturnalia, the
author Macrobius, citing the pagan theologians on this point, states that Jove
meant nothing other than the sun and that Saturn also signified the sun ; likewise,
Mars, Venus, and Mercury and Diana, Hercules, Juno, and so on with all the other
principal gods and goddesses. However, there is only one luminous body in the
solar sphere, and we might even say that the sun’s perfection / (13 5d) exceeds that
o f all the fixed stars, but the perfection o f the eighth sphere exceeds that o f all the
other planets for the causes already stated. Then he presents another reply to the
main question.
5 Macrobius, Conviviorum primi diet Saturna- hardt (Leipzig: Teubner, 1893), pp. 86-127.
liorum, 1.17-23, in Macrobius, ed. F. Eyssen- 6 A au.
 JI2 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
25 T . Item, ce est selon raison, pource que le mouvement premier meut plu-
seurs corps divins, c ’est a savoir les estoilles fichies, et des autres, ce est a sa­
voir des planètes, pluseurs mouvemens meuvent un tel corps, car chascune
des planètes est meue de pluseurs mouvemens. E t ainsi nature recompense et
fait telle ordenance que au ciel qui est meu d’un seul mouvement elle donne
30 pluseurs corps lumineux, et a chascun ciel qui a un seul tel corps elle donne
pluseurs mouvemens.
G . Il fu monstré ou tiers chapitre du premier comment un corps peut es-
tre meu de pluseurs mouvemens ou d ’un mouvement mixte et composé de
pluseurs. Apres il met une tierce response. //
35 (136a) T J Item, les autres esperes des planètes ont chascune une estoille
pour ce car moult de esperes celestielx meuvent une tele estoille et de ces
esperes celles qui sont premieres moevent la desreniere en laquelle est une
seule estoille, et ceste desreniere espere est fichie et meue en moult d’autres
esperes et chascune espere est un corps.
40 G . T o u t ce dist Aristote selon les astrologiens de son temps qui mettoient
que tant de mouvemens comme a Saturne, tant a il d’esperes et il est en la
desreniere qui est fichie es8autres. Mais ceste opinion est réprouvée par les
astrologiens qui ont depuis esté.
T . E t l’oevre ou mouvement de la souverainne espere est commune a tou-
45 tes et chascune des autres a son propre mouvement par nature qui est ad-
jousté.
G . T o u t le ciel ensamble, aussi comme un corps, est meu naturelment de
mouvement journal, et le premier est meu de ce seul mouvement et les autres
aveques ce sont meuz aussi comme au contraire en procédant de (occident
5o vers / (13 6bJ orient) . 9
T . E t de tout corps fini e< s)t10 la vertu finie.
G . Selon les expositeurs,11 il veult dire que la vertu qui meut le ciel est
finie et ce est a entendre finie en qualité ou intension, car elle est infinie en
duracion. E t convient, selon ce que il dient, que elle ait certaine proporcion
55 au corps meu. E t donques qui adjousteroit ou ciel de Saturne ou d’une au­
tre planete une estoille ou .ii., lequel ciel est meu contre le mouvement jour­
nal, la vertu qui meut tout le ciel ensamble de mouvement journal ne le pour­
rait mouvoir ou non pas si isnelement. Mais ceste raison ne est pas bonne, car
combien que en autres mouvemens soit certaine proporcion entre ce qui
60 meut et la chose meue, il ne est pas ainsi du mouvement du ciel, car il est meu
par vertu simplement voluntaire et sanz quelcunque resistence. E t pour ce,
se il estoit meu par autre vertu si comme par pesanteur ou par force dehors,
puisque il n’a resistence, il seroit meu sans temps soudainnement ; et ce est
impos- If (136c) sible. E t bien est vérité que, selon Aristote, l’en ne pourroit
7 D E tierce raison; C omits Tiexte. 9 A ll mss. read de orient vers occident. The
8 B C D E F et. sense requires the reverse, as here adopted.
Book II, Chapter 23, fols. 136a-! 36c | jif
T . This is a reasonable theory because the primary motion moves several divine
bodies,anmely, the fixed stars, while several movements are required to move bodies
such as the planets, for each planet has several motions. In this way Nature makes
recompense by so arranging that the heaven having but one motion contains a mul­
titude o f luminous bodies and each heaven having but one body possesses several
motions.
G . It was shown in Chapter Three o f Book I [see fol. 8a] how a body can have
several motions or one movement mixed and composed o f several. N ext he pre­
sents a third reply. //
(136a) T . Th e planetary spheres have one star each since many celestial spheres
move it ; and those that are primary, in which there is a single star, are the last to
move o f all the many spheres ; and this last is fixed and moved in many others ; and
each sphere is a separate body.
G . Here Aristotle is relying upon the astronomers o f his time, who held that
Saturn had as many spheres as it had movements and that Saturn was supposedly
in the last sphere, which is attached inside the others. But this opinion is rejected by
later astronomers.
T . Th e action or motion o f the sovereign sphere is common to all, each o f which
by nature has, in addition, its own proper motion.
G . Th e heavens altogether, as a whole and single body, moves naturally with
daily motion; the primary heaven moves only with this motion, and the others
have, in addition to daily motion, a nearly contrary movement proceeding from
west to / (136b) east.
J1. The power o f every finite body is finite.
G . Th e expositors maintain that Aristotle means that the force that moves the
heavens is finite— that is, finite in quality or intensity— for it is infinite in duration.
I f we accept this opinion, then this force must be in some way proportional with
the m oving body. Therefore, if one were to add an extra star or two to the heaven
o f Saturn or o f any other planet, since the heaven moves counter to daily motion,
then the force that moves the whole heavens together in daily motion would not be
sufficiently strong to continue m oving it or, at least, could not move it as fast. This
argument, however, is not valid because, although in other kinds o f motion a pro­
portion must exist between the force and the mobile object, the same does not
hold in the case o f celestial movement, because the heavens are moved by absolute­
ly voluntary force without any resistance whatever. So, if the heavens were moved
by some other power, such as weight or external force, since there is no resistance,
the heavenly body would move instantaneously, without elapse o f time. A n d this
is impossible. // (136c) According to Aristotle, it is indeed true that it would be
10 A Et de ce tout corps fini et la vertu finie. Averroes, Juntas, t.c. 71, 145 K ff.
11 Cf. Alexander and Avicenna as quoted by
ji4 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
65 adjouster en ciel d’une planete une seule autre estoille, mes sa raison ne prou­
ve pas que se perpetuelment ou ciel d’une planete eussent esté pluseurs es-
toilles que il ne peust12 estre meu. E t donques la vraie solucion ou response a
ceste question est aussi comme de la precedente; car, selon vérité, en le .viii.e
ciel sont estoilles en si grant nombre et de tele quantité et qualité et telement
70 ordenees et assises, et aussi en chascun ciel des planètes un seul tel corps et
telement disposé en toutes choses comme il est convenable et a fin de la ge-
neracion et conservation des corps de cibas. Apres il recapitule.
T . E t ainsi est dit de mouvement circulaire et des estoilles ainsi meues et
quellez elles sont selon leur substance et selon leur figure et de leur mouve-
75 ment et de leur ordre.
24. Ou .xxiiii.e chapitre il commence a determiner de la terre en
tant comme elle est centre du monde. Et premièrement
de son lieu, en reprouvant aucunes opinions.
T . Apres ce,1 convient dire de la terre en quel lieu / (i36d) elle est mise ou
assise, et a savoir mon, se elle se repose ou2 se elle est meue, et de la figure de
elle. E t du lieu ou siege de elle, touz ne ont pas une opinion, car pluseurs, ce
est a savoir ceulz qui tiennent que le ciel ou le monde est fini,3 dient que elle
5 est ou milieu du monde. Mais les philosophes de Ytalie appellés Pytagoriens
tiennent le contraire et dient que le feu est ou milieu et que la terre est une
estoille obscure qui est meue de mouvement circulaire environ ou entour le
milieu, et par ce sont faiz nuit et jour. E t encore afferment ces philosophes
que une autre terre est opposite a ceste et que le feu est ou milieu entre ces .ii.
10 terres, et celle autre terre il l’appellent A n tiston a, ce est a dire contremise.
G . Apres il met leur maniéré de procéder.
T . E t cez ci ne queroient pas raisons ne causes pour appliquier aus choses
qui nous apperent par experience.
G . Si comme l’en doit faire en science naturele.
i5 T . Mes il se adheroient a leurs raysons et opinions et se efforçoient de les
attraire a salver //(137a) les experiences par aournemens de paroles. E t a plu­
seurs autres samble il que l’en ne doie pas assigner a la terre son lieu ou mi­
lieu de la region ou du monde, et créent ceci pour ce que il <ne>4 considèrent
pas les apparences que nous voions, mes considèrent plus a leurs raisons.
20 G . Apres il met .ii. de leurs raisons.
12 A peut. the reading o f A : cum plurimi, qui totum
1 Guthrie, ch. 13. celum finitum esse aiunt. Cf. Juntas, 1461.
2 D E omit se elle se repose ou. 4 A omits ne. Cf. Juntas, 147C.
3 B C D E F infini. The Latin text bears out
Book II, Chapter 24, fols. i^Gà-1^2. | ///
impossible to add a star to a planetary heaven; but his argument does not prove
that, if there had been several stars perpetually within a planetary heaven, this
sphere could not be moved. Therefore, the correct solution or reply to this ques­
tion is the same as to the preceding one; for it is true that in the eighth heaven there
is such a host o f stars o f such quality and so arranged and situated and that also in
each planetary sphere or heaven there is but a single body so arranged in every way
to serve to promote the generation and preservation o f bodies here below. His re­
capitulation follows.
T . This completes our study o f circular motion and o f the revolving stars, their
substance, their shape, their movements, and their order.
24. In Chapter Tw en ty-four he takes up the study o f the earth
as the center o f the w orld; first, w ith regard to
its place, refuting certain opinions.
T . It is time to turn to the subject o f the earth and to discuss where / (136d) it is
situated, whether it is at rest or moves, and what [its shape is. W ith regard to its
position or proper place, there are several opinions ; there are some— namely, those
who hold the heavens or universe to be finite— who say that the earth is at the
center o f the world. T h e Italian or Pythagorean School, however, maintains the
contrary, saying that the sphere o f fire is in the middle and that the earth is a dark
star m oving in a circle around the center and that this is the cause o f our nights
and days. Th ey claim also that there is another spherical earth opposite ours and
that there is fire in the middle space between the tw o; they call this second earth
A ntistona, meaning antithesis [or contraposition].
G . N ext he explains their method o f procedure.
T . These philosophers did not seek out reasons or causes to explain those
things which are apparent to us by experience.
G . A s is required in the study o f a natural science.
T . But they clung to their arguments and opinions, forcing themselves to dis­
cover explanations, which they delivered in ornate style, to save // (137a) appear­
ances. There are many others, too, who think that we should not situate the earth
in the central position o f the universe and who do so because they refuse to take
into account the evidence o f their own eyes and cling, rather, to their abstract
theories.
G . N o w he presents tw o o f their arguments.
j i 6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T .5 Car il cuident que a l’element qui est le plus honorable soit deue con­
venablement la region qui est plus hounorable. O r est il ainsi que le feu est
plus honorable que la terre.
G . Car il est plus actif et plus cler et plus soutil.
a5 T . E t il disoient que les termes sont plus nobles que les choses qui sont
moiennes entre les termes, et disoient que le centre et le milieu du monde6 est
terme. E t en pensant ceste raison, il ne cuidoient pas que la terre fust ou mi­
lieu, mais le feu.
G . Aussi comme le cuer qui est le plus noble membre est aussi comme ou
30 milieu de la beste ou de le honme. Apres il met leur seconde raison.
T . Item, encore disoient les Pythagoriens que il est / (137b) bien conve­
nable que l’element qui est le plus principal et le plus precieus de touz soit ou
lieu ou il (p uisse)7 estre miex gardé; et tel est le milieu. E t pour ce, il le nom­
ment la Chartre ou la Garde de Joves qui est dieu. E t ceste region a le feu.
35 G . Il ne entendoient pas que ceste prison ( fu s t)8 a l’element du feu pour
paine, mes pour garde. E t par aventure, il entendoient— et est certain d’au­
cuns philosophes— que elle est pour poine aus âmes des pécheurs. Apres il
respont a ces .ii. raisons ensamble.
T . E t cez ci prenoient ce mot moien aussi comme se il ne fu s t dit que en une
40 maniéré, et que le moien de magnitude ou de corps et le moien de substance
ou de nature fust un meisme ; et non est, car es bestes le milieu de la beste et
le milieu de son corps ne est pas un.
G . Car le cuer est le milieu de la beste et ou plus noble lieu,9 mais le mi­
lieu de son corps est vers le nombril. E t pour ce, est un milieu de la quantité
45 ou magnitude, si comme le centre d’une espere ou d’un autre corps, mais
autre milieu est qui eslit nature pour le meilleur10 lieu.
T . E t se ces milieus sont // (137c) differens es bestes, nous devons cuider
que il different moult plus en tout le ciel ou en tout le monde. E t pour ceste
cause, les Pithagoriens ne deussent pas craindre a mettre la terre ou milieu de
50 tout le monde ne dire que illeques ou centre est la Chartre de Joves, mais il
deussent quérir pour melieu ce qui est apte et convenable a ce que illeques
soit la chose. E t le lieu qui est hounorable, ce est le melieu. E t tel est ce qui
contient et qui est fin moult plus que ne est ce qui est contenu et de quoy11
il est fin, car ce qui est contenu est aussi comme matière et ce qui contient est
55 comme substance de forme.
G . O r est ainsi que le feu contient les autres elemens, si c o m m e il appert
ou premier de Metheores, 12 et donques est il en plus hounorable lieu que ne
est la terre et donques est il en milieu, a prendre milieu pour meilleur lieu.
T . E t tel opinion, comme dit est, ont aucuns13 du lieu de la terre.
s B C D E F omit G lose...T iexte. 9 D E omit et ou plus noble lieu.
repeats du monde, 10 D milieu.
peut. 8 A soit.
11 A contenu est ausi comme et de quoy.
Book II, Chapter 24, fols. 137b-! 37c | 51J
T . They believe that the most honorable element should occupy the most honor­
able place. And, thus, they maintain that fire is more honorable than earth.
G . Since it is more active, clearer, and more subtle.
T . Th ey argued that the extremes are more noble than the means and that the
center o f the world is one o f the extremes. Thinking along these fines, they rea­
soned that fire, not earth, is at the center o f the universe.
G . Just as the heart, which is the noblest organ, is at the center o f animals and
o f man. Next, he states their second argument.
T . Th e Pythagoreans stated further that it is / (1 37b) most fitting that the prin­
cipal and most precious element o f all should occupy the place where it can best be
guarded, and this place is in the middle. For this reason they call it the Citadel or
Bastion o f the go d Jove, and it is rightly occupied by fire.
G . Th ey did not mean that this place belonged to fire as a penalty or punish­
ment, but rather for safe-keeping. Possibly they meant— and certainly some phil­
osophers did mean— that this place is intended for the punishment o f sinners. His
reply to both arguments together follows.
T . These Pythagoreans took this word mean as though it had but one signification ;
they believed that the mean o f a magnitude or o f a body and the mean [or middle]
o f a substance or o f a nature are one and the same. But this is not true, for the mid­
dle or center o f the animal and the middle o f its body are not the same.
G . Because the heart is the middle or center o f the animal and occupies the
noblest place, but the middle o f its body is approximately its navel. Accordingly,
there is a center or middle o f a quantity or magnitude, like the center o f a sphere or
o f some other body, but nature may select another center as the best or noblest
place.
T . N o w , if these means or centers are // ( 137c) different in animals, we should at
least suspect them to differ far more in the heavens or in the world taken as a whole.
For this reason the Pythagoreans had no need to be alarmed about placing the
earth at the center o f the world nor to declare that the Citadel o f Jove is thereto
guard the place; rather they should have attempted to discover what thing is apt
and suitable to be placed in the center o f the universe. The place o f honor is at the
center, and such a place is one which encompasses and is also a limit, far more than
one which is contained and bounded; for what is encompassed is matter, while
that which encompasses is like the substance o f the form [or model].
G . N o w in this manner fire contains the other elements, as shown in the first
book o f the Meteors, and so it occupies a more honorable place than the earth and
is in the center o f the world, if we take center to mean the best or noblest place.
T . Such, then, is the opinion o f some philosophers regarding the place which
the earth occupies.
12 Meteorologicorum, 1.2.339a 16-17. 13 B C D E F est ou aucuns.
j i 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
60 G . Ce estoient les Pithagoriens qui disoient que elle ne estoit pas ou cen­
tre, etc.
25. Ou .xxv.e chapitre il recite les opinions d’aucuns
du / (137d) mouvement de la terre.
T . Semblablement touz ne ont pas un opinion du repos et du mouvement
de la terre, car touz ceulz qui dient que elle ne est pas ou milieu du monde
dient que elle est meue en circuite environ le milieu ou centre du monde, et
non pas seulement ceste terre, mes aussi une autre que il appellent A n t i x -
5 tone, 1 si comme nous avons dit devant.
G . O u chapitre precedent. Apres il met une autre opinion.
T . E t il samble a aucuns que pluseurs <corps>2 telz comme est la terre sont
meus en circuite environ le centre, lesquelz corps ne nous apparent pas pour
ce que la terre le nous empeesche. E t la raison qui les meut est pour ce que la
io lune est plus souvent eclipsee que ne est le soleil, car, si comme il dient, chas-
cun de telz corps la fait ecüpser et non pas seulement la terre.
G . Il disoient que la lune eclipse le soleil et la terre la lune, et pour ce que il
ne est que une seule lune et pluseurs terres sont, pour ce est la lune plus //
(138a) souvent eclipsee que le soleil. Mais ceste raison ne est pas3*bonne, car
i5 la lune ne est <on)ques eclipse<e>* fors par l’ombre ce ceste terre. E t la cause
pourquoy elle est plus souvent eclipse<e)s que le soleil est autre que il ne
dient, si comme il appert par les livres d’astrologie. Apres il met comment il
responnoient a ce que nous voions tous jours la moitié du ciel, et se la terre
ne6 estoit ou centre, nous en verrions plus ou mains.
20 T . E t combien que la terre ne soit pas ou centre mes est hors et en distance,
nientmoins il dient que les choses apparoissent telement comme se elle estoit
ou centre pour ce que la distance que elle a au centre ne est pas grande ne sensi­
ble au resgart de tout le ciel.7
G . Ce est leur réponse en sentence. Apres il met une autre opinion.
25 T . E t aucuns dient que la terre est ou centre du monde et que elle est re­
volute et meue en circuite environ le pole a ce establi, si comme il est ecript
ou livre de Platon appellé Tymeus.8
1 B C F anxtitone; D anstitone. s A C F eclipse; D E omit eclipse(e).
omits corps,
^ A ^
6 D E omit ne.
repeats pas. 7 D E regart quelle ou ciel.
aveques l’eclipse; C F eclipse. 8 Timaeus, 40B.
Book II, Chapter 25, fols. I37d-i38a | j i?
G . It was the Pythagoreans who said that the earth is not at the center, etc.
25. In Chapter Tw en ty-five he relates the opinions o f some thinkers
about the / (137c!) m ovem ent o f the earth.
T . There is also disagreement as to whether the earth is at rest or m oving ; for
all who maintain that it is not in the center o f the world hold that it moves in a
circle around this center; not only do they say this o f our earth, but also o f another
which they call A n tiston a or antithesis, as we have already noted.
G . In the preceding chapter [see fol. 1 36d]. N ext he presents another opinion.
T . Others hold that there are several bodies like the earth revolving around the
center, which are hidden from us by the interposition o f the earth. Th e reason
which impels them [to this belief] is that the moon is more often eclipsed than the
sun because, they maintain, each o f these bodies, and not only the earth, can cause
a lunar eclipse.
G . These philosophers used to say that the moon eclipses the sun and the earth
eclipses the moon and that, since we have one moon but several earths, this fact
explains w hy the moon is more // (13 8a) often in eclipse than the sun. E ven so, this
explanation is not valid; the cause o f more frequent lunar than solar eclipses is
quite different from what these philosophers maintain, as can be seen in books on
astronomy. He now gives their explanation as to w h y we can always see one-half o f
the heavens. I f the earth were not at the center, we should be able to see more or
less than half.
T . A lthough the earth is not at the center but is some distance from it, neverthe­
less they say that the phenomena appear exactly as though it were at the center be­
cause the distance between the tw o is not great nor perceptible relative to the mass
o f the whole heavens.
G . Briefly this is their reply. Next, he presents another opinion.
T . There are others who hold that the earth is at the center o f the world and that
it revolves and moves in a circuit around the pole established for this purpose, as is
written in Plato’s book called Timaeus.
 / 20 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 25, fols. 138b—138d | J21

G . Ce fu l’oppinion d ’un appellé Heraclitus /(138b) Ponticus9 qui mettoit G . This was the opinion o f a philosopher named Heraclides / (138b) Ponticus,

que la terre est meue circulairement et que le ciel repose. E t Aristote ne re- who maintained that the earth moves circularly and that the heavens remain at

30 prouve pas ici ces opinions pour ce, par aventure, que il li sembloit1° que elles rest. Here Aristotle does not refute these theories, possibly because they seemed to

ont petite apparence et que elles sont ailleurs assés réprouvées en philoso­ him o f slight probability and were, moreover, sufficiently criticized in philosoph­
phie et en astrologie. ical and astrological writings.
Mes, souz toute correction, il me samble que l’en pourroit bien soustenir However, subject, o f course, to correction, it seems to me that it is possible to

et coulourer la desreniere opinion, ce est a savoir que la terre est meue de
35 mouvement journal et le ciel non. E t premièrement, je veul declairer que l’en
ne pourroit monstrer le contraire par quelcunque experience; secondement,
que ne par raisons; et tiercement, metray raisons a ce. Quant au premier
point, une experience est : car nous voions sensiblement le soleil et la lune et
pluseurs d e ( s ) 11 estoilles de jour en jour lever et rescouser et aucunes tour-
40 nier entour le pole artique. E t ce ne peust estre fors par le mouvement du
ciel, si comme il fu monstré ou .xvi.e chapitre. E t donques est le ciel meu de
mouvement journal. Une autre experience est: car se la terre est ainsi meue,
elle fait un //(138c) tour parfect en un jour naturel. E t donques nous et les
arbres et les maisons sommes meus vers orient très isnelement, et ainsi il nous
45 sembleroit que l’aer et le vent venist touzjours très fort devers orient et bruir-
<oit>12aussi comme il fait contre un quarreau d’arbeleste et moult plus fo rt;13
et le contraire appert par experience. La tierce est que met Ptholomee : car
qui seroit en une naif meue isnelement vers orient et trairoit une seëtte tout
droit en haut, elle ne charroit pas en la naif mes bien loing de la naif vers oc-
5o cident. E t semblablement, se la terre est meue si très isnelement en tournant
de occident en orient, posé que l ’en gectast une pierre tout droit en haut, elle
ne cherroit pas ou lieu dont elle parti mes bien loing vers occident ; et le con­
traire appert de fait. Il me samble que par ce que je dirai a ces experiences,
l’en pourroit respondre a toutes autres qui seroient amenées a ce propos. E t
55 donques je met premièrement que toute la machine corporelle ou toute la
masse de tous les corps du monde est devisee en .ii. parties: une / ( 138d) est
le ciel aveques l’espere du feu14 et la haute region de l’aer, et toute ceste par­
tie, selon Aristote ou premier de Metkeores, 15 est meue de mouvement jour-
embrace the argument and consider with favor the conclusions set forth in the
above opinion that the earth rather than the heavens has a diurnal or daily rotation.
A t the outset, I wish to state that it is impossible to demonstrate from any expe­
rience at all that the contrary is true; second, that no argument is conclusive; and
third, I shall demonstrate w hy this is so. A s to the first point, let us examine one
experience : we can see with our eyes the rising and setting o f the sun, the moon,
and several stars, while other stars turn around the arctic pole. Such a thing is due
only to the motion o f the heavens, as was shown in Chapter Sixteen [see fol. 115c
ff.], and, therefore, the heavens move with daily motion. Another experience is this
one : if the earth is so moved, it makes its //(138c) complete course in a natural day
with the result that we and the trees and the houses are moved very fast toward the
east; thus, it should seem to us that the air and wind are always coming very strong
from the east and that it should make a noise such as it makes against the arrow
shot from a crossbow or an even louder one, but the contrary is evident from ex­
perience. The third argument is Ptolemy’s— namely, that, if someone were in a
boat m oving rapidly toward the east and shot an arrow straight upward, it would
not fall in the boat but far behind it toward the west. Likewise, if the earth moves
so very fast turning from west to east and if someone threw a stone straight up­
ward, it would not fall back to the place from which it was thrown, but far to the
west; and the contrary appears to be the case. It seems to me that what I shall say
below about these experiences could apply to all other theories which might be
brought forward in this connection. Therefore, I state, in the first place, that the
whole corporeal machine or the entire mass o f all the bodies in the universe is
divided into two parts: one / (i 38d) is the heavens with the sphere o f fire and the
higher region o f the air; all this part, according to Aristotle in Book I o f Meteors,

9 Heraclides o f Pontus, a contemporary o f Thorndike {Hist, of Magic and Experimental

Aristotle, was but one o f several early Greeks
who supported the theory o f the diurnal rota­
tion o f the earth around the center o f the
universe, while the heavenly bodies are at rest.
In attacking this theory, Aristotle was attacking
one o f the major astronomical hypotheses o f his
time. It is not improbable that Oresme knew
o f the friendly remarks concerning it in Sim­
plicius’ commentary on De caelo, 1.7, 13, and
14. Tn any case he knew o f the flat rejection
in St. Thomas, Commentaria... De caelo, X X V I.
Science, vol. 3, 381 and Science and Thought in
çais de Copernic: Nicole Oresme,” entirely in the Middle Ages, pp. 600-9, offers passages
the Fifteenth Century, p. 141) and Duhem {Etu­
upon this gloss. It will be clear to the reader in English from this commentary, with ex­
des sur Léonard de Vinci, III, 249 ff.) have called
that this gloss contains really nothing to sup­ planations.
attention to the presence o f the theory at the
port Duhem’s thesis. O f more significant value 10 A sembleroit
University o f Paris in the fourteenth century.
is Duhem’s historical account o f the transmis­ 11 A de.
Buridan, Occam, and Albert o f Saxony dis­
sion o f Heraclides’ theory in Le Système du 12 A bruirent.
cussed the concept in their commentaries on
monde, vol. 3, 44-162. A n excellent summary 13 D E omit d ’arbaleste ... fort.
De caelo. Like Oresme, they rejected it, but not
with much new material is contained in Grant 14 D E ciel.
without recognition o f its possible advantages.
McColley, “ The Theory o f the Diurnal Rota­ 15 Meteorologicorum, 1.3.340b 10-12.
Duhem based the exaggerated claims implied
tion o f the Earth.” Clagett, Science of Mechanics
in the title o f his article “ Un Précurseur fran-
j 22 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
nal. L ’autre partie est tout le demourant, c’est a savoir la moienne et la basse
60 region de l’aer, l’eaue et la terre et les corps mixtes, et, selon Aristote,16 toute
ceste partie est immobile de mouvement journal. Item, je suppose que mou­
vement l<ocal ne>17 peut estre sensiblement apparceu fors en tant comme l’en
apparçoit un corps soy avoir autrement ou resgart d’autre corps. E t pour ce,
se un honme est en une nef appelle<e>1819.a. qui soit meue très souef, isnele-
65 ment ou tardivement, et que cest honme ne voie autre chose fors une autre
naif appellee .b. qui soit meue de tout semblablement comme .a. en quoy il
est, je di que il samblera a cest honme que l’une et l’autre naif ne se meue. E t
se .a. repose et .b. est meue, il lui appert et semble que .b. est meue; et se .a.
est meue et .b. repose, il lui semble comme devant que .a. repose et que .b.
70 est meue. // ( 139a) E t ainsi se .a. reposoit par une heure et .b. fust meue, et
tantost en l’autre heure ensuiant fust, e converso, que .a. fust meue et .b. re-
posast, cest honme ne pourroit apparcevoir ceste mutacion ou variacion,
mes continuelment il semblerait16 que .b. fust meue; et ce appert par expe­
rience. E t la cause est car ces .ii. corps .a. et .b. ont continuelment autre res-
75 gart un a l’autre en tele maniéré du tout quant .a. est meu et .b. repose comme
il ont quant, e converso, .b. est meu et .a. repose. E t il appert ou quart livre
de L a Perspective de Witelo20 que l’en ne21 apparçoit mouvement fors tele-
ment comme l’en apparçoit .i. corps soy avoir autrement22 ou resgart d’un
autre. Je di donques que, se des .ii. parties du monde desus dites, celle desus
80 estoit au jour de huy meue de mouvement journal, comme si est, et celle de
bas non, et demain fust le contraire que celle de cibas fust meue de m ouve­
ment journal et l’autre non, ce est a savoir le ciel, etc., nous ne pourrions ap­
parcevoir en rien ceste mutacion, mes tout sembleroit estre en une ma- /
(139b) niere huy et demain quant a ce. E t nous sambleroit continuelment que
85 la partie ou nous sommes reposast et que l’autre fust toujours meue, aussi
comme il semble a un honme qui est en une naif meue que les arbres dehors
sont meuz. E t samblablement, se un homme estoit ou ciel, posé que il soit
meu de mouvement journal, et cest homme qui est porté aveques le ciel voi-
oit clerement la terre et distin<c)teement23 les mons, les vaulz, fleuves, villes
90 et chastiaulz, il lui sambleroit que la terre <fust)24 meue de mouvement jour­
nal, aussi comme il samble du ciel a nous qui sommes en terre. E t semblable­
ment, se la terre estoit meue de mouvement journal et le ciel non, il nous sem­
bleroit que elle reposast et que le ciel fust meu ; et ce peut ymaginer legiere-
ment chascun qui a bon entendement. E t par ce appert clerement la response
95 de la premiere experience, car l’en diroit que le soleil et les estoilles apparent
16 B C D E F omit et selon Aristote. Risnero (Basel, 1572), I V .n o , p. 167: “ Quo-
17 A le calue. niam enim moveri est aliter se habere nunc,
18 A appellé. quam prius: palam quod facilitas huius com-
19 D E omit li sembleroit. prehensionis motus fit ex comparatione rei
20 Witellonis Opticae Jibri decem a Federico motae visae ad aliud visibile quiescens non
Book II, Chapter 25, fols. 1392-139b |
moves in a circle or revolves each day. The other part o f the universe is all the rest
— that is, the middle and lower regions o f the air, the water, the earth, and the
mixed bodies— and, according to Aristotle, all this part is immobile and has no
daily motion. N o w , I take as a fact that local motion can be perceived only i f we
can see that one body assumes a different position relative to another body. For
example, if a man is in a boat a, which is m oving very smoothly either at rapid or
slow speed, and if this man sees nothing except another boat b, which moves pre­
cisely like boat a, the one in which he is standing, I maintain that to this man it will
appear that neither boat is moving. I f a rests while b moves, he will be aware that b
is m oving ; if a moves and b rests, it will seem to the man in a that a is resting and b
is m oving, just as before. //(139a) Thus, if a rested an hour and b moved, and during
the next hour it happened conversely that a moved and b rested, this man would
not be able to sense this change or variation ; it would seem to him that all this time
b was moving. This fact is evident from experience, and the reason is that the two
bodies a and b have a continual relationship to each other so that, when a moves, b
rests and, conversely, when b moves, a rests. It is stated in Book Four o f The P er-
spectiveby Witelo that we do not perceive motion unless we notice that one body is
in the process o f assuming a different position relative to another. I say, therefore,
that, if the higher o f the two parts o f the world mentioned above were moved to­
day in daily motion— as it is— and the lower part remained motionless and if to­
morrow the contrary were to happen so that the lower part moved in daily motion
and the higher— that is, the heavens, etc.— remained at rest, we should not be able
to sense or perceive this change, and everything would appear exactly the same /
(139b) both today and tomorrow with respect to this mutation. W e should keep
right on assuming that the part where we are was at rest while the other part was
m oving continually, exactly as it seems to a man in a m oving boat that the trees on
shore move. In the same way, if a man in the heavens, moved and carried along by
their daily motion, could see the earth distinctly and its mountains, valleys, rivers,
cities, and castles, it would appear to him that the earth was m oving in daily mo­
tion, just as to us on earth it seems as though the heavens are moving. Likewise, if
the earth moved with daily motion and the heavens were motionless, it would seem
to us that the earth was immobile and that the heavens appeared to m ove; and this
can be easily imagined by anyone with clear understanding. This obviously an­
swers the first experience, for we could say that the sun and stars appear to rise and
motum. Quando enim comprehenditur situs Opticae (Basel, 1572).
unius rei mobilis, respectu alterius rei visibilis, 21 D E omit ne.
tunc etiam comprehenditur diversitas situs 22 D E soy a mouvoir autrement.
eius respectu illius visibilis, et tunc compre­ 23 A distinteement.
henditur motus.” This edition o f Witelo’s 24 A seroit.
Optics or Perspective is appended to Alhazen’s
J24 [ Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ainsi couchier et lever et le ciel tourner pour le mouvement de la terre et des
elemens ou nous habitons. A la seconde appert f j (139c) la response parce
que, selon cest opinion, la terre seulement ne est pas ainsi meue, mes aveques
ce l’eaue et l’aer comme dit est, combien que l’eaue et l’aer de cibas soient
100 meuz autrement par les vens ou par autres causes. E t est samblable comme
se en une naif meue estoit aer enclos, il sambleroit a celui qui seroit en cel
aer que25 il ne se meust. A la tierce experience, qui semble plus forte, de la
seëtte ou pierre gecte<e>26 en haut, et cetera: l’en diroit que la seëtte traite en
haut, aveques ce trait est meue vers orient très isnelement aveques l’aer parmi
105 lequel elle passe, et aveques toute la masse de la basse partie du monde de­
vant designee qui est meue de mouvement journal; et pour ce, la seëtte re-
chiet ou lieu de terre dont elle parti. E t cele chose appert possible par sam­
blable, car se un honme estoit en une nef meue vers orient très isnelement
sans ce que il apparceust ce mouvement et il tiroit sa main en descendant et
11o en descrisant une droite ligne contre le maast / (i39d) de la nef, il lui samble­
roit que sa main ne fust meue fors de mouvement droit; et ainsi, selon cest
opinion, nous semble il de la seëtte qui descent ou monte droit en bas ou en
haut. Item, dedens la nef ainsi meue, comme dit27 est, peuent estre mouve-
mens du lonc, du travers, en haut, en bas et en toutes maniérés, et semblent
ii5 estre du tout comme se la nef reposast. E t pour ce, se un honme en celle nef
aloit vers occident moins isnelement que elle ne va vers orient, il lui semble-
roit que il approcheroit d’occident et il approche d’orient;28 et samblable-
ment ou cas devant mis, touz les mouvemens de cibas sembleroient estre
comme se la terre reposast. Item, pour declairer la response a la tierce expe-
120 rience apres cest exemple artificiel, je en veul mettre un autre naturel lequel
est vray selon Aristote; et pose que en la haute region de l ’aer soit une por­
tion de pur feu appellé .a. qui soit très ligier en tant (q u e )29 par ce il monte
tout au plus haut / / (140a) au lieu appelé .b. près de la superfice concave du
ciel. Je di que aussi comme il seroit de la seëtte ou cas desus mis, il convient
125 en cestui que le mouvement de .a. soit composé de mouvement droit et, de
partie, de circulaire, car la region de l’aer et l’espere du feu par lesquelles .a.
passa30 sont meues, selon Aristote, de mouvement circulaire. E t donques se
il ne estoient ainsi meus, .a. monteroit tout droit en haut par la ligne .ab. ;
mes pour ce que par mouvement circulaire et journal .b. est entretant trans-
130 laté siqu e(s)31 endroit .c., il appert que .a. en montant descript la ligne .ac. et
est le mouvement de .a. composé de mouvement droit et de circulaire. E t
k X
qui; B C D E F que. 29 A omits que; D E que par ce qu.
gecté. 30 B omits par lesquelles .a. passa.
nef ausi come dit. 31 A si que.
28 D E d’occident.
Book II, Chapter 25, fols. i39C-i4oa J2J
set as they do and that the heavens seem to revolve on account o f the motion o f the
earth in which we live together with the elements. T o the second experience, the
reply seems //( 139c) to be that, according to this opinion, not only the earth moves,
but also with it the water and the air, as we stated above, although the water
and air here below may be moved in addition by the winds or other forces. In a
similar manner, if the air were closed in on a m oving boat, it would seem to a per­
son in that air that it was not moving. Concerning the third experience, which
seems more complicated and which deals with the case o f an arrow or stone thrown
up into the air, etc., one might say that the arrow shot upward is moved toward the
east very rapidly with the air through which it passes, along with all the lower por­
tion o f the world which we have already defined and which moves with daily mo­
tion ; for this reason the arrow falls back to the place from which it was shot into
the air. Such a thing could be possible in this way, for, i f a man were in a ship m ov­
ing rapidly eastward without his being aware o f the movement and if he drew his
hand in a straight line down along the ship’s mast, / ( 1 39d) it would seem to him
b c
Fig- 33
c corrected from b by editor
that his hand were m oving with a rectilinear motion; so, according to this theory
it seems to us that the same thing happens with the arrow which is shot straight
down or straight up. Inside the boat moved rapidly eastward, there can be all
kinds o f movements— horizontal, criss-cross, upward, downward, in all directions
— and they seem to be exactly the same as those when the ship is at rest. Thus, if a
man in this boat walked toward the west less rapidly than the boat was m oving to­
ward the east, it would seem to the man that he was approaching the west when ac­
tually he was going east; and similarly as in the preceding case, all the motions
here below would seem to be the same as though the earth rested. N o w , in order to
explain the reply to the third experience in which this artificial illustration was used-
I should like to present an example taken from nature, which, according to Aris,
totle, is true. He supposes that there is a portion o f pure fire called a in the higher
region o f the air; this fire, being very light, rises as high as possible // (140a) to a
place called b near the concave surface o f the heavens [see Fig. 33]. I maintain that,
just as with the arrow above, the motion o f a in this case also must be compounded
o f rectilinear and, in part, o f circular motion, because the region o f the air and the
sphere o f fire through which a passed have, in Aristotle’s opinion, circular motion
[see fol. 1 1 6b if.]. I f they were not thus moved, a would g o straight upward along
the line a b ; but because b is meanwhile drawn toward c by circular and daily mo­
tion, it appears that a describes the line ac as it ascends and that, therefore, the
 j 26 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ainsi seroit le mouvement de la secte comme dit est, et de tele composicion
ou m ixtion de mouvemens fu dit ou tiers chapitre du premier. Je conclu
donques que l ’en ne pourroit par quelcunque experience monstrer que le ciel
135 fust meu de mouvement journal et que la terre ne fust ainsi meue. /
(140b) Quant au secont point, [Fig. 33, marginal] se ce povoit estre mon-
stré par raisons : il me semble que ce seroit par celles qui ensuient ausquelles
je respondray telement que par ce l’en pourroit respondre a toutes autres a ce
pertinentes. Premièrement, tout corps simple a un seul simple mouvement;
ho et la terre est un element simple qui a, selon ses parties, droit mouvement na­
turel en descendant. E t donques elle ne peut avoir autre mouvement, et tout
ce appert par le quart chapitre du premier. Item, mouvement circulaire ne est
naturel a la terre, car elle en a un autre, comme dit est; et se il lui est violent
il ne pourroit estre perpétuel, selon ce que il appert ou premier livre en plu-
145 seurs lieus. Item, tout mouvement local est ou resgart d’aucun corps qui re­
pose, selon ce que dist Averroïz en le .viii.e chapitre;32 et par ce, il conclut
que il convient par nécessité que la terre repose ou milieu du ciel. Item, tout
mouvement33 est fait par aucune vertu motive, si comme il appert ou .vii.e et
.viii.e de Phisique , 34 et la terre ne peust // (140c) estre meue circulairement par
i5o sa pesanteur; et <se> elle <est)3S ainsi meue par vertu dehors, cel mouve­
ment seroit violent et non perpétuel. Item, se le ciel n’estoit meu de m ouve­
ment journal, toute astrologie seroit fause et une grant partie de philosophie
naturelle ou l’en suppose partout ce mouvement ou ciel. Item, ce semble
estre contre la sainte Escripture qui dist : Oritur sol, et occidit, et ad locum
155 suum revertitur: ibique renascens, girat per meridiem, et flectitur ad aquilo-
nem : lustrans universa36 in circuitu pergit spiritus, et in circulos suos rever­
titur.37 E t ainsi est il escript de la terre que Dieu la fist inmobile: Etenim fir-
mavit38 orbem terre, qui non commovebitur.39 Item, l’Escripture dist que le
soleil se arresta ou temps de Josué et que il retorna ou temps du roy Eze-
160 chias ;40 et se la terre fust meue comme dit est et le ciel non, tel arrestement
eust esté retournement, et le retournement41 que dit est eust plus esté arres­
tement. E t ce est contre ce que dist l’Escripture. A u premier arguement ou il
est dit que tout corps simple a un seul sim- / (i4od) pie mouvement, je di que
la terre, qui est corps simple selon soy toute, ne a quelcunque mouvement
165 selon Aristote, si comme il appert ou .xxii.e chapitre. E t qui diroit que il en­
tent que42 cel corps a un seul mouvement simple, non pas selon soy tout mes
selon ses parties et seulement quant elles sont hors de leur lieu, contre ce est
faite43 instance de l’aer qui descent quant il est en la region du feu et monte
32 Juntas, t.c. 18, 107I. 36 D E omit lustrans universa.
33 A tout le mouvement. 37 Eccles. 1:5-6.
34 Physicorum, V II.1.241b 24— 242a 19; 38 D F firmabit.
VIII.4, passim, especially 255b 31— 256a 3. 39 Ps. 92:1.
35 A et elle ainsi. 40 Jos. 10:12-14.
Book II, Chapter 25, fols. i4ob-i4od | 727
movement o f a is compounded o f rectilinear and o f circular motion, and the m ove­
ment o f the arrow would be o f this kind o f mixed or compound motion that we
spoke o f in Chapter Three o f B ook I [see fol. 8a ff.]. I conclude, then, that it is im­
possible to demonstrate b y any experience that the heavens have daily motion and
that the earth does not have the same. /
(140b) W ith regard to the second point, if it could be demonstrated by rational
arguments, in my,opinion they would be the following, to which I shall reply in a
manner that could be employed to refute all other pertinent argument. First, every
simple body has a single simple motion, and the earth is a simple element which has,
according to its various parts, natural rectilinear movement downward. So, it can
have no other motion, a fact fully explained in Chapter Four o f B ook I [see fol.
9d]. Circular motion is not natural to the earth for it has another motion, as already
noted; if circular motion is violent to it, the earth could not be perpetual, as ap­
pears in several passages o f B ook I [see fols. 39c ff.]. A ll local motion is relative to
some body at rest, as Averroes states in Chapter Eight, from which he concludes
that the earth must be at rest in the center o f the heavens. N o w , all motion is pro­
duced by some m otive power or force, as shown in Books Seven and E igh t o f the
Physics, and the earth cannot //(140c) move circularly because o f its weight; if it is
so moved by an external force, this movement would be violent and not perpetual.
If, in reality, the heavens did not have diurnal motion, all astronomy would be false
as well as a large part o f natural philosophy throughout which such motion is taken
for granted. It would, moreover, contradict H o ly Scripture which states : Th e sun
riseth and goeth down and returneth to his place; and there rising again, maketh
his round by the south and turneth again to the north; the spirit goeth forward
surveying all places round about and returneth to his circuits. A n d it is also written
o f the earth that G o d made it motionless : Etenim firmavit orbem terre, qui non
commovebitur. Th e Scripture states that the sun stopped its course in Joshua’s
time and returned in K in g Hezekiah’s ; if, as is posited in this theory, it is the earth
that moves and the heavens that remain motionless, then this stopping would have
been a turning backward, which would have been more than a stoppage. A n d this
is contrary to the statement in the Scriptures. A s for the first argument where it is
stated that every simple body has a single simple / (i4od) motion, I say that the
earth, which as a whole is a simple body, has no movement, according to Aristotle
in Chapter Tw enty-tw o [see fols. 133d ff.]. Against the interpretation o f anyone
who maintained that Aristotle means that this body has a single simple motion
not proper to itself as a whole, but applying only to its parts when they are out o f
their proper place, we can cite the case o f air which moves downward when it is in
41 B omits et le retournement. 43 B C D E F forte.
42 D E omit il entent que.
 J28 j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
{quant)44 il est en la region de l’eaue; et ce sont .ii. simples mouvemens. E t
170 pour ce, l’en peust dire moult plus raisonnablement que chascun corps sim­
ple ou element du monde, excepté, par aventure, le souverain ciel, est meu en
son lieu4* naturelment de mouvement circulaire. E t se aucune partie de cel
corps est hors de son lieu et de son tout, elle y retourne le plus droit que elle
peust, osté empeeschement ; et ainsi seroit il d ’une partie du ciel se elle estoit
175 hors du ciel. E t n’est pas inconvenient que un corps simple selon soy tout ait
un simple mouvement en son lieu // (141a) et autre mouvement selon ses par­
ties en retournant46 en leur lieu, et convient tele chose octrier selon Aristote,
si comme je dirai tantost apres. A u secont, je di que ce mouvement est natu­
rel a la terre etc., toute et en son lieu, et nientmoins elle a autre mouvement
180 naturel selon ses parties quant elles sont hors de leur lieu naturel et est m ouve­
ment droit et en bas. E t selon Aristote, il convient octrier chose samblable
de l’element du feu qui est meu naturelment en haut selon ses parties quant
elles sont hors de leur lieu. E t avecques ce, selon Aristote, tout cest ele­
ment en son espere et en son lieu est meu de mouvement journal perpetuel-
185 ment, et ce ne pourroit estre se ce mouvement estoit violent. E t selon
cest opinion, le feu n’est pas ainsi meu, mais ce est la terre. A u tiers, ou est
dit que tout mouvement requiert aucun corps reposant: je di que non fors
quant a ce que tel mouvement puisse estre apparceu et encore souffiroit il
que cel autre corps fust meu autrement, mais il ne requiert pas autre corps
i9o quant a ce / (141b) que cel mouvement soit, si comme il fu declairé en le
.viii.e chapitre. Car posé que le ciel47 soit meu de mouvement journal et
posé que la terre fust meue samblablement ou au contraire, ou que, par
ymaginacion, elle fust adnichilee, pour ce ne cesseroit pas le mouvement du
ciel et ne seroit pour ce plus isnel ne plus tardif, car l’intelligence qui le meut
195 ne le corps qui est meu ne seroient pas pour ce autrement disposés. D ’autre
partie posé que mouvement circulaire requerist autre corps reposant, il ne
convient pas que ce corps soit ou milieu du corps ainsi meu, car ou melieu de
la mole d’u<n>48 molin ou d’une tele chose meue, rien ne repose fors un seul
point mathématique qui n’est pas corps, ne aussi ou milieu du mouvement
200 de l’estoille que est près du pole artique. E t donques l’en pourroit dire que le
souverain ciel repose ou est meu autrement que les autres corps pour ce que
il est requis a ce que les autres mouvemens soient, ou a ce que eulz soient per­
ceptibles. A u quart, l’en peust dire que la vertu qui ainsi meust en circuite
ceste basse partie // (141c) du monde, ce est sa nature, sa forme et est ce meis-
Q05 me qui meut la terre a son lieu quant elle en est hors, ou par tele nature com­
me le fer est meu a l’aimant. D ’autre partie, je demande a Aristote quelle ver­
tu meut le feu en son espere de mouvement journal, car l’en ne peut pas dire
44 A omits quant. 47 B aer.
45 D E ciel. 48 A du.
46 B omits en retournant.
Book II, Chapter 25, fols. I4 ia -i4 ic j 329
the region o f fire and upward when it is in the region o f water, both being simple
movements. Therefore, we can say with an ever greater show o f reason that each
simple body or element o f the universe, with the possible exception o f the sover­
eign heaven, moves in its proper place with circular motion. I f any part o f such a
body is out o f its place or outside the main body, it returns to it as directly as it can,
once the hindrance is removed; this would surely happen if some part o f the heav­
ens were to get outside. It is not necessary that a simple body have its own simple
motion in its proper place // (141a) and another motion in its parts when they re­
turn to their proper place, and, according to Aristotle, we shall have to grant this
assumption, as I shall do a little later. T o the second argument, I say the motion is
natural to the earth as a whole and in its place ; however, its parts have a different
natural motion, rectilinear upward and downward, when they are out o f their natu­
ral place [cf. Bk. I, chs. 16-18, fols 26a ff.]. According to Aristotle, we must admit
the same with respect to fire, parts o f which m ove naturally upward when out o f
their proper place, and besides, also according to him, the entire element o f fire in
its sphere and in its place moves perpetually with diurnal motion, which could not
be a true statement if its movement were violent. N o w , in the theory we are dis­
cussing, it is not the element o f fire, but the earth that moves in this manner. I say
no to the third argument which states that all motion requires some body to be at
rest, unless the motion must be perceptible to the senses ; to make such motion ap­
parent, it would suffice that the first body be m oved in a different manner. But it is
not required that there be a second body / (141b) in order that this motion should
exist, as was explained in Chapter Eight [see fol. 90b]. Assuming that the heavens
have diurnal movement and that the earth is m oving in the opposite direction or
imagining even that the earth were annihilated, we would note that the heavens
had not stopped m oving on this account; nor would they move faster or more
slowly because neither the intelligence which moves the heavens nor the m oving
body o f the heavens as a whole would be disposed to do otherwise. Besides, i f it is
assumed that circular motion did require another body at rest, such a body would
not be situated in the middle o f the one m oving ; in the middle o f a millstone o f a
Hour mill or o f a ny sim ilar m oving body, nothing is at rest save a single mathe­
matical point which is not a body, and the same is true at the center o f the m ove­
ment o f the polar star. Thus, it could be said that the sovereign heaven rests or
moves differently from the motion o f the other bodies because its movement re­
quires the existence o f the other motions or requires that they be perceptible to the
senses. T o the fourth argument, we can say that the force causing this lower region
// (141c) o f the world to move in a circle is its nature or form; and this same force
— similar in nature to that which draws iron to the magnet— moves the earth to its
proper place when it gets outside. Besides, I ask Aristotle what force it is that moves
fire in the diurnal movement o f its sphere, for we cannot say that the heavens
 J3 ° I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
que le ciel le traie ainsi ou ravisse par violence, tant pour ce que cel m ouve­
ment est perpétuel, tant pour ce que la superfice concave du ciel est très polie,
210 si comme il fu dit en le .xi.<e>49 chapitre, et pour ce elle passe sus le feu très
souef sans freer, sanz tirer ou bouter, si comme il fu dit ou .xviii.e chapitre.
E t donques convient il dire que le feu est ainsi meu circulairement de sa na­
ture et par sa forme ou par aucune intelligence ou par influence du ciel. E t
semblablement peut dire de la terre celui qui met que elle est meue de mouve-
215 ment journal et le feu non. A u quint, ou est dit que se le ciel ne faisoit un cir-
cuite de jour en jour toute astrologie seroit fause, etc. : je di que non, car tous
resgars, toutes conjunctions, opposicions, constellaci-/(i4id) ons, figures et
influences du ciel seroient aussi comme il sont du tout en tout, si comme il
appert clerement par ce que fu dit en la response de la premiere experience,
220 et les tables des mouvemens et tous autres livres aussi vrays comme il sont
fors tant seulement que du mouvement journal50 l’en diroit que il est ou51
ciel selon apparence et en terre selon vérité, et ne s’ensuit autre effit de l’un
plus que de l’autre. E t a ce propos fait ce que met Aristote ou .xvi.e chapitre
de ce que le soleil nous appert tournier et les estoilles sintiller ou ouilleter,
225 car il dist que se la chose que l’en voit est meue ou se le voiement est meu, ce
ne fait difference; et aussi diroit l’en en ce propos que nostre voiement52 est
meu de mouvement journal. A u sixte, de la sainte Escripture qui dist que le
soleil tourne et cetera : l ’en diroit que elle se conforme53 en ceste partie a la
maniéré de commun parler humain aussi comme elle fait en pluseurs lieus, si
230 comme la ou il est escript que D ieu se repenti et que il se courrousa e t jf
(142a) rapaisa et teles choses qui ne sont pas ainsi du tout comme la lettre
sonne.54 E t meisme près de nostre propos, lisons nous que D ieu queuvre le
ciel de nues : Q ui operit celum nubibus,55 et toutevoies, selon vérité le ciel
queuvre les nues. E t ainsi diroit l’en que le ciel est meu selon apparence de
235 mouvement journal et la terre non, et selon vérité il est au contraire. E t de la
terre l’en diroit que elle ne se meut de son lieu selon vérité56 ne en son lieu
selon apparence, mais bien selon vérité. A u .vii.e, presque semblablement
l’en diroit que ou temps de Josué le soleil se arresta et ou temps de Ezechias il
retourna, et tout selon apparence; mais selon vérité, la terre se arresta ou
240 temps de Josué et avança ou hasta son mouvement ou temps de Ezechias et
en ce n’eust différence quant a l’effect qui s’en ensuit. E t ceste voie semble
plus raisonnable que l’autre, si comme il sera declairié apres.
E t quant au tiers point, je veul metre persuasions ou ray- / (142b) sons par
quoy il sambleroit que la terre soit meue comme dit est. Premièrement, car
49 A .xi. 53 B elle est conforme; D E elle se conferme.
50 B C F omit journal. 54 Cf. Gen. 6:6; Isai. 47:6; Ps. 59: 3; I Par.
51 D E omit m ouvem ent.. .est ou. 13: 10; Ps. 105:40.
52 D E omit est meu ce ne...nostre voie- 55 Ps. 147:8. E coperit.
ment. 56 B C D E F omit selon vérité.
Book II, Chapter 25, fols. I4id-i42b 331
pull it thus or seize it violently not only because this motion is perpetual, but also
because the concave surface o f the heavens is so highly polished, as noted in Chap­
ter Eleven [see fol. 102b], that it passes over the sphere o f fire without rubbing,
pulling, or pushing, as stated in Chapter Eighteen [see fol. 125b]. So, we must say
that fire is moved circularly by its own nature and form or by some intelligence or
celestial influence. Exactly the same could be said by one who maintains that the
earth has diurnal rotation and that the sphere o f fire remains at rest. I say to the
fifth argument, where it is held that, i f the heavens did not make a rotation from
day to day, the whole o f astronomy would be false, that such a statement is not
true, because all heavenly aspects, conjunctions, oppositions, constellations, /
(i4 id ) figures, and influences would be exactly as they are in every respect, as is
apparent from what was stated in reply to the first experience [see fol. 13 8b] ; and
the astronomical tables o f the heavenly motions and all other books would remain
as true as they are at present, save that, with respect to diurnal motion, one would
say that it is apparently in the heavens, but actually in the earth ; no other effect would
follow or result from one theory more than from the other. Aristotle’s statement
in Chapter Sixteen [see fol. n 6 d ] is pertinent in this connection, namely, that the
sun seems to us to turn and twist and the stars to flicker and twinkle and that wheth­
er the thing we see moves or whether our vision moves makes no difference; andin
the present case one could say that our vision is affected by diurnal movement. One
could answer the sixth argument, which concerns the reference in H oly Scripture
about the sun’s turning, etc., by saying that this passage conforms to the customary
usage o f popular speech just as it does in many other places, for instance, in those
where it is written that G o d repented, and H e became angry and // (142a) became
pacified, and other such expressions which are not to be taken literally. A n d more
pertinent to our present subject, we read that G o d covers the heavens with clouds ;
Q ui operit celum nubibus, while the fact is that the heavens cover the clouds. Thus,
we could say that the heavens, rather than the earth, appear to m ove with diurnal
motion, while the truth is the exact opposite. A n d we could say that, in reality, the
earth does not m ove from its place, nor apparently within its place, but it does ac­
tually move within its place. T o the seventh argument, we could reply in much the
same manner that in the time o f Joshua the sun stopped and that in the time o f
Hezekiah it returned, but only apparently so ; for, in fact, it was the earth which
stopped m oving in Joshua’s time and which later in Hezekiah’s time advanced or
speeded up its movement; whichever occurrence we prefer to believe, the effect
would be the same. Th e latter opinion seems more reasonable than the former, as
we shall make clear later.
Regarding the third point o f this discussion, I want to present several opinions
or reasons / (142b) favorable to the theory that the earth moves as we have stated.
In the first place, everything that requires another thing for its natural existence
 j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Book II, Chapter 25, fols. I42c-i42d |
245 toute chose qui a mestier d’une autre chose doit estre appliquiee a recevoir le
must aim at receiving the good it derives from the other through the motion or
bien que elle a de l’autre par le mouvement de elle qui reçoit; et pour ce, voi-
action natural to it. In this way we can see that each element moves to its natural
ons nous que chascun element est meu au lieu naturel ou il est conservé ; et
place where it is conserved and that it goes to its place rather than its place coming
va a son lieu, mes son lieu ne vient pas a lui. E t donques la terre et les ele-
to it. Thus the earth and the elements here below which require the heat and in­
mens de cibas qui ont mestier de la chaleur et de l’influence du ciel tout envi-
fluence o f the heavens round about them must needs be disposed by their m ove­
250 ron doivent estre disposés par leur mouvement a recevoir ce profit deue-
ments to receive these benefits in due degree, just as, to speak familiarly, the meat
ment, aussi, a parler familiairement, comme la chose qui est rostie ou feu re­
being roasted before the fire receives around it the heat o f the fire by being turned
çoit environ elle la chaleur du feu parce que elle est tournee et non pas parce
and not by the turning o f the fire around the meat. I f neither experience nor reason
que le feu soit tourné environ elle. Item, ou cas que ne experience ne raison
indicates the contrary, it is much more reasonable, as stated above, that all the
ne monstrent le contraire, si comme dit est, ce est moult plus raisonnable que
principal movements o f the simple bodies in the world should go or proceed in one
255 touz les principalz mouvemens des simples corps du monde soient et voi-
direction or manner. N o w , according to the philosophers // (142c) and astrono­
sent ou procèdent touz une voie ou en une maniéré. E t ce ne pourroit estre
mers, it cannot be that all bodies m ove from east to west; but, if the earth moves as
se- // (142c) Ion les philosophes et astrologiens que tous fussent d’orient en
we have indicated, then all proceed alike from west to east— that is, the earth by
occident ; mes se la terre est meue comme dit est, touz procèdent une voie
rotating once around the poles from west to east in one natural day and the heav­
d’occident en orient,57 ce est a savoir la terre en faisant son circuite en un jour
enly bodies around the zodiacal poles : the moon in one month, the sun in one
260 naturel sus les poles de ce mouvement, et les corps du ciel sus les poles du
year, Mars in approximately tw o years, and so on with the other bodies. It is un­
zodiaque— la lune en un moys, le soleil en un an, Mars en .ii. ans ou environ,
necessary to posit in the heavens other primary poles or two kinds o f motion, one
et ainsi des autres. E t ne convient mettre ou ciel autres poles principalz ne .ii.
from the east to the west and the other on different poles in the opposite direction,
maniérés de mouvement, un d ’orient en occident et les autres aussi comme
but such an assumption is definitely necessary if the heavens move with diurnal
au contraire et sus autres poles, laquelle chose il convendroit mettre par ne-
motion. O n ly in this way could the arctic pole be the upper side o f the world, no
265 cessité se le ciel estoit meu de mouvement journal. Item, par ceste maniéré
matter where this pole might be located ; and the west would be on the right-hand
et non autrement seroit le pole artique le desus du monde en quelcunque lieu
side i f we accept the imaginary system Aristotle presents in Chapter Five [see fol.
que ce pole soit, et occident seroit la destre partie en supposant l’ymagina-
79b]. Thus, that part o f the earth which is habitable and, precisely, the part where we
cion que met Aristote ou quint chapitre. E t ainsi la partie de terre qui est ha­
are would be the upper portion and right-hand side o f the earth, either with relation
bitable et meismement celle ou nous sommes seroit le desus et58 le destre du
to the heavens or to the earth itself, because / (i42d) all such bodily motion would
270 monde et ou resgart du ciel et ou resgart de la terre, car / (i42d) tout mouve­
proceed from the west, as we have said. A n d it is indeed reasonable that human
ment de telz corps procederoit de occident, comme dit est. E t c ’est bien rai­
habitation should be located in the noblest place on earth; and, if the heavens move
sonnable que habitacion humaine soit ou plus noble lieu qui soit sus terre ;
with diurnal motion, then the exact contrary is true, as appears on Aristotle’ s au­
et se le ciel est meu de mouvement journal, tout le contraire est vérité selon
thority from Chapter Seven [see fol. 87a]. Although Averroes says in Chapter T w en­
ce que il appert par Aristote ou .vii.e chapitre. Item, combien que Averroïz
ty-two that motion is nobler than rest, the contrary seems true, because, again on
275 die ou .xxii.e chapitre que mouvement est plus noble que repos,59 le contraire
Aristotle’s authority in Chapter Tw enty-tw o [see fol. 13 2d], the noblest thing pos­
appert, car meisme selon Aristote en cel chapitre .xxii.e,6° la plus noble chose
sible achieves its perfection without movement, and this is G o d Himself. Rest is the
qui soit et qui puisse estre a sa perfection sanz mouvement; ce est Dieu.
end purpose o f motion, and so Aristotle holds that the bodies here below m ove to
Item, repos est fin de mouvement et pour ce, selon Aristote, les corps de ci-
their natural places in order to rest there. A further sign that rest is best is that we
bas sont meuz a leurs lieus naturelz pour y reposer.61 Item, en signe que re-
pray for the dead that G o d may give them rest : Requiem eternam, etc. Therefore,
280 pos vaut miex, nous prions pour les mors que Dieu leur doint repos : Requi­
to rest or to be m oved less is a better and nobler condition than to be m oved or to
em eternam, et cetera.62 E t donques reposer ou estre moins meu est miex et
be moved farther and farther from rest. From this, it seems that the position we
plus noble condition que estre meu ou plus meu et plus loing de repos. E t

57 B d’orient en occident. Aristote ou en ce .xxii.e chapitre.

58 D E dessus de nous et. 61 Physicorum, V.6.23ob 25-27.
59 Juntas, t.c. 61, 140A. 62 From the antiphon for the dead in the
60 D Aristote ou en ce chapitre .xxii.e; E Mass and Breviary.
 334 I Ls Livre du ciel et du monde
par ce appert la posicion desus dite très raisonnable, car l’en // ( 143a) diroit
que la terre, qui est le plus vil element, et les elemens de cibas font leur cir-
285 cuite très isnelement et l’aer souverain et le feu moins isnelement, si comme il
appert aucune foiz par les cometes, et la lune et son ciel encore plus tardive­
ment, car elle fait en un moys ce que la terre fait en un jour naturel. E t ainsi
en procédant tous jours, les plus hauz cielz font leur revolucion plus tardive­
ment combien que en ce soit aucune instance, et est ce procès siques au ciel
290 des estoilles fichiees lequel repose du tout ou il fait sa revolucion très tardive­
ment et selon aucuns en .xxxvi.mans,63 ce est en cent ans meu par un degré.
Item, par ceste voie et non par autre peut estre legierement solute la question
que propose Aristote ou .xxi.e chapitre aveques pou de addicion. E t ne con­
vient pas mettre tant de degrés de choses ne teles difficultés obscures comme
295 Aristote met en sa response ou xxii.e chapitre. Item, ce est chose très rai­
sonnable que les corps64 qui sont / (143b) plus grans ou plus loing du centre
facent leur circuite ou revolucion en plus de temps que ceulz qui sont plus
près du centre, car se il les faisoient en temps equal ou mendre, leurs mouve-
mens seroient isnelz excessivement. E t donques l’en diroit que nature recom-
300 pense et a ordené que les revolucions des corps qui sont plus loing du centre
soient faites en plus grant temps. E t pour ce, le souverain des cielz qui sont
meuz fait65 son circuite ou sa revolucion en très long temps, et encore est il
très isnelement meu pour la grandeur de son circuite. Mais la terre qui fait
très petit circuite si l’a tantost fait par mouvement journal, et les autres corps
305 moiens entre le plus haut et le plus bas font leurs revolucions moiennement,
combien que ce ne soit pas proporcionelment. E t par ceste maniéré, une con-
stellacion qui est vers aquilon, i.e. maior ursa que nous appelions le char, ne
va pas a recul<o)ns66 le char devant les buefz, si comme il yroit posé que il
fust meu de mouvement journal, mes va par droit ordre. Item, // (143c) touz
310 philosophes dient que pour nient est fait par pluseurs ou par grandes opé­
rations ce67 qui peust fait par moins d’operacions ou par plus petites. E t Aris­
tote dist en le .viii.e chapitre du premier que Dieu et nature ne font rien pour
nient. O r est il ainsi que se le ciel est meu de mouvement journal, il convient
mettre es principalz corps du monde et ou ciel .ii. maniérés de mouvemens
3i5 aussi comme contraires : un d’orient en occident et les autres e converso, com­
me souvent dit est. E t avecques ce, il convient mettre une isneleté excessive­
ment grande, car qui bien pense et considéré la hautesce ou distance du ciel
et la grandeur de lui et de son circuite, se tel circuite est fait en un jour, hon-
me ne pourroit ymaginer ne penser comment l’isneleté du ciel est merveil-
320 l<eus)ement68 et excessivement grande et aussi comme inopinable et in­
estimable. E t donques puisque touz les effetz que nous voions peuent estre
63 C .xxxv.m ans. 66 A reculans.
64 B ellez; C omits corps; D E cielz; F celles. 67 D E operacions ou par plus petites ce.
63 D E qui est meu fait. 68 A merveillement.
Book II, Chapter 25, fols. i43a-i43d | 333
have taken above is very reasonable, for it // (143a) could be said that the earth, the
vilest element, along with the other elements here below make their rotation very
fast, that the sovereign air and fire move less fast— as can be observed in the case
o f the comets— and that the moon and lunar sphere m ove still more slowly, for it
moves in a month only the distance the earth travels in a natural day. Proceeding
in this manner, the higher heavens make their revolution more slowly yet, al­
though there is some variation, and this process continues up to the heaven o f the
fixed stars, which is motionless or makes its revolution very slowly, according to
some in thirty-six thousand years or one degree in one hundred years. In this way
and no other can w e solve the question proposed by Aristotle in Chapter Tw enty-
one [see fol. 131a ffi], with only slight additions. It is not necessary to assume so
many degrees o f things nor such obscure difficulties as Aristotle introduces in his
reply in Chapter Tw enty-tw o [see fols. 13 2d ff.]. It is indeed very reasonable that
the bodies that are / (143b) larger or farther from the center should make their
circuit or revolution in longer time than those nearer the center, because, i f they
made their circuit in the same or equal time, their movements would have to be
excessively fast. So we could say that nature compensates by ordaining that the rota­
tions o f the bodies farther from the center shall be accomplished in much longer
time. Accordingly, because o f its great size, the sovereign or primary heaven takes a
very long time to make its circuit or rotation although it moves very fast. But the
earth, which has a very small circuit, can cover the distance in one diurnal m ove­
ment, while the other bodies intermediate between the highest and lowest heavens
accomplish their circuits in time periods midway between the extremes, although
these periods are not proportionate. In this way, a constellation near the north, i.e.,
the Great Bear which we call the Chariot, does not m ove backward, the chariot in
front o f the oxen, as it would if moved with diurnal motion ; but it actually goes
forward in the right direction. // (143c) A ll philosophers say that an action accom­
plished by several or by large-scale operations which can be accomplished by fewer
or smaller operations is done for naught. A n d Aristotle says in Chapter E igh t o f
Book I [see fol. 16b] that G o d and nature do nothing without some purpose. N o w ,
i f it is true that the heavens move with diurnal motion, it becomes necessary to
posit in the major bodies o f the universe and in the heavens two contrary kinds o f
movement : one from east to west and the other from the opposite direction, as we
have often stated. A n d with regard to diurnal motion, we must assume an exces­
sively great speed; for, if we consider thoughtfully the height or distance o f the
heavens, their magnitude, and the immensity o f their circuit, mindful that this cir­
cuit is traveled in but one day’s time, no man could imagine or conceive how mar­
velously swift and excessively great, how far beyond belief and estimation their
speed must be. Since, then, all the effects we see could be produced and all appear­
ances saved by substituting / (143 d) for the diurnal movement o f the heavens a
 J3 6 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
faiz et toutes apparences salveez pour mettre en lieu / (143 d) de ce une petite
operacion, ce est a savoir le mouvement journal de la terre qui est très petite
ou resgart du ciel, sans multeplier tant de operacions si diverses et si outra-
325 geusement grandes, il s’ensuit que Dieu et nature les avroient pour nient
faites et ordenees ; et ce est inconvenient, comme dit est. Item, posé que tout
le ciel soit meu de mouvement journal et que, aveques ce, le .viii.e espere
soit meue d’autre mouvement, si comme mettent les astrologiens, il convient
selon eulz mettre une .ix.e espere qui est meue seulement de mouvement
330 journal. Mais posé que la terre soit meue comme dit est, le .viii.e ciel est meu
d’un seul mouvement tardif, et ainsi par ceste voie il ne convient pas songier
ne adiviner une noviesme espere naturele, invisible et sans estoilles, car Dieu
et nature avroient pour nient faite tele espere quant par autre voie toutes
choses peuent estre aussi comme elles sont. Item, quant // (144a) D ieu fait
335 aucun miracle, l’en doit supposer et tenir que ce fait II sanz muer le commun
cors69 de nature fors au moins que ce peust estre. E t donques se l’en peust
salver que D ieu aloingna le jour ou temps de Josuépar arrester le m ouve­
ment de la terre ou de la region de cibas seulement laquelle est si très petite
et aussi comme un point ou resgart du ciel, sans mettre que tout le monde
340 ensemble fors ce petit point eust esté mis hors de son commun cours70 et de
son ordenance et meismement tielz corps comme sont les corps du ciel, ce
est moult plus raisonnable. E t ce peust estre ainsi salvé, si comme il appert
par la response a la .vii.e raison71 qui fu faite contre ceste opinion. E t sam-
blablement porroit l’en dire du retour du soleil ou temps de Ezechias. O r ap-
345 pert donques comment l’en ne peut monstrer par quelcunque experience que
le ciel soit meu de mouvement journal, car comment que soit, posé que il
soit ainsi meu et la terre non ou la terre meue et le / (144b) ciel non, se un
ouyl72 estoit ou ciel et il voi<s>t73 clerement la terre, elle sembleroit meue, et
se le ouyl74 estoit en terre, le ciel sembleroit meu. E t le voiement n’est pas
350 pour ce deceu, car il ne sent ou voit fors que mouvement est. Mais se il est
de tel corps ou de tel, ce jugement est fait par les sens de dedens, si comme il
met en Perspective, et sont telz sens souvent deceus en telz cas, si comme il fu
dit devant de celui qui est en la nef meue.75 Apres est monstré comment par
raisons ne peust estre conclus que le ciel soit ainsi meu. Tiercement, ont esté
355 mises raisons au contraire et que il n’est pas ainsi meu, et nientmoins touz
tiennent et je cuide que il est ainsi meu76 et la terre non : Deus enim firmavit
orbem terre, qui non commovebitur,77 nonobstans les raisons au contraire,
car ce sont persuasions qui ne concludent pas evidanment. Mais considéré
tout ce que dit est, l’en pourroit par ce croire que la terre est ainsi meue
69 C D E F corps. 73 A voit.
70 D E corps. 74 D E oiseau.
71 B la .viii. raison. 75 B C D E F Ï 1appert. Witelo, Opticae, p. 183.
72 D E oisel. See i38d-i39a and note 22.
Book II, Chapter 25, fols. I44a-i44b J3 7
smaller operation, namely, the diurnal motion o f the earth, a very small body as
compared with the heavens, and by so doing avoid the multiplication o f operations
so diverse and so outrageously great, then it follows that G o d and nature must
have created and arranged them for naught; and this is an inadmissible conclusion,
as we have often said. Assuming the entire heavens to move^with dailyjmotion
and, in addition, assuming the eighth sphere to have a different motion, as the as­
tronomers believe, then we must necessarily posit a ninth sphere m oving only with
diurnal motion. However, i f we assume that the earth moves as stated above, then
the eighth heaven moves with a single slow motion and it is consequently unneces­
sary to imagine a ninth natural sphere invisible and starless ; for G o d and nature
would have made this ninth sphere for naught since by another method, i.e., as­
suming the earth to move, everything can remain exactly as it is. Also, when //
(144a) G o d performs a miracle, w e must assume and maintain that He does so
without altering the common course o f nature, in so far as possible. Therefore, if
we can save appearances b y taking for granted that G o d lengthened the day in
Joshua’s time by stopping the movement o f the earth or merely that o f the region
here below— which is so very small and like a mere dot compared to the heavens—
and b y maintaining that nothing in the whole universe— and especially the huge
heavenly bodies— except this little point was put off its ordinary course and regu­
lar schedule, then this would be a much more reasonable assumption. A n d appear­
ances can be saved in this way, as is evident from the reply to the seventh argument,
presented against this opinion [see fol. i42d]. A s much could be said with regard
to the return o f the sun in Hezekiah’s time. Thus, it is apparent that one cannot
demonstrate by any experience whatever that the heavens move with diurnal mo­
tion; whatever the fact may be, assuming that the heavens m ove and the earth does
not or that the earth moves and / (144b) the heavens do not, to an eye in the heav­
ens which could see the earth clearly, it would appear to m ove; i f the eye were on
the earth, the heavens would appear to move. N o r would the vision o f this eye be
deceived, for it can sense or see nothing but the process o f the movement itself.
But if the motion is relative to some particular body or object, this judgment is
made by the senses from within that particular body, as Witelo explains in The P er­
spective ; and the senses are often deceived in such cases, as was related above in the
example o f the man on the m oving ship. Afterward, it was demonstrated how it
cannot be proved conclusively by argument that the heavens move. In the third
place, we offered arguments opposing their diurnal motion. However, everyone
maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth: For
G o d hath established the world which shall not be moved, in spite o f contrary
reasons because they are clearly not conclusive persuasions. However, after con­
sidering all that has been said, one could then believe that the earth moves and not
76 B C D E F omit et nientmoins.. .ainsi meu. rae, qui non commovebitur.
77 Cf. Ps. 92:1— Etenim firmavit orbem ter-
 jj8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
360 et le ciel non, et n’est pas evidant du contraire; et toutevoies, ce semble //
(144c) de prime face autant ou plus contre raison naturelle comme sont les
articles de nostre foy ou touz ou pluseurs. E t ainsi ce que je ay dit par esbate-
ment en ceste maniéré peut aler valoir a confuter78 et reprendre ceulz qui
voudroient nostre foy par raysons impugner.
26. Ou .xxvi.e chapitre il reprouve une opinion de la figure
de la terre et met la doubte que pluseurs <f>ontJ du
lieu et du repos de la terre.
T . Semblablement fait doubte de la figure de la terre, car il samble a au­
cuns que elle est sperique ou ronde, mais <as>2 autres semble que elle est lee
et de telle figure comme est une large campane ou d’un tymbre.
G . Il cuidoient que elle <fust>3 de tele figure comme seroit la maoule d’un
5 large tymbre [Fig. 34] qui avroit la face desus. Apres il met leurs raisons.
T . E t faisoient cest arguement car le soleil quant il recouse et quant il lieve,
la terre le nous muce partie apres autre selon ligne droite et non pas selon
porcion de ligne circulaire, si comme il deust estre se la terre fust de figure
sperique.
10 G . J (i44d) Il leur sembloit que quant le soleil est demi-couchié et appert
demi que la ligne qui divise ces .ii. parties, quant a nostre resgart, fust courve
aussi comme un arc se la terre fust ronde. E t ceste ligne est droite. Apres il
met la response.*
T . Mais il ne consideroient pas comment le soleil est très loing de la terre
i5 et comment la rondesce ou circuite de la terre est très grant ou resgart de
nous. E t pour ce, combien que il soit petit ou resgart du soleil, nientmoins il
est si grant ou resgart de nous que la porcion de lui nous semble droite; mais
pour ceste fantasie il ne convient pas croire que la terre ne soit ronde.
G . Apres il met une autre raison.
20 T . Item, encore opposent il et dient que il convient que la terre ait ceste fi­
gure plate et droite pour ce que elle repose. E t ce sont les maniérés que l’en
dist du mouvement et du repos de la terre.
G . Aristote ne respont pas a la desreniere raison pour ce, par aventure, que
elle a trop pou d’apparence et sera réprouvée apres. // (145 a) Apres5 il met la
25 doubte des anciens quant au repos de la terre.
78 B C D E F omit aler; D E valoir et confu- 3 A omits fust,
ter ; F confuteur. 4 F omits A pres... response.
1 A B sont. 5 A Glose apres.
2 A omits as.
Book II, Chapters 25-26, fols. I44c-i45a J39
the heavens, for the opposite is not clearly evident. Nevertheless, at first sight, //
(144c) this seems as much against natural reason as, or more against natural reason
than, all or many o f the articles o f our faith. What I have said by way o f diversion
or intellectual exercise can in this manner serve as a valuable means o f refuting and
checking those who would like to impugn our faith b y argument.
26. In Chapter Twenty-six he refutes an opinion relative to the
shape o f the earth and presents the question that many have
raised regarding the proper place and repose o f the earth.
T . There is likewise disagreement regarding the shape o f the earth ; to some it
seems to be spherical or round, while to others it appears to be flat and shaped like a
bell or drum.
G . Th ey thought it was the shape o f the mold o f a large drum [see Fig. 34] with
the face upward. Next, he states their reasons.
T . Th ey argued thus because the sun when rising and setting is hidden from us
by the earth one part after another along a straight line, and not as part o f a circular
line as it should be i f the earth was spherical.
\ te rrd /
Fig- 34
G . I (i44d) It seemed to them that, when the sun is half set and looks like one-
half o f itself, the line o f the horizon which divides the tw o halves as we look at it
should be curved like an arc i f the earth was round. A n d this line is straight. His
reply follows.
T . However, they did not consider how far the sun is from the earth and how
vast the earth’s sphere and circumference are relative to ourselves. So, although
the terrestrial sphere is small in comparison with the sun, it is so large compared to
us that the portion we see seems straight; but we must not believe the earth is not
round merely because o f this deceptive phenomenon.
G . N o w he presents another argument.
T . Still they are opposed and say that the earth must have this flat and horizon­
tally straight shape for the reason that it is at rest. These, then, are the various
theories that have been proposed about the motion or rest o f the earth.
G . Aristotle makes no reply to the last argument, perhaps, because it is so im­
probable and also because it will be refuted later [see fol. 146a]. // (145a) Next, he
turns to a discussion o f the question raised by the earlier philosophers about the
reason that the earth rests.
 J 40 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . O r vient une doubte qui fait tous merveillier, meismes ceulz qui sont
raisonnables, ce est a savoir car nous voions que se une petite partie de terre
est haut eslevee et l’en la lesse aler, elle est meue et ne repose pas. E t [Fig.
3 5, marginal] tant est plus grande ou plus pesante, et elle est meue en bas plus
30 isnelement; et toute la terre qui est en l’air aussi comme eslevee n’est pas
meue et donques comment peut reposer si grant pesanteur? Item, quant teles
petites parties de terre sont lessiees aler de haut et descendues en bas, se l’en
oste de la terre qui est desouz elles, <et autre chose ne leur résisté, elles)6
descendront encore plus en bas. E t pour ce, est ce un philosophisme7 ou ques-
35 tion dont touz les anciens sont esbahis et merveilliéz.
G . Car il leur semble que se toute la terre qui est si très pesante se repose
en l’air ou en l’eaue, que chascune de ses parties deust reposer en l’air en quel-
cunque lieu, et que, se elles descendent, aussi deust elle descendre.
27. O u .xxvii.e chapitre il commence a reprover .v. / (145 b)
causes que les anciens mettoient du repos de la terre.
T . Encore est ce grant merveille des solucions que les anciens faisoient a
ceste doubte, car elles sont plus inconvenientes que n’est la doubte ; car les
uns dient que ce est pour ce que <ce>1 qui est desouz en bas est infini, et de
ceste opinion2 fu Xenofanes de K o lo < f)e .3
G . Il entendoient que desouz est terre touzjours en aval sans fin et sans
terme.
T . E t ce dient il afin que il ne labourent plus en enquerant la cause du re­
pos de la terre. E t de ce se esbahist et merveilla Empedocles4 en disant que
ceulz qui par leur langue ont ceste vanité moutepliee ont petit entendement
6 A omits et autre chose...elles. 3 A Kolose; B Zenofanes de Kalofe; C
7 B E F sophisme; C phophisme; D sou- Kalofe; D Cenofanes de Kalofe; E Cenofanes
phisme. de Kalophe; F Xenofanes de Kalofe. Text in
omits ce.
b X
Hermann Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorsokrati-
ce qui est infini en bas et de ceste op.; ker (Berlin, 1912), vol. 1, 53 and 63.
E ce que est infini en bas et de ceste op. 4 Diels, Fragmente, vol. 1, 241.
Book II, Chapters 26-27, fol. 143b | J41
T . N o w we come to the question that has impressed all earlier thinkers, even those
who have treated it with sound and reasonable arguments, namely, we can see that,
if a small amount o f earth is lifted up to a height and then allowed to go free, it
moves and does not remain motionless. T h e [see Fig. 3 5] larger or heavier the
amount, the faster it moves downward. But the whole earth which is, as it were,
raised up into the air does not move. A n d the question is : how can such a great
weight remain at rest? Then, when such small particles o f earth are let go from a
t>
Fig- 35
height and fall to the ground and i f one takes away the earth beneath them and if
there is nothing else to resist or oppose them, they will m ove still farther down­
ward. This philosophisme or question leaves our older philosophers in wonderment
and perplexity.
G . For it seems to them that, i f all the very heavy earth can remain at rest in the
air or in water, each part o f it must also rest in the air or in some place or other,
and if the parts move downward, then the whole earth must move downward also.
27. In Chapter Twenty-seven he begins the refutation o f five /
(145b) causes proposed by ancient philosophers to explain
how the earth rests.
T . The solutions to this question proposed by the older philosophers are so ex­
traordinary that they are more incomprehensible than the question itself. Some say
it is that the earth below reaches on and on downward to infinity, and this was the
opinion o f Xenophanes o f Colophon.
G . T h ey meant that down below there is earth without end or limit.
T . Th ey made this proposal in order to avoid further inquiry into the causes o f
the earth’s resting. Empedocles was amazed and astounded at this statement and
declared that those who had repeated such utter nonsense had but little understand-
J42 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
io en ce que il dient que les parfondeurs ou parfondeces de terre sont infinies, et
que aussi l’air en haut est infini.
G . T o u t ce fu reprouvé ou premier livre5 en le .xi.e et .xii.e chapitre. Apres
il met la seconde cause ou response.
T . Mais les autres dient que la terre est mise en eaue; et est une opinion
15 très ancienne et dist l’en que Taies Milesius le disoit, et que la terre se repose
U (145c) pour ce que elle noe en eaue aussi comme noeroit un fust ou une tele
chose qui ne repose pas en l’air mais en l’eaue.
G . Taies Milesius fu un des .vii. sages. E t sembleroit que le Prophète con-
formast son parler a cest opinion quant il dist de D ieu : Q u i firmavit terram
20 super aquas.6 Mais ce est a entendre de aucuns fleuves qui passent parmi la
terre ou par souz terre, ou pour ce que pluseurs cités sont fondées sus eaues
selon7 ce que dist le Prophète : D e orbe terrarum que Deus ipse super maria
fundavit eum: et super flumina preparavit eum.89Apres il reprouve cest opi­
nion par .iii. raisons.
25 T . E t celui qui [disoit] ainsi ne pensoit pas que par semblable raison, l’e<n> 9
peut demander de celle eaue qui soustient la terre par quoy elle est sous-
tenue, car eaue qui est elevee en l’air n’i repos<e>10 pas se elle ne est en chose
qui la soustienne. Item, aussi comme l’air est plus legier et moins pesant que
l’eaue, aussi est la terre plus pesante que l’eaue, et donques ne peut estre par
30 nature le plus ligier desouz le plus pesant. / (143d) Item, se toute la terre en-
samble repose naturelement en eaue, donques chascune de ses petites parties
devroit noer en l’eaue. E t nous voions le contraire, car chascune tele petite
terre mise en eaue va au fons et tant est plus grande, et elle descent en l’eaue
plus isnelement.
35 G . Apres il met la cause de l’erreur de ces anciens.
T . E t ceulz qui assignent teles causes deffaillent pour ce que il ne enquie-
rent pas de la doubte ou question tant comme il est possible, mais leur sou-
fist tant que celui qui demande ne die rien au contraire. Mais qui veult bien
enquérir la vérité d’une chose, il doit considérer toutes les doubtes, non pas
40 seulement que l’en lui fait, mais que l’en pourroit faire.
G . La premiere opinion met que la terre est soustenue de terre ; la seconde
que de l’eaue. Apres il met la tierce qui met ce est de l’aer.
T . Mais Anaximenes et Anaxagoras et D em <o)critus11 dient que la terre
se repose pour cause de sa figure qui est lee, et pour ce, elle ne peut divi-//
45 (146a) ser l’aer mais chevauche l’aer qui est souz elle; et pluseurs corps faiz
par artifice de certaines figures se tiennent en haut et résistent aus vens, et
sont fors a mouvoir pour leur resistence et a estre traiz en bas. E t semblable­
ment pour ce que la terre a grant latitude et est bien lee, l’aer qui est desouz
5 B omits ou premier livre. 8 Cf. Ps. 23:1-2— Domini est terra, et ple-
6 Ps. 135:6. nitudo eius: orbis terrarum, et universi qui
7 A eaues et selon. habitant in eo. Quia ipse super maria fundavit
Book II, Chapter 27, fols. i45C-i46a | J42
in g o f what was meant by infinity in the deeps or depths o f the earth and in the
air above.
G . A ll this was rejected in Chapters Eleven and Tw elve o f Book I [see fols.
i9C-22a], N o w he presents the second cause or reply.
T . However, others say that the earth is resting on water. This is a very ancient
opinion. Thales Milesius used to think so and based his belief on the fact that the
earth is at rest, // (145 c) swimming in the water like a barrel or something similar
which does not float in the air but does so in water.
G . Thales Milesius was one o f the Seven Sages. It would seem that the Prophet
[David] confirmed this opinion when he said : W ho established the earth above the
waters. But this reference is to certain rivers which flow between their earthen
banks or underground and to the many cities founded above them, as the Prophet
says. . . o f the world, for G o d himself established it upon the seas and prepared it
upon the rivers. Then he refutes this opinion with three arguments.
T . He who [spoke] thus was not aware o f the fact that, for the same reason, we
can ask what supports this water which supposedly is holding up the earth; for
water raised in the air will not remain suspended unless it rests on something that
will support it. Just as air is lighter and less heavy than water, so is the earth heav­
ier than water, and by nature the lighter cannot be beneath the heavier. / (143 d)
Again, if the whole mass o f the earth rests naturally upon the water, then each par­
ticle o f earth should float in it ; we can observe the contrary, for each little particle
put in water sinks to the bottom, and the larger the particle, the faster it sinks.
G . N ext he states what caused the older philosophers to make this error.
T . Those who theorize in this manner fail to discover the facts because they do
not pursue the problem or question as far as possible ; rather, they are satisfied if
their opponent says nothing to the contrary. However, he who seriously desires to
discover the truth o f anything must take all questions into consideration, not only
those actually being asked but also any that could be asked.
G . The first opinion maintains that the earth is supported by earth, the second
that it is supported by water. He presents now the third, which holds that it is sup­
ported by air.
T . But Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and Democritus hold that because o f its flat
shape the earth is at rest, and, therefore, it cannot divide or separate // (146a) the
air but rides upon the air beneath it; and many objects made in certain shapes stay
up in the air and offer resistance to the winds, and because o f their resistance they
are difficult to be moved and pulled downward. And, similarly, since the earth is
very broad and wide, the air beneath it is compressed and has no place to go to
eum: et super flumina praeparavit eum. 10 A reposa.
9 A C F le. 11 A Demecritus.
444 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
elle est comprimé et n’a lieu ou il se puisse transferer pour faire voie a la
50 tierce12 terre, et pour ce elle ne peut descendre outre. E t a monstrer que aer
comprimé peut soustenir choses pesantes, les devant dis amainent pluseurs
exemples ou arguemens, si comme de uns vaisseaux appelléz clepsedres par
quoy l’en fait que l ’aer est dedens l’eaue et desouz eaue.13
G . Apres il reprouve ceste opinion par .iii. raisons.
55 T . Mais ce ne peut estre; premièrement, car la figure de la terre ne est pas
lee ne plate, mais est ronde.
G . 14 Si comme il sera declairié apres.
T . Item, selon leurs dis, la latitude de la terre ne seroit pas cause de son /
(146b) repos, mais la grandeur de elle qui comprent grandement de aer souz
60 elle qui n’a lieu ou il se puisse trestourner. E t donques se la terre est ronde,
aussi bien pour ce que elle <est)13 grande comprent elle grant aer desouz soy ;
et donques selon leur raison, aussi bien reposeroit elle, se elle estoit sperique
ou ronde. Item, ceste doubte ne resgarde pas seulement la terre, mais tous les
corps du monde aussi comme se nous eussons encore commencement a de-
65 terminer se les corps ont mouvement naturel ou non, et se il ont mouvement
violent. E t pour ce que nous avons a nostre povoir tout ce déterminé devant,
nous en userons maintenant.
G . T o u t ce fu déterminé ou premier livre en pluseurs chapitres.
T . Car se les corps ne ont mouvement naturel, il n’ont pas mouvement
70 violent, et se il n’ont ne naturel ne violent, rien ne seroit meu. E t tout ce est
déterminé devant. E t encore se ainsi estoit, rien ne reposeroit, car aussi com­
me mouvement est naturel ou violent, aussi est repos. E t se mouvement
<est>16 selon na- // (146c) ture, le repos auquel tent tel mouvement ne est
pas violent. E t donques se la terre repose maintenant par violence ou milieu,
75 le mouvement par quoy elle y descent est violent. E t ce dient touz les desus
diz et que elle descent en bas par la force et violence de la circungirarion ou
revolucion du ciel, car en choses qui telement sont tournees et girees le plus
pesantes se traient tous jours au melieu.
G . Par cele giracion ceulz qui vennent le blé font venir les pierretes ou mi-
80 lieu du van.
T . E t touz ceulz qui mettent que la terre fu engendree et faite dient que par
ceste maniéré elle vint au milieu.
12 B C D E F omit tierce. 15 A. omits est.
13 B D E omit et desouz eaue. 16 A qr.
14 D E omit Glose.
Book II, Chapter 27, fols. I46b-i46c | 444
make room for the earth, and so the earth cannot descend any farther. T o show that
air under pressure can support heavy bodies, the aforementioned philosophers pre­
sent many examples or arguments such as, for instance, the evidence provided by
vessels called clepsydrae which shut air inside and under the water.
G . N ext, he refutes this opinion with three arguments.
T . This cannot be true, however; first o f all, because the shape o f the earth is not
wide and flat, but round.
G . A s will be shown later [see fols, ijo d ff.].
T . According to their opinion, the flatness o f the earth is not the cause o f its /
(146b) immobility, but rather its great size which compresses the air underneath to
such an extent that it has nowhere to escape. Therefore, i f the earth is round, just
as it is o f great size, it must confine and compress a great amount o f air beneath it;
and then, to follow their reasoning, i f it were spherical or round, it would also rest
on this air. This question concerns not only the earth but also all the bodies in the
world, just as though we had to start again at the beginning to discover whether or
not bodies have a natural motion and whether they have a motion imposed upon
them by violence. Since w e have already decided these matters to the best o f our
ability, we shall now make use o f our conclusions.
G . These matters were all decided in several chapters o f Book I [seechs. 2-4].
T . I f these bodies have no natural motion, they have no violent movement, and
i f they have neither natural nor violent motion, then nothing would move. A ll this
was settled before [see fol. 26b]. Besides, if the facts were thus, nothing would be
at rest; for just as motion is either natural or enforced, so also is rest. I f motion is
natural, // (146c) rest, which is its purpose or end, is not enforced. Consequently, i f
the earth is forced to rest in the center o f the world, then the motion by which it
falls there is violent. That the earth is m oved downward b y the force and pressure
o f the circumgyration or revolution o f the heavens is the opinion o f all the philos­
ophers mentioned above, for with things that turn and revolve in this way, the
heavier ones are always drawn to the center.
G . B y such gyration those who winnow wheat make the grains gather together
in the center o f the winnow.
T . A ll those who maintain that the earth was generated and made believe it came
to the center o f the world in this manner.

28. Ou .xxviii.e chapitre il reprouve .ii. autres causes
ou opinions du repos de la terre.1
T . Aucuns quierent la cause2 du repos de la terre et dient les uns que ce est
pour sa grandeur et pour sa latitude.
G . Ceste est ja réprouvée.
T . E t les autres, si comme Empedocles, dient que la cause est pour ce que
le ciel est environ elle et est <si>3très / (i46d) isnelement meu que par ce il ne
seuffre que la terre se moeve; aussi comme l’eaue qui est en vaisel lequel l’en
tournie de4 bas en haut en circuite, quant le vaisel est <isnelment>5 tournié
et il est en haut, l’ <ea)ue6 ne chiet pas, et ne est qui l’empeesche fors l’isnele-
té du mouvement.
G . Ainsi mettent les enfans par esbatement une escuele o de l ’eaue en un
cercle de tonneau et puis revirent7 et tournent ce cercle isnelement sans ce
que l’eaue cheie. Apres il reprouve ces opinions.
T . Mais, posé que la vélocité ou isneleté de la giracion ou revolucion du
ciel, ne aussi la latitude de la terre ne empeeschassent en rien le mouvement
de elle, et que l’aer desouz elle peust estre meu et transporté sans estre en rien
comprimé, il convendroit que la terre fust meue quelcunque part, car se elle
fu meu<e>8 au milieu par violence, elle y repose par violence; et donques il
convient que par nature et par neccessité elle ait aucun mouvement par9 //
(147a) lequel elle se partiroit du milieu. E t se elle estoit indifferanment encli­
ne a estre meue en haut ou en bas et non plus d’une part que d’autre, donques
l’aer qui est desus elle ne l’empeescheroit pas que elle ne peust estre meue
amont, ne celui qui est souz elle que elle ne peust estre meue en bas, car une
meisme cause est d’une part comme d’autre.
G . Apres il met la seconde raison par especial contre Empedocles <qui
d isoit)10 que devant que le monde fust fait et que le ciel fust meu, les ele-
mens estoient en une confusion par discorde,11 et amistié les mist en orde-
nance et par ce le monde fu fait.
T . Item, l’en pourroit dire contre Empedocles et lui demander quant les
elemens estoient separéz un de l’autre et en confusion, quelle cause estoit
pourquoy la terre se reposoit.
G . Terra autem erat inanis et vacua,12 vel incomposita.
T . E t l’en ne peut dire que ce fust la giracion ou revolucion du ciel, car en­
core ne estoit il pas meu selon Empedocles.
G . I (147b) Apres il reprouve par .iii. raisons la cause que mettoit Em pe­
docles du mouvement de la terre.
T . E t ce est inconvenient dire que, au premier quant le monde fu fait, le
ÎL ta
omits the entire chapter heading. 4 A repeats de.
causes. 5 A omits isnelment.
A B omit si. 6 A lieue.
Book II, Chapter 28, fols. I46d-i47b | 747
28. In Chapter Twenty-eight he refutes two other explanations or
opinions concerning the cause o f the earth’s immobility.
T . There are some others seeking to explain the cause o f the earth’ s being at rest
who say it is due to its great size and breadth.
G . This opinion has already been rejected [see fol. 145d].
T . Others, like Empedocles, state that the reason is that the surrounding heav­
ens move so very / (i46d) rapidly that they do not permit the earth to m ove, just as
water does not fall out o f an open receptacle turning circularly upside down when
the receptacle revolves rapidly and reaches the top o f its circuit; and the only thing
that prevents this from happening is the rapidity o f the movement.
G . Children amuse themselves by putting water in a basin or round tub and then
turning it completely over upside down and back again so rapidly that no water
falls out. N o w he rejects these opinions.
T . Still, if we assume that the velocity or speed o f this gyration or revolution o f
the heavens and that the earth’ s breadth in no w ay prevent its movement and that
the air beneath it can m ove and transfer itself without being compressed, then, the
earth would have to m ove somewhere; for, if it were m oved to the center b y force,
it would rest there by violence, and by both nature and necessity it would have to
have some motion // (147a) in order to m ove away from the center. I f the earth
were inclined to move indifferently either up or down, not in one direction more
than in the other, then the air above it would not prevent its going up, nor would
the air below prevent its going down, for the same cause exists in one direction as
in the other.
G . He next presents his second argument against Empedocles in particular, who
used to say that, before the] earth was made and the heavens began to move, the
four elements were in a confused state of discord and strife and that friendship [or
fraternity] established order among them and that thus the world was made.
T . One could object to Empedocles’ theory and ask him what caused the earth
to remain at rest at the time the elements were separated from one another and in
chaos or confusion.
G . A n d the earth was void and empty, and without form.
T . It cannot be due to the gyration or revolution o f the heavens because, ac­
cording to Empedocles, they had not yet begun to move.
G . / (147b) N ext he refutes b y three arguments Empedocles’ explanation o f the
earth’ s movement.
T . It is irrational to state that, at the beginning when the world was made, the
10 A omits qui disoit.
7 A revinrent.
11 B concorde; D E discort.
8 A meu.
9 A repeats par. 12 Gen. 1:2.

mouvement ou giracion du ciel fist la terre descendre o u 13 milieu, car pour
quelle cause <y>14descendraient les parties de terre maintenant et toutes cho­
ses pesantes puisque la giracion du ciel ne attaint ou approche de nous ?
G . Car combien que le ciel m oeve15 le feu et le haut aer, comme souvent
dit est, toutes voies il ne meut pas circulairement les elemens de cibas.
T . Item, le feu monte en haut pour aucune cause et non pas pour la gira­
cion du ciel, car elle le feist descendre ; et donques se de sa nature il est meu
a aucun lieu, l’en doit cuider que aussi la terre par nature est meue en bas et
non pas pour la giracion du ciel. Item, les choses ne sont pas pesantes et legi-
eres pour la giracion du ciel, car, selon Empedocles, avant que <le>16 ciel
tournast estoient les elemens pesans et legiers. E t donques est oient eulz en­
clins par nature a estre meuz a certains lieus, // (147c) car se le monde estoit
infini, ce seroit impossible que il eust ne haut ne bas ; et par ce sont détermi­
nés pesant et legier, que l’un va bas et l’autre haut. E t pluseurs ont esté de-
ceuz en assignant les causes du repos17 de la terre.
G . Apres il met le quint opinion.
T . E t aucuns sont qui dient que elle repose pour la similitude du regart que
elle a au ciel par equale distance, et un des anciens qui ce tenoient fu Anaxi-
mandres. E t sa raison18 estoit car puisque la terre est colloquiee ou milieu et
que elle resgarde toutes les parties du ciel semblablement, il ne convient pas
que elle se m oeve19 plus en haut que en bas, ne vers une partie du ciel que
vers l’autre. E t aveques ce, ce est impossible que elle soit meue ensamble a
parties contraires et pour ce convient il par neccessité que elle se repose.
G . Apres il reprouve ceste cause par .v. raisons.
T . Mais ce dit est legierement prouvé et ne est pas vray; premièrement,
car par ceste raison toute chose qui seroit mise ou milieu20 du monde se re-
poseroit, et donques le feu y reposeroit se il y estoit; car la raison / (i47d) que
il mettent ne est pas propre pour la terre plus que pour autre chose. Item, ce
que il dient n’est pas neccessaire, car la terre ne repose pas seulement ou mi­
lieu mais est meue au milieu, car au lieu ou est meue une partie de la terre, a
ce lieu meisme seroit elle meue toute se elle en estoit hors, et la ou une chose
est meue par nature, illeques repose elle par nature. E t donques ne est ce pas
pour ce que elle resgarde semblablement et equalment les parties du ciel, car
ce est commun a toute chose qui seroit mise ou milieu; mais estre meu au
milieu est propre a la terre. Item, ce est inconvenient de quérir ou assigner
cause pourquoy la terre repose21 ou milieu et non quérir cause pourquoy le
D E du. 18 D E et sanz raison.
k tu x
omits y. 19 E moienne.
moienne. 20 E lieu.
omits le. 21 D E terre ne repose.
B C D E F mouvement.
Book II, Chapter 28, fols. 147c-14yd | J49
motion or gyration o f the heavens made the earth descend to the center, or else
w h y should particles o f earth and likewise all heavy objects fall to earth now when
the gyration o f the heavens does not come close to us?
G . For, although the heavens move the fire and upper air, as has been often
stated, they still do not move the elements here below with circular motion.
T . Again, fire rises on high for some cause, but not because o f the gyration o f the
heavens, since such gyration would force it downward; therefore, if fire is moved
naturally to some place, we can believe that the earth is naturally m oved down­
ward also, and not by the gyration o f the heavens. T o o , the gyration o f the heav­
ens does not make things heavy and light because, according to Empedocles, the
elements were already heavy and light before the heavens began to turn and, thus,
were inclined by nature to m ove to certain places; // (147c) if the world were in­
finite, it would have neither up nor down, and heavy and light are characterized by
the fact that one goes down and the other up. M any have been mistaken in adduc­
ing the causes for the earth to be at rest.
G . His statement o f the fifth opinion follows.
T . There are some who say that it rests because it is equidistant in every direc­
tion from the heavens; among the older philosophers, Anaximander was o f this
opinion. He argued that, since the earth is fixed in the middle and looks at every
part o f the heavens equally, thus it cannot m ove upward more than downward nor
nearer one part o f the heavens than another. Besides, since it is impossible that the
earth m ove as a unit in contrary directions, it must o f necessity remain motion­
less.
G . He refutes this explanation by five arguments.
T . This statement is ingeniously argued, but not true. First, by this line o f rea­
soning, everything located in the center o f the world would remain there and, thus,
fire, if so placed, would remain there, because the reason / (i47d) they give is not
correct for the earth more than for anything else. What they say is also not neces­
sary, for the earth not only rests at, but is moved to the center; in the place where
a part o f the earth is moved, there precisely would the whole earth be moved if it
were outside its place. Where a thing moves naturally, there it rests naturally. The
earth does not m ove simply because from the center it looks out equally and in­
differently upon the various parts o f the heavens, for anything so situated would
do likewise, but movement toward the center is peculiar to the earth. It is not fit­
ting to seek or assign cause for the earth’ s resting at the center and then neglect to
 JJO | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 28, fols. 1482-1480 JJi

feu repose en haut sanz monter et sans descendre, car se il a ce lieu par na­ determine the reason that fire rests on high, without rising higher or falling lower,
ture, ausi convient il par neccessité que la terre ait son lieu par nature.
for, if this is fire’s natural place, then the earth must also have its natural place.
75 G . E t donques elle y repose par sa nature. Apres il met <l)a22 quarte rai­ G . So, it rests there by reason o f its nature. He now states the fourth reason, re­
son en répétant / / (148a) leurs arguemens.
peating // (148a) their arguments.
T . Item, se cest lieu ne est pas naturel a la terre mais elle y repose par nec­
T . I f this place is not natural to the earth and if it must rest there because o f the
cessité pour la similitude ou equale distance, il convient que il quierent et
factor o f equal distance, then they must seek to explain the fact that fire is at rest.
assignent cause du repos du feu. Car de la terre il disoient que ausi comme
Th ey used to say about the earth that they considered it motionless or unable to
80 une pel qui est fort tiree equalment de toutes pars ne pourroit estre rompue,
move at the center o f the world in the same way that a skin stretched tight in every
et comme celui qui avroit très grant fain et très grant soif equalment et avroit
direction cannot be torn or broken and in the same way that a man equally very
près de soy equalment a amengier et a boire, semblablement il disoient que
hungry and thirsty stands unable to move at an equal distance from food and
par tele indifference repose la terre ou milieu.
drink.
G . Il leur sembloit que se une pel est de equal force en toutes ses parties et
G . Th ey assumed that a skin or rope equallys trong in all its parts and pulled
85 equalment tiree de toutes pars ou une corde, que celle chose ne romproit pas,
equally in every direction could not break because a break in one place would mean
car par tele raison comme elle romproit en23 un lieu, par tele raison romproit
a break in every place and, thus, the skin or rope would be broken up into indivisi­
elle partout et elle seroit divisée en parties indivisibles. Mais il est certain du
ble parts. But the contrary is certain to occur if the forces that pull are stronger than
contraire se les vertus qui tirent estoient plus fortes que la resistence de la pel
the resistance o f the skin or rope. A n d it is naturally impossible, / (148b) as much
ou de la corde. E t est impossible par na- / (148b) turetant pour le mouvement
by movement o f the heavens and change in the forces that pull or are pulled as by
90 du ciel et l’alteracion des choses tirantes et tirees, tant pour autres mutacions
other mutations, that this equality, assuming it to exist, could endure for any
que celle equalité24 peust, se elle estoit, longuement durer. E t aussi de celui
length o f time. Th e same holds for the man who is hungry and thirsty.
qui a fain et soif.
T . It is strange also that these [older philosophers] should inquire about the
T . Item, ce est merveille comment il enqueroient du repos de la terre et ne
earth at rest and make no mention o f any reason that one object rises and that an­
faisoient mencion pour quelle cause une chose monte en haut et l’autre des-
other falls to the middle if there is no resistance to cause hindrance. What they do
95 cent au milieu se il n’i a qui l ’empeesche. Mais encore ne est pas voir ce que il
ray is not true, for what rests at the center o f the world does so because there is no
dient, que la chose qui est ou milieu du monde se repose pour ce que il ne est
season for it to m ove one w ay rather than another ; to attain this condition it need
raison pourquoy que elle fust meue a une part plus que <a>23 autre, car pour
not rest nor move as a whole in one direction, but one part may go one way and the
ce ne convient il pas que elle repose, mais que elle soit meue non pas toute
other parts another. B y their own argument, if a sphere o f fire were at the center, it
a une part mais une partie a une part et les autres <a>26autres. Car par leur raison
would rest there just as the earth does since it would look out at all parts o f the
100 meisme, se une partie de feu ronde estoit ou milieu et ou centre, il se repo-
heavens in the same way, and yet it would climb upward, just as we observe fire to
seroit si comme fait la terre, car il resgarderoit semblablement les parties du
m ove if unhindered. However, // (148c) this fiery sphere would not go w holly in
ciel, et toutevoies il monteroit en haut aussi comme nous voions que feu est
one direction because o f the equal attraction and distance o f all its parts in relation
meu se il ne est empeschié. Mais // (148c) il ne iroit pas tout2? d’une part pour
to the heavens, but each part or portion would go toward the opposite part o f the
la similitude et equalité que il a au ciel, mais chascune partie ou porcion iroit
heavens actually nearest it— for instance, the quarter part o f the fiery sphere to the
105 devers la partie du ciel que elle regarde et dont elle est plus près, si comme la
quarter part o f its natural place, and so forth with the other parts— for such a fiery
quarte partie de ce feu a la quarte partie de son lieu naturel et ainsi des autres,
sphere or any other body is not indivisible. It is similar to the case o f a body made
car tel feu ne quelcunque corps ne est pas point indivisible. E t est semblable
smaller by condensation which occupies then a smaller place, while by rarefaction
comme quant .i. corps par condempsacion est fait en mendre lieu ou par
it will require a larger place.
raréfaction en plus grant lieu.
ta k

sa. 25 A. omits a.
omits car par tele raison comme elle 26 Ibid.
romproit en. 27 B C D E F omit tout.
24 D E celle qualité.
 JJ* Le Livre du ciel et du monde
no G . Car en condempsacion chascune partie s’approche du milieu de tel
corps et par rarefaction chascune se en esloingne.
T . E t pour ce, par samblable rayson comme dit est du feu, la terre selon
ses parties se departist du milieu et montast vers le ciel, ne fust ce que le mi­
lieu est son lieu par nature. E t donques avons recitéz presque touz les opi-
115 nions de la figure, du mouvement et du repos de la terre.
29. Ou .xxix.e chapitre il prouve par .iiii. resons que
la terre repose ou milieu du monde.
T . N o u s1 dirons donques premièrement a savoir / (i48d) mon, se la terre a
mouvement ou repos, car, si comme nous avons dit, les uns dient que elle
tourne environ le centre aussi comme2 une autre estoille ; les autres mettent
que elle est ou milieu et que elle est tournee et revolute environ son centre et
5 environ son pole ou ses poles. Mais que ce soit impossible il appert ; première­
ment, car posé que elle soit hors le milieu ou en milieu, il convient par néc­
e s sité que mouvement circulaire lui fust violent, car tel mouvement n’est
pas naturel a la terre. Car chascune partie de elle avroit tel mouvement et
nous voions que toutes tendent au milieu par mouvement droit. E t donques
10 seroit ce mouvement circulaire violent a la terre ; et ce ne est pas possible que
chose violente et qui est hors nature soit perpetuele, et l’ordre du monde est
perpétuel.
G . Ceste rayson est fondée sus ce que un corps simple ne a que un m ouve­
ment simple, si comme il fu dit ou quart chapitre du premier. Mes a ce fu res-
i5 pons ou .xxv.e cha- // (149a) pitre au secont arguement du secont point, car
l’en diroit que la terre a un mouvement naturel circulaire en son lieu et un
autre hors son lieu. E t aussi quant une pierre descent, aveques ce elle est
meue de mouvement journal, si comme il fu fit devant.
T .3 Item, tous corps meuz de mouvement circulaire, excepté le souverain
20 ciel, sont meuz de pluseurs mouvemens.
G . Si comme il appert des cielx des planètes.
T . E t donques se la terre est meue circulairement, posé que ce soit environ
le milieu ou en milieu,4 il convient que ce soit au moins de .ii. mouvemens
circulaires. E t se ainsi estoit, il convendroit que les estoilles fichiees apparus-
25 sent lever et couchier une fois en .i. lieu et autre fois en autre ; et il ne est pas
ainsi.
1 Guthrie, ch. 14. 3 B C D E F omit Tiexte.
2 D tourne vers le centre; E tourne vers le 4 D E omit ou en milieu,
centre autre corne.
Book II, Chapter 29, fols. 148d-149a JJ3
G . In condensation each particle approaches nearer the center, and in rarefac­
tion each moves away from the center.
T . Thus, for the same reason that applies to the fire, the parts o f the earth would
move away from the center and move upward toward the heavens if it were not
that the center is the natural and proper place o f the earth. In this manner we have
recounted nearly all the opinions regarding the shape, motion, and rest or repose
o f the earth.
29. In Chapter Twenty-nine he presents four arguments to prove that
the earth is at rest at the center o f the universe.
T . First, we shall state our opinion as to whether / (i48d) the earth moves or is
immobile; for, as we have already stated, some say it turns around the center just
like another star, and others claim that it is in the center and that it turns and re­
volves around its center and its pole or poles. But that this is impossible can be
shown; first, by assuming that, if it is outside the center or in the center, it must
follow that circular motion would have to be enforced upon it, for such motion
is not natural to the earth. Each part o f the earth would thus have circular motion,
and we can observe that all particles o f the earth tend toward the center by recti­
linear motion. Consequently, this circular motion would be violent to the earth, and
it is impossible that anything violent and unnatural be eternal, and the system o f
the world is eternal.
G . This argument is based upon the fact that a simple body has a single simple
motion, as stated in Chapter Four o f Book I [see fol. 9d]. However, there is a reply
to this argument in Chapter //(149a) Twenty-five in the second argument concern­
ing the second point [see fols. i4 o b -i4 ic ], but we may answer that the earth has a
natural circular movement in its proper place and another outside this place. Be­
sides, when a stone falls, it moves with diurnal motion also, as stated above.
T . A ll bodies having circular motion m ove in other ways too, with the excep­
tion o f the sovereign heaven.
G . As, for instance, the planetary heavens.
T . Therefore, if the earth moves circularly, with the assumption that this mo­
tion is around the center or in the center, then it must have two circular motions.
I f this were the case, the fixed stars should appear to rise and set in one place at one
time and in another place at another; but this is not the case.
G . This consequence is easy to understand, but the argument will not convince
those who maintain that the earth moves only with diurnal motion while the heav­
ens do not move, a theory we discussed in Chapter Twenty-five [see fols. 139c ff.].
JJ4 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . Ceste consequence est legiere a entendre, mais ceste raison a trop pe<u)s
d’apparence contre ceulz qui diroient que la terre est meue seulement de
mouvement journal et le ciel non, jouste ce que fu dit ou .xxv.e chapi- /
30 (149b) tre.
T '. Item, le mouvement des parties de la terre est au milieu et ainsi seroit de
toute la terre, se elle estoit hors du milieu.
G .5
6 Apres il meut une doubte avant que il parface ceste raison.
T . E t se ainsi est que la terre soit maintenant ou centre du monde, donques
35 un meisme point est milieu du monde et de la terre auquel sont meues et ten­
dent7 les choses pesantes par nature et les parties de terre. E t ainsi aucun pour­
rait faire doubte, a savoir mon, se elles sont meues vers ce point en tant com­
me milieu de tout le monde ou en tant comme milieu de la terre.
G . Apres il respont.
40 T . Mais il convient par nécessité que elles soient meues a ce lieu en tant et
selon ce que il est milieu du monde, car les choses legieres, si comme sont les
parties du feu qui sont meues au contraire des pesantes, elles sont meues ad
l’extremité et a la circunference de la region des elemens, ce est a la superfice
concave du ciel qui contient les elemens. E t que un point soit le milieu de la
45 terre et le // (149c) milieu de tout le monde, ce est par accident, car la chose
pesante tent et est meue au milieu ou vers le milieu de la terre, mais ce est se­
lon accident et selon ce que la terre a son milieu ou milieu8 de tout le monde.
G . Car se la terre estoit mise et tenue par force hors du milieu du monde et
une pierre fust lessiee cheoir, ceste pierre ne seroit pas meue vers le milieu de
50 la terre mais vers le centre du monde. E t maintenant elle va vers le centre de
la terre pour ce que il est ou centre du monde. E t ce prouve9 Aristote apres
par signe.
T . E t que la chose pesante soit meue au milieu de la terre il appert par
signe, [Fig. 36] car les choses pesantes ne sont pas meues a terre ou vers terre
55 par equale distance, mes en approchant10 et a semblables ang<l)es.11 E t don­
ques sont elles meues vers un milieu12 ou vers un point qui est le milieu et le
centre de la terre.
G . Se .ii. pierres, / (i49d) .a. et .b., descendent a terre sus .ii. lieus de terre,
.c. et .d., elles ne descendroient pas par lignes équidistantes, mais vendroient
60 tousjours en approchant. E t la ligne .ac. par quoy descent .a. feroit sus la
superfice de la terre .ii. angles, .e. et .f., equalz un a l’autre et aussi feroit
la ligne .bd. E t se .a. et .b. povoient aler siques au centre, elle<s> hurte-
roi<en>t13 une a l’autre. Apres il conclut .ii. choses en parfaisant sa raison.
5 A petit; C pe. 11 A anges; B engelz.
6 D E omit glose. 12 F lieu.
7 B C D E F pendent. 13 A F elle hurteroit; C hurteuroit. Fig. 36
8 B omits ou milieu. is incomplete; e and f i n text probably refer to
9 E reprouve. angles projected on the circumference by con-
10 D E omit mes en approchant. tinuing ac and bd to center o f circle.
Book II, Chapter 29, fols. i49b-i49d | jjj
(149b) T . Th e parts o f the earth move toward the center, and the whole body o f
the earth would do likewise if it were outside the center.
G . Before finishing this argument, he raises a question.
T . I f the earth is now at the center o f the world, then the same point is the middle
o f the world and o f the earth, to which all heavy bodies as well as all parts o f the
earth naturally tend.Thus, one could raise the question o f whether these bodies move
toward this point because it is the center o f the world or, rather, because it is the
center o f the earth.
G . His reply follows.
T . It must be that they move to this place because it is the center o f the world,
for light bodies, like particles o f fire which m ove contrary to heavy particles, m ove
to the extremity and outer circumference o f the region o f the elements, that is, to
the concave surface o f the heavens which contains the elements. That one point
d b
Fig. 36
should be both the middle o f the earth and the // (149c) middle o f the whole world
is accidental, because heavy bodies tend and are moved toward the middle o f the
earth; but this is accidental and only for the reason that the center o f the earth is
also the center o f the world.
G . For, if the earth were placed and held by force outside the center o f the world
and if a stone were allowed to fall, this stone would not move toward the center o f
the earth, but toward the center o f the world. A t present, it goes toward the center
o f the earth because it is also the center o f the world. Aristotle proves this by an
observation.
T . That heavy bodies m ove to the center o f the earth is apparent from obser­
vation, for they do not move to or toward the earth through equal distances or
along parallel lines, but they approach the earth at the same angle. Therefore, they
m ove toward the middle or to a point which is the middle and center o f the earth.
G . If two stones, / (i49d) a and b, fall to earth above two places c and d, they
would not fall along equidistant or parallel lines, but would approach each other
as they fall. A n d line ac a lo n g which a falls would make two angles e an d/equal to
each other above the earth’s surface, and line bd would do the same. I f a and b could
g o on to the center, they would strike against each other. In completing his argu­
ment he concludes with two points [see Fig. 36].
 J j6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . O r appert donques par neccessité que la terre est ou milieu du monde et
65 que elle est immobile pour les causes desus dites.
G . Pour ce, selon les expositeurs, <que)^ elle est meue a son lieu afin que
elle y repose. Mais ceste rayson ne est pas évidente, car les autres elemens ne
reposent pas en leurs lieus et meismement le feu qui est le plus haut et le plus
legier aussi comme la terre est le plus bas element et le plus pesant, car, selon
70 Aristote, le feu est meu circulairement en sa region comme souvent // (150a)
est dit. E t convient que ce soit naturelment, car ce est perpetuelment. Apres
il met la quarte raison.
T . Item, les choses pesantes qui sont par violence gectees tout droit en
haut retournent arriéré ou lieu dont elles partirent, tant soient gectees haut.
75 E t par ce appert que la terre ne est pas meue ne hors du milieu.
G . Ceste raison ne conclut pas evidanment que la terre ne soit meue de
mouvement journal, si comme je dis ou .xxv.e chapitre. Apres il met la cause
du repos de la terre.
T . E t encore appert la cause de ce que elle repose, car se par nature elle est
80 encline a estre meue de toutes pars vers le milieu, si comme nous voions, et le
feu en haut, ce est impossible que quelcunque petite partie de elle soit dere-
chief meue en haut se ce ne est par violence ou par force, car d’un corps ne
est que un mouvement naturel et simple de corps simple. E t d ’un corps ne
peuent estre .ii. mouvemens naturelz contraires; et m ouvem en<t)IS qui est
85 <en>16 bas et au milieu est / (150b) contraire a celui qui est en haut. E t don­
ques se ce est impossible que quelcunque partie de terre soit naturelment
meue en haut, encore est ce plus impossible de toute la terre, car au lieu ou la
partie est encline17 a estre meue par nature, a ce lieu est enclin le tout. E t don­
ques se ce est impossible que la terre soit meue, ce est neccessaire que elle re-
90 pose ou milieu.
G . Par privacion de mouvement droit, car ceste rayson ne conclut plus.
Apres il prouve encore que elle est ou milieu.
T . E t que la terre soit ou milieu il appert par ce que dient les mathéma­
t i c i e n s 18 en astrologie, car les figures et les translacions par quoy est deter-
95 miné l’ordre des estoilles monstrent que la terre est assise ou milieu.19
G . Car se elle estoit hors du milieu, ce seroit en une de .iii. maniérés, ce
est a savoir ou en l’axel du monde entre les .ii. poles, ou hors l’axel du monde
14 A omits que. matici dicta sunt circa Astrologiam, ea enim
15 A mouvemens. quae apparent, accedunt translatis figuris, qui-
16 A omits en. bus determinatus est astrorum ordo, tanquam
17 A enclinee. in medio posita terra” (Juntas, 165E). Guthrie,
18 A mathemaciens. 297a, 3-6, reads : “ This belief finds further sup­
19 Oresme’s version o f this passage gives an port in the assertions o f mathematicians about
incorrect interpretation o f the Latin text : astronomy: that is, the observed phenomena
“ Attestantur autem his et ea, que a Mathe- — the shifting o f the figures by which the
Book II, Chapter 29, fols. 150a-! 50b | jjy
T . For the causes stated above, it thus appears without a doubt that the earth is
in the middle o f the world and is motionless.
G . According to the expositors, this is due to the fact that earth moves to its
place in order to remain there at rest. But this reason is not conclusive, for the
other elements do not remain immobile in their proper places and particularly fire,
which is the highest and lightest element just as the earth is the lowest and heaviest;
and Aristotle’s opinion is that fire moves circularly in its region, as often // (150a)
stated [see fols. 9d ff.]. A n d since it is eternal, this motion must be natural. N ext he
states the fourth argument.
T . H eavy bodies thrown by force straight upward return to earth to the place
from which they left, however high they are thrown. This makes it clear that the
earth does not move, nor is it outside the center o f the world.
G . This argument does not prove conclusively that the earth is not moved with
diurnal motion, as I stated in Chapter Twenty-five [see fols. 13 8d fT.]. N o w he sets
forth the cause o f the earth’ s immobility.
T . Again, it is clear that the cause o f its immobility is the following : i f by nature
the earth is inclined to move from every direction toward the center, as we see it is,
while fire moves upward, then it is impossible that any small particle o f the earth
should move upward, save by violence or force, for there can be but one simple
motion natural to one simple body. N o r can one body have two contrary m ove­
ments by nature, and downward motion to the center is the / (150b) contrary o f
upward motion. Thus, if it is impossible for any part o f the earth to move naturally
upward, it is even more impossible for the earth as a whole, for where the part is
naturally inclined to move, to that place also is the whole body. A n d since it is im­
possible for the earth to move, then it must be at rest in the center.
G . Because the earth does not move with rectilinear motion. This argument is
no more conclusive than the last. Next he offers further proof that the earth is in the
center.
T . The theory that the earth is in the center is supported b y the assertions o f the
mathematicians in the field o f astronomy, because the diagrams which sketch the
shifting aspects o f the stars all indicate that the earth is at rest in the center o f the
world.
G . I f the earth were outside the middle, it would have to be in one o f three ways :
either on the axis o f the world between the two poles, or outside the axis equi­
distant from the tw o poles, or outside the axis nearer one pole than the other [see
arrangement o f the stars is defined— are con- at the centre.”
sistent with the hypothesis that the earth lies
 Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapters 29-30, fols. i5 o c-i5 ia | jjy
JJ*

Fig. 37]. However it may be, we should not be able to see // (150c) one-half o f the
en equale distance des .ii. poles, ou hors l’axel plus près d’un pole que de
heavens from any place on the earth, and actually we do ; we should not be able to
l ’autre. E t conment que ce fust, l’en ne verroit [ [ (150c) pas [Fig. 37] la moi-
see the stars as we do ; the days and nights would not be as they are at present ; if
100 tié du ciel de quelcunque lieu de terre et si fait; item, l’en ne verroit pas les
the earth were outside the axis o f the world, the lunar eclipses would never be in
estoilles telement comme l’en les voit; item, les jours et les nuiz ne seroient
pas ainsi comme il sont; item, se la terre estoit hors de l’axel du monde, les
eclipses de lune ne seroient pas en vraie opposicion et si sont. E t toutes ces
choses peuent clerement apparoir par ymaginacion20 et en figure / (15 od) et
105 sanz figure.
T . E t en tant soit dit du lieu et du repos et du mouvement de la terre.

true opposition, and they are. A ll these things can be clearly imagined with / (15 od)
and without diagrams.
T . L et this suffice for our discussion o f the natural place, the rest, and the m ove­
ment o f the earth.

30. Ou .xxx.e chapitre il monstre que la terre est de 30. In Chapter Thirty he shows the earth to be spherical by
figure sperique par .ii. raisons natureles. two arguments drawn from nature.

T . Il convient par neccessité que la terre soit de figure sperique, car chas-
cune de ses parties a en soy pesanteur par quoy elle tent au milieu. E t la plus
grande ou la plus pesante //(151a) boute la plus petite et la comprime, et se
conforment telement les unes aveques les autres siques a tant que elles vien-
5 nent a ce que tout soit ou milieu. E t ce que nous disons, il le convient en­
tendre et ymaginer ausi comme se la terre eust esté faite en la maniéré que
aucuns disoient que au commencement elle estoit partout espartie en menues
parcelles. Mais toutevoies, il disoient que elles estoient descendues et assam-
blees ou milieu par cause de violence.
10 G . Si comme il appert ou .xxviii.e chapitre.
T . E t il vault miex mettre la vérité et dire que ce est pour ce que, selon na­
ture, chose pesante est meue au milieu et ainsi les petites parties de terre qui
estoient esparties et disperses de toutes pars furent meues au milieu sembla­
blement et equalment.
20 B peuent legierement apparoir et en fïg.
T . Th e shape o f the earth must necessarily be spherical because part o f it posses­
ses weight which makes it tend toward the center. A n d the largest and heaviest //
(151a) presses upon the smallest and condenses it, and they combine in such man­
ner that all reach the center. T o understand what we are saying, one must imagine,
as some people claim, the earth to have begun as a collection o f small particles
scattered about. However, they maintained that these particles were dropped down
and assembled together in the center by some violent force.
G . A s explained in Chapter Twenty-eight [see fol. 147a].
T . It is better to speak the simple truth and say that it happens this way because
heavy bodies naturally move to the center and that thus the small particles o f earth
which were scattered and separate likewise m oved to the center.
j6o | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
i5 G . E t ainsi fu la terre faite ronde et est a savoir que Aristote ne entent pas
que la terre fust faite, mais il entent ainsi : la terre est de telle fason ou figure
comme se elle eust esté faite en la maniéré que les anciens /(15 1b ) disoient,
et elle eust esté ronde. Ergo et cetera.1 Apres il oste .iii.2 cavillacions et sont
teles en sentence.
20 T . E t se aucun disoit que au commencement il avoit plus de partie<s>3 de
terre d’une part du centre que de l’autre, et donques quant elle<s>4 se assem­
b l e r o n t 5 il en eut plus d’une part que d’autre et ainsi la terre ne est pas ron­
de, je di que, posé que ainsi eust esté, toutevoies celle plus grande partie eust
boutee l’autre tant que le milieu du monde fust le milieu de toute la masse de
25 la terre ensamble.
G . Apres est la seconde cavillacion.
T . E t semblablement l’en peut respondre a une autre doubte: se aucun
disoit que la terre est sperique et ou milieu, mais posé que addicion soit faite
et que elle cresse d’une part et non pas de l’autre, si comme il est possible,
30 donques ne sera elle plus ou milieu ne sperique ? Mais ce ne est pas fort a res­
pondre qui considéré comment une chose pesante, aussi comme une pierre,
seroit meue au milieu se elle ne avoit arrestement, car elle ne descendroit pas
seulement tant que une partie de elle touchast le centre ou le milieu, mais tant
que le milieu de // (15 ic) elle fust ou milieu du monde et que il eust autant de
35 pesanteur d’une part comme d’autre. E t semblablement seroit il de toute la
terre se adjoustement estoit fait d’une part et non d’autre.
G . Se l’aer ne estoit qui résisté au mouvement de la terre, si très petit de
terre ou d’autre chose pesante ne pourroit estre adjoustee ouengendree d’une
part de la terre plus que d’autre que elle ne fust aucun petit meue tant que le
4o centre de toute la pesanteur6 fust ou centre du monde. Mais pour ce que l’aer
résisté au mouvement de la terre, une petite addicion ne la peut faire mou­
voir. Mais elle pourroit bien estre si grande que elle seroit plus forte que la
resistence de l’aer qui contient la terre et lors, pour certain, la terre seroit
meue toute ensemble tant que le milieu de <sa)7 pesanteur fust ou centre du
45 monde. Item, Aristote ne veult pas prouver que la terre soit perfaitement
sperique, car elle a monz et valz ; mais elle est ronde et approche de figure
sperique, si comme il fu dit en le .xi.e chapitre.8 Apres il oste la tierce cavil­
lacion.
T . / ( 15 id) E t se aucun disoit que la raison devant mise suppose que la ter-
50 re toute fu faite et ce est faulz, ce ne fait difference, car elle est de telle figure
et en tel lieu comme se elle eust esté faite et par celle meisme raison.
G . Apres il met la seconde raison.
ÎL ÏL te te
omits Ergo and cetera. 5 A assembleroit.
.ii. 6 B C D E F centre ou la pesanteur,
partie; B C D E F des parties. 7 A omits sa.
elle. 8 D E ou .ix.e ch.
Book II, Chapter 30, fols, i j i b - i j i d | jé i
G . In this way the earth became round. It should be noted that Aristotle does
not mean here that the earth was made ; rather, he means that the earth is so fash­
ioned and shaped as if it had been made just as the ancient philosophers /(151b) used
to say, that is, round; therefore also spherical. N ext he removes three objections,
which are briefly as follows :
T . I f someone were to say that at the beginning there were more particles o f
earth on one side o f the center than on the other so that, when they came together,
there were more on one side than on the other and that thus the earth is not truly
round, I answer that, even assuming this to be true, the larger portion would have
pressed or squeezed the lesser part until the center o f the world would also have
become the center o f the whole mass o f the earth as a unit.
G . N o w comes the second objection.
T . In the same manner, we can answer another question: if someone said that
the earth is round and located in the center and if we are allowed to assume an ad­
dition so that one part increased and not another, as is quite possible, will the earth
be no longer at the center nor truly round? This question is not hard to answer if
we will but consider how any heavy body— a stone, for instance— moves to the
center if not hindered; for not only would the stone descend until a part o f it
touched the center or middle o f the earth, but also until the middle o f //(151c) the
stone rested in the center o f the world, equalizing thus the weight in every direc­
tion. Th e same thing would happen in the case o f the whole earth if an addition
were made to one part and not to another.
G . I f it were not for the air which resists the movement o f the earth, such a
small quantity o f earth or another heavy thing could not be added in or incorpo­
rated into one part o f the earth more than in another without causing the earth to
be moved slightly until the center o f its weight reached the center o f the world. Be­
cause o f the air’s resistance to the earth’s motion, a slight addition cannot affect its
motion. However, it could be large enough to exceed the resistance o f the air con­
taining the earth, and, certainly, then the entire earth would be moved as a unit
until the middle or center o f its weight coincided exactly with the center o f the
world. Aristotle is not trying to prove that the earth is perfectly spherical, for it
has mountains and valleys ; but it is round and nearly spherical, as stated in Chapter
Eleven. N o w he answers the third objection.
T . / (15 id) If someone were to say that the previous argument supposes that the
whole world was created and that this is false, it will make no difference, for the
earth is o f such shape and so situated that it could have been created and in this
very same manner.
G . His second argument follows.
T. A ll heavy bodies which fall down to earth from above descend along lines
forming equal angles on the earth’s surface, but not along equidistant or par-
 j 62 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Item, toutes choses pesantes qui cheent de haut a terre descendent par
lignes qui font sus terre plains'» angles equalz, et ne descendent pas par lignes
55 équidistantes mais viennent en approchant. E t telement est fait [Fig. 38]
mouvement a10 corps qui est naturelment sperique. E t donques est la terre
sperique ou elle tent de sa nature a figure sperique, et non pas par force ou
violence ne contre nature.
G . Mais elle n’est pas perfaitement11 // (152a) sperique comme dit est. E t
60 se elle estoit d’autre figure, si comme quarre<e>12 en plate, les choses qui
tendent au centre par droite ligne descendissent sus terre, l’une tout droit et
l’autre de biés a angles non equalz, si comme il appert legierement en figure.
31. Ou .xxxi.e chapitre il prove encore que la terre est
sperique par .iiii. raisons de astrologie.
T . Encore appert que la terre est ronde par les apparences que nous voi-
ons, car les eclipses de lune ne fussent pas ainsi disposées se la terre ne fust
ronde.
G . Eclipse de la lune est causée pour l’ombre de la terre qui attaint a la
5 lune quant la terre est droit entre le soleil et la lune, si comme je declaray ou
,xlviii.e chapitre du Traité de /’E sp éré.1 E t quant la lune eclipse et non pas
toute, la ligne qui divise la partie enluminee de celle qui est obscure est por-
cion de ligne circulaire, et il ne seroit pas ainsi se la terre n’estoit ronde. E t par
ce appert que les montaingnes ne tollent pas sensiblement la rondesce de la
10 terre, car / (15 2b) ce fust apparceu en Pecüpse et non est. E t pour ce que au­
cun diroit que l ’eclipse appert tele pour la rondesce de la lune et non pour
celle de la terre il dist apres :
T . E t nous voions que les figuracions qui apparent en la lune en un moys
sont en .iii. differences, car aucune fois la partie enluminee est divisée de l’au-
i5 tre par ligne droite, si comme ou premier et ou desrenier quartier; aucune
fois par ligne circulaire concave, si comme vers la conjunction devant et
9 A plaines; B C E plaine: D plainne; F 11 B C D F elle est parf.; E mes est elle est
pleine. parf.
10 B C D E F de. 12 A quarré.
Book II, Chapters 30-31, fols. 152a-! 52b j
allel lines ; rather, they approach one another as they fall. This effect is the character­
istic motion o f a nearly spherical body, and, therefore, the earth must be spherical
or must tend by nature toward a spherical shape, not by constraint or violence or
unnaturally.
Fig. 38
G . However, it is not perfectly j I (152a) spherical, as we have said. I f the earth
were o f any other shape— a flat square, for instance— the bodies which tend to­
ward the center in a straight line would land upon the earth, one at right angles and
another obliquely, at unequal angles, as is clearly seen by diagram [see Fig. 38].
31. In Chapter Thirty-one he again proves that the earth is
a sphere by four arguments derived from astronomy.
T . Again, it is evident that the earth is round as we can see by its appearances,
for the eclipses o f the moon would not appear as they do if it were not.
G . Lunar eclipses are caused by the shadow o f the earth reaching and covering
the moon when the earth is in an exact position between the sun and moon, as I
explained in Chapter Forty-eight o f my Treatise on the Sphere. When the moon is only
partially eclipsed, the line dividing the illuminated from the dark portion is part o f
a circular line, and it would not be so if the earth were not round. From this fact it
is also clear that the mountains do not perceptibly affect the earth’s roundness, /
(15 2b) or else we should perceive the irregularity in the earth’s shadow, and there is
none. Since someone might claim that the eclipse appears thus because o f the
roundness o f the moon and not that o f the earth, he adds the following:
T . W e can see that the figurations which appear in the monthly phases o f the
moon are o f three different patterns ; at times the illumined part is divided from the
other by a straight line, as in the first and last quarters ; sometimes by a concave cir­
cular line, both just before and after the time o f the conjunction; and, again, at times1
1 De Vespere, ed. McCarthy, ch. 4 8 , 11. 2053-92, ed. Myers, pp. 79-81.
 / 64 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 31, fols. 152C-152C I | jé p

apres ; et aucune fois par ligne circulaire convexe ou boçue, si comme vers
l’opposicion devant et apres.2 Mes la ligne qui divise la partie enluminee de
l’obscure en eclipse est to u jo u rs boçue devers la partie obscure et convexe
20 ou arcue devers la partie enluminee. E t il ne pourroit ainsi estre se la terre
n’estoit ronde.3
G . Ce est aisie chose a entendre. E t les figures que l’en voit en la lune
chascun moys, ce est pour la rondesce de elle et pour les resgars que4elle a au
soleil dont lumière lui vient, si comme il est declairié ou .xliiii. chapitre du
25 Trai- // (i 52c) tié de P E spéré.5
T . Item, par ce que appert des estoilles, il est certain non pas seulement que
la terre est ronde6 mais aveques ce que elle n’est pas grande, car par aler assés
pou de chemin droit vers midi ou droit vers le pole7 artique, l’en apperçoit
clerement que l’en a autre ozizon, ce est a dire autre cercel qui divise la par-
30 tie du ciel que nous voions de celle qui nous est occulte et semble estre souz
nous. E t par tele translacion, les estoilles qui estoient droit sus la teste sem­
blent estre grandement transmuées. E t quant l’en se transmue en alant droit
vers le pole artique ou droit vers midi, l’en peut veoir autres estoilles que l’en
ne povoit devant, car en Egypte et en Cypre aucunes estoilles sont veues les-
35 quelles l ’en ne voit pas es regions qui sont vers le pole artique ou vers sep­
tentrion. E t en ces regions aucunes estoilles apparent tous jours sanz couchier
ou sanz rescouser8lesquelles ne apparent onques en aucunes regions qui sont
vers midi. E t par / (i 52d) ce appert non pas seulement que la terre est de
ronde figure mais meisme appert que elle n’est pas grande, car tele mutacion
40 de veoir autres estoilles ne seroit pas si tost faite ne pour aler si pou de voie.
G . Car il appert par le Traitiê de P Espéré ou .xxvi.e chapitre 9 que se un hon-
me se transportoit vers le pole tout droite voie par .xliii. lieues1° ou environ,
le pole seroit eslevé sus son h<e)mispere11 plus un degré que de la ou il se
parti; et de tant seroit il plus bas se cest honme aloit autant vers midi. E t par
45 ce est conclus ou dit Traitiê que le circuite de la terre contient environ x v m
by a convex circular line like a hump, both just before and after the time o f the op­
position. But the line that divides the illumined from the dark half in an eclipse is
always humped in the direction o f the dark convex segment or is arched toward the
illumined segment. A n d this could not happen if the earth were not round.
G . This is easily understood. T h e shapes we can see in the moon each month are
due to its spherical shape and to its different positions relative to the sun, from
which it receives its light, as explained in Chapter Forty-four o f m y Treatise JJ
(15 2c) on the Sphere.
T . From the appearance o f the stars, it is certain not only that the earth is round,
but also that it is not large, because i f we go a rather short distance straight to­
ward the south or toward the arctic pole, we can clearly perceive that we have a
different horizon— that is, a different circle dividing the segment o f the heavens we
can see from the one which is hidden from and apparently beneath us. B y such dis­
placement, the stars that were directly above our heads seem to have m oved con­
siderably. When we change our position by going straight toward the arctic pole
or toward the south, we can see stars other than those we could see before, because
in E gyp t and Cyprus certain stars are visible which we cannot see in the regions
near the arctic pole in the north. In those regions some stars appear always the same
with no rising or setting, and yet these same stars are never visible incertain regions
in the southern sky. Thus / (15 2d) it is evident not only that the earth is round,
but also that it appears not to be large, for, otherwise, the change in the visible stars
would not occur so rapidly from the slight change o f position caused b y going such
a short way.
G. From Chapter Twenty-six o f the Treatise on the Sphere, it appears that i f a man
traveled toward the pole for about forty-three leagues in a straight line, the pole
would be raised one degree higher above its hemisphere than it was at the place
from where he started ; and if he went to the south the same distance, it would be
lessened by one degree. In this way, it is calculated in the aforementioned Treatise
that the circumference o f the earth is about 15,750 leagues, and this is very little

2 A apres. Tiexte. Mes la ligne; D E omit et quelles.

aucune fois par ligne circulaire convexe...et
apres.
3 D E n’estoit enluminee. Oresme’s transla­
tion o f this passage o f text enlarges consid­
erably upon the original. Cf. Juntas, 170D.
4 A resgars et que.
5 B C D E F ou .xviii.e chap. Cf. De Pespere,
ed. McCarthy, ch. 18, 11. 1869-1904; ed. My­
ers, pp. 25-26.
6 A rondee.
7 A vers midi ou droit vers midi ou droit
vers le pole.
8 B C D E F sans coucher et sans lever les­
9 D e Tespere, ed. McCarthy, ch. 9, 11. 1021-
42; ed. Myers, pp. 14-15.
10 The measure o f a degree on the meridian
is stated by Oresme to be 700 stadia, on the
authority o f Sacrobosco, from whose Tractatus
de sphera (ca. 1250) he borrowed freely: “ Or
est il ainsi trouvé par experience que se un
homme aloit vers septentrion tout droit tant
que le pole lui fust plus eslevé d’un degré, ou
droit a midi tant qu’il luy fust moins eslevé
d’un degré, il avroit passé de la terre .vii.c
estades, selon l’aucteur de l’Espere.” See De
l ’espere, ed. McCarthy, ch. 9, 11. 1021-42; ed.
A n estade thus equals 125 paces or 625 feet,
Myers, p. 14. The value o f the estade is estab­
and a mile is figured as 5,000 feet. With two
lished in the passage immediately following:
such miles to the league, a degree equals 87J
“ E t ainsi avron que en circuite de la terre a
miles (82.8 English miles) or approximately
tourner tout entour a .ii.c .lii.m estades, qui
44 leagues. B C D E F are palpably wrong in
valent .xv.m .vii.c .1. lieues, car une lieue vault
the reading: par .xviii. lieues.
.ii.m et un mil vault .viii. estades, et une estade
cent et .xxv. pas, et un pas .v. piés, et un pié n A homispere.
vault .iiii. paumes, et une paume .iiii. doyc.”
 j 66 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 31, fols. 153a-! 53b | j6y

viic 1 lieues,12 et ce est bien pou de chose quant a toute la terre du monde. indeed when we consider that this is the size o f the entire earth. Then, he states
Apres il met la tierce raison prinse de signe. the third argument based upon an observation.
T . Item, pour ce cuident aucuns que le lieu qui est en la fin de terre habi­ T . For this reason there are some who think that the place where habitable land
table vers occident environ les colompnes de Hercules et le lieu qui est en la ends in the west, around the Pillars o f Hercules, and the place where habitable
50 fin d’orient habitable vers Inde soient prochains, et que la mer qui joint a l’un land ends in the east, in the neighborhood o f India, are close together and that the
et a l’autre soit une meisme mer. sea adjoining the tw o is one and the same.
G . H aly13 dist que // (153a) ces colompnes estoient .iii. ymages ou ydoles G . Haly ibn Ridwan says that // (153a) these Pillars were three statues or idols
lesquelles Hercules mist en .iii. isles pres du passage Hercules que nous appel­ which Hercules placed on three islands near the passage o f Hercules that we call the
ions les D estroz14 de Marroch. E t dist H aly15 que chascune ydole tenoit unes Straits o f M orocco; and Haly says also that each idol held keys which signified that
55 clefs en segnefiant que en outre vers occident et vers celle grant mer l’en ne toward the west beyond the great sea there is no human habitation. Some call the
treuve habitacion. E t aucuns les appellent Gades Herculis. Item, Averroÿs Pillars the Gates o f Hercules. Averroes states at this point in the text that he saw
dist yci16 que il vit une de ces ydoles encore toute droite eslevee et en estant, one o f these idols erect and standing and that it was later destroyed by the Ber­
et puis fu depecie et destruite par les Barbares qui orent guerre contre les bers, who made war against the people o f that island in the year o f Mohammed the
gens de c e l ^ e ) 1? isle en l’an de la predicacion de Mahomet cccc18* et xxx; Prophet 430, which corresponds approximately to our year o f grace 1057.
60 ce fu environ l’an de grace mil et cinquante et vii. T . That the two points o f habitable land to the east and west mentioned above
T . 19 E t que les lieus desus diz soient prochains ce n ’est pas chose incre­ are near each other is not at all incredible, for those who make this statement have
dible, car ceulz qui ce dient ont a ce arguement pour ce que ou desrenier ha­ in their favor the argument that both in the farthest part o f habitable land to the
bitable vers occident et ou desrenier vers orient sont engendrés elephans, et west and in the farthest part to the east elephants are found, and, therefore, it
par ce semble que ces .ii. lieus aient convenience et prochaineté. seems that these two parts o f the earth have something in common and, conse­
65 G . Car, par aventure, teles bestes ne sont pas trouvées en autres lieus. quently, are relatively near each other.
Apres il met la quarte / (15 3b) rayson. G . For possibly this species o f animal is not found in other places. He states
T . Item, les mathématiciens qui ont tempté a trouver la mesure de la ron- next the fourth /(153b) argument.
dece ou circuite de la terre dient que elle est de iiiic mile,20 par quoy il n’ap­ T . Th e mathematicians who have tried to discover the distance around the earth
pert pas seulement que elle est ronde mes aveques ce que elle n’est pas grande or its circumference say it is 400,000 stadia, a measurement indicating not only that
70 ou resgart des autres estoilles. it is round, but also that it is not large in comparison with the other stars.
G . Cest tiexte quant a ce nombre n’est pas samblable en tous livres ; toute- G . The passage where this number is given varies in all the different manu­
voies, selon l’aucteur de Y Espéré, ce circuite est .ii. cens et .lii. mille estades scripts; however, the author o f the Treatise on the Sphere gives the circumference as
et font xvmviic et cinquante lieues.21 252,000 stades, equivalent to 15,750 leagues.
E n ces .ii. chapitres, oultre ce que dit est, sont aucunes choses plaisantes a In these two chapters, in addition to what has been said, there are several topics
12 Equivalent to 31,500 miles o f 5,000 feet Land: Oresme and Columbus.”
(29,000 English miles). These figures relative 13 B Hercules; E'Hals. A French translation
to the size o f the earth, along with many other o f Ptolemy’s Quadripartitum with the com­ umentary evidence ; cf. Le Quadripartit Ptho- Latin original did not contain the word stadio-
sections o f Oresme’s Traictié de l ’espere, were mentary by Haly Abenragel (Ibn Ridwan, lomee, ed. by J. W. Gossner from the text o f rum which appears in the translatio Scotti:
translated almost verbatim into Latin by Pierre Rijan, Roden, etc.), was made for Charles V Bibl. Nat., Ms. franç. 1348 (unpublished dis­ “ quadringenta stadiorum milia.” Cf. Juntas,
d’Ailly in the latter’s Ymago mundi (1410). The shortly before 1360, from the Latin version by sertation, Syracuse University, 1951). See also 172C-D . This, the first recorded calculation
influence which this work exercised upon the Egidius de Thebaldis (1260), made from the Introduction, p. 6. o f the circumference o f the earth, amounts to
cosmological ideas o f Christopher Columbus Arabic text for Alfonso el Sabio, with the 14 B C D E F Destres. approximately 46,000 English miles. See the
is well known ; see Ymago mundi de Pierre d’A il- assistance o f Judah ben Levy. This Latin ver­ 15 E Et de Ytalie que; F Aly. interesting note on this passage in The Works
ly, ed. Edmond Buron (Paris, 1930), vol. 1, sion was published several times in the 15 th 16 Juntas, t.c. i n , 171L. of Aristotle translated into English, ed. W. D.
5—37, where copious footnotes indicate the and 16th centuries ; cf. Liber Ptholomei quattuor ” A cel. Ross (Oxford, 1930), 11.298a. 17, and also his
extent o f Oresme’s contribution to this work, tractaturn cum Centiloquio ejusdem Ptholomei : et 18 D E .ccc. Aristotle (Oxford, 1923), p. 96, note 3.
including Columbus’ marginal notes to his commento Haly (Venice, 1484), fol. 35 V , col. 1 ff. 19 D E omit Tiexte. 21 See above note 12 and also De Pespere,
personal copy. For a brief synopsis o f this The attribution o f the French translation to 20 Oresme has omitted estades after mile, ed. McCarthy, ch. 26.
entire subject, see A. D. Menut, “ Habitable Nicole Oresme is not supported by any doc­ possibly, as his gloss indicates, because his
 j 68 [ Le Livre du ciel et du monde
75 considérer : et premièrement, je diray de la pesanteur de la terre ou resgart du
centre; apres, de ce meisme une especial consideracion; tiercement, des cho­
ses pesantes ou resgart du centre et quartement, de la figure de la terre. Quant
au premier point, je di que en ce propos .iii.22 centres sont a considérer, ce
est a savoir le centre du monde, le centre de la quantité de la terre et le centre
80 de sa pesanteur. Car se une espere masseite de pur or estoit samblable en tou­
tes ses parties, un // (i 53c) meisme point seroit centre de sa quantité et cen­
tre de sa pesanteur;23 mais se elle estoit vers une partie de pur or et vers l’au­
tre fust mixtioné de plus legier metal, 24 le centre et le milieu de sa pesanteur
ne seroit pas le centre de sa quantité. E t par ce appert que se la terre estoit de
85 pesanteur semblable en toutes ses parties, un seul point seroit centre de sa
quantité25 et centre de sa pesanteur et ce seroit le centre du monde. E t don-
ques [Fig. 39] une partie quelcunque de sa superfice ne seroit pas plus basse
que l’autre et, par consequent, il s’ensuiroit que elle fust toute couverte de
eaue se n’estoit, par aventure, le coupeau d’aucune haute montaingne. E t
9o pour ce que il n’est pas ainsi, il s’ensuit que la terre est dessamblable selon ses
parties telement que en la partie qui est descouverte d’eaue n’est pas si grant
pesanteur comme en l’autre pour ce, par /(153d) aventure, que ce n’est pas
terre pure, mais a en elle mixtion d’autres elemens. E t Dieu et nature ont or-
dené que elle soit descouverte afin que honmes et bestes y puissent habiter.
95 E t pour ce, ceste partie est la plus noble et est ausi comme le devant et la face
[Fig. 40] ou visage de la terre, et le demourant ou l’autre partie est envelopé
en eaue et vestu et couvert de mer ausi comme d’un chaperon ou d’une coif­
fe:26 Abissus, sicut vestimentum, amictus eius.27 E t le centre de la grandeur
ou quantité de28 la terre est ausi comme endroit .a.,29 et le centre de sa pesan-
100 teur est plus bas ou centre du monde endroit .b., si comme l’en peut yma-
giner en figure. E t la superfice de la mer est concentrique au monde et ont un
meisme centre le monde et la mer. E t par ce que dit est s’ensuit que se Dieu et
nature fesoient que la terre vers la //(154a) partie habitable devenist et fust
22 E .ii. 26 B C D E F coeffe et de ce dit l’escripture:
23 D E omit Car se une espere...de sa pe­ abissus.
santeur. 27 Ps. 103:6. B omits amictus.
24 B aer. 28 D E centre ou la grandeur de la quantité
25 D E omit Et par ce appert.. .centre de sa de.
quantité. 29 D E omit est ausi comme endroit .a.
Book II, Chapter 31, fols. i53C-i54a | ;6p
that afford an opportunity for pleasureful discussion. First, I shall speak about the
weight o f the earth with respect to the center ; then o f a special illustration o f this
theory; third, about heavy bodies with respect to the center; and fourth, about the
shape o f the earth. Speaking o f the first point, I say that, in this connection, there
are three centers to be considered: 1) the center o f the world, 2) the center o f the
mass o f the earth, and 3) the center o f its weight. I f a massive sphere o f pure gold
was identical in all its parts, a // (15 3c) single point would be the center o f its mass
and weight; but, if in one part it was pure gold and in another it consisted o f gold
Fig. 39
mixed with a lighter metal, the center o f its weight would not correspond to the
center o f its mass [see Fig. 39]. It is clear from this that, i f the earth weighed the
same in all its parts, the center o f its mass and the center o f its weight would be
identical— a single point— and this point would be the center o f the world. Then
no part o f its surface could be lower than another, and it would follow that the
earth would be completely covered with water, save, perhaps, for the jutting peak
o f some mountains. Since the earth is not like this, it follows that its parts are dis­
similar in such a way that the ones not covered by water weigh less than those so
Fig. 40
mer corrected from aer by editor
covered because / (15 3d) by chance this part is not pure and simple earth, but con­
tains a mixture o f other elements. G o d and nature have ordained that the earth
should be thus exposed so that men and animals can live there ; and, accordingly,
this part is the nobler and, in a sense, constitutes the front or face o f the earth; the
rest or remainder is enveloped by water and clothed or covered by the sea as with
a hood or cap : The deep, like a garment, is its clothing. A nd the center o f the mag­
nitude or mass o f the earth corresponds to a [see Fig. 40], and the center o f its
weight is lower down at the center o f the world or at b, as can be imagined from
the diagram. The surface o f the sea is concentric with the world and the centers o f
the sea and the world are identical. From what has been said, it can be inferred that,
if G o d and nature caused the habitable portion // (154a) o f the earth to become as
jyo | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
faite ausi pesante comme elle est vers l’autre partie, ou que la pesanteur de cel
105 le autre partie appetiçast tant que toute la terre fust uniforme et de semblable
pesanteur en toutes ses parties, il convendroit que la partie qui est habitable
descendist et que toute la terre fust plungie en la mer et toute couverte de
eaue, ausi comme un honme qui cuevre son visage de son chaperon. E t ainsi
pourroit estre un diluge universel et sans pluie.
110 Quant au secont point, je suppose que les elemens naturelment peuent, se­
lon leurs <parties>,30 crestre et appeticier par generacion et corrupcion, et ce
suppose Aristote ou chapitre precedent et appert ou livre de Generacion et cor-
rupcion31 et en pluseurs autres lieus. E t donques [Fig. 41] / (154b) posé que
par tele generacion fust faite addicion notable en aucune partie de terre si
115 comme, pour exemple, en la partie ou nous sommes souz le méridien ou lig­
ne de midi et soit ceste partie de terre signee par .b. ; ou que par corrupcion
fust faite diminucion en la partie opposite : je di que, ce fait, il appert par
Aristote ou chapitre precedent que le lieu ou nous sommes, appellé32 .b.,
descendroit vers le centre du monde appellé .a., si comme l’en peust ymagi-
i2o ner en figure. Item,33 je pose que par apres une autre fois fust faite addicion
semblable vers midi au lieu de terre appellé .d. qui est en distance de .b. par
la quarte partie du circuite de la terre ; je di que par ce, .d. se approcheroit du
centre du monde et, par consequent, de tant se trairoit .b. plus vers senestre.
Par quoy il appert clerement que .b., le lieu ou nous sommes, approcheroit
125 du pole artique et seroit ce pole plus eslevé sus nostre hemispere que il n’est
maintenant. E t soit posé, si comme il est possible, que ce fust par un degré et
que apres par grant laps de temps et par semblable maniéré fust plus //(154c)
eslevé par un autre degré, et puis par un autre et ainsi en outre, je di que par
moult de milliers de ans pourroit estre fait et naturelement selon ce procès
i3o que .b., le lieu de terre ou nous sommes, avroit fait demi-circuite et que il
avroit tel resgart au pole antartique comme nous avons au pole artique, et se­
roit le pole antartique34 eslevé sus .b. par tant de degrés comme est mainte­
nant le pole artique. Apres je di que, ce fait et supposé que le ciel fust tous-
jours meu comme il est ou sera continuelment, le soleil et les estoilles en ce
135 lieu .b. leveroient de la partie que nous appelions occident et coucheroient au
30 A omits parties. 33 Lacuna in D E from this point to begin-
31 De generatione et corruption, 1.5.321a ning o f paragraph, 154c!.
3 322a 35. 34 p omits et seroit le pole antartique.
32 A appeliez.
Book II, Chapter 31, fols. 154b-!54c 771
heavy as the other or caused the weight o f the other part to diminish so that the
whole earth were uniform in weight in all its parts, then the habitable portion
would be lowered and the whole earth would be plunged into the sea and co v ­
ered withwater, just as a man covers his face with his hood. Thus, there could be a
universal deluge without rain.
As to the second point, I suppose that the elements, according to their parts, can
grow or diminish naturally by generation and deterioration, and this Aristotle as­
sumes in the preceding chapter [see fol. 151b] and explains in the book called Gen­
eration and Corruption and in several other places. Therefore, /(154b) assuming some
notable addition to be made by generation in some part o f our earth, such as, for
example, the part in which we live, under the southern meridian or border, which
part is indicated as b, and then assuming this part to grow larger because the part
opposite it was diminished by deterioration, I say that, under these circumstances
and according to Aristotle in the preceding chapter [see fol. 15 ib], the place b where
we are would descend toward the center o f the world called tf, as can be imagined
from the diagram [see Fig. 41]. Next, I imagine that a similar addition was made to
the earth towards the south at the place marked d, which is distant from b by one-
quarter part o f the earth’s circumference ; I say that in this way d would be drawn in
toward the center o f the world and that, consequently, b would be drawn farther
toward the left. It is clear, as a result, that b, where we are, would move toward the
arctic pole, which would then be raised higher above our hemisphere than it now
is. Let us assume, as is possible, that this elevation o f the pole amounted to one
degree and that much later, in the same manner, the pole // (154e) were raised an­
other degree, and then another, and another, and so on ; I say that this process could
go on naturally for thousands and thousands o f years until b, where we are, would
have traveled half-way around the circumference and would be positioned with
respect to the antarctic pole just as we are to the arctic pole and that the antarctic
pole would be above b the same number o f degrees that the arctic pole now is.
This being so and assuming the heavens to move as they now do and will continue
to do, I say next that the sun and stars at b would rise from the part we call west and
would set in the opposite [direction]. This is clear because, if the poles o f the world
were moved slowly so that the arctic took up its position where the antarctic now is,
 U* Le Livre du ciel et du monde
contraire. E t ce appert; car se les poles du monde estoient meuz par m ouve­
ment tardif tant que le pole artique fust la ou est le antartique, ce que dit est
avendroit et est avenu selon ce que disoient aucuns et fu recité en le .viii.e
chapitre du premier. E t il est certain que, quant a ce propos, les choses desus
140 dites apparroient ne plus ne moins semblablement se la terre estoit meue com­
me dit est et les poles-du ciel fussent immobiles, comme se la terre estoit /
(i54d) immobile et les poles fussent meuz, selon l’ymaginacion mise ou pre­
mier livre en le .viii.e chapitre. E t encore appert autrement ceste chose, car
se un honme resgarde vers le pole artique, le soleil et les estoilles lievent a sa
145 destre. E t se cest honme aloit tout droit vers le pole artique et passast outre
tout droit vers les antipodes, le soleil et les estoilles leveroient35 a sa senestre
et coucheroient a sa destre des ce que il seroit notablement oultre le pole.36
Quant au tiers point, je pose que la terre fust perciee et que l’en veist par
un grant treu tout d ’outre en oultre siques de l’autre part la37 ou seroient les
i5o antipodes se la terre estoit partout habitée; je di premièrement, se l’en lessoit
cheoir une pierre par ce treu, elle descendroit et passeroit oultre le centre38 en
montant tout droit vers l ’autre partie siques a un terme, et puis retourneroit si­
ques oultre le centre par deçà, et apres redescendroit arriéré et passeroit le
centre moins que devant et iroit et vendroit pluseurs fois en appetizant teles
155 reflexions siques a tant //(155 a) que finablement elle reposeroit ou centre. E t
la cause est pour l’impétuosité ou embruissement que elle aquiert par la cres-
sance [Fig. 42, marginal] de l’isneleté de son mouvement j ouste ce que fu dit
plus a plain ou. xiii.e chapitre. E t ce peut l’en entendre legierement par une
chose que nous voions sensiblement, car se une chose pesante, et soit .b., est
160 pendue a une longue corde, se l’en la boute avant, elle branlle et va et vient
et fait pluseurs reflexions tant que finablement elle repose au plus droit et au
plus près du centre que elle peust. Item, posé que la terre fust perforee ou
perciee comme dit est, et que un honme fust ou centre tout droit la teste d ’une
part du centre et les piés d’autre; je di que cest honme avroit la teste en haut
165 ou enmont et les piés aussi enmont et ne seroit pas plus en gesant que en es­
tant ne adens que envers. E t 39 pluseurs teles choses peuent estre considérées
en ceste matière. Item, de toute eaue ou de semblable liquer reposante, la su-
perfice de desus est porcion de figure sperique dont /(155b) le centre [Fig.
43, marginal] est le centre du monde, si comme il appert ou T raitiê de F E s -
170 pere40 et en pluseurs lieus. E t par ce, il appert que se un vaiseau plat comme
seroit un hanap estoit ou centre, il soustendroit plus d’eaue que se il estoit
plus haut et seroit comblé. E t appert ausi que tant est plus bas et il y peut plus
35 A estoilles les leveroient. 39 Lacuna in D E to paragraph, 155c.
36 Lacuna in D E ends here. 40 De l'espere, ed. McCarthy, chs. 1, 11. 103-
37 A lan; D E omit la.
13, and 4, 11. 224-38.
38 B treu.
Book II, Chapter 31, fols. 15 4d—1 55b | y/3
what we noted above would actually happen, and has already happened in the opin­
ion o f some thinkers, as we related in Chapter E igh t o f Book I [see fol. i6d]. With
regard to this theory, it is certain that the things just stated would appear exactly
the same whether the earth moved as suggested and the celestial poles were motion­
less or whether the earth were / ( 1 54d) immobile and the celestial poles moved, as
imagined in Chapter E igh t o f B ook I [see fol. 16c]. This can be seen clearly from
another point o f view ; if a man faces toward the arctic pole, the sun and stars rise
on his right; i f the same man walked straight toward the arctic pole and then con­
tinued directly toward the antipodes, the sun and stars would rise on his left and set
on his right until he had reached a considerable distance beyond the pole.
W ith respect to the third point, I posit that the earth is pierced clear through and
that we can see through a great hole farther and farther right up to the other end
where the antipodes w ould be if the whole o f the earth were inhabited; I say, first
o f all, that, if we dropped a stone through this hole, it would fall and pass beyond
the center o f the earth, going straight on toward the other side for a certain limited
Fig. 42
distance, and that then it would turn back going beyond the center on this side o f
the earth; afterward, it would fall back again, going beyond the center but not so
far as before ; it would go and come in this way several times with a reduction o f its
reflex motions until //(155 a) finally it would rest at the center o f the earth. This is
caused by the impetuosity or “ momentum” which it acquires by the acceleration o f
its motion, according to what we stated at great length in Chapter Thirteen [see fol.
105 c ff.]. We can understand this easily by taking note o f something perceptible to
the senses : if a heavy object b is hung on a long string and pushed forward, it be­
gins to m ove backward and then forward, making several swings, until it finally
rests absolutely perpendicular and as near the center as possible [see Fig. 42]. A s­
suming that the earth were perforated or pierced, as suggested above, and that a
man were at the center standing straight with his head in one direction from the
center and his feet in another, I say that such a man would have his head and also
his feet on top or upwards and he would be no more in a lying than in a standing
position nor facing downward more than upward. Several similar paradoxes can
be considered in regard to this experiment. For instance, in every body o f water or
similar liquid at rest, the upper surface is a portion o f a spherical figure / (155 b)
whose center is the center o f the earth, as shown in the Treatise on the Sphere and in
several other passages. So, it appears that, if a flat receptacle like a drinking goblet
were at the center, it would hold more water than if it were deeper and were filled
with water. It seems that, the shallower a receptacle is, the more water it can con-
J74 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 31, fol. 155c J7 J

d’eaue, et tant est plus haut et il y en peut moins. Item, encore appert que une tain, and the deeper it is, the less it can contain. It appears, also, that an object
chose perfaitement droite a livel41 et droit assise sans pendre plus d ’une part with a perfectly level surface, such as a table ab, standing squarely without leaning
175 que d’autre, comme seroit une table .ab., est plus basse ou milieu que es bouz, one way more than another is lower in the middle than at the ends because the
car celle partie est plus près du centre. E t donques elle pourroit soustenir eaue middle is nearer the center o f the earth [see Fig. 43]. Thus, it could hold water, and
ettant plus seroit bas et plus en soustendroit. Item, quant une chose pesante, the lower the middle, the more it could support. When a heavy body, like table ab,
comme seroit la table .ab., descent et est meue equalment aval ou en bas, les
parties du milieu approch<e)nt42 du centre plus isnelement que ne font les
180 autres, si comme il fu plus a plain declairié ou .xiiii.e chapitre. Item, il appert
par Aristote ou chapitre precedent que se .ii. pierres ou autres choses pesan­
tes descendent // (15 5c) en [Fig. 44] bas vers le centre, elles viennent touz-
jours en approchant une de l’autre. E t par ce s’ensuit et est vérité que qui
feroit une tour bien haute et meneroit le mur tout droit en haut a pion, celle
185 tour seroit plus large par haut que par bas.43 Item, semblablement qui feroit
une parfonde fosse tout droit selon l’instrument appellé plun, elle seroit plus
estroite en bas que en haut continuelment en descendant. E t pluseurs autres
choses peuent estre considérées en ceste matière par ce que dit est.
E t44 quartement : de ce que la terre est ronde comme dit est, il s’ensuit que
190 se un honme povoit aler d’une cité a autre sans monter et sans avaler, l’en

falls straight downward with an equal motion over its whole surface, then the cen­
tral portion approaches the center o f the earth faster than the other parts, as was
explained more fully in Chapter Fourteen [see fol. n o d ]. Again, it is stated by
Aristotle in the preceding chapter [see fol. 151b] that, if two stones or other heavy
bodies descend //(155 c) toward the center o f the earth, they always tend to move
toward each other in their fall [see Fig. 44]. From the same cause, it follows and is

Fig. 44

a fact that, if one were to construct a high tower, building the wall absolutely straight
upward according to the plumb line, this tower would be broader at the top than
at the bottom. Likewise, if one were to dig a deep ditch with absolutely vertical
sides according to the instrument called plumb line, this ditch would be progres­
sively narrower toward the bottom. B y what has been said, several other related
paradoxes may be treated in a similar manner.
ÎL ta

a Pouel. 43 B large en haut que en bas. Fourth, from the fact that the earth is round, as we have stated, it follows that, if
approchant. 44 D E resume here. a man could go from one city to another without climbing the higher parts or go-
jy 6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 31, fols. 153d -!56b | jyy

peut ymaginer une autre voie plus brieve qui /(155 c!) est [Fig. 45] partie en ing down the lower parts o f its surface, then one could easily imagine a much shorter
dévalant et partie en montant. Car la voie qui est sans monter et sans avaler way, consisting o f a route combining /(153d) both ascent and descent. The level
est aussi comme un arc, et la voie droite qui serait comme la corde est plus route is like an aie o f a circle, and the straight line, like the chord o f this arc, is lower
basse et plus près du centre ou milieu que es bouz. Item, se le pole estoit and nearer the center or middle o f the earth than at either end [see Fig. 45]. Also,
i95 grandement et près de equalment eslevé sus .ii. cités aussi comme, pour ex­ if the pole were almost equidistant from the two cities, as for example, Paris and
emple, sus Paris et sus Prague** qui sont bien distantes, et un honme alast de Prague which are quite far from each other, and if a man were to go straight from
l’une a l’autre sans approchier ne esloingnier du pole,4
46 il ne yroit pas par si
5 one city to the other without approaching or falling back from the pole, he would
brieve voie comme se il se approchoit du pole par la moitié de la voie et par not be following so short a route as he would if he went toward the pole for the
l’autre moitié s’en esloignast; et ce peust l’en veoir clerement en une espere first half o f the distance and away from it for the second half. This can be clearly
200 solide. Item, se un honme aloit par sus terre droit vers le pole ou de costé tant seen on a solid sphere. Again, if a man went over land directly toward the pole and
que il eust le pole desriere soy, je di que adonques le soleil et les estoilles qui beyond, until the pole was behind him, I say that the sun and stars which rise //
lie- /J (156a) vent a destre quant il est deçà le pole leveroient a sa senestre (15 6a) on the man’s right when he is on our side o f the pole would rise on his left
quant il seroit oultre le pole, si comme l’en peut veoir en l’espere artificiel et when he gets beyond the pole, as can be seen from the artificial sphere mentioned
fu touchié devant ou secont point en la fin. 4? Item, il appert par Aristote en above at the end o f the discussion o f the second point [see fol. 154s. It appears
205 ce desrenier chapitre que le circuite de la terre n’est pas grant, et se un homme
povoit aler tous jours devant soy et il errast chascun jour .x. lieues, il avroit
fait ce circuite en quatre ans et seze sepmaines et .ii. jours, si comme je declai-
ray autrefois ou .xxvi.e chapitre484
9du T raitié de FEspere.w Item,*0 encore se­
roit fait tel circuite en moût moins de temps se il estoit fait par un cercle qui
210 ne divisast pas la terre en .ii. parties equales, si comme se un honme partoit
de ici de Rouen et aloit vers orient ou vers occident touzjours en equale dis­
tance du pole qui est ici eslevé environ .1. degrés. Se cest honme povoit touz-
from Aristotle’s statement in this chapter that the circumference o f the earth is
jours ainsi aler, il revendroit ici au lieu dont il est parti, et n’aroit pas erré tant
not very great and that, if a man could go straight ahead continuously at the rate of
de voie de grandement comme se il fust alé en faisant son circuite souz l’e-
ten leagues each day, he would complete the circuit in four years, sixteen weeks,
215 quinocial ou par autre voie envi- / (156b) ron le centre de la terre. Item,*1
and two days, as I explained formerly in Chapter Twenty-six o f my Treatise on the
selon Aristote il ne fault pas grandement que tel circuite ne se peut bien faire,
Sphere. However, if this journey around the circuit o f the earth were made on a
car la fin d’abitacion vers occident et l’autre fin vers orient sont bien pro­
circle which did not divide the earth into two equal parts, it could be made in
chaines, si comme il appert en ce desrenier chapitre.*2 Item, posé que ce peust
much less time; for instance, if a man left here at Rouen and went due east or due
estre fait en pluseurs jours par honme ou par oyseau, celui qui feroit tel cir-
west, keeping at all times an equal distance from the pole or at approximately a
220 cuite ou voiage en alant devant soy vers orient avroit un jour et une nuit ar-
latitude o f 50°, and if this man could proceed continuously along this parallel, he
tificielz plus que celui qui ne partiroit de son pais. Item, celui qui le feroit en
would come back here to the place from which he started out and he would not
alant devant soy vers occident avroit moins un jour et une nuit artificielz que
have traveled anywhere near the distance he would have covered if he had fol­
celui qui ne se mouvrait. Item, par ce s’ensuit que se .ii. honmes partoient
lowed the circuit o f the equinoctial or some other route near /(156b) the center o f
the earth. According to Aristotle, such a journey would not be terribly difficult to
make, for the end o f habitable land in the west and in the east are quite near, as it

45 D E sur Espaigne.
46 D E du centre.
47 D E omit et fu touchié... en la fin.
48 E ou xvie ch.
49 “ Et ainsi, qui pourroit environner toute
la terre, et yroit chascun jour .x. lieues, il
avroit fait son tour en mil .v.c .lxxv. jours,
qui valent .iiii. ans .xvi. sepmaines et .ii. jours.”
De Vespere, ed. McCarthy, ch. 26, 11. 1046-49.
50 Lacuna in D E to Item, selon Aristote,
156b.
51 D E resume here.
52 B omits desrenier chapitre.
appears from this last chapter [see fol. 15 2d]. I f we assume this could be done in
several days by man or by bird, he who would make such a circuit or voyage going
straight ahead toward the east would have one day and one night more by the
calendar than the one who did not leave his country; the one who would make
such a journey going straight ahead toward the west would have one calendar day
and night less than the one who did not move. From this, it follows that, if two
J7 $ Le Livre du ciel et du monde
d’un lieu et fais<oi>ent53 ce circuite en un meisme temps et partissent d’un
a25 lieu l’un quant l’autre et revenissent a ce lieu l’un quant l’autre, et l’un le
feist <en alant vers orient et l’autre)84*en alant vers occident, il convendroit
par neccessité que celuy qui va vers orient eust en ce meisme temps deux
jours et deux nuis artificielz plus que n’a en ce meisme temps celui qui va vers
occident. E t ce ay je autrefois declairié ou .xxxix.e chapitre du // (156c) trai-
230 tié en françois que je fis D e Vespere Vs Item, encore de ce s’ensuient autres
choses bien merveilleuses lesquelles, aveques ce que dit est, je mis pieça en
mettre quant je en <ai>86 trouvée ceste ymaginacion. E t ces .xxiiii. vers par
•iiii. sisennes, je les veul ici reciter afin que ceulz qui ont noble engin se puis­
sent excerciter a les exposer et entendre, car il ne contiennent rien qui ne soit
235 pure vérité.
Book II, Chapter 31, fols. 15 6c-i 56d | J79
men left from the same place and made this circuit in the same time, each leaving
from and returning to the same place, but one going east and the other west, then
necessarily the one going east would have in this same amount o f time two days
and two nights more by the calendar than the one who goes west. This I have pre­
viously explained in Chapter Thirty-nine o f the // (15 6c) treatise which I wrote in
French called O n the Sphere. There are still other very marvelous things along with
those I have already recounted that I put into verse some time ago when the ideas
came to me. These twenty-four verses arranged in four stanzas o f six lines each
I take pleasure in recording here so that those o f noble ingenuity may try their
skill with them to expound and to comprehend their meaning, for they contain
nothing which is not pure and simple truth.

Let a road encircle the land and the earth— let it encircle the globe. Let A and
Cingat humum vicus57 terramque regiret58 in orbem.59 B begin at the same time to go around the world by this road, and let them cease
Incipiant per eum simul et cessent simul A B their journey at the same time. Let C remain stationary until both these two re­
Terras ambire.60 Maneat C donee utrumque turn to the point whence they first set forth. A n d let A go toward the west and B
A d punctum redeat prius unde recesserat.61 E t quod goes toward the east. Let C abide peacefully where he is for nine natural days.
240 A petat occasum, B tendat solis ad ortum.
Per naturalesque dies C novem requiescat. I say that A completes the course he set for himself in eight ordinary days
only and as many nights [i.e., according to common computation]. A nd at the
D ico 62 quod A solum vulgaribus octo diebus same rate o f speed B completes his course in the same amount o f time. Then he
Noctibus et totidem peragat positum sibi cursum; will have passed twice five days and as many shades o f night, because, as far as he
Atque, pari passu, B motum tempore tanto. is concerned, the sun will rise / (15 6d) and set just that number o f times. A nd
245 Tunc bis quinque dies tot et umbras noctis habebit, thus eight, nine, and ten are not just about the same, but are exactly identical.
Nam sibi63 sol tociens orietur / (15 6d) et occidet. E t sic
N o n ad idem sed idem sunt64 octo novemque decemque. N o w let it happen that B returns home. Sunday is being celebrated on a cer­
tain feast day [i.e., Easter, according to the context]. But throughout the same
Contingua<t>6s B domos reperit. Celebratur66 in una
Fest<a>67 dies D om ini;68 sed ozizontem per eundem
250 Altera que sequitur feriam vult esse secundam.
du monde au X IV e siècle,” pp. 66-77, has accomplished. Much the same ideas occur in
53 A faisent. 62 A in left margin: Prima conclusio. In the the French Traitiê de Vespere in the passage
pointed out the close similarity between this
54 A omits en alant... et l’autre. same manner, before the following two referred to in note 53 above. Obviously, as
speculation on habitable land and that found
55 The caption o f the chapter is “ D ’une mer­ strophes respectively: .ii.a conclusio, tertia in Oresme’s Questiones super speram [Sacrobosci] Zoubov remarks, Oresme is merely toying
veilleuse consideracion ou circuite de la terre.” conclusio. in Erfurt Amplon., Q. 299, fols. ii3 r-i2 6 r, with a paradox, which he delights in solving
De Vespere, ed. McCarthy, ch. 39, 11. 1655— 63 E si. written at least twenty years before D u Ciel et as an exercise o f reason. N or was this “ yma­
1720. 64 C sut. ginacion” entirely original with Oresme; as
du monde. The man going east around the earth
56 A F omits ai. 65 A continguas. Zoubov reminds us, Pliny, Naturalis historia,
would have shorter days than the man going
57 In the margin preceding this verse, an­ 66 B célébrât. west; artificial and natural days are discussed II.73, records the experience o f a Greek trav­
other hand has inserted casus in A . B humum 67 A festo. and the feasibility o f making the journey eler whose trip o f 1200 stades required six
intus terram. 68 Borchert, in Die Lehre von der Bewegung bei hours longer going west than returning east.
around the earth is posited as relatively easy,
58 D E terram quoque giret. N . O., publishes the poem on p. 21, note 83, since the distance between habitable land in However, Oresme seems to have been the first
59 B in cebe. from MS. D . He has transcribed Domini as to reflect upon this problem in detail and to
the west and in the east is not great; if there
60 B abire. donum in both cases without giving its mean­ is habitable land between the Tropic o f Cancer treat it with something more than casual
61 B recessat et que. ing. Zoubov, “ Un voyage imaginaire autour and the North Pole, this voyage could be notice.
j8o | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book II, Chapter 31, fols. 15 7a-! 57b | j 8i

Unde neccessario fieret distinctio talis hemisphere the day next following will be Monday. Whence such a distinction
Si populus circum69 terras habitaret ubique would necessarily be made, if everywhere throughout the earth people were liv­
Legibus et totus mundus regeretur eisdem. ing and the whole world were governed by the same laws.

Atamen econtra procedens luce sub una,
255 Lune primo diem Dom ini post indeque lune70
Lapsa nocte subit. Igitur poterit71 fore 72 tempus
Q u o ,73 videt A pascha; sed mox pertransit ad illos
Q ui tergunt miseras pia per jejunia culpas
Postque colunt pure sollemnia mistica pasche. Alleluia.74 //
260 (15 7a) E t [Fig. 46] ainsi a l ’ouneur de Dieu et par sa grace je a c c o m p lis le
premier et le secont livres de Celo et mundo pour lesquiex miex entendre est
expedient le Traitié de P Espéré en françois dont je ay faite mencion. E t seroit
bien que il fust mis en un volume aveques ces .ii. livres et me semble que ce
sera .i. livre de naturele philosophie noble et très excellent. E t encore ay je,
265 a l’aide de Dieu, /(157b) telement ordenéz le tiers et le quart que il’sont di­
gnes de mettre aveques les autres. C y fenist le secont livre du C ie l et du monde.73
But, on the contrary, anyone proceeding in the opposite direction under one
light o f the moon [i.e., in one night] first comes nigh upon Sunday when still
another lunar night has elapsed. It will be, therefore, almost the time upon
which A sees Easter. But soon he passes over to those who are wiping away
their wretched faults through pious fastings [i.e., while it is still Lent] and who
afterward celebrate the mystical solemnities o f Easter in an orthodox manner.
Alleluia ! // (see Fig. 46].
a
b

Fig. 46

(157a) Thus to the honor o f G o d and by His grace, I have finished the First and
Second Books o f D e caelo et mundo, for the better understanding o f which it is ex­
pedient to read also the Treatise on the Sphere in French, which I have previously
mentioned. A n d it would be good if it could be put in one volume along with
these two books, and, it seems to me, this would make a noble and very excellent
book o f natural philosophy. I have arranged with G o d ’s help / (157b) the Third
and Fourth Books in such a manner that they are worthy to be placed along with
the others. Here ends the second Book o f The Heavens and the World.

69 D E arcum. somewhat enigmatical poem appears to be

70 D E postremaque luna.
71 B C D E F petitur.
72 D E F fere.
73 B quen ; C D E F que.
74 D E repeat Alleluia three times. This
Oresme’s major recorded effort in verse; see
the quatrain at the end o f Book IV , fol. 203c.
A free rendering into English appears on the
page opposite the French text.
75 B C D E F omit Et encore ...d u monde.
j 82 | L e L iv r e du c ie l e t du monde Book III: List o f Chapters | j8$

[Livre III] [Book III]

Ci commence le tiers livre D u C ie l et du monde ouquel il determine des
corps qui sont meuz de mouvement <droit apres ce que il a dit devant des
corps meuz de m ouvem ent)1 circulaire. E t tracte les opinions anciens. E t ou
quart il // (i 57c) determine la vérité. E t contient ce tiers livre .xiii. chapitres.
Here begins the third Book o f The Heavens and the W orld, in which he takes up the
problem o f bodies having rectilinear motion, following his previous discussion o f
bodies having circular motion. He examines the theories o f earlier thinkers. In
Book IV he // (157c) establishes the truth o f this matter. This third Book con­
tains thirteen chapters.

[Table sommaire des chapitres du tiers livre] [Index o f the Chapters o f Book III]

1. O u premier chapitre il fait mencion d’aucunes choses devant dites et
met son intencion. [15 7d]
2. O u secont il recite .iiii. opinions et improuve la desreniere par .ii. ray-
sons mathématiques. [15 8c]
5 3. O u tiers il reprouve l’opinion de Plato par une autre rayson naturele.
1. In Chapter One he summarizes certain ideas that have already been examined
and states his aim. [i57d]
2. In Chapter T w o he presents four opinions and rejects the last with two argu­
ments drawn from mathematics. [15 8c]
3. In Chapter Three he refutes the opinion o f Plato, using an argument drawn

[ ! 59 d] from the observation o f nature, [x 59d]

4. O u quart il reprouve encore l’opinion de Plato par .iiii. autres raysons 4. In Chapter Four he again refutes Plato’s opinion, using four other arguments
natureles. [161c] drawn from nature. [161c]
5. O u quint il monstre que les corps naturelz ont mouvemens naturelz et 5. In Chapter Five he shows that natural bodies have natural motion, and he re­
1o reprouve aucuns anciens opinions .[163c] futes certain previous opinions. [163c]
6. O u sixte il prouve que les corps naturelz qui sont meus de mouvement 6. In Chapter Six he proves that natural bodies having rectilinear movements
droit sont pesans ou ligiers. [165b] are either heavy or light. [165 b]
7. O u .vii.e il reprouve aucuns opinions et monstre que il convient que 7. In Chapter Seven he refutes certain opinions and shows that there must be
aucun element soit. [i66d] some element. [i66d]
15 8. E n le .viii.e il monstre que les elemens ne sont pas infiniz en multitude. 8. In Chapter E igh t he shows that the elements are not infinite in number. [169a]
[169a] 9. In Chapter Nine he points out that there is not one element only. [i7od] /
9. O u .ix.e il monstre que il n’est pas tant seulement un element. [i7od] / (i57d) 10. In Chapter Ten he shows that the elements are not eternal, but per­
(15 7d) 10. O u .x.e il monstre que les elemens sont corruptibles selon leurs ishable with respect to their parts. [172b]
parties. [172b] 11. In Chapter Eleven he rejects certain opinions concerning the manner in
20 11. En le .xi.e il reprouve aucuns opinions de la maniéré comment les ele­ which the elements are made from one another. [173c]
mens sont faiz un de l’autre. [173c] 12. In Chapter Tw elve he presents five general arguments to demonstrate that
12. O u .xii.e il monstre par .v. raysons generales que les elemens ne sont the elements are not to be identified with shapes or figures. [i75d]
pas déterminés par figures. [173 d] 13. In Chapter Thirteen he presents nine more specific arguments to explain
13. O u .xiii.e il prouve encore par .ix. raysons plus especiales que les ele- w hy the elements are not limited in shape. [178d]
25 mens ne sont pas determinéz par figures. [178d]

1 A omits droit apres... de mouvement.

 j$4 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book III, Chapter i, fols. 158a-!58b | ;8 j

i. Ou premier chapitre il fait mencion d’aucunes choses 1. In Chapter One he summarizes certain ideas that have
devant dites et met son intencion. already been examined and states his aim.

T . We have already discussed the primary or first heaven and its parts and the
T . Nous avons dit devant du premier ciel et de ces parties et des estoilles
stars that move in this heaven, concerning such matters as what their nature is, the
meues qui sont en ce ciel, et quelles choses ce sont selon nature, et que telz
fact that such bodies were never generated nor created, and that they are indestruct­
corps ne furent onques ne engendrés ne fais et sont incorruptibles.
G . T o u t ce a Aristote déterminé ou secont livre.2 E t par le prem ier ciel il ible.
G . Aristotle determined all this in Book II. B y fir st heaven he means here the en­
5 entent ici toute la masse des // (158a) corps du ciel et de toutes les esperes
tire mass o f f i (15 8a) celestial bodies and all the celestial spheres, and he calls it first
celestielz et le nomme premier a la difference des esperes3 de l’aer et du feu
to differentiate it from the spheres o f air and fire which are vulgarly called “ heav­
qui sont vulgalment appelléz «ciel»: Volucres celi,4 etc. Apres il met l’inten-
en” : Birds o f heaven, etc. Then he states the purpose o f all natural philosophy.
cion de toute philosophie naturele.
T . A ll natural things are either substances or functions and actions o f these sub­
T . E t toutes choses natureles sont les unes substances et les autres sont
stances. A n d these substances are simple bodies like fire, earth, and the other ele­
10 operacions et passions de ces substances. E t les substances, ce sont les corps
ments and bodies compounded from them; also the entire heavens and their parts,
simples, si comme le feu, la terre et les autres elemens et les corps qui sont
even animals and men, plants and all the parts o f these things. Th e actions and
faiz de cez yci, et aussi tout le ciel et les parties de lui et derechief les bestes et
operations are the local motions o f each o f these bodies, particularly o f the ele­
honmes, les plantes5 et les parties de ces choses. E t les passions et oeuvres
ments, and o f all other bodies whose movements are caused by virtue o f the power
sont les mouvemens localz de chascun de ces corps, et maisme<me)nt6 des
o f the elements.
i5 elemens et de touz autres corps desquelz mouvemens les elemens sont cause
G . For each compound body moves in accordance with the power responsible
selon leur vertu.
for and dominant over it, as explained in Chapter Four o f Book I [see fol. 9d].
G . Car chascun corps mixte est meu selon la vertu de l’element qui a sei-
T . Thus, the functions and actions o f the natural substances consist o f the
gnourie en lui, si comme il appert ou quart chapitre du premier.
changes and alterations which / (158b) they undergo together and among them­
T . Item, encore, les oeuvres et passions des substances naturelles (s o n t)7
selves. Therefore, the investigation o f natural science must concern itself prin­
20 les alteracions et les transmutacions que / (15 8b) elles ont ensamble et une a
cipally with bodies or magnitudes because all natural substances are bodies or are
l’autre. O r convient il donques que presque toute l’istoire ou science natu­
generated with bodies having magnitudes and quantities.
rele soit des corps pource que toutes substances natureles sont corps ou en-
G . He says principally because a part o f natural science treats o f G od, the intel­
gendrees aveques corps8et aveques magnitudes et quantités.
ligences, and the intellective soul.
G . Il dist presque toute science naturele etc., pource que en aucune partie est
T . A ll that we have said here is examined and established in the Physics and in
25 faite mencion de Dieu, des intelligences et de l’ame intellective.
the particular consideration given to the separate topics in our books on natural
T . E t tout ce que dit est appert par ce que est déterminé ou livre de Phisique
philosophy.
et par considérer les livres de philosophie naturele chascun par soy.
G . In the second book o f the Physics it is explained that nature is the principle o f
G . Il appert ou secont de Phisique9 que nature est principe10 de mouvement
motion and o f rest, and, since according to Aristotle nothing moves except bodies,
et de repos, et pource que, selon Aristote, rien n’est meu fors corps, il s’en-
it follows that every natural thing appertains to body or magnitude. N o w he de­
30 suit que toute chose naturele appartienne a corps. Apres il met son intencion
clares his plan for the study, which follows below.
quant a ce que s’ensuit.
T . We have been dealing with the first or primary element, the heavens, and
T . O r est dit devant du premier element, c’est a dire du ciel, quel il est
have discussed its nature and have decided that it is indestructible and had no be­
selon nature et que il est incorruptible et sanz commencement. O r reste dire
ginning. N o w it remains to speak o f the other two elements.
des autres .ii.

2 The principal argument relating to this 5 E F planetes.

matter is found in Book I, chs. 25-36; in Book 6 A maisment.
II the topic is treated in chs. 16-20, passim. 7 A omits sont.
3 D E estoilles. 8 A corps et aveques corps et aveques ma­ 9 Physicorum, II. 1. 192b 15-16; see also 10 D E commencement.
4 Ps. 8:9. gnitude. V III.3.253b 6-9.
j 86 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
35 G . Les autres sont .iiii., mais il dist .ii. pource que il en veult ici determi-
ner II C1 58c) selon ce que appartient a leurs mouvemens localz naturelz les-
quelz sont faiz par .ii. vertus ou qualitéz, c’est a savoir pesanteur et legiereté
— et donques des autres .ii., c ’est a savoir du legier et du pesant.
T . E t en disant de ces elemens, il convendra aveques ce enquérir de la ge-
40 neracion et corrupcion de eulz, car ou generacion n’est rien ou elle est en ces
elemens et es choses qui sont faites de ces elemens. Et, par aventure, convient
il donques premièrement considérer a savoir mon se generacion est ou non.
G . Il traicte ici de <la)H generacion des elemens selon leur nature et selon
ce que il appartient pour leur mouvement, mais il en traicte ou livre de Gene-
45 racion et corrupcion12 <plus>13 ou resgart des choses qui sont de eulz mixtes et
compostes.
2. Ou secont chapitre il recite .iiii. opinions anciens et
reprouve1 la desreniere par deux raisons mathématiques.
T . Les philosophes qui ont ou temps passé enquis de vérité speculative et
ausquelz nous adreçons nos paroles ont eu opinions divers les uns des / (i 58d)
autres. Car aucuns d’eulz ostoient2 toute generacion et toute corrupcion et
disoient que rien ne est fait de nouvel ne rien corrompu mais seulement selon
5 apparence ; et le nous est avis, si comme disoient ceulz qui ensuioient Melüs-
sus et Parmenides lesquelz, combien que il dient bien de autres choses comme
sont les choses perpetueles, toutevoies l’en ne doit pas ce cuider des choses
natureles, car parler des choses qui sont perpetueles et inmobiles, c’est autre
consideracion que naturele et premiere par dignité— ce est methaphisique. E t
io la cause de leur erreur fu pour ce que il ne cuidoient que il fust autre sub­
stance quelcunque que celles qui sont sensibles— et ainsi entendoient les pre­
miers philosophes— et que toutes natures estoient teles. E t pour ce que nous
avons cognoissance et science qui ne peut estre de choses corruptibles, il
s’ensuit que les substances corporeles sont incorruptibles. E t ainsi faisoient
15 ces philosophes leurs raysons.
G . Les Pythagoriens furent de ceste opinion qui metoient// (159a) que
ame est corps invisible et est perpetuele et d’une nature en honmes et en bes-
tes ; et aussi metoient il les autres corps sensibles estre incorruptibles fors se­
lon apparence. E t ceste opinion en partie recite O vide ou .xv.e de son grant
20 livre.3 Apres Aristote met ou recite une autre opinion.
11 A omits la. 1 B recite.
De generatione et corruptione, I.2, passim, 2 B C D E F estoient.
and 11.1.328b 32— 329a 2. 3 Metam. X V .136-462.
13 A omits plus.
Book III, Chapters 1-2, fols. 15 80-15 9a | j8y
G . There are actually four others, but he says two because here he wishes to
examine // (158c) their natural local motions which derive from two powers or
qualities, namely, heaviness and lightness ; and so the two others correspond to the
pair o f light and the pair o f heavy elements [fire-air, earth-water].
T . While we are speaking about these elements, it will be well to inquire about
their generation and alteration; for either generation is or is not important in re­
lation to these elements and to the things made from them. Perhaps, then, we must
first consider whether generation exists or not.
G . Here he discusses the generation o f the elements with regard to their nature
and their movements, but in the book Generation and Corruption he treats especially
the mixed and compound bodies formed from the elements.
2. In Chapter Tw o he presents four opinions o f earlier thinkers and
refutes the last opinion with two arguments drawn from mathematics.
T . Those philosophers in times past, who have sought to discover the truth
through speculation and to whom we are now addressing our words, have held
various ideas which differed from one / (15 8d) another. Certain ones denied the
existence o f generation and destruction o f any sort whatsoever and said that noth­
ing is made anew and nothing destroyed, but only gives the illusion o f being so.
A n d we must object to this opinion just as we must not believe the statements o f
the followers o f Melissus and Parmenides, although they speak correctly about
perpetual things ; because speaking o f things perpetual and motionless by nature is
quite a different matter from discussing those things which are primary in dignity
and which belong, rather, to the realm o f metaphysics. Th e cause o f their error
was that they did not believe there were any substances other than those percepti­
ble to the senses— just as the first philosophers had believed— and that all natures
were o f the same identical order. Because we have knowledge and wisdom that
cannot be o f perishable things, it follows that corporeal substances are imperish­
able. In this way these philosophers formulated their arguments.
G . The Pythagoreans held this opinion : // ( 159a) that the soul is an invisible, per­
petual body and the same in both men and animals ; they also held that other sensi­
tive bodies are indestructible, save in appearance. This theory is related by O vid in
the fifteenth book o f his great work, [the Metamorphoses]. N ext Aristotle presents
or relates another opinion.
j 88 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Book III, Chapter 2, fols. 15 9b-! 59c | ;8p
T . E t autres furent qui metoient leur estude a dire le contraire, desquelz les
T . There were other philosophers who sought zealously to contradict this the­
uns dient que toute chose ot commencement et que rien ne fu perpetuelment,
ory, some o f whom said that everything has a beginning, but nothing endures for­
mais aucunes choses orent commencement et sont incorruptibles et les autres
ever; that other things began and will last forever; and that others were created
furent faites et seront corrompues.* E t ce fu l’opinion de Hesyodus.
and will be destroyed. This was the opinion o f Hesiod.
25 G . Ce fu un théologien des poiens qui bailla sa science en poëtrie et met-
G . Hesiod was a pagan theologian who expressed his wisdom in poetry ; he held
toit que toutes choses furent faites d’une matière confuse appellee chaos, et de
that all things were made from a confused matter called chaos. O v id mentions this
ce fait mencion O vide ou commencement de son grant livre.5 Apres vient la
theory at the beginning o f his great book, [the Metamorphoses]. N o w comes the
tierce opinion.6
third opinion.
T . Item, aucuns des autres premiers philosophes dient que toutes autres
T . Some o f the other early philosophers say that all things, save one, are in a
30 choses, fors une seule, sont continuelment / (159b) autres et autres et fluent
state o f constant / (15 9b) flux and that they change like time or sound. N othing is
aussi comme le temps ou un son. E t n’est rien permanent ne fichié fors celle
permanent nor fixed, except this one single thing, from which all other things are
seule chose de laquelle toutes les autres sont faites par transformacion. E t
derived or evolved. This opinion was held by many, and particularly by Heraclitus
ceste opinion tiennent pluseurs et Eraclitus7 qui fu de Ephese.
o f Ephesus.
<G’. ) 8 Mais les 9 uns disoient que celle chose qui est la matière dont toutes
G . However, some, like Thales, said that this permanent thing which is the mat­
35 sont faites est eaue, si comme Taies; et Anaximenes disoit que ce est aer et
ter from which everything else is made is water ; and Anaximenes declared it was
Heraclitus*10 que ce est feu. Apres s’ensuit la quarte opinion qui fu de Plato.
air, and Heraclitus that it was fire. The fourth opinion, which is Plato’s, follows.
T . E t aucuns sont qui dient que tout corps est generable et dient que les
T . There are others who say that every body is generated, being fashioned and
corps sont engendrés et fais de superfices et resoluz ou corrompuz arriéré en
made from plane surfaces and later resolved or transformed again into planes.
superfices.
G . A s was stated in Chapter One o f Book I [see fols. 5c ff.], a plane is a magnitude
40 G . Si comme il fu dit ou premier chapitre du premier, superfice est une
imagined to have length and width without depth or thickness and indivisible
quantité ymaginee longue et laee sanz quelcunque profundité ou espesseur,
with respect to depth and divisible according to its length or width. He refutes this
mais est indivisible selon profundité et divisible selon lonc et selon lé. Apres
opinion with two arguments based on mathematics.
il reprouve ceste opinion par .ii. raisons mathématiques.
T . The other opinions will be discussed later.
T . E t des autres opinions sera parlé autre fois.
G . Later in this book and also in Generation. I j (159c) Plato’s opinion was quite
45 G . Si comme apres en ce livre et ou livre de Generacion.11 E t // ( 15 9c) aussi
widely held or, perhaps, Aristotle was temperamentally opposed to him, as Eustra-
l’opinion Plato estoit plus commune ou, par aventure, Aristote avoit trop le
thius says in his commentary on the first book o f the E thics.
cuer contre lui, si comme dist Eustrace ou premier d’E th iq u es.'2*
T . But it is easy to see that those who would construct and compound all bodies
T . Mais de ceulz qui mettent que les corps sont constitués et composés de
out o f plane surfaces say many things which are contrary to the disciplines o f math­
superfices, l’en peust veoir promptement que il dient moult de choses autres
ematics. A n d unless one has reasons more credible than mere fantasies, it is not
50 qui sont contraires aus disciplines mathématiques. E t n’est pas juste chose de
just to disturb the principles and conclusions o f such sciences.
destruire les principes et les conclusions de teles sciences qui n’a raysons plus
G . A ll mathematicians assume that every body and every magnitude is divisible
creables au contraire que teles legieres suspicions.15
without limit and that no such magnitude is composed o f indivisible parts, as was
G . Tous mathématiciens supposent que tout corps et toute quantité con­
stated in Chapter One o f Book I and also in Book Six o f the Physics. He next pre­
tinue est divisible sanz fin et que nulle tele quantité n’est composée de choses
sents the second argument.
55 indivisibles, si comme il fu dit ou premier chapitre du premier et appert ou
T . I f the bodies are composed o f surfaces or planes, then for the same reason the
sixte de Phisique,14 Apres il met la seconde rayson.
T . Item, se les corps sont composts de superfices, par samblable rayson les

4 B C D E F corruptibles. 9 a repeats les.

1930], 11.298b. 34, note 4) that the promised 13 A legiertes suspicions.
5 Metam. 1.5—7. 10 B D E F Eraclius; C Heraclius. **• Physicorum, V I .1 .231a 23-34; 2.232b 21-
discussion is not found in either De caelo or
6 B omits Apres v ie n t.. .opinion. 11 Juntas, t.c. 4, 175K. J. L. Stocks notes 23; 233a 10-21; 233b 16-19; 4.234b 10—
De generatione.
7 B C D F Eraclius. in his English translation o f De caelo (in W. D.
12 Eustratii et Michaelis et anonyma in Ethica 233a 37.
8 ^ Tiexte. Ross, ed. The Works of Aristotle [Oxford,
Nicomachea commentaria, 1.6 .
j<?o | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
superfices sont compostes de lignes et les lignes de poins. E t ainsi seroit pos­
sible que une ligne fust dont la partie ne seroit pas ligne.
60 G . Si comme celle / (i 59d) qui seroit composée de .ii. poinz.
T . Mais de ce fu considéré devant ou livre de Phisique et monstré que lon­
gitude ou ligne ne peust estre indivisible.
G . Ce est ou sixte de Phisique15 comme dit est.
3. Ou tiers chapitre il repreve l’opinion de Plato
par une autre raison naturele.
T . O r voulons nous maintenant un petit considérer quelz impossibles des
corps naturelz il convient ensuir a l’opinion de ceulz qui dient que lignes sont
faites de poins indivisibles.1
G . Apres il met .iii. supposicions.
5 T . Premièrement, de metre que quantités continues sont composées de
indivisibles, touz les impossibles qui s’en ensuient en sciences mathémati­
ques s’en ensuient en sciences naturelz, et ceulz qui s’en ensuient en sciences
natureles ne s’en ensuient pas touz es mathématiques pour ce que les choses
mathe<m)atiques2 sont dites et entendues par abstraction et les natureles par
10 apposicion ou conjunction aveques matière.
G . Si comme, pour cause d’exemple, quant le //( 160a) mathématicien parle
de cercle, il ne cure et ne considéré pas se il est d’or ou d’argent ou d ’autre
matière, mais le naturien considéré la matière sensible et le subject et ainsi des
autres figures et des nombres.
i5 T . Item, moult de choses sont lesquelles ne pourroient estre en3 choses in­
divisibles et lesquelles par neccessité sont es choses natureles, car se une cho­
se est indivisible, ce est impossible que chose divisible soit en elle. Item, tou­
tes passions ou accidens corporel<z>4 sont divisibles en .ii. maniérés, i.e.,
selon espece ou selon accident: selon espe<c)e,5 si comme couleur dont les
20 especes sont blanc et noir; et selon accident se le subject ouquel est tele pas­
sion ou accident est divisible. E t pour ce, toutes passions corporelles sont
divisibles en ceste maniéré et pour ce convient considérer le impossible qui
s’ensuit se les corps naturels estoient6 composts de indivisible<s>.7
G . Apres il forme sa rayson.
25 T . O r est ce impossible que une chose soit pesante qui est composte de .ii.
choses desquelles ne une ne l’autre ont pesanteur. E t touz corps sensibles ont
pesanteur / (160b) selon Democritus ou, au moins, la terre et l’eaue, si comme
15 Ibid., VI.1.230a 30— 232a 20; 2.233b 2 A matheantiques.
16-19. 3 B C D E F estre et choses.
1 D E poins divisibles. * A B corporeles.
Book III, Chapters 2-3, fols. i59d-i6ob | J91
surfaces are composed o f fines, and the fines o f points. Thus it would be possible
that a fine could exist whose part would not be a fine.
G . Like a fine / (iJ9d) composed o f two points.
T . But this was considered earlier in the Physics, and it was pointed out that a
length or fine cannot be indivisible.
G . This was shown in the sixth book o f the Physics, as stated.
3. In Chapter Three he refutes the opinion o f Plato, using
an argument drawn from the observation o f nature.
T . N o w , we should like to consider briefly the impossibilities with respect to
natural bodies resulting from the assumption o f those who say that fines are com­
posed o f indivisible points.
G . He now presents three hypotheses.
T . First, by maintaining that continuous magnitudes are composed o f indivisi­
bles, all the impossibilities which would follow in the mathematical sciences also
follow in the natural sciences ; and the impossibilities which result in natural sci­
ences do not all follow in mathematics because mathematics deals with abstraction
while natural sciences are concerned with the collecting and appraisal o f material
characteristics.
G . For example, when the // (160a) mathematician speaks o f a circle, he does not
care nor consider whether it is made o f gold or silver or another material, but the
naturalist considers the sensible matter and the substance as well as other shapes
and numbers.
T . Thus, there are many things which could not exist in indivisibles, but which
necessarily exist in natural objects ; for, if an object is indivisible, no divisible thing
can be contained therein. A ll functions and corporeal accidents are divisible in two
ways, that is, by species or by accident ; according to species, for example, in colors,
the species are black and white; and according to accident, if the substance in
which the function or accident is set is divisible. Accordingly, all bodily functions
are divisible in this way, and so it is necessary to consider the impossibility that
would result if natural bodies were composed o f indivisibles.
G . Next he formulates his argument.
T . N o w it is impossible that an object should be heavy if compounded o f two
things neither o f which has weight. A n d all perceptible objects have weight,/
(160b) according to Democritus, or at least earth and water have weight, as Plato
s A espere. 7 A indivisible.
6 D E naturelz n’estoient.
 J9 2 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Plato meisme dirait.8E t chose indivisible, si comme est point, n’a quelcunque
pesanteur; et donques la ligne qui serait composée de poinz ne seroit pas
30 pesante.9 E t se les lignes ne sont pesantes, les superfices ne sont pas pesan­
tes. E t donques nul corps n’est pesant.
G . Apres il prouve par .iii. raisons que point ne peust estre pesant et ce
avoit il supposé.
T . E t que ce ne soit pas possible que point ait pesanteur il appert, car toute
35 chose pesante e<(s)t10 plus pesante que aucune autre et toute legiere plus le-
giere d’aucune autre. Mais, par aventure, il n’est pas neccessité que toute cho­
se qui est plus pesante d’autre soit pesante, et aussi de chose plus legiere.
G . 11 E t se aucun opposoit en disant que le comparatif presuppose le posi­
tif et donques tout ce que est plus pesant est pesant, je respon que par pesant
40 il entent ce que est simplement pesant et absolue ment. E t l’eaue n’est pas tele
et toutevoies elle est plus pesante que n’est l ’aer et est pesante aucunement
et non pas simplment ou absoluement. E t de ce // (160c) met il exemple.
T . E t est aussi comme toute chose grande12 est plus grande, mes de toute
qui est plus grande il ne convient pas que elle soit grande, car moult de cho-
45 ses simplement petites sont plus grandes d’aucunes autres.
G . Un honme est dit simplement grant quant il attaint ou passe quantité
deue; et quant il n’i attaint il est dit petit et dist l’en que il n’est pas grant, et
toutevoies il est plus grant que n’est un espervier et que moult de choses.
T . E t donques se toute chose pesante est plus pesante, il convient que elle
5o soit plus grande en pesanteur. E t ainsi toute chose pesante est divisible. E t
l’en suppose que point est indivisible.
G . Se un point de terre est plus pesant que un point d’eaue, donques la pe­
santeur contient en vertu tant et plus que la pesanteur du point de eaue. E t
donques est elle divisible. E t ce est impossible que accident divisible soit en
55 subject indivisible. Mais l’en pourroit dire que ceste pesanteur est divisible
selon intencion et selon degrés, mais non pas selon extension et quantité. /
(i6od) E t pour ce, par aventure, les raisons que Aristote fait a ce propos ne
sont pas toutes demonstratives, combien que la conclusion soit neccessaire.
Apres il met a ce la seconde rayson.
60 T . Item, chose pesante est espesse et la legiere est claire, et une chose est
dite espesse pour ce que en equale quantité a plus de matière en elle et par ce
elle différé de chose clere. E t toute tele chose est divisible. E t donques se
point est pesant, il est espés et se il est legier, il est cler et, par consequent, il
est divisible et partible, car il a en equale quantité plus ou moins de parties de
65 matière.
G . Apres il met a ce la tierce rayson.
8 Timaeus, sections 49, 53, 60—61 passim. The 178E. Averroes in his commentary makes no
nova translatio used by Oresme merely indicates reference to Plato or to Democritus; see Jun-
at this point: “ ut et ipsi dixerint.” Cf. Juntas, tas, t.c. 8, 178L.
Book III, Chapter 3, fols. i6oc-i6od | J93
himself would say. A n indivisible thing like a point has no weight whatsoever so
that a line composed o f points would be weightless. I f the lines are weightless, then
the planes have no weight, and, consequently, no body has weight.
G . Then he proves by three arguments that a point cannot have weight, and this
he had assumed.
T . It is clear that it is impossible for a point to have weight, for any heavy body
is heavier than some other less heavy one and all light bodies are lighter than some
other heavier ones. However, not every body weighing more than another body
must necessarily be heavy, and the same is true o f light bodies.
G . I f it were objected that the comparative presupposes the positive and that,
therefore, the heavier must be heavy, I reply that b y heavy he means heavy in a pure­
ly absolute sense. Water is not heavy, but is heavier than air and so heavy in one
sense, but not simply nor absolutely. O f this // (160c) he gives the following exam­
ple.
T . This is comparable to the case in which all big things are bigger than smaller
things, but it is not necessary that all larger things be large; for many things that
are small are larger than some others.
G . A man is called big simply when he attains or surpasses a certain proper size ;
when he does not reach this size, he is called small or not big, but, nevertheless, he
is bigger than a sparrow and many other things.
T . Therefore, if all heavy bodies are heavier, it must be that such bodies have
more weight. So, every heavy object is divisible, and we assume a point to be in­
divisible.
G . I f a point o f earth weighs more than a point o f water, then the weight o f the
earth contains as much power as, or more power than, the point o f water, and,
consequently, it is divisible. A n d it is impossible that a divisible accident [weight]
should exist within an indivisible subject [point]. W e could, however, say that this
weight is divisible according to its intensity and degree, but not on the basis o f its
extension or magnitude. / (i6od) A s a result, the arguments Aristotle uses here are
perhaps not truly demonstrative although the conclusion is necessary. He now
presents the second argument.
T . Heavy objects are thick, and light objects are transparent; a thing is called
thick because it possesses more substance in an equal magnitude, and in this way it
differs from a transparent object. A n d all such bodies are divisible. Then, if a point
has weight, it must be thick, and if it is light, it is transparent ; consequently, a point
is divisible into parts, for it contains in equal magnitude more or fewer parts o f
matter.
G . Afterward, he states the third argument.
9 D E seroit point pesante. 11 B C D E F legiere chose. Et se aucun.
10 A B C D E F et. 12 D E omit grande.
J94 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Item, toute chose pesante est molle ou dure, et ce que est mole cede en
ses parties quant il est touchié. E t donques est chose molle divisible.
G . Et, par consequent, point ne peut estre mol et donques il ne peust
70 estre dur, car il <est>13 dont les parties ne cedent pas au touchement. Et, par
consequent, point n’est pesant ne legier. E t ainsi est ceci prouvé par .iii. ray-
sons prinses de .iii. differences qui sont pesant // (161a) et legier, cler et espés,
mol et dur. Apres il prouve une autre chose que il avoit supposée et par .ii.
raysons.
75 T M Mais encore ne peust l’en dire que chose pesante soit composée de
parties intégrales qui ne sont pesantes, car il convendroit que ceulz qui ce
dient, se il ne vouloient faire fiction, déterminassent quans poins font pesan­
teur et quans non.
G . Car il disoient que .ii. poins ou .iii. mis ensamble ne poisent rien, mais
80 quant il sont en grant multitude, il font pesanteur. O r convenist il donques
dire quans il y fault.
T . Item, toute pesanteur est plus grande d’aucune pesanteur, si comme il
est dit devant. E t donques il convendroit que point indivisible fust pesant.
Car poson que .iiii. poins facent pesanteur et .iii. ne la facent pas, donques qui
85 adjoustera le quint, tout ensemble sera plus pesant et, par consequent, le
quint point est pesant.
G . Mais je trouve que ces raysons ne concluent pas, car aucunes choses sont
si petites que elles sont insensibles et ne peuent estre veues, et peuent estre de
/ (161b) tele quantité que .ii. ou .iii. ou .iiii. peuent bien estre veues conjoin-
90 tes en une et non en mendre nombre. E t se .iii. ensamble sont invisibles15 et
les .iiii. sont visibles, il ne s’ensuit pas pour ce que la quarte separee soit vi­
sible. E t ainsi la quinte adjoustee fait tout plus visible et si est par soy invisi­
ble. E t tout ce appert en perspective et en pluseurs lieus de philosophie. E t
semblablement diroit l’en des poins indivisibles quant a pesanteur. Item, les
95 petites poudretes que l’en voit en l’aer ou ray du soleil sont de nature de terre
et se pluseurs, si comme .xii., estoient mises en un, ce peseroit; et qui ad-
jousteroit la .xiii.e tout seroit plus pesant. E t toutevoies, chascune par soy ne
poise rien. E t ausi diroit l’en des poins indivisibles. A u premier je respon que
ce n’est pas semblable, car il n’est partie de chose visible, tant soit petite, qui
100 ne soit visible quant est de soy et se vertu estoit qui fust assez puissante pour
la veoir; mais point indivisible ne peust estre pesant quant est de soy. A u se-
cont semblablement, l’en diroit que chascune de ces pou- // (161c) dretes est
pesante quant est de soy, mais sa pesanteur seule n’est pas si grande que elle
peust diviser le aer qui résisté ou le vent. E t une telle adjoustee a chose plus
105 pesante la fait plus pesante. E t est aussi comme se .xi. honmes povoient traire
une nef et, le .xii.e adjousté, il la trairoient et, adjousté le .xiii.e, il la trairoient
13 A car il dont; B car dur est dont; C D F ^ D E omit Tiexte.
car est dont; E car il est dont. 15 B visibles.
Book III, Chapter 3, fols. i6 ia -i6 ic J9 J
T . Every heavy object is either soft or hard, and that which is soft yields to the
touch. Thus, a soft object is divisible.
G . Consequently, a point cannot be soft and cannot be hard, for it belongs to
those objects which do not yield to the touch. This fact has been proved by three
arguments derived from these three differences : heavy vs. light; //(161a) transpar­
ent vs. thick; soft vs. hard. He now proves by two arguments a thing that he had
previously assumed.
T . Again, we cannot say that a heavy body is composed o f integral parts without
weight, for, if they do not wish to indulge in pure fiction, those who so maintain
would have to determine how many points make some weight and how many
points weigh nothing.
G . For they used to say two or three points together weigh nothing, but when
they are myriad, then they have weight. So, it was necessary to state how many
points are required to produce weight.
T . A ll weight is heavier than some other weight, as we said above [see fol. 160c].
Therefore, an indivisible point must have weight. Let us assume four points have
weight and three do not; then if we add a fifth point, the whole will weigh more,
and so the fifth point has weight.
G . I can prove, however, that these arguments are not conclusive, for some
things are so small that they are not perceptible to our senses and thus cannot be
seen, and yet they can be /(161b) o f such magnitude that two, three, or four o f them
together can be clearly seen as one object, but are not visible at all in lesser numbers.
A nd if three together are invisible, but four visible, it does not follow on this ac­
count that the fourth taken separately is visible. Adding a fifth makes the whole
more clearly visible, but the fifth part, taken alone, is invisible. A ll this is explained
in studies o f perspective and in several passages o f philosophy. W e could say the
same with respect to the weight o f indivisible points. Th e tiny bits o f powdery
dust we see in the air within sunbeams are o f the nature o f the earth; if several, say
twelve grains, were made into one body, they would have weight, and if we added
one more, the mass increased by the thirteenth grain would be heavier and weigh
more. However, each grain by itself weighs nothing, and the same also applies to in­
divisible points. T o the first argument, I reply that there is no similarity between
the two cases, for there is no part o f any visible object, however small, which could
not be seen by itself if there were a means sufficiently powerful to make it visible ;
but an indivisible point o f itself can have no weight. T o the second argument also,
one could say that each o f these grains o f dust // (161c) has weight, but the weight
o f a single grain is insufficient to divide the resistant air or wind, which prevents
its falling to earth. But the addition o f another such grain to a heavier mass makes it
still heavier. For example, if eleven men could pull a boat and if by adding a twelfth
they did pull it, then with the addition o f a thirteenth men they could pull it much
 jp 6 | L e Livre du ciel et du monde
B o o k I I I , C h a p te r 4, fo ls. i 6 i d - i 6 2 a | jp y

plus isnelement.16 E t comme dit est, par aventure, ne sont pas toutes les ray-
faster. A s stated above, perhaps Aristotle’s arguments about this opinion are not all
sons d’Aristote a ce propos demonstratives.
truly demonstrative.

4. O u quart chapitre il rep ro u ve encore l ’ o p in io n de Plato

4. In C h apter F o u r he refutes again the o p in io n o f P lato u sin g
par .iiii. autres resons natureles.
fo u r other argum ents draw n fro m nature.

T . Encore est autre raison contre cest opinion, car il dient que corps est fait
T . There is still another argument to be leveled against the opinion that a body
de superfices. O r est il ainsi que l’en peust ymaginer .ii. lignes estre adjoustees
is composed or made up o f surfaces. N o w we can imagine two lines to be together
ensemble <ou une sus l’autre)1 ou une ou bout de l’autre et semblablement
side by side or placed one above the other or end to end, and the same with respect
de .ii. superfices ou de pluseurs. E t se .ii. superfices sont mises une decoste
to two or more surfaces. I f two surfaces are placed side by side, they cannot make a
5 l’autre, elles ne peuent faire corps mais font plus grande superfice.2 E t se elles
body, but only a larger surface. I f we put one surface on top o f another, the body
sont mises une sus l’autre, le corps que elles feroient ne seroit pas element ne}
thus produced would consequently not be an element, either simple or compound. /
par consequent, corps compo- / (i6 id ) sé de elemens.
(16id) G . Th ey said that the elements are o f regular spherical shape, having
G . Car il disoient que les elemens sont de figures <speriques>3 regulieres
several faces, and that the element o f fire, which has the fewest faces or surfaces, is
qui ont pluseurs faces, et que l’element du feu qui a le moins de faces ou de
what is called pyramidal in shape or with four faces, as it appears in the thirteenth
10 superfices est de figure appellee pyramide laquelle a .iiii. faces, si comme il
book o f Euclid.
appert ou .xiii.e de Euclide.4
T . Some bodies are heavier and some lighter than others ; therefore, if they say
T '. Item, les uns corps sont plus pesans que les autres et aucuns sont plus
that bodies are heavier if they have more surfaces, as explained in the Timaeus, it
<legiers, et donques se il dient que les corps sont plu s)3 pesans qui sont de
follows that surfaces and also lines and points have weight, because the point is
pluseurs superfices, si comme il est déterminé in Thimeo*> il s’ensuit que les
proportional to the line as the line is to the surface and as the surface is to the body,
15 superfices sont pesantes et que ligne et point ont pesanteur, car point se a
as we have stated above. I f they had stated otherwise that the earth is heavier not
ou resgart de ligne comme ligne ou resgart de superfice et superfice a corps because it has many surfaces, but because it is composed o f heavy surfaces while
proporcionelment, si comme nous avons dit devant. E t se il disoient autre­ fire is composed o f light surfaces, then they should also have said that lines and
ment et que la terre n’est pas plus pesante pour ce que elle soit de pluseurs
points are heavy or light; and this has been rejected above.
superfices, mais pour ce que elle est de superfices pesantes et le feu de ligieres,
G . In the preceding chapter [see fol. 160c].
20 donques par samblable rayson les lignes et les poins seront pesans et legiers ; T . Moreover, if this were the case, it would follow that there could be no magni­
et ce est reprouvé devant.
tude or quantity, // (162a) for they said that a body could be resolved into sur­
G . O u chapitre precedent.
faces or planes and, likewise, a plane into lines and lines into points, and thus we
T . Item, se ainsi estoit, il s’ensuiroit que l’en peust faire que il ne seroit should have only points and no bodies. Time, which is a continuum, must be com­
quelcunque magnitude ou quantité, // (162a) car il disoient que corps peust posed o f indivisible instants or moments, and in the same manner could be re­
25 estre résolut en superfices et par semblable rayson superfice peust estre reso­ solved into such moments so that it would be done away with and there would be no
lute en lignes et ligne en poins, et ainsi il ne sera fors poi<n)z7 et nul corps.
more time.
Item, par semblable il convendroit que le temps, qui est chose continue, fust G . Afterward, he applies these arguments against another opinion.
composé de instanz ou de momens indivisibles. E t se ainsi estoit, il pour- T . Such, then, are the inconsistencies that beset those who maintain that the
roit estre résolut en telz momens, et donques il seroit osté et ne seroit pas
30 temps.
G . Apres il applique ces raysons contre une autre opinion.
T . E t telz inconveniens8 s’ensuient a ceulz qui mettent que le ciel est con- 3 A figures corporeles regulieres. 5 A omits legiers et donques.. .sont plus.
16 See Grant, “ Aristotle’s Shiphauler,” and 1 A omits une sus l’autre, 4 B omits Euclide; C D E F E. Cf. Euclidis 6 56B.
fol. 185b. 2 A plus grandes superfices. Elementa, XIII. 13, ed. J. L. Heiberg (Leipzig, 7 A poiz.
1885), vol. 4, 291. 8 F mouvemens.
 B o o k I I I , C h a p te r 4, fo ls. i(> zb -iG zà |
Jp8 | L e Livre du ciel et du monde

heavens are composed o f numbers ; some, among them the Pythagoreans, main­
stitué et composé de nombres ; car aucuns, aussi comme sont les Pythago-
tain that all nature is constituted o f numbers. W e see that natural bodies have weight
riens, mettent que toute nature est faite de nombres. E t nous voions que les
and lightness while the units [or monads] o f which numbers are composed cannot
35 corps naturelz ont pesanteur et legiereté. E t unités dont les nombres sont
make bodies and cannot have weight, however much they may be heaped to­
composés ne peuent faire corps, combien que elles soient posées ensemble,
et ne peuent avoir pesanteur. gether.
G . Because, according to the Pythagoreans, the units or monads are indivisible,
G . Car, selon les Pythagoriens, elles sont indivisibles, et chose indivisible
and the indivisible cannot be part o f a body nor o f anything having weight / (162b)
ne peust estre partie de corps ne de chose pesante / (162b) ou legiere, si com-
40 me il appert par les raysons devant mises. or lightness, as the previous arguments have explained.
Aristotle’s arguments prove that bodies are not composed o f masses o f finite in­
Les raysons d’Aristote prouvent que les corps ne sont pas composts de in­
divisibles, but do not prove that they are not composed o f infinite indivisibles. I
divisibles finiz en multitude, mais ne prouvent pas que eulz ne soient composts
have already dealt with this subject at length [in my Question] in the sixth book o f
de indivisibles infiniz. E t de ce ay je autrefois dit plus a plain ou sixte de P h i-
the Physics, and it will be sufficient here to present an argument a propos a specu­
si que9 ou ceste matière est principalment tractie, et me soufïist a present met-
lation o f Aristotle in Chapter Twenty-eight o f Book II [see fols. 14yd ff.]. I assume,
45 tre ici un arguement jouste l’imaginacion que fait Aristote ou .xxviii.e cha­
then, that the earth is outside and far from the center o f the world, just as the Pythag­
pitre du secont. Je pose donques que la terre toute fust hors et loing du cen­
oreans used to think; I posit a small sphere o f fire in the center o f the world so
tre du monde, si comme disoient les Pythagoriens ; et pose que une petite
that its center and the center o f the world are the same and posit also that the fire is
espere de feu fust ou centre du monde telement que le centre de ceste espere
uniform, alike, and identical in all its parts and that it is an absolutely pure element
fust le centre du monde et que ce feu fust du tout uniforme, semblable et d’une
so rarefied and so transparent that Nature could not make it more so ; now I as­
50 maniéré en toutes ses parties, et que ce fust très pur element tant rare ou tant
sume that any object outside this sphere which could prevent its movement to­
cler que nature ne le peust faire plus rare ou plus cler; et pose que toute chose
ward its // (162c) proper place has been removed and that the natural place o f this
dehors qui le pourroit empeeschier d’estre meu a son // (162c) lieu fust os-
fiery sphere is the concave surface o f the heavens, as already repeated many times.
tee, lequel lieu naturel a ce feu est la superfice concave du ciel, si comme sou­
I maintain that, under the conditions above, this fire would be divided into in­
vent dit est. Je di que, ce posé, ce feu seroit divisé en choses indivisibles in-
finite indivisibles because, first, all outside resistance is removed and because it is in
55 finies, premièrement car tout empeeschement forain est osté et il est en lieu
an unnatural place where it cannot remain perpetually. Therefore, it will be moved
qui li est de<s>naturel10*et ou il ne pourroit reposer perpetuelement. E t don­
toward the heavens, but as a whole— not toward one part o f the heavens more
ques seroit il meu vers le ciel. Item, il ne seroit pas meu tout ensemble plus
than toward another since it looks upon each and every part equally. T o o , it could
vers une partie du ciel que vers les autres pour ce que il les resgarde toutes
not be extended farther nor be more rarefied or transparent. B y nature it is easily
samblablement et equalment. Item, il ne pourroit estre plus estendu ne estre
divisible, but not more in one place or part than in another ; no part would be more
60 plus rare ne plus cler. Item, il est de sa nature de legier divisible. Item, il ne
whole or more divided than another, for all parts are everywhere and in all respects
seroit divisé plus en un lieu ou partie que es autres et ne resteroit une partie
alike and one could not find any place where the division would not be exactly like
quelcunque plus entière ou plus a estre divise<e>n que l’autre ou que les
that o f any other part. Therefore, nothing would remain undivided; this fiery
autres, car elles sont toutes du tout et partout semblables et ne pourroit l ’en
sphere would be divided in every way possible /(i62d) and, thus, not into finite in­
signer lieu ou la division ne fust aussi comme en quelcunque autre. E t don-
divisibles, for, according to Aristotle’s arguments in the sixth book o f th e Physics
65 ques il ne en demoureroit rien indivisé, mais seroit ce feu divisé12 en touz les
signes / (i62d) ou il est divisible et donques seroit il divisé en indivisibles et
non pas finiz, car ce est impossible par les raysons de Aristote maisme-
<me)nt13 ou sixte de Phisique.14 Et, par consequent, ce feu seroit divisé en

9 The problem o f indivisibles and divisibles
is treated at length in Book V I o f the Physics,
as fundamental to the larger question o f
change o f quantity or quality. Oresme discus-
ses the problem in his first Questio on Book
V I, beginning: “ Circa sextum Physicorum
queritur utrum continuum componatur ex in
divisibilibus;” in succeeding Questiones, he
turns his attention to the divisibility o f motion
with respect to time and space and ends (Ques-
tio 8) with the problem “ utrum motus infini-
turn possit fieri in tempore finito.” Cf. Buri-
dan’s Questio 9, Bk. V I, Questiones in octo Phy­ 10 A de naturel.
sicorum libros Aristotelis: “ Utrum in tempore 11 A B C D divise.
finito potest transiri magnitudo infinita et in 12 B C D E F omit mais seroit ce feu divisé.
infinite finita...” In the Physics, pertinent pas­ 13 A maisment.
sages are: Bk. V I.2 .232b 21-25; 233a 10-21; 14 See above footnote 9.
233b 16-18; 4.234b 10— 235a 37.
 6oo | L e Livre du ciel et du monde
indivisibles infiniz. E t maintenant le feu n’est pas compost d’autres choses que
70 il seroit en ce cas. Mais je ay pensé que aucun pourroit dire que combien que
ce feu soit semblable <par>15 toutes ses parties, toutevoies le ciel est dessem­
blable en ses parties et par ce, il atraira plus une partie de ce feu que l’autre et
sera divisé plus en un lieu que en autre. Je respon que ce n’est que une fuite,
car il ne fault fors muer un pou le cas et mettre que selon la dissimi<li)tude16
75 des parties <du ciel, les parties)17 de ce feu en recompensant soient telement
dessemblables que equalité quant a propos et quant a mouvement soit de
toutes pars. E t d’autre partie, selon Aristote, le feu n’est pas meu en haut ne
la terre en bas parce que le ciel attraie l’un et boute l’autre en rien, mais sont
meuz de leur nature par legiereté et par pesanteur. // (163 a) Item, encore
80 pourroit aucun dire que les parties de ce feu ne pourroient demourer sembla­
bles fors par un seul moment18 indivisible pour ce que le ciel par son mouve­
ment est continuelment en autre et nouvele disposicion, et par ce et par l’in­
fluence du ciel ce feu seroit altéré diversement en ses parties et divisé, etc. ; et
ce est impossible que le ciel repose. Je respon et di que, par aventure, ne est
85 <ce>19 pas impossible par nature que par une espace de temps le ciel meu ne
altéré pas autrement une partie de ce feu que l’autre et que il demeure un
temps en equalité en ses parties quant a legie<re)té.20 E t posé que nature ne
peust ce faire, toutevoies n’est ce pas impossible a ymaginacion ne qui encloe
contradiction; et, selon Averroïz ou .xxx.e chapitre,21 Aristote use souvent de
90 telle doctrine en supposant comme possible ce que nature ne peust faire, si
comme il appert ou chapitre desus dit ou il pose que la terre eust esté engen-
dree hors du milieu. E t de tel possible et impossible fu dit / (163b) ou .xxx.e cha­
pitre du premier livre. Item, le cas desus mis ne enclôt pas contradiction et
est possible de la puissance de Dieu, et donques de ce ne se doit ensuir chose
95 simplement impossible. Mais encore ay je pensé autre difficulté: et semble
que si face, car se ceste espere de feu est divisée en indivisibles infiniz comme
dit est, ceste division sera aussi tost en un lieu comme en autre et soudaine­
ment. E t se tel point indivisible n’est rien, si comme je ay autrefoys monstré,
il s’ensuit que par ceste voie ce feu sera adnichilé soudainement et, par con-
100 sequent, le lieu demourera vieu ou l’aer, qui est environ, le reemplira et sera
meu soudainement. E t tele soudaine mutacion local semble estre simplement
impossible. E t se telz poins indivisibles sont aucunes choses, ou eulz sont le-
giers ou non; se non, il s’ensuit .ii. inconveniens: un est que il ne seront
pas meuz en haut; l’autre est que ce feu qui en est composé ne sera pas legier.
105 E t se il sont legiers, vezci .ii. autres inconveniens; car ce feu qui est compo-
// (163c) sé de telz poins infiniz avra legiereté infinie; l’autre est car l ’aer ne
15 A que. 18 D E mouvement.
16 A dissimitude. 19 A omits ce.
17 A omits du ciel les parties, leaving blank 20 A legiere.
space between “ parties” and “ de ce feu.” 21 Juntas, t.c. 17, 183G.
B o o k I I I , C h a p te r 4, fo ls. 16 3 a - 1 6 3 c | 601
this would be impossible. Consequently, this fire would be divided into infinite in­
divisibles, provided that it is not composed o f other things than it would be in this
case. But I thought that someone might say that, although this fire is alike in all its
parts, nevertheless the parts o f the heavens are not, and thus they would attract one
part o f this fire more than another so that it would be divided more in one place than
in another. I reply that this is but an escape, for it is necessary only to alter the case a
little and assume that the dissimilitude o f the heavenly parts would be proportion­
ate to the dissimilitude o f the fiery parts, compensating for their dissimilarities in
such a way that there would be complete equality on this score and with respect to
the movement o f all the parts. Besides, according to Aristotle, fire does not move
upward, nor earth downward because the heavens attract the former and repel the
latter, but because they move in accordance with their nature by lightness and by
heaviness. // (163a) Still, someone could say that the parts o f this fiery sphere could
not remain identical, save for a single indivisible moment, because, by reason o f
their perpetual motion, the heavens are continually in a different and new aspect so
that by their motion and influence the fire would be constantly changing and divid­
ing in its parts, etc., and, further, that it is impossible for the heavens to remain at
rest. I reply and say that perhaps it is not impossible by nature that, for a given time,
the m oving heavens should not change in any way one part o f this fire more than
another so that, as far as its lightness is concerned, it could remain equal in all its
parts. A n d even if nature could not accomplish this, it is not impossible to imagine,
nor does it involve any contradiction. And, according to Averroes in Chapter
Thirty, Aristotle often uses this method o f assuming to be possible something
which nature cannot accomplish, as in the case noted in the chapter just mentioned,
where he posits that the earth was generated outside the center o f the world. O f
suchpossibles and impossibles we spoke / (163b) in Chapter Thirty o f Book I [see fols.
48b ff.]. T h e illustration given above involves no contradiction and is possible with
G o d ’s power and, thus, nothing simply or absolutely impossible can result. H o w ­
ever, I have thought o f another difficulty by which it appears that the impossible
may happen : if this sphere o f fire is divided into infinite indivisibles, as we have
mentioned, this division will be accomplished just as quickly or rapidly in one place
as in another. I f such an indivisible point is nothing, as I have already shown [see
fol. 161b], it follows that, b y this method, the fire will be suddenly destroyed and,
consequently, the place will remain void or the air around it will fill it and cause it
to be moved immediately. A n d such a sudden local change seems absolutely impos­
sible. I f such indivisible points are things at all, either they are or are not light in
weight ; if not light, then two incongruities arise : one, that the points will not move
upward, and the other, that this fire composed o f these indivisible points will not
be light. I f they are light, then here also are two incongruities : one, that this fire
composed //(163 c) o f such infinite points will have infinite lightness, and the other,
602 L e Livre du ciel et du monde
résistera en rien a leur mouvement pour ce que il ne le diviseront pas. E t
donques seront il meuz de bas en haut soudainement; et ce semble impossi­
ble meismement supposé que D ieu delessast ce feu faire ce que s’ensuiroit
i io selon le cours de nature, car ce point seroit de tout bas, tout haut, sans pas­
ser par le moien22 ou il seroit en un moment par tout le moien et feroit une
ligne de poins infinis.
5. O u q u in t chapitre il m onstre q u e les corps naturelz o n t
m ou vem en s naturelz et rep ro u ve aucuns o pinion s anciens.
T . E t 1 que touz corps simples aient mouvemens naturelz il appert par ce
que s’ensuit.
G . Apres il le prouve par .ii. raisons.
T . Car nous voions que telz corps sont meus. E t donques se ce est autre-
5 ment que selon nature, ce est hors nature et par violence. E t se ainsi est, il
convient que aucun autre mouvement leur soit naturel et que il soit un, /
(163 d) car pluseurs peuent estre hors nature ou contre nature.
G . Si comme se maladie est desnaturele a corps humain, il convient que
son contraire, ce est santé, lui soit naturel. E t aussi comme santé est en une
10 maniéré et les maladies sont diverses, semblablement mouvement naturel est
un et mouvement desnaturel ou hors nature peut estre en moult de maniérés.
E t pour ce, la chose pesante descent naturelment droit en bas et peust estre
meue hors nature droit en haut ou en travers, a destre et a senestre, etc., en
moult de maniérés.
i5 T . Item, que les corps simples aient mouvement naturel il appert par leur
repos, car la ou il reposent ou ce est par violence ou sel on nature. E t la ou un
corps repose par violence, a ce lieu est il meu par violence; et la ou il repose
selon nature, a ce lieu est il meu selon nature. O r voions nous et savons que
aucune chose repose au milieu ; et se ce est selon nature, il convient que a ce
20 lieu soit meu selon nature; et se tel corps repose ou milieu par violence, don-
// (164a) ques convient il que aucune chose l’empeesche que il n’est meu. E t
se ceste chose qui l’empeesche repose, l’en peust demander comme devant
se ce est naturelment ou par violence. E t ainsi, en procédant, il convient par
neccessité devenir a une chose qui repose par nature ou il convendroit que
25 tel procès fust infini, et ce est impossible. E t qui diroit, si comme Em pedo­
cles, que la terre n ’est pas soustenue par une autre chose qui ainsi l’empeesche
de mouvement et repose souz2 elle, mais pour la giracion et isneleté du mou­
vement du ciel qui la fait reposer ou milieu, donques convendroit il, se ceste gi-
22 B milieu. 2 B C D E F repose sans elle.
1 Guthrie, ch. 2.
B o o k I I I , C h a p te r 5, fo ls . 163 d - ! 64a | 603
that the air will not offer any resistance to their motion because it cannot be divided
by such infinitely light points. Therefore, they will be moved upward suddenly,
and this seems impossible, even supposing that G o d would allow this fire to fol­
low the course o f nature, for this point would m ove from very low to very high
without passing through the middle, or else it would pass through the middle in an
instant, making a line o f infinite points.
5. In C h apter F iv e h e show s that natural bo d ies h ave natural
m otio n , and h e refutes certain p revio u s opinions.
T . That all simple bodies have natural motion appears from what follows.
G . This he proves with two arguments.
T . W e can see that such bodies do move. I f this is not according to nature, then
it is unnatural and by external force. I f it is the latter, then there must be some oth­
er motion that is natural to them, and it must be unique, / (163d) for there can be
many movements outside or contrary to its proper nature.
G . For instance, if sickness is not natural to the human body, it must follow that
its contrary, health, is natural to it. Just as there is but one health and sicknesses are
diverse, likewise natural motion is unique and unnatural motion can take many
forms. Accordingly, a heavy object descends naturally straight downward, but it
can be moved by force either straight upward or transversely, right or left, etc.,
in many directions.
T . That simple bodies do have natural motion is demonstrated by their posi­
tions at rest, for their resting places are a result either o f natural or o f violent m o­
tion. The place in which a body rests by violence or force, there it has been moved
by force ; where it rests naturally, there it has been moved by nature. W e see and we
know that something is at rest in the center o f the world; if it rests there naturally,
it has been moved there naturally; if it remains at the center by force or constraint,
then // (164a) something must prevent it from moving. I f the hindrance is at rest,
we can again ask whether it rests naturally or b y force. Proceeding in this manner,
we come finally to something that rests naturally; otherwise, the process would be
infinite, and this is impossible. I f anyone would say, as Empedocles did, that the
earth is not held up by something or other which prevents its m oving and which is
at rest under the earth, but that the earth rests in the center because o f the rapidly
604 I L e Livre du ciel et du monde
racion estoit ostee par ymaginacion, que la terre fust meue au lieu ou elle est
30 encline;3 et est impossible que elle fust meu<e>4 touzjours sans fin, car ce est
impossible de passer espace infinie. E t donques convient il dire que elle se
arresteroit ou que ce fust, et que yleuques se reposast non par violence, mais
selon nature. E t se ce repos est selon nature, il convient que le mouvement
qui est a ce lieu soit se- / (164b) Ion nature.
35 G . Apres il reprouve autres opinions.
T . E t a Dem<o>critus5 et a Leucippus qui mettoient que les premiers
corps sont meuz en une espace wide et infinie, quel estoit leur mouvement
selon nature?
G . Mais il responnoient que ces premiers6corps sont petis athomes et sont
40 elemens et moevent un l’autre. E t contre ce il dist apres.
T . Mais de ces elemens, se un est meu de l’autre par violence, il convient
devenir a un qui sera meu selon nature, car se il y a un qui soit premier et il
est meu par violence, il convient que ce soit par un autre ou d’un autre qui
est devant et donques n’estoit pas premier. E t se il n’i a nul premier, donques
45 un est meu par l’autre et l’autre par autre et ainsi sans fin ; et tel procès est im­
possible.
G . Apres il reprouve semblablement l’opinion de Plato et d’aucuns autres
par .v. raisons.
T . E t tel inconvenient s’ensuit a ce que est escript ou livre de Plato appellé
50 Tymeus7 ou il est dit que le monde fu fait, et que au devant de // (164c) ce les
elemens estoient meuz desordenement et estoit tout broullié un parmi l’au­
tre. Car ou les elemens estoient ainsi meuz sans ordenance par violence, et
donques s’ensuit l’inconvenient desus dit; et se il estoient ainsi meuz par na­
ture, donques estoit le monde qui veult bien considérer, car il convient que
55 le premier mouvant8fust meu par nature, et les corps ne sont pas meuz a leur
propre<s> lieu<s>9 par violence es quelz il reposent par nature. E t donques
dire que les corps pesans estoient meuz au milieu et les legiers en haut, ce est
l’ordre et la disposicion du monde. E t donques estoit le monde avant que il
fust fait. Item, aucun pourroit demander: quant les elemens estoient ainsi
60 meuz sans ordre, estoit ce possible que il se peussent telement estre meslés
par leurs mouvemens que il feissent corps mixtes comme sont char et os et
teles choses? si comme Empedocles disoit que par amisté qui m ouvoit les
elemens estoient faites et engendrees moult de testes sans couls.10
G . Car qui diroit que ce es- / (i64d) toit possible, donques estoit le monde
65 ou povoit estre, estant ceste desordenance ; et qui diroit que ce estoit impos­
sible, donques n’estoi^en^t11 pas meuz les elemens sanz aucune ordenance
par quoy estoit empeeschie tele mixcion.12
enclinee. 6 D E omit premiers,
meu. 7 30A.
5 A F Demecritus. 8B E F mouvement.
B o o k I I I , C h a p te r 5, fo ls. i 6 4 b - i 6 4 d | 60j
revolving movement o f the heavens, then it would be necessary— i f we were to
imagine this revolution to stop— for the earth to m ove to the place toward which
it inclines ; and it cannot move continuously without limit since it is impossible
to pass through infinite space. Therefore, we must say that the earth would stop
somewhere or other and remain naturally at rest without constraint. I f this rest is
natural, then the motion toward this place must also be natural. /
(164b) G . N ext he refutes other opinions.
T . W e may ask o f Democritus and Leucippus, who maintained that primary
bodies m ove in an infinite empty space, what then was their natural motion?
G . Th ey replied that these primary bodies are tiny atoms, that they are elements,
and that they m ove one another. A n d now he speaks against this opinion.
T . But if one o f the elements moves another by force, then there must be one o f
them moved by nature; for, if there is among them one which is first and which is
moved by force, then there must be one or another which precedes it and, thus, it is
not primary. I f then there is no first or prime mover, then one body moves an­
other, and another another endlessly, and such a process is impossible.
G . In like manner, he refutes the opinion o f Plato and o f others with five argu­
ments.
T . A similar incongruity arises from what is written in Plato’s Timaeusy where it
is stated that the world was created and that before this creation // (164c) the ele­
ments moved without order and were all confused and mixed one with the other.
For either the elements were moved by violence without order or they were moved
naturally, and so the above-mentioned difficulty appears ; if they were moved by
nature, then what he considers the world must already have existed, for certainly
the prime motion was caused by nature, and bodies which do not m ove by violence
to their proper places remain in them at rest naturally. Thus, to say that heavy
bodies are moved to the center and light bodies upward is indeed their actual dis­
position in the cosmos. Therefore, the world existed before it was created. We
might even ask : when the elements moved in this disorderly fashion, was it possi­
ble that they could have been united in such a way by their movements that they
became compound bodies such as flesh and bones and the like, just as Empedocles
used to say that love moved the elements in such a way that many heads without
necks were made and created?
G. For, if we admit that this was / (i64d) possible, then surely the world existed
already or could have existed in this condition o f disorder. I f anyone thinks this
impossible, then the elements were not moved without any order, by which fact
their mixing or union was prevented.
9 A propre lieu. 11 A estoit.
10 Cf. Hermann Diels, Die Fragmente der 12 B omits par q u oy... mixcion.
Vorsokratiker (Berlin, 1912), vol. 1, 245.
 6o6 L e Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Item, Democritus et Leucippus mettoient que devant le monde les
athomes et elemens estoient infiniz et meuz sans ordre en une espace infinie.
70 E t donques convient il que ce fust par une vertu motive ou par pluseurs fi­
nies13 ou par infinies. E t selon la multitude de teles vertus motivez, comme
seroient pesanteur et legiereté, en espece est la multitude1* des mouvemens
selon espece. E t se il estoient meuz par une vertu ou par pluseurs finies, don­
ques n’estoient il pas sanz ordenance ; et se par infinies et par mouvemens in-
75 finiz en espece, ce est impossible, si comme il fu dit ou premier livre. E t ne
peust Ten pas dire se il n’estoient meuz tous a un lieu que pour ce fust desor-
denance, car maintenant que le monde est ordené, touz ne sont pas meuz a un
lieu mais seule- // (165 a) ment ceulz qui sont d’un gerre ou d’une espece.
Item, estre meu desordeneement ou sans ordre, ce n’est autre chose fors estre
80 meu hors nature ou contre nature, car des corps sensibles, leur ordre ce est
leur propre nature. E t ce est inconvenient et impossible que mouvement
desordené et hors nature dure par temps infini, car la chose est naturele aus
choses qu’i compete et que ont pluseurs teles et par plus grant temps ;15 et il
convient que ces philosophes desus diz dient le contraire, car celle desorde-
85 nance, qui avroit duré par temps infini avant la constitucion du monde, se-
roit naturele et l’ordre et le monde seroient hors nature ou contre nature; et
ce est inconvenient. Item, il semble que Anaxagoras ne disoit pas si mal qui
m ett<o)it16 que le monde avoit eu commencement et fu fait de choses qui
estoient par devant sans mouvement. E t les autres dient que le monde fu fait
90 par assembler les elemens; les autres disoient que ce n’est pas raysonnable
dire que il fust fait de choses distantes et meues, et pour / (165 b) ce, Empedo­
cles ne vouloit pas que amisté eust fait le monde, car elle est cause de assem­
bler. E t pour ce, le monde fu fait, selon lui, de une chose et d’une masse as­
semblée.
95 G . Nous ne povons clerement savoir ne declairer leurs opinions et aussi il
ne est de ce mestier.
T . E t donques appert par ce que dit est que chascun corps a mouvement
naturel duquel il est meu non pas par violence ne hors ou contre nature.
6. O u sixte chapitre il p ro u v e q u e les corps q u i so n t m eus
naturelm ent de m ou vem en t droit sont pesans o u legiers.
T . Nous voulons monstrer que les corps qui sont meuz de mouvemens
drois ont incünacion de pesanteur et legiereté, car nous avons dit devant que
telz corps sont meuz. E t se corps ainsi meu ne a par nature incünacion a estre
13 A pluseurs et finies. 15 B omits et par plus grant temps.
14 B C F omit la multitude ; D E la desorde- 16 A metteit, corrected from metten ; B C
nance. mettent.
B o o k I I I , C h a p te rs 5 - 6 , fo ls . 1 6 5 a - ! 6 5 b | 607
T . Democritus and Leucippus maintained that, before the world existed, the
atoms and elements were infinite and moved without order in infinite space. It
must follow that either there was only one single motive power or there were sever­
al finite or infinite powers. The number o f such motive powers, like weight and
üghtness, will vary in kind according to the type o f movements. I f the bodies
were moved by one power or by several finite powers, they would not be disorder­
ly; but if by infinite powers or motions o f infinite variety, this would be an impossi-
bihty, as stated in Book I [see chs. 9-16]. I f all were not moved toward one place, it
could not be said that this was disorder, for, now that the world is in existence, all
bodies are not moved to one place, but only // (165 a) those o f the same genus or
species. T o m ove in disorder or without regularity is simply to m ove unnaturally
or against nature, for with living bodies regular movement is a part o f their own
natures. It is inconsistent and impossible that an irregular and unnatural motion
last through infinite time, for it is the very nature o f things to compete and seek to
endure the longest possible time. Thus, the philosophers mentioned above are say­
ing the very opposite, for the disorder, which must have lasted through infinite
time before the world was estabfished, would have been the natural order and our
world would be naturally disordered and contrary to nature, and this theory is
objectionable. N o w , it appears that Anaxagoras was not far wrong when he main­
tained that the world had had a beginning and that it was formed from previously
immobile matter. A n d others say it was made from an assembhng o f the elements.
Others say it is unreasonable to maintain that it was made from separate, m oving
things, and for / (165 b) this reason Empedocles was unwilling to grant that love
had made the world, for love is a cause o f unification or unity. In his opinion, the
world was formed from unity and the gathering together o f bodies in a mass.
G . W e cannot know expHcitly nor can we clarify their opinions and, moreover,
there is no need to do so.
T . Therefore, it is apparent that every body has a natural movement by which it
is moved neither by violence nor in a manner foreign or contrary to its nature.
6. In C h apter S ix he p ro ves that natural bodies h a v in g rectilinear
m ovem en ts are either h e a v y or ligh t.
T . W e desire to show that bodies possessing rectüinear motion are characterized
by weight and üghtness, for we have already noted that such bodies do move. I f
such a m oving body does not have a natural indination to move upward or down-
 6o8 L e Livre du ciel et du monde
meu en bas ou en haut, nous voulons monstrer que ce est impossible que il
5 soit ainsi meu. Car posé que .a. soit un corps [Fig. i] qui ne soit pesant ne le-
gier, et que .b. soit un corps pesant qui descende en un // (165 c) temps et
passe la ligne .ge., et en ce meisme temps .a. descende <par la lign e)1 .gd. O r
soit prinse une partie de .b.— et soit .c.— de tele quantité que .b. a .c. ait tele2
proportion en pesanteur comme a .ge. a .gd. E t donques il s’ensuit que .a.
10 qui n’est pas pesant, et .c. qui est pesant, seroient meuz de isneleté equale; et
ce est impossible. E t par ceste rayson meisme l’en peust arguer de legiereté.
G . Si comme se le corps pesant en un minut d’une heure3 descent .ii. esta-
des et le non-pesant une estade, la moitié du pesant ou une autre partie en ce
minut de heure descendroit une estade ou moins, car ceste rayson de Aristote
i5 et celle qui ensuit et autres semblables ont mestier de correction, tele comme
elle fu mise ou .xii.e chapitre du premier.4 Apres ceste raison qui est de mou­
vement naturel, il met la seconde qui regarde mouvement violent.
T . Item, se aucun corps est meu qui n’est pesant ne legier, il convient que
il soit meu par violence, car il ne pourroit estre meu naturelment par la ray-
20 son devant dite. E t se il / (i6 jd ) estoit meu par violence, il convendroit que
il fust meu de isneleté infinie; et ce est impossible. Car se il estoit meu de is­
neleté finie, il pourroit estre que corps pesant et résistent et corps non-pe­
sant et non-resistent fussent meuz violentement d ’une meisme isneleté ; car
se le non-pesant est meu en un minut de heure par .xii. piés et le pesa<n)ts
25 par un pié, l’en pourra prendre si petite partie du pesant que en ce minut elle
sera meue par .xii. piés. E t ce est impossible que pesant et non-pesant soient
meuz d’une isneleté.
G . Ce est la rayson d’Aristote en sentence, mais il la met en termes aussi
comme la precedente.
30 T . E t donques comme ainsi soit que quelcunque corps pesant donné, l’en
peust prendre a ymaginacion un qui seroit meu plus isnelement de mouve­
ment violent et qui avroit moins de resistence. E t donques celui qui n’a quel­
cunque resistence ne pesanteur seroit meu de isneleté infinie ; et ce est impos­
sible.
35 G . Ce est a entendre se n’estoit la // (166a) resistence du moien ou d’autre
chose dehors.
T . O r appert donques que de neccessité tout corps déterminé a m ouve­
ment a en soy pesanteur ou legiereté.
G . Apres il compare mouvement naturel et violent et met une difference.
40 T . E t le mouvement duquel le principe est ou corps meu est de nature ou
1 A omits par la ligne. 4 Oresme’s measure o f an estade equals 625
2 B que a ait tele. feet; see fol. 152c!, note 10.
3 C F en un d’une heure; D E en un d’une 5 A pesait,
honme.
B o o k I I I , C h a p te r 6, fo ls. i 6 5 C - i 6 6 a | 609
ward, we want to show that it is impossible for it to move in this fashion. L et us
assume that a is a body [see Fig. 1 ] neither heavy nor light and that b is a heavy
body falling in a certain // (165 c) time and passing beyond the lin eg e and that in the
same amount o f time a falls along gd. N o w let us take a part o f b, called c, o f such
proportion that b’ s weight will be to r’s weight asge is to gd. Then it follows that <7 ,
which is not heavy, and r, which is heavy, will m ove with equal speed ; and this is
impossible. In this very same manner, one can argue about lightness.
G . For instance, i f the heavy body falls two stades in one minute and the light
body one stade, one-half or some other portion o f the heavy body would fall one
stade or less in one minute. For Aristotle’s argument here and the one which fol­
lows, as well as others like it, need correction, such as that indicated in Chapter
Tw elve o f Book I [see fols. 21a ff.]. Following this argument which concerns nat­
ural motion, he presents the second which pertains to violent or forced motion.
T . I f a body neither heavy nor light moves, it must do so by violence, because it
0 90
d
è
Fig. i
could not move naturally for the reason given above. I f it / (163 d) were m oved by
violence, it would have to m ove with infinite speed, and this is impossible. I f it
moved with finite speed, it would be possible that a heavy and resistant body and a
light and non-resistant body would m ove with the same speed. For, if a light body
moved twelve feet in one minute and the heavy one foot, we could take from the
heavy body such a small part that it would move twelve feet in one minute. A n d it
is impossible for heavy and light bodies to move with the same speed.
G . This is Aristotle’ s argument in brief, but he puts it in terms just like the pre­
ceding.
T . Just as with any given heavy body, one can imagine a body m oving faster
with enforced motion and having less resistance so that one without any resistance
or weight would m ove with infinite speed; and this is impossible.
G . That is, if there were no // (166a) resistance from any intermediate or outside
thing.
T . Therefore, in order to be capable o f motion, it is clear that every body must
necessarily possess either weight or lightness.
G . Afterward, he compares natural with enforced motion and states a difference
between them.
T . That movement which has its cause or beginning within the m oving body it-
610 | L e L ivre du ciel et du monde
naturel, mais celui dont la vertu motive est dehors, en tant comme tel, est
violent.
G . Le mouvement est naturel quant le corps meu a inclinacion a tel mou­
vement, posé que la vertu motive soit en tel corps ou dehors ; et celui est vio-
45 lent qui est contre l’inclinacion du corps meu. Apres il met comme aucun
mouvement est aussi comme mixte de naturel et de violent.
T . E t tout mouvement naturel, tel comme quant une chose est meue en
bas, est fait plus isnel par la vertu qui meust le corps en bas par violence.
G . Q ui gecteroit fort une pierre droit <en bas),6 elle descendroit plus is-
50 nelement que se l’en la lessoit cheoir par elle. Mais pour ce ne seroit pas tel
mouve- / (166b) ment violent ne mixte, car il seroit selon Pinclinacion du
corps meu. Mais qui la gecteroit non pas tout droit en bas mais en traversant,
ce mouvement seroit a u c u n e m e n t)7 mixte de violent en tant comme elle ne
descent pas tout droit. Apres il met comment aer est requis en un mouvement
55 et en l’autre.
T . E t la puissance motive en chascun de ces .ii. mouvemens use de aer
aussi comme de un instrument, ce est a savoir en mouvement violent qui est
ou en haut ou en bas, car le aer est nay a estre legier et pesant. E t donques
quant une chose pesante est gectee en haut, l’aer, en tant comme il est legier,
60 fait ce mouvement apres le commencement de tel mouvement qui est fait
par la vertu qui fait la violence. E t aussi se la chose pesante est gectee en bas,
l’aer la meust en tant8 comme il est pesant apres ce que elle est separee de la
vertu qui fait la violence, laquelle vertu imprime et baille puissance a l’un et
a l’autre, ce est a entendre a l’aer et a la chose gectee. E t // (166c) pour ce,
65 quant elle est separee de ce qui la gecte, elle est meue parmi l’aer. E t se l’aer
ou tel corps moien n’estoit, il ne seroit quelcunque mouvement violent. E t
ainsi le aer ou tel moien promeut et fait aide en chascun mouvement naturel
de chose pesante ou legiere.
G . Il est certain que aer ou eaue ou autre moien est neccessaire a mouve-
70 ment droit selon Aristote ou quart de Phisique,9 car tel mouvement ne pour-
roit naturelment estre fait par vieu10 ou par espace simplement wide. Mais je
tien que tel moien ne est { e n )11 rien cause efficiente de tel mouvement, soit
naturel, soit violent,12 et ceulz qui tiennent le contraire ne pourroient par ce
salver pluseurs experiences ; si comme d’une secte qui seroit tracte fort parmi
75 une fieble pel, elle seroit meue bien oultre non-obstant que la pel eust arresté
le aer qui la suivoit; item, d’une pelote de pion qui est aucune fois gectee
moult plus haut que ne seroit une bien legiere pelote de equale quantité;
item, d’une chose ronde / (166d) et plate, comme est un bacin, qui est meu
circulairement par soy quant elle est esmeue ou escuillie, et moult de teles
b ÎL ÎL
omits en bas. lancent en tant.
aucunemen. 9 Physicorum, IV .7 .214a 26-32; 8.213b
bas lieu la noeut en tant; E bas lieu 23— 216b 21.
Book III, Chapter 6, fols. i66b-i66d | 6 11
self is natural, while the movement whose motive power is derived from outside the
m oving body is forced or violent.
G . That motion is natural when the body m oved is inclined to make such a
movement regardless o f whether the motive power is inside or outside such a body
and that motion is violent which is against or contrary to the inclination o f the
m oving body. Then he explains how certain movements are combinations o f natu­
ral and violent motions.
T . E very natural motion such as descent is made faster if the motive force m ov­
ing the body downward is violent.
G . I f someone were to throw a stone straight downward, it would m ove faster
than if allowed to fall by itself. But, this does not constitute violent nor mixed m o­
tion/ (166b) for it is in accord with the natural inclination o f the m oving body. If,
on the other hand, the stone were thrown not straight down but horizontally, this
motion would in a sense be mixed with violence in so far as it does not move
straight downward. N ext he points out the role o f air in both types o f movement.
T . In each o f these two types o f movement the motive power makes use o f the
air as a sort o f instrument— for instance, with violent motion either upward or
downward— since air is by nature both light and heavy. So, when a heavy object
is thrown upward, the air, by its lightness, causes this movement to proceed once it
has been started by the action o f the violent force upon the object. Likewise, if the
heavy object is thrown downward, the air by its heaviness moves the object once
it is separated from the force which has acted violently upon it, and this force com­
presses and exerts force upon both the air and the m oving object. Thus // (166c)
when separated from its motor or from the thing which threw it, the object moves
through the air. I f the air or some similar intermediate body were not there, there
would be no violent movement whatever. Consequently, the air or other such in­
termediary assists and plays a part in every natural movement o f heavy and light
objects.
G . It is certain that air or water or some other intermediate body is necessary for
rectilinear movement, according to Aristotle in Book IV o f the Physics, for such
movement could not be made naturally in a void or an absolutely empty space.
However, I maintain that such an intermediate body is in no sense an efficient
cause o f either natural or violent movement ; nor can those who support this opi­
nion deny the contrary argument which is based on many observations ; for exam­
ple, an arrow shot through a thin hide moves well beyond it, although the hide
stopped the air following the arrow ; also, a leaden ball is sometimes thrown much
higher than a very light ball o f the same size; and again, a round, / (i66d) flat ob­
ject like a basin begins to move in a circle by itself when it is disturbed or casually
10 D E lieu. 12 A C D E F violente.
11 A omits en.
 Book III, Chapter 7, fol. 167a | 61$
^ ^ wre du ciel et du monde

knocked or displaced; on the basis o f many such experiences, no one could reason­
80 experiences ou l’en ne pourrait soustenir raysonnablement que le aer face tel
ably maintain that the air causes such movements, as I have previously explained
mouvement, si comme je ay autrefoys declairié sus le .vii.(e> de Phisiqtte.13
in [my Questions on] B ook Seven o f the Physics. Th e cause o f any such violent m o­
Mais de quelcunque tel mouvement violent, ce qui le fait est une qualité ou
tion is a quality or capacity o f the motive power impressed by the motor or m ov­
vertu motive qui est causée et imprimée ou corps ainsi meu par le premier
motif, selon ce que je declaray ou .xiii.e chapitre du secont. ing agent upon the body so moved, as I have already explained in Chapter T w elve

85 T . E t ainsi appert par ce que dit est que tout corps de cibas est pesant ou o f B ook II [see fol. 106b ff.].
legier et comment telz corps ont mouvemens hors nature. T . From what has been said, it is apparent that all bodies here below are either
heavy or light, and we have explained how such bodies have unnatural m ove­

ments.

7. In Chapter Seven he refutes certain opinions and shows

7. O u .vii.e chapitre il reprouve aucuns opinions et monstre
that there must be some element.
que il convient que aucun element soit.

T . Par ce que dit est peust apparoir que tous corps n ’orent pas commence­
ment, but that also it is not true that no body had a beginning or generation.
ment et que aussi n’est pas vray que nul corps ne eust commencement ou est
engendré.1
G . Aucuns disoient que le monde Eu fait et tout corps ; // (167a) les autres
5 disoient que tout est perpétuel et que rien n’est fait de nouvel fors selonc ap­
parence.
T . Car ce est impossible que tout corps eust esté fait de nouvel, se ainsi
n’estoit que il fust possible que aucune espace wide fust et separee de tout
corps. Car quant le premier corps fu fait, il convenoit par nécessité que l’es-
10 pace fust du tout wide puisque yleuques n’estoit corps au devant, car un
corps peust bien estre fait d’un autre corps, si comme feu est fait de aer, mais
ce est du tout impossible de faire corps de non-corps et que quelcunque quan­
tité ne2 precede. E t meismement, combien que un corps soit fait de ce que
estoit en puissance et povoit estre tel corps, toutevoies se ce n’estoit aucun
i5 autre corps qui fust devant ou lieu, il convendroit que le lieu fust vieufet
séparé de tout corps.
T . What has already been said makes it clear that not all bodies had a commence­
G . Some used to say that the world and all the bodies in it were created; //
(167a) others said that everything is eternal and that nothing new is ever made, save
in appearance.
T . For it is impossible that all bodies were made anew, unless we grant the pos­
sibility that there may be some empty space free from any body whatever. W hen
the first body was made, there must have been a completely empty vo id since no
body existed there before; one body can be made from another, just as fire is made
from air, but it is totally impossible to make a body from a non-body without
there having existed some previous quantity o f matter. Indeed, although a bo d y
may be made from some potential which could become a body, nevertheless, i f there
had been no other body to occupy the place required b y the new body, then that
place must have been a void, separate and apart from all bodies o f every sort.
G . A s previously stated and as is apparent from B ook I V o f the Physics, it is im-

13 A B C D .vii. In Questio 2, Book V II, o f
his Questiones super septem libros Physicorum A r-
istotelis(fol. 72c) Oresme states the Aristotelian
explanation o f projectile motion: “ ...m ovea-
tur lapis in aere; tunc mo vet aerem et iterum
aer alium et sicut in infinitum. E t antecedens
patet, quia nisi moveret aerem qui cederet,
tunc duo corpora essent simul et ita de ipso
aere nisi moveret ilium et sic semper.” In
Questio 3 (fol. 73 b), Oresme presents a doubt
concerning this “ mutual replacement” o f suc­
cessive increments o f air as efficient cause o f
G . E t ce est impossible, si comme dit est et si comme il appert ou quart de
motion after the original force o f thrust has
ceased: “ Est dubium si ab intrinseco omnis
talis motus localis est pulsio aut tractio vel
rudia vel compositus ex istis, sicut est vertigo.
Item ille qui poterat aliquid, quodammodo
trahit et pellit id et similiter ille qui vertit sicut
ille qui rotat est cum aliqua quod calefacit et
sicut de aliis si in altera non corrupta, adhuc
sunt similia, quia sicut dicit Aristoteles, color
alterat medium et générât ibi suam speciem,
et medium alterat visum et ita de aliis; et
similiter in augmento et sic generatur in omni
motu aliquid movens.” In his Latin Questiones
super De caelo Oresme gives the same example
as in our French text above in support o f the
“ impetus” theory: “ ...q u o d probatur, quia
experimento patet, quia si Sortes moveatur
velociter quod non statim in principio move-
tur citius sed postea, nec potest arrestare se
statim quando sibi placet, sed cum quodam
quasi impertu [sic] acquisito tendit ulterius, .10.266b 27— 267b 17.
et tamen non sentit se propelli ab aere in se-
quente. Hoc idem patet de rota quae post pri-
mam commotionem non statim potest arres-
tari sine magna difficultate, sed quodam impetu
movetur adhuc divisa a primo movente et non
per aerem circumstantem. Et quasi consimile
experitur in aliis motibus, sicut in motibus spi-
rituum et imaginationis ; unde quando homo
fortiter cogitat, non statim potest cessare.” Cf.
A . Maier, Zivei Grundprobleme, p. 244, n. 14.
In the Physics, the pertinent passages dealing
with these problems are found principally in
Book IV .8 .2i5a 2— 216a 21 and Book V III
1 A engendree,
2 B omits ne.
 6 i4 | L e L ivre du ciel et du monde
Phisique , 3 que naturelment quelcunque lieu soit vieu. Mais posé que corps ne
puisse estre fait fors d’autre corps préexistent ou precedent par generacion
20 natu- / (167b) rele, toutevoies ce peust estre4 par creacion et par puissance
supernaturele. E t qui demanderoit se le lieu, ou le monde fust fait quant il fu
créé, estoit vieu par devant, je respon que ce estoit telement comme mainte­
nant est hors ce monde, posé que il ne y eust quelcunque corps. E t Aristote
dit ou .xxiiii.e chapitre du premier5 que hors le ciel ne est lieu ne plain ne
25 vieu, et semblablement l ’en lui respondroit que audevant de la creacion du
monde ne estoit lieu ne plain ne vieu. E t de ce fu dit plus a plain ou .xxiiii.®
chapitre desus dit. Apres il enquiert de quelz corps est generacion.
T .6 O r convient dire apres de quelz corps est generacion et pourquoy. E t en
toutes choses, la cognoissance est faite par les principes ou premieres parties
30 de elles.
G . Si comme la cognoissance des dicions depent de la cognoissance des
lettres qui sont premieres parties des dicions.
T . E t les principes ou premieres parties des corps qui sont, ce sont les ele-
mens. E t donques convient il considérer qui sont les elemens des corps et
35 pour- // (167c) quoy il sont, et apres quans il sont et quelz il sont. E t ce pour­
ra estre fait en supposant quelle chose est la nature de element. O r disons
donques que element de corps est ce en quoy l’autre corps de quoy il est ele­
ment est divisé ou résolut, et est en tel corps en propre forme ou en vertu,
car encore est il doubte en laquelle de ces .ii. maniérés element est en corps
40 compost. E t element est indivisible en autres corps differenz en espece. E t
tele chose est tout element et touz le veulent ainsi dire.
G . Ceste diffinicion de element s’acorde a celle que il met de element ou
quint de Methaphisique.7 E t pour la miex entendre, l’en doit savoir que, quant
a propos, une chose est composée de parties dites intégrales, si comme sont
45 les membres d’un honme et si comme une pierre ou une busche ou quelcun­
que chose est composée des pieces8 en quoy l’en la peust diviser; et teles
parties ne sont pas dites elemens de ceste chose. Mais une chose est compo­
sée ou mixte d’autres qui different en espece et dont chascune est par / (i6yd)
tout tel corps ; et se elle n’est pas composée telement, ce est vray et premier
50 element de ce corps. E t presque par tele maniéré les sillebes sont composées
des lettres qui sont voiez et non pas des escriptes et, pour ce, sont elles appel­
lees elemens des dicions et ceste similitude met Aristote ou quint de M etha­
phisique. 9 Item, chascun des .iiii. elemens est composé de forme et de matière
et pour ce, forme et matière sont les premiers elemens simplement. Mais les
55 autres, ce est a savoir feu et aer, etc., sont les premiers qui peuent ester par
3 Physicorum, IV.8, 9, passim. 7 Metaphysicorum, V.3.1014a 26— 1014b 15.
4 C D E ce ne peut estre. 8 D E d’especes.
5 B C ou .xxviii. ch. 9 Metaphysicorum, 1014a 27-30.
6 Guthrie, ch. 3.
Book III, Chapter 7, fols. 167b-!Gqà | 61j
possible for any place to be empty or a void by nature. However, if we assume that
no body can be made by natural generation except from some preexistent or pre­
ceding body, / (167b) nevertheless, it can occur by supernatural creation and power.
T o those who ask whether the place in which the world was made at its creation
was void beforehand, I reply that it was in the same state as the place outside the
world today, assuming no body to exist there. Aristotle says in Chapter Tw enty-
four o f Book I that there is no place, no plenum, and no void outside the heavens,
and one could answer him in the same manner by saying that before creation there
was neither place nor plenum nor void. This was explained more fully in the afore­
said Chapter Twenty-four [see fols. 35c ff.]. He next inquires which bodies are
generated.
T . N o w we must ask the question as to which bodies are generated and why.
Here, as in all such things, knowledge is disclosed by examining first principles or
primary elements o f the problem at hand.
G . Just as a knowledge o f speech depends upon acquaintance with the letters,
which are the primary parts o f speech.
T . A n d the principal or primary parts o f existing bodies are the elements. There­
fore, one must consider what the elements o f such bodies are, why // (167c) they
exist, and, finally, how many and which ones they are. Th e answers can be found if
w e decide upon the nature o f an element. Therefore, let us define the element in
bodies as that into which another body made o f the same element can be divided or
resolved and which is potentially or actually present in such a body, for it is still
unsettled in which o f these two ways an element exists in a compound body. A n
element is indivisible in other bodies o f different species. A ll elements are o f this
general character, and all thinkers are in general agreement with this definition.
G . This definition o f an element corresponds with that given in Book Five o f
the Metaphysics. T o grasp its meaning more fully, one needs to know the pertinent
fact that an object is composed o f parts called integral, like the members o f the
human body or a stone or a lo g o f wood that are composed o f the parts into which
they can be divided; such parts o f these objects are not called elements. However,
one object is compounded o f or mixed with other things differing in species, each
o f which is found throughout / (i6yd) the entire object; if not thus mixed and com­
pounded, then the thing is a true primary element in this body or object. In nearly
the same way syllables are compounded from letters which are sounds and not
written letters, and so letters are called the elements o f speech; this comparison is
used by Aristotle in Book Five o f the Metaphysics. Each o f the four elements is
composed o f form and matter, and, thus, these two things are the primary elements,
considered in an absolute sense. However, the others— fire, water, etc.— are the
 6 16 ( L e L ivre du ciel et du monde Book III, Chapter 7, fols. i68a-i68c | 6 17

first which can stand b y themselves, for neither matter nor material form can stand
soy, car matière ne peut ester ne estre par soy ne forme materiele aussi. Item,
or exist b y itself. A nd just as the consonants cannot have a sound o f their own, as
aussi comme les lettres consonantes ne peuent avoir son par soy, si comme dit
Priscian says, unless joined with vowels, so in the same way there can be no mat­
Prescian,10 et se elles ne sont conjointes aus vocales, semblablement ne peust
ter without substantial foim . Just as vowels have a sound unaccompanied by con­
estre matière sans forme substancial. E t aussi comme les vocales ont son sans
sonants, so in the same way form can exist without matter, for example, the angels
60 les consonantes, semblablement forme peust bien estre sans matière, si com­
and souls released from the body. But the similarity is not complete because //
me sont les angels et les âmes separees. Mais en ce est dessamblable, que //
(168a) material form cannot exist without nor be separated from matter. Thus, let­
(168a) forme materiele ne peust estre sans matière ne separee de matière. E t
ters are the elements o f syllables and o f speech, and syllables are not elements, but
donques les letres sont elemens des sillebes et des dicions, et les sillebes ne
integral parts o f speech. Another similarity is that a corporeal thing, like a quantity
sont pas elemens des dicions mais en sont parties intégrales. Item, une autre
o f wax, can be altered into many shapes, but it cannot exist without a shape, and in
65 similitude est, car une chose corporele, si comme une quantité de cire, peust
the same way no shape can exist apart from a substratum o f matter. Likewise, pri­
estre muee en moult de figures, mais ce est impossible que elle soit sans figure
mary, substantial matter cannot exist without form, nor can substantial material
et aussi est ce impossible que figure soit sans aucun subject. E t semblable­
form exist without matter and substratum. However, to this extent there is a dif­
ment, la premiere matière substanciele ne peust estre sans forme ne forme
ference, for in the shaped wax, the matter or substratum, that is, the wax, is the
materiele substanciele ne peust estre sans matière et sans subject. Mais en tant
substance or essence o f the object and not o f the shape. Still, on the contrary, prime
70 est dessamblable, car en la cire figurée la matière ou le subject, ce est a savoir
matter is not the substance o f the compounded object to the same extent that form
la cire, est la substance ou essence de la chose et non pas <de>n la figure.
is. I f someone were to mix two or more liqueurs such as wine, cherry, and cider,
Mais, au contraire, la matière premiere n’est pas la substance de la chose com­
these liqueurs would be the primary elements o f the thing compounded / (168b) by
posée tant comme est la forme. Item, qui feroit une mixcion de .ii. ou de plu-
means o f solution; fire, air, water, and earth would be the secondary elements, and
seurs liqueurs, si comme de vin et de cerise et de sydre, ces liqueurs seroient
primary matter and form would be the third. However, with regard to the composi­
75 les premiers elemens de chose mixte / (168b) par voie de resolucion, et feu et
tion, matter and form are primary, being elements o f each o f the other items ; fire,
aer et eaue et terre seroient les secons, et matière premiere et forme seroient
air, etc., the secondary group, are elements o f each o f the liqueurs and o f the mix­
le tiers. Mais par voie de composicion, matière et forme sont les premiers et
ture as a whole; and the liqueurs constitute the third elements. Concerning Aristot­
sont elemens12 de chascune des autres choses; et feu, aer, et cetera les secons
le’s statement that there is still doubt whether the elements exist in their proper
et sont elemens de chascune des liqueurs et de la chose mixte; et ces liqueurs
form or otherwise within the mixture, I have previously treated this question in the
80 sont les tiers elemens. Item, de ce que Aristote dist que encore est doubte se
book o f Generation. Briefly, it seems to me that they are not in their proper form,
les elemens sont en la chose mixte en leur propre forme ou autrement, je ay
for, in the mixture, they are not like integral parts consisting o f tiny atoms, as in
autrefoys tractié ceste matière ou livre D e generacioneD E t briefment, il me
the case o f a mixture o f flour and sand; but it must be that each smallest part o f the
semble que il n’i sont pas en leur propre forme, car il n’i sont pas comme par­
compounded body is a mixture o f four elements, or otherwise it would not proper­
ties intégrales par petis athomes aussi comme l’en feroit une mixcion de fari-
ly constitute a single body. If the elements were present in their proper form in
85 ne et de sablon ; mais convient que chascune partiete, tant soit petite, du corps
such a body, it would follow that throughout // (168c) there would be four forms
compost soit mixte des .iiii. elemens, car autrement tel corps ne seroit pas
plus the proper form o f the body itself, and in this way the same matter would have
proprement un. E t se les elemens estoient en tel corps en propre forme, il
several substantial and material forms, which is, according to philosophy, quite as
s’ensuiroit que en tel corps // (168c) partout seroit .iiii. formes et la siene
impossible as saying that one body has several shapes at the same time, as, for
propre ; et ainsi une meisme matière avroit pluseurs formes substancieles et
example, if a piece o f wax were at once spherical, cubic, round, and square. N o w he
90 materieles, laquelle chose selon philosophie est aussi impossible comme dire
offers two reasons to show that there must be some element.
que un corps eust ensamble pluseurs figures, si comme que une cire fust
sperique et cubique ou ronde et quarree. Apres il monstre par .ii. raysons que
il convient que aucun element soit.
first identified by D . W. Durand (1939) in see her extensive excerpts dealing with this
10 Prisciani Institutionum grammaticarum, 1. 2, 11 A omits de.
Florence, Bibl. Nazionale, Conventi sorpressi subject o f mixed bodies, A n der Grenue, pp.
ex recensione W. Hertzii, in H. Keil, Gramma- 12 F omits et sont elemens.
H. IX, 1628, fols. 1-76V and later chanced 129-32.
tici Latini, vol. 2 (Leipzig: Teubner, 1855), pp. 13 Oresme refers to his unpublished Ques-
upon by Anneliese Maier in two Vatican mss. ;
8-10. tiones super librum De generation et corruption,
 6i 8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . E t se element est ce que nous avons dit, il convient par nécessité que de
95 aucuns corps soient telz elemens, car en char, en fust et en quelcunque tele
chose est feu et terre en puissance ou en vertu. E t ce appert clerement, car
terre et feu sont fais de telz corps par segregacion ou par resolucion.14
G . N ous voions que les corps mixtes sont resoluz en poudre et terre et en
vapeurs et en teles choses qui sont de la nature des .iiii. elemens, et donques il
ioo sont aucunement en telz corps.
T . Mais en feu n’est pas char ou fust ne en puissance ne en propre forme
ou en fait, car de feu ne sont pas faites teles choses par reso- / (168d) lucion;
et semblablement, posé que il ne fust fors .i. seul element, ne15 char ne os ne
seroient en lui ne quelcunque tele chose. Mais il est a considérer quelle ma-
io5 niere de generacion est des choses mixtes et de ces elemens.
G . Ce sera ou livre de Generacione et corruptione.16 Apres il recite opinions.17
T . Mais Anaxagoras dist des elemens le contraire de ce que dit Em pedo­
cles, car cestui dist que feu et terre et les elemens moiens sont elemens des
corps et que tous autres corps en sont composts. E t Anaxagoras dist le con-
i io traire et dist que les corps qui sont de parties samblables sont elemens, si
comme char et os et chascune tele chose. E t dit que le aer et le feu sont mis-
tures de teles choses et de toutes autres semences des corps, et que le aer et
le feu sont composés et mixtionés de corps invisibles de parties semblables et
sont de tous telz corps assembléz ensemble et, pour ce, tous autres corps sont
115 fais de aer et de feu ; et le feu il appelloit «ciel».
G . Il disoit que char est faite de aer et de feu pour ce que en aer sont infinis
I l (169a) athomes invisibles de char et ou feu aussi, et athomes de os et de
fust, etc. Apres il met la seconde rayson a monstrer que aucuns elemens sont.
T . Item, de tout corps naturel est aucun propre mouvement ; et des mouve-
120 mens les uns sont simples, les autres sont mixtes. E t les mixtes dont des corps
mixtes et les simples des simples.
G . T o u t ce fu declairié ou tiers chapitre du premier livre.
T . E t pour ce il appert que aucuns corps simples sont, car aucuns mouve-
mens simples sont. E t donques appert que elemens sont et pourquoy il sont.
14 C D E ou revolucion. 16 D e generatione, IL 7 334b 8-30.
Is D E fors un seulement ne. 17 B omits Apres il recite opinions.
Book III, Chapter 7, fols. i68d-i69a | 619
T . I f an element is as we have defined it above, then there must be bodies
made o f such elements, because in flesh, wood, and other similar things there is po­
tentially or actually fire and earth. This is clearly apparent, for earth and fire can be
derived from such bodies by separating them out and by reducing the whole to its
parts.
G . We can observe that mixed bodies are reduced to powder, earth, vapors, and
such substances having the nature o f the four elements, which, therefore, are pre­
sent in such bodies.
T . However, there is neither flesh nor w ood in fire in potential, proper, or ac­
tual form, for such things are not made from fire by reduction; / (i68d) and, like­
wise, if we assume there is only one single element, neither flesh nor bone nor any
such thing would exist in such an element. This leaves open the question o f what
sort o f generation is present in these compounded, mixed substances and in these
elements.
G . This will be considered in the book o f Generation and Corruption. N ext he re­
views some opinions.
T . But Anaxagoras stated the opposite o f what Empedocles said with regard to
the elements, for the latter said that fire and earth and the intermediate elements are
elements o f bodies and that all other bodies are compounded from them. Anaxago­
ras holds the contrary and says that those bodies having all parts alike are elements,
as, for instance, flesh, bone, and all such things ; he says that air and fire are mixtures
o f these and all other “ seeds” o f bodies and that air and fire are composed o f invi­
sible bodies o f similar parts and constitute an agglomeration o f all these bodies ;
and, as a result, all other bodies are made o f air and fire, and the fire he called “ heav­
en.”
G . Anaxagoras used to say that flesh is made o f air and fire because in both there
are infinite // (169a) invisible atoms o f flesh, bone, wood, etc. Aristotle states the
second argument to prove the existence o f certain elements.
T . Every natural body has its own proper motion. Motions may be simple or
complex, and the complex appertain to mixed bodies and the simple to simple
bodies.
G . This was fully explained in Chapter Three o f Book I [see fols, yd ff.].
T . Therefore, it is clear that certain simple bodies exist since certain simple m o­
tions do. Consequently, there are elements and we have explained why.
 620 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
8. O u le ,viii.e chapitre il monstre que les elemens
ne sont pas infinis.
T . Apres1 ce, est a considérer a savoir mon se les elemens sont infiniz et,
se il sont finiz, quans il sont en nombre. E t premièrement est a regarder se il
sont infiniz en la maniéré que aucuns disoient, si comme Anaxagoras qui
disoit que touz les elemens estoient chascun / (169b) de parties semblables.
5 G . Apres il reprouve ceste opinion par .iii. raysons.
T . Car nul de ceulz qui tiennent ceste opinion ne prent ce nom element si
comme il le doit prendre, car nous voions moult de corps qui sont divisés en
parties semblables en espece lesquelz sont mixtes, si comme char, os, fust,
pierre.
10 G . Car telz corps par corrupcion ou alteracion sont resoluz en poudre, en
aer,2 en vapeur et donques sont eulz mixtes ou composts.
T . E t nul corps compost ne est element et n’est pas element tout corps de
parties semblables, mais qui3 est indivisible en autres corps differenz en es­
pece, comme dit est.
15 G . O u chapitre precedent, et il entent par corps de parties semblables
quant les parties sont de tele espece comme est le tout, aussi comme chascune
partie de char est char et de pierre est pierre, mais chascune partie de honme
n’est pas honme.
T . Item, encore n’est il pas neccessité que ceulz qui prennent ainsi element
20 metent que les elemens soient infiniz, car ceulz qui dient que il sont finis, si
comme .ii. // (169c) ou .iii. ou en autre nombre, rendent aussi bien cause des
operacions natureles comme ceulz qui mettent que il sont infiniz, si comme
Empedocles i4 met grant poiene. E t aussi comme il ne povoit rendre rayson
de tout, semblablement ces ici ne peuent dire que tous corps soient fais de
25 corps qui sont de parties semblables, car une face ou visage n’est pas fait de
faces ou de visages ne une autre chose qui est selon nature de certaine figure.
E t donques appert que miex est mettre les elemens et les principes finis que
infiniz et en mendre nombre que en plus grant, en la maniéré que l’en fait en
sciences mathématiques ou l’en prent touzjours les principes finis ou en es-
30 pece ou en quantité.
G . E n espece quant aus figures qui sont résolûtes en triangles et en pyra­
mides, etc., si5 comme il appert en geometrie, et en quantité quant aus nom­
bres qui sont resoluz en unités, etc.
T . Item, les corps naturelz different les uns des autres selon leurs propres
35 differences et / (i69d) ces differences sont qualitéz sensibles lesquelles sont
finiez, si comme il sera monstré apres.6 E t donques par neccessité, les elemens
qui sont les premiers corps sont finiz.
1 Guthrie, ch. 4. 3 F omits corps de parties semblables, mais
2 A eaer. que.
Book III, Chapter 8, fols. i69b-i69d | 621
8. In Chapter Eight he shows that the elements are
not infinite in number.
T . Th e next question to consider is whether or not the elements are infinite, and,
i f they are finite, how many there are. First, we must determine whether they are in­
finite, as certain thinkers have held— for example, Anaxagoras, who used to say
that all the elements were composed o f the / (169b) same basic parts.
G . He refutes this opinion with three arguments.
T . N o t one o f those who maintain this opinion takes this word element in its true
meaning, for we see many bodies divided into homogeneous parts which are mix­
ed, like flesh, bone, wood, and earth.
G . Such bodies are reduced by deterioration or change into powder, air, or
vapor; therefore, they are mixed or composite bodies.
T . N o w , no composite body is an element, and an element is not merely any
body with similar parts, but only a body indivisible into other bodies o f different
species, as we have said.
G . In the preceding chapter [see fol. 167c]. B y bodies composed o f similar
parts, he means the parts to be o f the same species as the whole, as, for instance,
each part o f flesh is flesh, each part o f stone is stone, but not every part o f man is
man.
T . Even though they hold to this theory regarding the elements, it is not neces­
sary for the elements to be infinite in number; those who say that they are finite or
two, II (169c) three, or more in number are able to explain the causes o f natural
phenomena just as well as those who posit an infinite number— Empedocles makes
a noble effort to prove such an idea. A nd just as Empedocles was unable to give a
satisfactory explanation for everything, so also the others cannot validate their ar­
gument that all bodies are made up o f homogeneous parts, for a face is not made
out o f a face, nor is any other natural object which is o f definite shape or figure.
Thus, it seems better to posit the elements and first principles as finite rather than
infinite and in lesser rather than in greater number, as is the practice in the mathe­
matical sciences where we always employ data limited in kind or in quantity.
G . In kind with respect to figures which are reduced to triangles, pyramids, etc.,
as is apparent in geometry; and in quantity with respect to numbers, which are
reduced to unities, etc.
T . Natural bodies differ from one another according to their proper differentia,
which / (i6qd) are perceptible qualities finite in number, as will be explained later.
Necessarily, therefore, the elements as primary bodies are finite in number.
4 A il. 6 De sensu, 445.20 ff.; also Physicorum, I, cf.
5 A etc. et si. Juntas, t.c. 36, 203H.
 622 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . Car il sont differenz selon les premieres qualités sensibles qui sont finiez
et .iiii., si comme il sera monstré ou secont livre Degeneracione.1 Apres il met
40 l’opinion de Democritus et de Leucippus.
T . E t aucuns autres, si comme Leucippus et Democritus, excludoient moult
de accidens ou de choses raisonnables, car il dient que les premieres magni­
tudes ou quantités sont infinies en multitude8 et indivisibles selon quantité.
E t dient que d’un corps ne sont pas faiz pluseurs par corrupcion ne de plu-
45 seurs un par generacion, mais tous corps sont faiz par la complicacion et cir-
cumposicion ou applicacion de ces indivisibles. E t mettent aucunement que
toutes choses sont nombres et de nombres ; et se il ne le dient plainement,
toutevoies il le veulent // (170a) dire. E t encore dient il que les premiers corps
different par figures, et pour ce que les figures sont infinies, il dient que les
50 simples corps ou elemens sont infinis.
G . Car aussi comme es nombres est procès infini, semblablement une fi­
gure est de .iii. angles, autre de .iiii., autre de .v. et ainsi sans fin.
T . Mais ces ici ne déterminent pas quelle figure ont les corps que nous ap­
pelions elemens fors seulement que9 au feu il assignent figure de pyramide,
55 ce est a dire pointue. E t disoient que le aer et l’eaue et les autres different se­
lon grandeur et petitece et que leur nature est pam per m e™ ce est a dire toute
semence de touz les elemens.
G . Apres il reprouve ceste opinion par .vii. raisons.
T . E t donques le premier pechié ou inconvenient de ceste opinion est de ce
60 que il ne mettent pas les elemens finis, car aussi bien et miex salvassent il par
ce toutes apparences. Item, se les differences des elemens ne sont infinies, les
elemens / (170b) ne sont pas infiniz. Item, ceulz qui mettent ((corps)11 indi­
visibles destruient les sciences mathématiques et moult de principes et d ’ap­
parences ou de choses qui apparent sensiblement dont nous avons dit ou li­
65 vre de Phisique.
G . O u sixte ou est dit que toute chose continue est divisible12 sans fin.13
T . Item, il convient que ces ici se contredient, car il mettent que le aer est
de plus grans athomes que l’eaue et l’eaue que la terre ; et ce est impossible
que un indivisible soit plus grant que l’autre. Item, un ne pourroit estre fait
7o
de l’autre si comme aer de eaue, car il convendroit que ces indivisibles creus-
sent et ce est impossible; et toutevoies, il disoient que aer et eaue et terre sont
faiz un de l’autre. Item, encore selon leur posicion ne s’ensuit il pas que les
elemens soient infiniz, car il dient que les corps different par figures. E t tou­
tes figures, posé que elles soient infinies, sont composées de pyramides, car
75 les figures corporeles rectilignes ou angulaires sont composées // (170c) de
pyramides rectilignes et espere est composée de .viii. parties comme pyra-
^ "n b
e generatione, 11.7.335a 10-17. 10 C D E F pansperene.
en magnitude. 11 A indivisibles corps, with corps expunc-
seulement et que. tuated.
Book III, Chapter 8, fols, iyoa-iyoc | 623
G . They are different with regard to the primary perceptible qualities, which are
finite and four in number, as will be shown in the second book o f Generation. Then
he reviews the opinion o f Democritus and Leucippus.
T . Other thinkers, like Democritus and Leucippus, excluded many accidents or
arguable points, for they say that the primary magnitudes or quantities are infinite
in number and indivisible in quantity. Th ey also say that many bodies are not made
out o f one by disintegration or change, nor one from many by generation; but
they hold that all bodies are made by the intermingling and recombining or folding
together o f the indivisibles. In some respects, they hold to the idea that all things
are numbers and are derived from numbers ; if they do not frankly say this, never­
theless, they certainly mean // (170a) to say it. Th ey also declare that primary bodies
differ in shape, and, since the shapes are infinite in number, they actually are saying
that the simple bodies or elements are infinite in number.
G . For just as in numbers the series is infinite, so with shapes— one figure has
three angles, another four, another five, and so on without end.
T . But they do not venture to identify which shape is characteristic o f the bodies
we call the elements, save that they attribute to fire the shape o f a pyramid— that is,
a pointed figure Th ey used to say that air and water and the others differ in size
and that their nature is panspermie— a seed-mixture o f all the elements.
G . Next he refutes this opinion with seven arguments.
T . So, the first error or incongruity o f this opinion is the failure to accept the
elements as finite in number, for they could very well have saved appearances had
they done so. I f the differences o f the elements are not infinite in number, then the
elements / (170b) are not infinite in number. But those who posit indivisible bodies
destroy the mathematical sciences and defy many principles and observations
which are clearly perceptible to the senses and o f which we have spoken in the
book o f Physics.
G . In the sixth book, in which it is stated that every continuum is endlessly
divisible.
T . Also, they have to contradict themselves, for they claim that air consists o f
larger atoms than water, and water o f larger atoms than earth ; and it is impossible
that one indivisible should be larger than another. One element could not be made
from another, for example, air from water, for these indivisibles would have to
grow, which is impossible; however, they maintained that air, water, and earth are
generated from one another. Again, from their theory it does not follow that the
elements are infinite in number, for they say that the bodies have different shapes.
A ll figures, assuming them to be o f infinite number, are constructed out o f pyra­
mids, for rectilinear or angular corporeal shapes are composed // (170c) o f rectilin­
ear pyramids and the sphere is composed o f eight sections like pyramids. Thus,
13 Physicorum, V I .1 -2 .231a 18 ff.
12 D E indivisible.
 624 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
mides. E t donques sont aucuns principes de figures finis selonc espece, ou un1*
ou .ii. ou pluseurs. E t donques selon la posicion15 de ces ici, les corps sim­
ples, qui sont elemens, seront16 en tel nombre et non pas infinis.
80 G . Il appert par geometrie comment toutes figures superficieles et recti­
lignes sont résolûtes en triangles et composées de triangles. E t toutes corpore-
les figures de droites superfices ne sont pas résolûtes en pyramides, etc., si
comme il disoient. E t espere est en .viii. pyramides semblables, si comme il
appert par les .viii. pieces d’une pelote ou d’un esteuf.
85 T . Item, chascun simple corps a simple mouvement et les simples mouve-
mens ne sont pas infinis ne les lieus infinis,17 et ne est de telz corps fors .ii.
mouvemens drois. E t donques les simples corps ou elemens ne sont pas in-
finiz.
G . Ceste rayson fu mise en la fin du chapitre precedent.
9. Ou .ix.e chapitre il monstre que il n’est pas tant
seulement / (iyod) un element.
T . E t 1 pour ce que par neccessité il convient que les elemens soient en cer­
tain nombre fini, il reste a considérer se il sont pluseurs ou non, car aucuns
mettent que un seul element est. E t les uns client que ce est eaue ; les autres
dient que ce est aer; les autres que ce est feu; les autres que ce est une chose
5 plus subtille que eaue et plus espesse que aer et dient que elle est infinie et
contient tous les cielx.
G . Apres il les improuve et premièrement ceulz qui dient que ce est aer, si
comme Anaximenes et Dyogenes,2 ou que ce est eaue, si comme Thales et
Yppon, ou une chose moienne, si comme Anaximandrus ; et les improuve
10 par .ii. raisons.
T 3 E t donques ceulz qui dient que ce est aer ou eaue ou une chose plus
subtille que eaue et plus espesse que aer, et qui mettent que les choses sont
faites de tel element par le engroissier ou espessier et par le subtilier, il ne sce-
vent que il dient et convient que il mettent aucune chose premiere que ce que
i5 il dient // (171a) estre premier element,4 car il dient que quant une chose est
faite des elemens, ce est composicion; et quant les elemens sont fais d’une
chose, ce est resolucion et ce en quoy est faite resolucion est de plus subtilles
parties. E t donques convient il que il soit premier par nature. O r dient il que
14 B C D E F finis se l’en oste un. Cf. Juntas, 15 D donques ce la pos.; E doncques se est
t.c. 39, 206E: “ Necesse est ergo ut figure la pos.
habeant principia propria, sive fuerit una fi- 16 A elemens et seront,
gura, aut duo, aut plures.” 17 B omits ne les lieus infinis.
Book III, Chapter 9, fols. i7 o d -i7 ia | 624
there are certain principles controlling finite figures according to their kind, wheth­
er one or two or more. A n d still following their theory, the simple bodies or the
elements will equal the number o f principles posited and so will not be infinite in
number.
G . In geometry it is explained how all plane and rectilinear figures are resolved
into and composed o f triangles. A ll corporeal figures with rectilinear surfaces or
planes are not resolved into pyramids, etc., as they said. A nd a sphere is composed
o f eight identical pyramids, as is evident in the eight pieces o f a ball o f w ool or o f a
pincushion.
T . Each simple body has a simple motion, and neither simple motions nor
places are infinite in number, and such bodies have only tw o rectilinear motions.
Therefore, the simple bodies or elements are not infinite in number.
G . This same argument appeared at the end o f the preceding chapter [see fol.
169a].
9. In Chapter Nine he points out that there is
not / (i7od) one element only.
T . Since we have determined that there must be a limited number o f elements, it
remains to be considered whether or not there are several, for there are some who
hold that there is only one element. Some say that this one element is water, others
that it is air, still others that it is fire, while some hold it to be something more
subtle than water and thicker than air and they say it is infinite and contains all the
heavens.
G . H e rejects all these opinions, primarily the opinion o f those who say, like
Anaximenes and Diogenes, that the element is air; or o f those who say, like Thales
and Hippo, that it is water ; or o f those who say like Anaximander, that it is some­
thing between air and water; these he rejects with two arguments.
T . Those who say that the only element is air or water or something more subtle
than water and more dense than air and that objects are made o f such an element by
a process o f infusion or condensation and by rarefaction do not know what they
are saying, and, therefore, are obliged to assume the existence o f something prior to
that which they call // (171a) the first element; they say that, when a thing is made
from the elements, this is synthesis; that, when the elements are generated from
something, this is analysis, and the result o f analysis is still more subtle particles.
It must follow, then, that these particles are prior in nature. N o w , they say that fire
1 Guthrie, ch. 3. 3 D E omit Tiexte.
2 B C D E F omit et Dyogenes. 4 F omits estre premier element.
 626 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
le feu est le très plus subtil de tous les corps qui sont, et donques est le feu le
20 premier corps par nature et element. E t se il disoient que un autre corps est
plus subtil que ne est feu, ce ne fait difference, car donques ce corps est ele­
ment et non pas autre qui soit moien et moins subtil. Item, selon ce que il
veulent, subtil et rare sont une chose et aussi espés et gros sont une chose, et
encore dient il que subtil est petit ou de petites parties, et que gros est de
25 grans parties ;5 et donques element est déterminé par estre petit et autre corps
par estre grant. E t petit et grant ne sont pas choses absolutes, mais sont dites
ou resgart d’autre, car ce que est petit est grant ou resgart de ce que est men-
dre. E t donques se les elemens sont ainsi determinéz, / (171b) rien ne sera
feu6 simplement et absoluement, ne aer ne eaue, mais un sera feu ou resgart
30 d’une chose et sera aer ou resgart de l’autre.
G . Apres il applique ceste rayson contre ceulz qui mettent pluseurs ele­
mens en disant que il different seulement en ce que l’aer est de plus petiz a-
thomes que l’eaue et l’eaue que la terre, etc.
T . E t ce meisme inconvenient s’ensuit a ceulz qui dient que les elemens
35 sont pluseurs et differens en grandeur et en petitesce, car se un element, aussi
comme est l’aer, a certainne proporcion en grandeur ou en petitesce a l’eaue
et l’eaue a telle proporcion a la terre, donques est l’eaue aer ou resgart de la
terre et ainsi des autres.
G . Apres il met l’opinion de ceulz qui mettent que seulement le feu est ele­
40 ment et leurs raysons.
T . E t ceulz qui supposent que le feu est element ne sont pas d’un acort et a
leur opinion s’ensuient autres inconveniens, car les uns appliquent ou attri­
buent au feu figure pyramide.
G . 1 Ce est une figure corporele contenue en .iiii. triangles et a .iiii. pointes,
45 ausi comme // (171c) ce que l’en appelle cauquetreppe.
T . E t de ces ici les uns qui parloient plus simplement disoient que ce est
pour ce que pyramide est la plus acue de toutes les figures, et le feu est le plus
acu de tous les corps ; et les autres plus apparenment amenoient ceste raison ;
car tous corps sont composés comme de leur element de ce quee st de plus
50 subtiles parties, et toutes figures8 corporeles ou solides sont composées de
pyramides. E t donques puisque de touz corps feu est le plus subtil et de tou­
tes figures pyramide est la plus subtile et la premiere, et la premiere figure est
deue au premier corps, il s’ensuit que feu est de figure pyramide. E t les autres
ne faisoient mencion de la figure, mes disoient que le feu est de tous corps le
55 plus subtil et qui est composé de plus subtiles parties et de lui sont fais les
autres corps par compression, aussi comme l’en comprime une chose enflee
et espartie9en la comprimant et espessant.
G . Apres il les improuve par .vi. raysons.
5 B omits et que gros est de grans parties. 7 B C D E F omit Glose.
6 D E sceu. 8 B C D E F omit et le feu est le plus a c u ...
Book III, Chapter 9, fols. 17^ -1710 ( 6z j
is the most subtle o f all existing bodies, and so fire by nature is the first body and
first element. I f they said that some other body is more subtle than fire, it would
not make any difference, for, then, this other body would be the primary element
and not another intermediate and less subtle body. A s they would have it, subtle
and rare are one thing, and dense and coarse are one thing, and again they say that
subtle is small or composed o f small parts, while coarse is made up o f large parts ;
an element is identified as being small, and another body as being large. But small
and large are not absolutes, but are only relative to each other, for what is small is
large compared to that which is smaller. Therefore, if the elements are defined in
this manner, / (171b) nothing will be simply and absolutely fire or air or water, but
an element will be fire in relation to one thing and air with regard to another.
G . Afterward, he uses this argument against those who claim that there are sev­
eral elements, but that they differ only in that air has smaller atoms than water, and
water has smaller atoms than earth, etc.
T . T h e same incongruity is present in the case o f those who say that the ele­
ments are several and different in size, for, if an element like air has a certain size
proportional to the size o f water and i f water has the same proportional size to
earth, then water is air relative to the earth, and likewise with the other elements.
G . N ext he presents the opinion and arguments o f those who contend that fire
is the one and only element.
T . Those who suppose that fire is an element are not all in agreement, and their
opinions contain absurdities, for some attribute to fire the shape o f a pyramid.
G . This is a material figure contained within four triangles with four points,
like IJ (171c) that which we call a caltrop.
T . Those o f this group who spoke more simply said that fire has this shape be­
cause the pyramid is the most angular or the sharpest o f all three-dimensional
figures and because fire is the sharpest o f all bodies. Others presented this more
lucid argument : that all bodies are composed o f the most subtle parts o f their ele­
ment and that all corporeal or solid bodies are composed o f pyramids. Therefore,
since fire is the most subtle o f all bodies, since the pyramid is primary and the most
subtle o f all shapes, and since the finest shape belongs to the finest body, it follows
that fire has the pyramidal shape. The others had failed to mention the shape, say­
ing only that fire is the most subtle body composed o f the most subtle parts, and
that from it the other bodies are made by compression, just as we compress a thing
that is inflated and separated into two parts b y pressing them together and causing
density.
G . N o w he rejects these opinions with six arguments.
et toutes figures. enflee et est aultre en la comp.
9 B C F enflee et est autre en la comp.; D E
 628 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Mais il s’en- / (171c!) suient difficultés et inconveniens aus uns et aus
60 autres, car se il mettent, comme si font, que le premier corps ou element est
de parties indivisibles, les raisons qui ont esté devant mises sont contre eulz.
G . O u tiers chapitre et en le .viii.e
T . Item, a parler naturelment, l’en ne peust dire que tel element soit com­
posé de parties indivisibles, car tout corps peust estre comparé a autre selon
65 quantité. E t donques tele proporcion ou comparoison10a toute l’eaue a toute
la terre, tele le a l’element de l’un a l’element de l’autre, ce est a dire un indi­
visible11 a l’autre des indivisibles dont l’eaue et la terre sont composées, et
ainsi des autres choses. O r est12 l’eaue plus grande et plus rare que la terre et
le aer que l’eaue, et donques un element indivisible est mendre que un autre
70 indivisible, et le mendre est contenu ou plus grant ou equal au mendre. E t
donques tel element de eaue ou de aer est divisible.
G . Il disoient que l’element du feu, par compression et condemp- // (172a)
sacion, est fait aer ou eaue. E t donques ses parties sont faites mendres et, par
consequent, elles ne sont pas indivisibles.
75 T . E t se il dient que elles sont divisibles, il convient que ceulz qui mettent
que elles sont figurées octrient que chascune partie de feu n’est pas feu pour
ce que pyramide n’est pas composé de pyramides, mais a parties qui ne sont
pas pyramides. Item, il s’ensuiroit que tout corps ne fust pas element ou com­
post de element, car une partie du feu qui est de figure pyramide n’est pas feu
80 puisque elle n ’est pyramide et si n ’est pas autre element ne chose mixte. Item,
se il dient que le feu n’est pas déterminé par figure mais par quantité, il s’en­
suit que de element est element, et ainsi sans fin pour ce que tout corps est di­
visible en parties divisibles.
G . Car il disoient que les corps sont composés de leur element comme de
85 parties intégrales.
T '. Item, encore s’ensuit il que une meisme chose est feu ou resgart d’une
autre / (172b) <et>13 aer ou terre ou resgart de l’autre.
G . Car elle est grande ou resgart de l’un et petite ou resgart de l’autre.
T . Item, une rayson est commune contre tous ceulz qui mettent un seul
90 element, car il s’ensuit que de tous corps soit un mouvement naturel seule­
ment, car tout corps a en soy principe de mouvement naturel. E t donques se
tous corps sont d ’une nature, tous ont un mouvement et tant plus avront en
soy de celle nature et de cel element, tant seront plus isnelement meuz; si
comme feu, tant est plus grant, tant monte en haut plus isnelement. O r est il
95 ainsi que pluseurs corps sont meuz en bas ; et donques pour ce que pluseurs
mouvemens naturelz sont, si comme nous avons déterminé devant, il appert
que ce est impossible que un seul element soit.
10 A comparaoison ; B composicion. 12 B C D E F Ou est.
11 B C D E F divisible. ” A omits et.
Book III, Chapter 9, fols. i7 id -i7 2 b | 629
T . A ll these opinions present / (17 id) difficulties and absurdities, for, if they state,
as they do, that the primary body or element consists o f indivisible parts, then our
arguments presented above are against them.
G . In Chapters Three and Eight [see fols. i5 9d, 169a].
T . Speaking with due regard for natural laws, we cannot say that such an ele­
ment is composed o f indivisible parts, for each body can be compared to another
in size. Therefore, such a ratio or comparison as all the water has to all the earth,
just such an identical ratio has the element o f one to the element o f the other— that
is, o f one indivisible to another indivisible— o f which water and earth are compos­
ed; and the same holds for other things. Water is more extensive and more subtle
than earth, and air than water ; and thus one indivisible element is less than another,
and the smaller is contained in the larger or is equal to the lesser. Consequently,
such an element o f water or air is divisible.
G . Th ey used to say that the element o f fire is made into air or water by compres­
sion and condensation. //(172a) Thus its parts are made smaller and, as a result, are
not indivisible.
T . I f they say that the elements are divisible, then those who say they have a
shape are admitting that each part o f fire is not fire, because a pyramid is not com­
posed o f pyramids, but rather o f parts that are not pyramids. So, it would follow
that no body would be an element or a mixture o f elements ; for a part o f fire shaped
like a pyramid is not fire because it is not a pyramid, nor is it any other element or
compound body. I f they say that fire is not defined by shape, but by magnitude,
then it follows that from the element there is another element and so on endlessly
since every body is divisible into divisible parts.
G . For, according to them, bodies are composed o f integral parts o f their ele­
ment.
T . Again, it follows from this reasoning that the same body is fire in relation to
one thing / (172b) and air or earth in relation to another.
G . For it is large with respect to one thing and small with respect to another.
T . There is one common argument to be applied against all those who support
the theory o f only one element. I f this were true, there would be but one single mo­
tion natural to all bodies, for every body possesses within itself a tendency to na­
tural movement. Thus, if all bodies are o f a single substance, all have only one
movement, and the more o f this substance or element they possess, the faster will
be their motion ; for instance, the greater amount there is in fire, the faster it will
rise. There are, however, many bodies which m ove downward; since the several
descending motions are natural, it is clearly impossible that there should be only
one single element.
6yo [ Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . Il fu dit ou secont chapitre du premier comment pluseurs mouvemens
naturelz sont.
io. Ou .x.e chapitre il monstre que les elemens ne sont pas
perpetuelz mes corruptibles selon leurs parties. //
(172c) T . E t pour ce que les elemens ne sont pas infinis ne un seul, il con­
vient que il soient pluseurs et finiz. O r est a considérer premièrement se il
sont perpetuelz ou se il sont engendrés ou ge n e ra litie s,1 car, ce monstré,
l’en pourra savoir quans il sont et quelz il sont. E t c ’est impossible que les
5 elemens soient perpetuelz, car nous voions que feu et eaue et chascun des
corps simples est résolut et comme mué. E t donques convient il que ceste
resolucion procédé sans fin ou que elle se arreste. E t se elle procédé et a pro­
cédé sans fin, il convient que le temps de ceste resolucion soit infini et aussi
du temps de sa composicion, car chascune chose tele a .i. temps de sa compo-
10 sicion et un autre de sa dissolucion. E t donques s’ensuit que hors un temps
infini de toutes pars sera .i. autre temps semblablement infini, car le temps de
la composicion de tele chose seroit infini et encore premier et devant le temps
de sa dissolucion. E t donques seroit un temps infini hors un autre temps sim­
plement infini, laquelle chose est im- / (i72d) possible. E t qui diroit que ceste
i5 dissolucion ne procédé pas sans fin mais se arreste en aucun temps et ne peust
passer oultre, nous demandons a savoir mon se chascun des corps ou ceste
dissolucion se arreste est indivisible ou se il est divisible sans ce que il soit
onques divisé, si comme vouloit Empedocles, ce semble. Se l’en dist que il
est indivisible, ce ne peust estre par les raisons devant dites.
20 G . O u sixte de Phisique et en ce tiers en pluseurs lieus.2
T . E t se ce corps est divisible3 et que il ne sera onques dissolut ne divisé ou
corrompu, ce est inconvenient, car le plus petit corps est plus de legier cor­
ruptible que ne est le plus grant et, selon ceste opinion, le plus grant est cor­
rompu seulement parce que il est dissolut et divisé en plus petiz. E t est ray-
25 sonnable que le plus petit soit le plus tost corrompu, car nous voions que le
feu est corrompu en .ii. maniérés : une est quant il est destaint par son con­
traire, et autre est quant il se amarsist et de- // (173a) faut en soy meisme. E t
de tant (comme il est mendre, de tan t)4 est il plus tost corrompu.
G . s Le feu n’est onques corrompu fors par son contraire fors selon appa-
30 rence quant il estaint par defaute de matière, car lors la fredeur ou moisteur
de l’aer circunstant le corrumpt, mais il ne appert pas telement comme quant
l’en gecte de l’eaue desus.
1 A generales. Guthrie, ch. 6. 233b 16-19; 4- 234b 10— 235a 37.
2 Physicorum, V I.2 .232b 21-25 i 233a 10-21 ; 3 D corps divisible; E corps indivisible.
Book III, Chapter 10, fols, \ 631
G . It was stated in Chapter T w o o f Book I how several natural motions or m ove­
ments exist [see fol. 7a If.].
10. In Chapter Ten he shows that the elements are not eternal,
but perishable with respect to their parts. //
(172c) T . Since the elements are neither infinite in number nor reducible to one,
there must be, therefore, more than one but o f limited number. N o w we must con­
sider, first, whether they are eternal or whether they are created or generable, for,
once these matters have been demonstrated, we can then know how many and
which ones they are. Th ey cannot be eternal, for we can see that fire, water, and
each simple body undergo a process o f dissolution and alteration. A n d this disso-
solution must either proceed endlessly or be arrested. I f it proceeds and has pro­
ceeded endlessly, then it must follow that the time required for this dissolution as
well as the time for its reconstruction must be infinite, for every such body has one
time for synthesis [or upbuilding] and another for dissolution [or disintegration].
So, besides a time infinite in every direction, there will be another time likewise in­
finite ; for the time for the upbuilding o f such a body would be infinite, primary,
and before the time o f disintegration. Thus, there would be one infinite time out­
side another absolutely infinite time, which is impossible. / (i72d) W e ask anyone
who would maintain that this dissolution is not infinite, but will be arrested at
some future time which it cannot exceed, how each body in which this dissolution
is stopped can be indivisible or how, as it seems Empedocles thought, each body
can be divisible without ever being divided. I f he should say that it is indivisible,
for the reasons alleged above it cannot be so.
G . In the sixth book o f the Physics and in several places in this third B ook [see
fols. i59d, 162b ff.].
T . I f this body is divisible, but will never be dissolved, divided, or altered, then
this statement is absurd, because the smallest body is more easily changed than the
largest and because, following this opinion, the largest is altered only by being re­
duced and divided into smaller parts. It is reasonable to assume that the smallest
will be changed the soonest, for we can observe that fire is changed in two ways :
one, when it is extinguished by its contrary [water], and the other, when it dies
down // (173a) o f its own accord. Th e smaller it is, the quicker it is destroyed.
G . Save by its contrary, fire is never destroyed except in appearance when it goes
out for lack o f substance; at such time the cold or moisture o f the surrounding air
destroys it, but this process is not as evident as when water is thrown upon it.
4 A omits comme il est mendre, de tant. 5 E omits Glose.
 6$2 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . E t donques est neccessaire que les elemens soient corruptibles et gene-
ra<b>les.6
35 G . Apres il prouve que il sont engendrés et faiz un de l ’autre.
T . E t puisque les elemens sont genera <b>les,7 ou ceste generacion est faite
de corps precedent ou de non-corps ; et se elle est faite de corps, ou ce corps
est autre que element ou mixte ou non. O r ne peust l’en dire que ceste gene­
racion soit faite de non-corps, car celui qui est engendré et fait il convient que
40 ce soit en aucun lieu ; et se en ce lieu estoit et est autre corps dont cestui ne soit8
fait, il s’ensuit que .ii. corps seront ensemble par tout un lieu, ce est a savoir
celui qui est fait de nouvel et le préexistent ou precedent. E t se ce lieu /(173b)
estoit du tout sans corps, donques estoit ce lieu vieu et séparé de tout corps ;
et nous avons monstré devant que c’est impossible.
45 G . O u quart de Phisique9 et aussi que .ii. corps ne peuent estre en un lieu
propre a chascun de eulz.
T . Mais encore ne peust l’en dire que les elemens soient faiz d ’autre corps
qui ne soit des elemens ou mixte des elemens, car il convendroit que tel corps
fust premier que les elemens. E t ce corps, ou il avra pesanteur ou legiereté ; et
50 se ainsi est, ce est un des elemens. E t se il n’a quelcunque inclinacion a mou­
vement, il sera immobile et mathématique, ce est a savoir sans qualité sensi­
ble. E t donques tel corps ne sera pas en lieu, car au lieu ou il repose il est pos­
sible que il soit meu. E t se il y repose par violence, il est meu contre nature;
et se il y repose sans violence, il y est meu selon nature. E t donques se tel
55 corps est en aucun lieu, ce est aucun des elemens ; et se il ne est en aucun lieu,
de lui ne seroit rien fait, car, par neccessité, le corps qui est fait //(173c) de nou­
vel est ou lieu ou estoit celui de quoy il est fait. E t donques puisque les elemens
ne sont faiz de non-corps ne d’autre que des elemens, il demeure que il sont
faiz les uns des autres.
60 G . Car <se>10 il sont faiz de corps mixtes, il estoient en telz corps aucune­
ment, si comme il fu dit ou .vii.e chapitre.11
11. En le .xi.e chapitre il improuve aucuns opinions de la
maniéré comment les elemens sont faiz un de l’autre.1
T . O r convient apres considérer par quele maniéré les elemens sont engen­
drés ou faiz un de l’autre, a savoir mon se ce est si comme dient Empedocles
6 A generales. 216b 17; 9.217b 21-27.
7 Ibid. 10 A F omit se.
8 D E dont coustume soit. 11 £ ou .vi. c.
9 Physicorum, IV .8 .214b 17-28; 216a 23— 1 B C D E F om itunde l’autre.G uthrie,ch.7.
Book III, Chapter 10, fols. i73b-i73C ] 633
T . It must be, therefore, that the elements are subject to destruction and to gene­
ration.
G . He next proves that they are generated and that one element is made from
another.
T . Since the elements are generated, this generation arises either from preexist­
ing or from non-existent bodies ; i f it is derived from a body, then either this body
is different from a simple element or from a compounded or mixed one, or else it is
not. It cannot be said that this generation is made from some immaterial thing, for
what is generated and made must exist in some place ; and, if in this place there was
and is another body from which this body is not made, then it follows that the two
bodies— the one just created and the pre-existent or preceding one— will occupy
the entire place together. For if this place / (173 b) was without any body at all, then
it was a void and separate from all bodies, and this we have previously shown to be
impossible.
G . In the fourth book o f the Physics, where he also shows that two bodies can­
not occupy one place properly belonging to each.
T . Moreover, we cannot say that the elements are made from bodies other than
the elements or mixtures o f them, for such a body would necessarily be prior to
the elements, w ould be either heavy or light, and thus would itself be one o f the
elements. I f this body had no inclination or impulse to move, it would be immobile
and a mathematical object— that is, devoid o f any perceptible characteristic. There­
fore, such a body will not exist in any place, for in the place where it rests it will pos­
sibly be moved. I f it rests there b y violence, it was moved contrary to its nature.
Consequently, any such body occupying any given place is one o f the elements ; if
it does not occupy any given place, nothing will be made from it, for, necessarily,
the newly created body // (173c) is situated in the place o f the one from which it
was made. Since the elements are not made from incorporeal bodies nor from any­
thing other than the elements, we then conclude that they are made from one an­
other.
G . Because, i f they are made from compound or mixed bodies, then in a sense
the elements were in those same bodies, as stated in Chapter Seven [see fol. 168c].
11. In Chapter Eleven he rejects certain opinions concerning the
manner in which the elements are made from one another.
T . W e have now to consider the manner in which the elements are generated or
made from one another, for example, whether it is as Empedocles and Democritus
634 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
et Democritus, ou comme les autres qui dient que il sont resoluz en super-
fices ou en aucune autre maniéré.
5 G . Apres il réprouvé les premiers par .iiii. raysons.
T . E t ceulz qui tiennent l’opinion de Empedocles et <de>23Democritus ne
se entendent pas et, selon ce que il dient, ce ne seroit pas vraie generacion
d’un element de l ’autre, mais generacion selonc apparence ; car il dient que
l’element qui est fait de l’au- / (173 d) tre estoit en cel autre et en est estroit par
10 segregacion ou separacion, aussi comme d’un vaiseau et non pas comme
d’une matière dont une chose est engendree et faite par transmutacion sub-
stanciele.
G . Aussi comme en une masse mixtionee de pluseurs metalz l’en estroit et
séparé un de ces metalz, semblablement il disoient que un element est estroit
i5 de l’autre ou il estoit ou que il est fait de l’autre par compression ou dilatacion.
T . Item, il s’ensuit a leur diz choses qui ne sont pas moins desraysonnables,
car une meisme chose n’est pas faite plus pesante pour ce se elle est plus com­
primée ou compresse. E t il convient que il octrient et dient q u el’eaue, quant
elle est segregiee et separee de l’aer, soit faite plus pesante seulement parce
2o que elle est plus comprimée par tele segregacion.
G . Mais l’en pourroit dire encontre : car, selon vérité, quant eaue est faite
de aer par vraie generacion, 3 la matière est faite plus pesante par compression
et condempsacion; item, une quantité de // (174a) laine ou une fuylle de or est
plus pesante comprimée que espartie. Je respon et di que, quant eaue est faite
25 de aer, la chose est faite plus pesante par alteracion et par vraie generacion et
non pas seulement par compression, si comme il seroit selon l’opinion desus
dite. A u secont, je di que la laine ou le or ne poise en rien plus pour la com­
pression, mais devant le aer legier estoit enclos en la laine et le fueille de or ne
peust pas si isnelement4 descendre pour sa plate figure comme se elle estoit
30 ronde comme une pomme. Mais ce n’est pas pour ce que elle poise moins.
Apres il met la tierce rayson contre ceulz qui mettoient tele segregacion sanz
compression.5
T . Item, des corps mixtes il n’est pas neccessité que celui qui est séparé ob­
tienne plus grant lieu, mais quant aer est fait de eaue il occupe plus grant
35 lieu, car ce qui est de plus subtiles parties est fait en plus grant lieu. E t voions
que quant une chose moiste se évaporé et enfle, elle rompt le vaissel ou elle
est. / (174b) E t pour ce, quant l’aer est fait de eaue par segregacion se il n’i y
a aucun lieu vieu ou se les corps <ne>6 se dilatent et estendent, ce est impos­
sible, car il disoient que il ne <se>7 dilatent pas. E t se il y a lieu vieu ou exten-
40 sion et dilatacion, ce est chose desraysonnable que ce qui est séparé occupe
plus grant lieu.
2 A omits de. 5 B C D E F teles segregacions ou compres-
3 B C D E F faite de vraye generacion. sions.
4 B C D E F legierement. 6 A omits ne.
Book III, Chapter 11, fols. 173d-!74b | 633
say, whether it is as others hold that the elements are reduced or resolved into sur­
faces, or whether it is in still another manner.
G . He uses four arguments to reject the first opinion.
T . Those who accept the opinion o f Empedocles and Democritus do not agree,
and, according to their statements, there would be no true generation o f one ele­
ment from another, but only generation in appearance ; for they state that the ele­
ment made from another / (173 d) already existed in this first element and that by a
process o f segregation or separation it was extracted, just as though it emerged
from a receptacle rather than from a material out o f which by substantial change a
thing is generated and made.
G . Just as we extract and separate out one metal from a mixed mass o f several,
in the same way they held that one element is extracted from another in which it
was present, or else that it is made from the other element by compression or dila­
tation.
T . Th e consequences o f their statements are no less absurd, for the same thing is
not rendered heavier by being compressed or reduced in size. But they agree and
declare that water when separated from air, is made heavier simply by being com­
pressed b y this process o f separation.
G . However, one could argue to the contrary; for, as a matter o f fact, when
water is made from air by true generation, the material is made heavier by com­
pression and condensation; and a ball o f // (174a) w ool or a piece o f gold leaf is
heavier condensed than scattered. I say that, when water is made from air, the
body becomes heavier by alteration and true generation, and not only by com­
pression as stated in the opinion above. T o the second example, I answer that the
w ool or the gold does not weigh more because o f the compression, but that, pre­
viously, the light air was enclosed within the wool and, with its flattened shape,
the leaf o f gold cannot move downward so rapidly as it could if it were round like
an apple. But this is not the reason that it weighs less. His third argument is against
those who maintained such separation without compression.
T . It is not necessary for the body which is separated from the mixed bodies to
have a larger place, but, when air is made from water, it requires a larger place be­
cause whatever is composed o f more subtle parts occupies more space. W e can ob­
serve that when a moist object is vaporized and swells up, it breaks the receptacle in
which it is contained. / (174b) For this reason, when air is made from water by se­
paration, it is impossible that there be no empty place nor dilatation or expansion
o f bodies ; and they said that these bodies do not expand. If there is an empty place
or extension or dilatation, it is unreasonable that the separated part should occupy
a larger place than the mixed body.
7a il ne dilatent pas pas; D E repeat et estendent.. .ne se dilatent.
 636 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . Car Democritus supposoit que il ne fust pas dilaté, etc.
T . Item, se les elemens estoient faiz un de l’autre par segregacion, il con-
vendroit que ceste generacion cessast et deffaillist, car en quantité finie ne
45 sont pas <corps>8 equalz infîniz de certainne quantité. E t donques se d’une
eaue finie l’en oste par segregacion aucune chose qui soit terre, et de l’eaue
qui demeure encore semblablement l’en oste et estrait terre et ainsi sans fin,
tous jours il s’ensuit que en ceste eaue sunt terres infinies et pour ce que ce est
impossible, il s’ensuit que les elemens ne seront pas tousjours fais un de l’au-
50 tre et que tele generacion cessera. E t ainsi est dit que les elemens ne sont pas
faiz un de l’autre par segregacion.
G . Apres il recite .ii. autres opinions.
T . // (174c) O r demeurent les opinions qui mettent que les transmutacions
des elemens sont autrement faites et de ce dient .ii. maniérés : une par trans-
55 figuracion, aussi comme de une meisme cire est faite une espere ronde ou un?
cercle plat; autre maniéré est par resolucion en superfices, si comme dient
aucuns.
G . Apres il improuve la premiere.
T . E t se les elemens sont faiz un de l’autre par transfiguration, il convient
60 octrier que aucuns corps sont indivisibles ; car se touz estoient divisibles, il
s’ensuiroit selon l’opinion de ces ici que aucune partie de feu ne seroit pas feu
et que aucune partie de terre ne seroit pas terre ; car il dient que feu est de fi­
gure pyramide et terre est cubique comme est un dé, et partie de pyramide ne
est pas touzjours pyramide ne partie de corps cubique cubique.10
65 G . Un corps cubique11 peut bien estre divisé en .viii. parties dont chascune
est cubique, mais il peust estre divisé en parties non-cubiques et pyramide en
non-pyramides. Apres il reprouve l’autre maniéré ou opinion par .vi. ray-
sons. /
(i74d) T . E t se il sont fais un de l’autre par resolucion en superfices, le
70 premier inconvenient qui s’ensuit est que il convendroit mettre que un des
elemens ne peust estre transmué12 en aucun des autres. E t convient que il le
dient et ce n’est pas raysonnable chose, et le contraire appert sensiblement.
G . Vérité est que des figures plaines et de droites lignes la premiere est
triangle, la seconde quadrangle, la tierce est de .v. angles et la quarte de .vi.,
75 la quinte de .vii. et ainsi en procédant sans fin par les figures selon les nom­
bres. Item, en la seconde figure, ce est quadrangle, sont .ii. triangles en tra-
hant une ligne dyametral et en la tierce sont .iii. triangles en trahant lignes13
d’un angle aus autres et en la quarte .iiii., en la quinte .v. et ainsi en procédant
sans fin, si comme il appert ou sixte de Geometrie en la ,xviii.e conclusion
omits corps. 11 B piramide.
une. 12 A. transmuée.
10 B C D E F omit cubique. 13 D E omit dyam etral.. .trahant lignes.
Book III, Chapter 11, fols. i74c-i74d | 637
G . Democritus assumed that it was not dilated, etc.
T . If the elements were made from one another by separation, this generation
would have to slow down and stop, for in a finite body there cannot be an infinite
number o f bodies equal to a fixed quantity. Therefore, if we take a certain amount o f
earth from a finite quantity o f water, then extract earth from the remaining water,
and keep up this process endlessly, it follows that in this water there is an infinite
amount o f earth ; and since this is impossible, it follows that the elements are not
always made from one another and that such generation will cease. Thus we have
shown that the elements are not made from one another by separation.
G . Next he recounts two other opinions.
T . J) (174c) There still remain to be examined the opinions o f those who hold
that the transmutation o f the elements is accomplished in tw o other different ways :
one is the theory o f transfiguration [or change o f shape], just as we can make from
the same body o f wax a round ball or a flat round plane ; the other way, as some
maintain, is b y means o f reduction into surfaces.
G . N o w he rejects the first opinion.
T . I f the elements are made from one another by change o f shape, we must grant
he existence o f indivisible bodies ; for, if all were divisible, it would follow , accord­
ing to the opinion o f these thinkers, that some part o f fire would not be fire and
that some part o f earth would not be earth, because they say that fire is shaped like
a pyramid and earth a cube like a die, and part o f a pyramid is not always a pyramid,
nor part o f a cube always cubic.
G . A cubic body can be easily divided into eight parts, each o f which is a cube,
but it can also be divided into non-cubic parts, and a pyramid into non-pyramidal
parts. Then, with six arguments, he rejects the other point o f view or opinion. /
(i74d) T . I f elements are made from one another by reducing them to surfaces,
the first absurdity arises from the fact that one element would have to be kept un­
alterable or incapable o f being changed into any o f the other elements. This they
must admit, although it is unreasonable and although the opposite is obviously the
case.
G . The fact is that the primary plane figure with straight lines is the triangle, the
second the quadrangle, the third o f five angles, the fourth with six, the fifth with
seven, and so on endlessly with the figures following the order o f the natural
numbers. In the second figure— the quadrangle— there are two triangles i f we
draw a diametrical line ; in the third, there are three triangles if we draw lines from
one angle to the others ; in the fourth, four triangles ; in the fifth, five ; and so on
endlessly, as explained in the eighteenth proposition o f the sixth book o f Euclid’s
Geometry [see Fig. 2]. It makes no difference whether or not the sides or angles o f
 63 % I Lë Livre du ciel et du monde
80 Fig. [2].14 E t n’i a force ou difference se les costés de ces figures sont equalz
ou inequalz et aussi de //(175a) leurs angles. E t selon ce les geometriens dient
que toutes teles figures sont composées de triangles et résolûtes en triangles,
et ainsi, selon ceste ymaginacion, triangle est aussi comme element de toutes
teles figures. E t, par aventure, selon ce vouloient les Platoniens que la terre
85 qui est cubique en ses petites parties est composée de .vi. superfices quarrees et
chascune de ces superfices est de .ii.15 triangles comme dit est. E t aussi com­
me ces triangles ne peuent estre resoluz en autres figures premieres, il con-
venoit que il octriassent que la terre ne peust estre resolute en autre element.
T . Mais nous voions que tous les elemens sont transmués un en l’autre
90 semblablement. Item, il convient que ces philosophes confessent choses con­
tre ce qui leur appert sensiblement et par ce que il dient estre vray et qui leur
appert. E t la cause est car il ne prennent pas bien les principes des choses,
mais il veulent toutes choses réduire a leurs opinions et par ce il octrient
choses desraysonnables ; car, par aventure, les principes des choses sensi- /
95 (175 b) blés sont sensibles et des perpetueles perpetuelz et des corruptibles
corruptibles. E t ces ici ne font pas si comme l’en doit procéder en science
naturele, car l’en doit prendre les choses sensibles ou que l ’en voit sensible­
ment et puis enquérir les causes. E t il mettent les causes a leur guise et par ce
il ne peuent rendre rayson de ce que l’en voit sensiblement. E t pour ce il con-
uj vient que il octrient que la terre est vray element plus que autre et que elle
seule est incorruptible, car l’element est incorruptible16 qui ne peut estre dis­
solut et la terre seulement ne peut estre dissolute en autre corps.
G . Aussi comme triangle ne peut estre résolut en autre figure comme dit
est. E t ce que Aristote dist que les principes des choses corruptibles sont cor-
105 ruptibles, ce est a entendre des principes dont la chose est composée ou de
ses parties, et dist p a r aventure pour la (prem iere)17 matière qui est perpetuele,
mais elle est subjet de corrupcion et est selon ce corruptible aucunement. E t
par ce il veult dire que chascun element est corruptible qui est principe de
chose corruptible, et donques la terre est corruptible.
110 T . I l (175 c) Item, il convient par raison que ceulz qui mettent teles trans­
mutations parce que les elemens sont resoluz en triangles octrient que de ces
triangles aucuns soient superflus pour ce que, pat tele resolucion, il ne pour-
roient venir a equaüté.
G . Il disoient, selon les expositeurs, que terre est composée de .iii. triang-
115 les et aer de .viii. et eaue de .xx. E t donques se de eaue est fait aer, les .xvi.
triangles de eaue feront .ii. athomes de aer et les quartre qui demeurent ne
14 See Euclidis Elementa, V I.18, ed. Heiberg, 229-32.
vol. 2, 125-27; for the application o f the prop­ Is E F .iii.
osition to figures o f five or more sides, see 16 D E omit car l’element est incorruptible.
The Thirteen Books of Euclid’s Elements, ed. T. L.
17 A omits premiere.
Heath (2nd. ed., Cambridge, 1926), vol. 2,
Book III, Chapter 11, fols. I75a-i75c | 639
these figures are equal or unequal. // (175 a) Accordingly, the geometers say that all
such figures are composed o f triangles and are reducible to triangles, and so, in ac­
cord with this theory, the triangle is, as it were, an element in all such figures.
Therefore, the followers o f Plato possibly assumed the earth, which is a cube in its
smaller parts, to be composed o f six square surfaces, each composed o f two trian­
gles, as stated above. Since these triangles cannot be resolved into other primary
figures, they had to admit that the earth cannot be resolved into another element.
T . But we can see that all the elements are transmuted into one another without
discrimination. These philosophers thus find themselves forced to confess error in
what appears to their senses and in what seems to be true in appearance. T h ey do
not interpret primary principles correctly, but wish to reduce all things to their
preconceptions, and as a result they grant absurdities ; for perhaps the principles o f
sensible things / (175 b) are sensible, o f perpetual things perpetual, and o f perish­
able things perishable. But these philosophers do not proceed as one should in
IZ
& ^
Fig. 2
natural science; for in this field we must take sensible things or those which we can
perceive with the senses and inquire into their causes. Th ey state the causes as
they wish them to be and, thus, cannot give a reason for what can be observed
with the senses. Therefore, they have to grant that the earth is a true element more
than any other and that it alone is imperishable, because that element is imperish­
able which cannot be dissolved, and only the earth cannot be changed or dissolved
into another body.
G . Just as a triangle cannot be reduced to another figure, as already stated. A n d
when Aristotle says that the principles o f perishable things are perishable, he
means principles o f which the thing is composed or o f its parts ; and he says perhaps
with reference to primary matter, which is perpetual, but subject to deterioration
and thus perishable in a sense. B y this, he means that each element is perishable,
which is the principle o f perishable things, and consequently the earth is perish­
able.
T . 11 (175 c) Those who attribute such transmutations to the assumed fact that
the elements are resolved into triangles must grant that some o f them are super­
fluous because, in such a resolution, they could not arrive at equality.
G . According to the expositors, they used to say that the element o f earth is
composed o f three triangles, air o f eight, and water o f twenty. So, if water is
transformed into air, the sixteen triangles o f water will make two atoms o f air, and
 640 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
feront rien, car nul aer, tant soit petit, selon eulz ne est de moins que de .viii.
triangles.
T . Item, il convient que ceulz qui ainsi dient octrient que corps est engen-
120 dré et fait de non-corps, car puisque telle generacion est faite de superfices18
et superfices ne sont pas corps, elle est faite de non-corps. Item, ceulz qui
mettent que aucun corps est indivisible contredient aus sciences mathémati­
ques qui sont très certaines, car elles supposent que tout corps est entendu
estre divisible. E t ces philosophes, pour ce que il veulent salver leur suppo-
125 sicion, ne dient que tout corps sensible soit divisible; et le / (173d) convient
puisque il mettent que chascun element est fait de figures, car pyramide ou
espere, dont sont composés le feu et le ciel, se elle est divisée,19 les parties ne
seront pas pyramides ne esperes. E t donques ce seroient corps premiers que
elemens, et donques convendroit il que aucun corps fust qui ne seroit ele-
130 ment ne de elemens, ou que tele pyramide ou espere soit indivisible et que
tout corps ne soit pas divisible.
12. Ou .xii.e chapitre il monstre par .v. raisons generales que
les elemens ne sont pas déterminés par figures.
T . Tempter1 a figurer les corps simples en la maniéré que font aucuns est
chose desraysonnable.
G . L ’en doit savoir que, quant en superfices, figure est dite reguliere de
laquelle les angles sont equalz et les costés equalz, si comme le triangle qui a
5 .iii. costés equalz et le quadrangle aussi qui a angles equalz ; et tele peust estre
une figure de .v. angles et une de .vi. et une de .vii. et ainsi sans fin. E t sem­
blablement, un corps est dit régulier qui a faces // (176a) ou superfices sem­
blables et equales et angles aussi. E t combien que en figures corporeles soit
procès infini aussi comme es superficieles, car une peust estre de .iiii. faces,
10 autre de .v., autre de .x. et ainsi sans fin, toutevoies en ce est dessamblable,
car es superficieles réguliers est procès sanz fin aussi comme es irréguliers,
mais les corps réguliers sont tant seulement .v. en espece de figure. Le pre­
mier est de .iiii. faces dont chascun<e>2 est triangle de costés equalz et est ap-
pellé pyramide et plus proprement tetracedron,8 car infiniz pyramides peuent
15 estre qui ne sont pas corps réguliers. Le secont a .vi. faces dont chascune est
quadrangle quarré et est comme un dé et est appellé cubus ou exacedron. Le
tiers a .viii. faces dont chascune est triangle equilatere et est appellé octoce-
18 E omits de superfices. dividantur aliqua divisione__ ”
19 B C D E F divisible. Cf. Juntas, 224F:
“ figura pyramidalis, et figura sphaerica, cum 1 Guthrie, ch. 8.
Book III, Chapters n - 1 2 , fols. I75d-i76a | 641
the four remaining triangles o f water will make nothing, for in their theory no air,
no matter how small, is o f less than eight triangles.
T . Those who support this theory must admit that a body is created and made
from a non-body, for since this kind o f generation is made from surfaces and since
surfaces are not bodies, then bodies are made from non-bodies. Again, those who
say that certain bodies are indivisible contradict the mathematical sciences which
are extremely accurate and which assume that every body is understood to be divi­
sible. A n d in order to save their hypothesis, these philosophers do not state that
every sensible thing is divisible, and they should do so / (175 d) since they hold
every element to be made up o f figures ; if pyramid or sphere, o f which fire and
heavenly bodies would be composed, are divided, the parts would be neither pyra­
mids nor spheres. Thus, they would be primary bodies rather than elements, and
there would have to be some body not an element nor composed o f elements;
otherwise, such a pyramid or sphere would have to be assumed indivisible, and
also all bodies would not have to be divisible.
12. In Chapter Twelve he presents five general arguments to
demonstrate that the elements are not to be
identified with shapes or figures.
T . T o attempt to assign geometrical shapes to the simple bodies, as some are
doing, is an absurdity.
G . It should be explained here that, with regard to surfaces, a shape or figure is
termed regular if its angles and sides are equal, like the triangle which has three
equal sides, and also the quadrangle which has equal angles ; such regular figures
may have five, six, seven, or an infinite number o f equal angles. Likewise, a body
is called regular whose faces // (176a) or plane surfaces and angles are identical and
equal. A n d although there is an infinite process in solid as well as in plane figures
since one solid can have four, five, ten, or an unlimited number o f faces, neverthe­
less, in this respect the solid differs, for, although in regular as well as irregular
plane surfaces the process is endless, regular bodies have only five possible figures
or shapes. Th e first has four faces, each o f which is a triangle o f equal sides, and is
called a pyramid or tetrahedron, for an infinite number o f pyramids can exist that
are not regular bodies. The second regular body has six faces, each one a square
quadrangle, and it is shaped like a die and is called cube or hexahedron. Th e third
regular body has eight faces, each an equilateral triangle, and is called octahedron.
2 A B C D E F chascun. 3 A de tracedron ; F tetacedron.
 6^.2 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
dron.4Le quart est de .xii. faces dont chascune est de .v. angles et de .v. costés
equalz et est appellé duodecedron et chascune de ses faces est appellee pen-
[20 thagone. Le quint a .xx. faces, chascune triangulaire equilatere et est appellé
ycocedron. E t / (176b) est très belle consideracion, car par neccessité tant en
peut estre ; et que plus en soit ce est simplement impossible, car Dieu par sa
toute-puissance infinie ne pourroit faire un corps régulier d ’autre figure et
tout ce appert es desreniers livres de Euclide.5 E t aucuns anciens atribuoient
25 ces figures aus .v. corps simples qui sont les principalz parties et elemens du
monde, en disant que eulz sont composés de très petis et très menus athomes
qui sont corps réguliers, ce est a savoir le ciel de ceulz qui sont de figure ap­
p e lle ^ ) 6 duodecedron, le feu de pyramides,7 le aer de ceulz qui sont de figure
dite octocedron et l’eaue de ycocedron et la terre de cubes. E t ce improuve
30 Aristote.
T . Premièrement, car il convendroit que tout ne fust pas plain mais que au­
cun lieu fust vieu, pour ce que entre8les figures plaines ou superficieles régu­
lières .iii. seulement sont qui rëemplissent toute une superfice, ce est a savoir
trigone ou triangle, tetragone ou quarré et la tierce est exagone qui a .vi.
35 angles equalz. Mais // (176c) des figures solides ou corporeles .ii. seulement
sont qui rëemplissent tout, ce est a savoir pyramide ou tetraced<r>on9 et cu-
bus ou exacedron. E t il convendroit plus prendre de teles figures pour ce que
les elemens sont plus de .ii.
G . Je retourneray sus ceste rayson en la fin de ce chapitre.
40 T . Item, il semble que tous corps simples ou elemens soient figurés selon
la figure du lieu qui les contient, et meismement ce voions nous de l’eaue et
de le aer. E t donques est ce impossible que tel corps de element se determine
propre figure, car, se ainsi estoit, il ne se conformerait pas du tout a la figure
de la chose ou du vaiseau qui le contient. Item, se les elemens estoient de-
45 termineement de certaine figure, donques s’ensuiroit il que se l’en mettoit
eaue en un vaisseau qui fust de tele figure comme est aer, que l’eaue devenist
aer.
G . Car il disoient que la figure et la substance de l’element ensuient un
l’autre.
50 T . Item, il semble que nature le nous segnefie et est selon raison, car aussi
comme nous voions / (i76d) en autres choses le subject ou matière10 de quoy
l’en fait les choses est sans espece et sans forme quant est de soy, et par ce l’en
le peut miex appüquier a diverses formes, si comme il est escript ou livre ap­
pellé Tymeus11 que toute chose qui reçoit doit estre denuee12 ou despoillié de
55 la nature de la chose que elle reçoit. E t ainsi doit l’en cuider que les elemens
4 E carcedron. ter quinque figuras, quas nominavimus, nul-
5 Euclidis Eîementa, X III.6-18, especially 18, lam aliam construi posse polygonis et aequi-
ed. Heiberg, vol. 4, 328-39: “ Jam dico, prae- lateris et aequiangulis inter se aequalibus com-
Book III, Chapter 12, fols. I76b-i76d | 643
The fourth has twelve faces, each'having five angles an d five equal sides, and is called
dodecahedron ; each o f its faces is called a pentagon. The fifth has twenty faces,
each an equilateral triangle, and is called an icosahedron. A nd / (176b) it is an
interesting consideration that so many regular bodies can exist, and it is simply
impossible that there be any more because all-powerful G o d Himself could not
make a regular body o f another shape, as is all clearly demonstrated in the last
books o f Euclid. Certain ancient philosophers attributed these figures to the five
simple bodies which are the principal parts and elements o f the world, saying that
they are composed o f extremely small and minute atoms that are regular bodies—
that is, the heavens are composed o f the figures called dodecahedrons, fire is com­
posed o f pyramids, air o f those figures called octahedrons, water o f those called
icosahedrons, and earth o f cubes. Aristotle rejects this theory.
T . First, because it would mean that space would not be a plenum, but only a
void, since only three o f the regular plane figures fill a surface completely— that is,
the triangle, the quadrangle or square, and, third, the hexagon with six equal an­
gles. I/ (176c) A m ong solid or material bodies, only two fill everything, the pyra­
mid or tetrahedron and the cube or hexahedron. But more such figures would be
needed since there are more than two elements.
G . I shall return to this argument at the end o f this chapter.
T . Also, it seems that all simple bodies or elements are fashioned to conform to
the shape o f the place that contains them, and we can indeed observe, this fact in
the case o f water and air. Therefore, it is impossible that such body or element
should determine its own shape, for, if this were so, the body would not conform
to or fit into the space o f the receptacle which holds it. So, i f the elements were o f
absolutely fixed shape and if we put water into a receptacle shaped like air, it would
follow that the water would become air.
G . Since they claimed that the element’s figure and substance follow from each
other.
T . It seems that nature herself points to the truth andjit is surely reasonable; for,
just as we can observe / (i76d) in other things, the substratum or material from
which things are made is without species or form in and o f itself so that_the diverse
forms can better be applied to it, as indicated in the book called Timaeus, and that
the receiver must be divested and cleansed o f everything partaking o f the nature o f
prehensam” (p. 337). 9 A D E tetracedon.
6 A C D F appelle; E omits. 10 A subject et ou matière.
7 B omits le feu de pyramides. 11 51A.
8 B C D E F outre. 12 B derivee; D E donnée.
 {>44 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
sont aussi comme la matière de quoy sont faiz les corps composts ou mixtes.
E t pour ce, eulz peuent estre transmuéz en diverses formes et figures.
G . Aussi comme une porcion de cire peut estre transmuée de figure en au­
tre et ce ne pourroit estre se elle estoit selon sa nature determineement de cer-
60 taine figure.
T . Item, se les elemens estoient figurés en la maniéré que il mettent, l ’en
ne feroit des elemens ne char ne os ne autre corps mixte qui fust un corps
continu, et non feroit l’en se les elemens estoient composts de superfices, car
il seroient ou corps mixte mesléz par petites partietes les unes emprés les au-
65 très. // (177a) E t ainsi, a droit dire, ce ne seroit pas generacion.
(T.13 Mais seroit une mixtion tele comme se l’en mesloit ensemble forment
et14 seille et autres menus grains.
O r veul je retourner a declarer ce que dist Aristote en la premiere rayson.
Premièrement, il dist et voir est que des figures rectilignes reguüeres sont .iii.
70 seulement qui peuent raemplir superfice, ce est a savoir trigone, quadran­
gle et exagone comme dit est. E t la cause est car, si comme il peut apparoir par
geometrie ou premier de Euclide,15 l’espace d ’environ quelcunque point en
superfice contient .iiii. angles drois ou l’equivalent; si comme <se>16 la ligne
.ab. et la ligne [Fig. 3] .de. se entre-intersequent ou point .e., les17 .iiii. angles
75 d’environ ce point qui sont .f. et .g. et .h. et < .k.)18 tous ensemble valent
.iiii. angles drois. E t donques toutes figures desquelles aucun nombre de leurs
angles valent / (177b) .iiii. drois peuent convenir en un point sanz viedenge
et estre conjoins ensemble. E t ce est rëemplir espace. E t par ce appert que
.iiii. quadrangles ou quarrés, si comme sont .a. et .b.19 et .c. et .d., rëemplis-
80 sent espace [Fig. 4]. Item, il appert par geometrie que chascun angle de tri­
gone vault .ii. tiers de angle droit, et donques .vi. telz20 angles valent .iiii.
13 B C D E F omit Glose. porism in The Thirteen Books of Euclid's E le­
14 C D ensemble forme et s.; F ensemble ments, vol. 1, 278—79.
ferme et s. 16 A omits se.
15 This is a porism or corollary to Euclid’s 17 E point et les .iiii.
proposition I.ï 5 : If two straight lines cut one
18 A .b.
another, they make the vertical angles equal 19 B comme sitare et ,b.
to one another. See the discussion o f this 20 E donques se tielx.
Book III, Chapter 12, fols, | 644
the thing to be received. Thus, we must suppose the elements to be like the materi­
al o f which the compound or mixed bodies are made, and for this reason they can
be changed and transmuted into various forms and shapes.
G . A s a piece o f wax can be transmuted from one shape to another, and this
could not happen if the wax was by nature o f an absolutely fixed and permanent
shape.
T . I f the elements were shaped as these philosophers maintain, we could not
make from them flesh and bone nor any other mixed body having a continuous
magnitude; nor could we do so if the elements were composed o f surfaces, for
these plane surfaces would be present in mixed bodies, held together by tiny par­
ticles pressing upon or against one another. // (177a) A nd this would certainly not
be generation in any real sense.
G . Rather, it would be a mixture such as our mixing together wheat, rye, and
other small seeds o f grain would be.
N o w , I should like to turn back in order to clarify what Aristotle said in his first
Fig. 4
argument. In the first place, he said and it is true that there are only three regular
rectilinear figures which can fill a surface— a triangle, a quadrangle, and a hexagon,
as was stated. A s it is explained by geometry in Euclid’s first book, the reason is
that the space surrounding any point on a surface contains four right angles or
their equivalent ; for instance, if the lines ab and dc intersect each other [see Fig. 3]
at point e, the four angles around this point, /, g, h, and k , taken together equal
four right angles. Thus, all figures the number o f whose angles is equal to / (177b)
four right angles can come together in one point with no empty space and can be
joined together. This is filling space. From this it is apparent that four quadrangles
or squares such as a, b, c, and d fill a space completely [see Fig. 4]. B y geometry it
follows that each angle o f a right triangle equals two-thirds o f a right angle; thus
 646 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
angles drois et, par consequent, .vi. trigones, comme sont .a. et .b. et .c. et
.d. et .f. et .g., rëemplissent espace environ le point .e. Item, de penthagone
qui a .v. angles equalz il appert par geometrie [Fig. 5]2Ï que les .v. ensemble
85 valent .vi. angles droiz, et donques chascun par soy vault un angle droit et la
quinte partie d ’un angle droit2
122 et, par consequent, les .iii. valent moins de
.iiii. angles drois et les .iiii. valent plus. E t donques teles figures en quelcun-
que nombre ne peuent estre appliquées environ un point sanz espace wide
et ainsi // (177c) elles ne peuent rëemplir espace. Item, de exagone qui a .vi.
90 angles [Fig. 6] equalz chascun vaut un angle23 droit et la tierce partie d’un an­
gle droit, et donques les .iii. valent .iiii. angles drois et, par consequent, .iii.
exagones peuent estre appliqués environ un point sanz viedenge. E t ce est
rëemplir espace ou superfice. Item, de toutes les autres figures ensuiantes, si
comme de celle de .vii. angles et de celle de .viii. et ainsi outre, chascune angle
95 est plus grant que l’angle de exagone, car il procèdent touzjours en cressant,
et ainsi de chascune tele figure .iii. angles sont plus grans que .iiii. angles
drois et les .ii. par neccessité sont mendres que .iiii. angles drois. E t donques
nul nombre de figure de .vii. angles ne peut rëemplir espace, et ainsi des au­
tres infinies. O r avons donques, a l’entente desus dite, que de toutes figures
100 regulieres .iii. seulement sont qui peuent rëemplir espace ; et ce dist Aristote
et bien.
Apres il dist que des figures solides ou corporeles qui sont .v., les .ii. /
(i77d) seulement peuent rëemplir lieu et sont pyramide et cube. E t de cube
qui est .i. corps figuré comme un dé, vérité est que .viii.24 telz se peuent join-
10 5 dre ensemble sanz viedenge et ce appert legierement et le peut l’en veoir sen­
siblement. E t pour ce, se l’en prenoit une grant multitude de telz, si comme
pour exemple un mieu de déz, l’en les pourroit25 adjouster et mettre en un
vaiseau sanz ce que entre telz corps eust espace ne lieu vieu26 de tel<z>27
corps. E t ce ne pourroit estre fait de corps semblables de quelcunque autre
no figure fors de pyramides, mais convendroit que entre eulz eust lieu vieu de
telz corps et plain d’autre, si comme de aer ou de eaue. Mais une autre figure
est tele, ce est a savoir pyramide, qui a .iiii. faces triangulaires et .iiii. angles,
21 Cf. lemma to Euclid, XIII. 18, ed. Hei­ 24 A que le .viii.; B que .iiii. telz.
berg, vol. 4, 338-41. 25 B l’en ne pourroit.
22 B omits et la quinte d ’un angle droit.
26 V omits vieu.
23 A angles. 27 A tel.
Book III, Chapter 12, fols. i77C-i77d | 647
six such angles equal four right angles and, consequently, six equilateral triangles,
like a, b, c, d,/, and^ [see Fig. 4], fill the space around point e. Also, it is clear from
geometry that the five angles o f a pentagon [see Fig. 5] equal all together six right
angles and, thus, each angle alone is equal to one and one-fifth right angles ; con­
sequently, three angles o f a pentagon equal less than four right angles, and four
equal more than four right angles. Then, such figures in any number whatever
cannot be arranged around a point without leaving empty space and so // (177c)
they cannot fill a space. Each o f the six equal angles o f a hexagon [see Fig. 6] equals
F ig - 5
one and one-third right angles, and so three angles o f a hexagon equal four right
angles; consequently, three hexagons can be arranged around a point without
leaving any empty space. A nd this is also filling a space or surface. In the case o f
the following figures such as those with seven, eight, or more angles, each angle
is larger than those o f the hexagon because they continue to increase in size so that
in each figure three angles are greater than four right angles and two angles are
necessarily less than four right angles. Therefore, any number o f figures o f seven
angles ca n n o t fill a space completely; nor can all the infinite number o f other fig­
ures. A s was intended, we have shown that only three o f all regular figures can
completely fill a space, and so Aristotle’s statement is correct.
Fig. 6
Next, he said that only two o f the five solid or material figures / (i77d) can fill
a space, and these are the pyramid and the cube. As for the cube, a body shaped like a
die, it is true that eight can be joined together without leaving any space; this is
readily demonstrated and can be observed with the senses. Accordingly, if we took
a great number o f such figures, for example, a box full o f dice, we could adjust
them and place them in a receptacle without leaving any empty space between the
bodies. This could not be done with a solid body o f any other shape, save only the
pyramid; for between the bodies o f any other figure or shape there would be empty
space where a body o f that shape would be missing, but which would be filled with
another body such as air or water. However, the pyramid which has four triangu­
lar faces and four angles is, as we have just said, another body capable o f completely
 648 ] Le Livre du ciel et du monde
si comme il fu dit devant. E t a ce prouver Averroïz fait un falsigrafime , 28 ce
est a dire une fause rayson, qui est tele en sentence. L ’espace corporele d’en-
ii5 viron un point est rëemplie de .viii. cubes comme29 dit est, et en ce point
conviennent ensemble .viii. angles corporelz cubiques dont chascun est con­
tenu de .iii. U (178a) angles drois superficielz. E t donques environ ce point
sont .xxiiii. angles drois. E t de pyramide chascun angle est contenu de .iii.
angles superficielz triangulaires dont chascun vaut .ii. tiers de angle droit. E t
120 donques ces .iii. angles de angle de pyramide valent deux drois, et donques
les .xxxvi. valent .xxiiii. angles drois, et .xii. pointes de .xii. pyramides tous
ensemble mises ont .xxxvi. angles30 superficielz. Par quoy il s’ensuit que .xii.
pyramides rëemplissent toute l’espace corporele d’environ un point. Mais
tout est vray siques a ceste desreniere consequence qui est fause,31 car la pro-
125 porcion des angles corporelz entre eulz n ’est pas selon la proporcion des
angles superficielz qui les contiennent. Item, appert sensiblement que la con­
clusion que met Ave<r>roïz [Fig. 7]32 est false,33 car posé que sus .vi. triangles
qui font une superfice exagone soient mis .vi. pyramides qui ont .vi. pointes
lesquelles conviennent ensemble ou point du milieu qui est .e. ; il appert ma-
130 nifestement que ces .vi. pyramides ne emplent pas tout / (178b) le lieu ou es­
pace corporele qui est environ et desus ce point .e. E t semblablement .vi.
autres pyramides mis desouz et encontre ces .vi. desouz34 ceste superfice exa­
gone ne rëempliroient pas toute l’espace corporele qui est près de ce point de
l’autre partie. E t donques .xii. pyramides ne emplent pas toute l’espace d’en-
135 viron .i. point. Item, se il estoit ainsi, il s’ensuiroit par neccessité que ces .xii.35
pyramides adjoustéz ensemble feissent un corps régulier de .xii. faces trigones
et seroit duodecedron ; et ce est impossible, car les .xii. faces de duodecedron
sont penthagones et de .v. angles, si comme il appert en geometrie. Mais une
autre chose est : car l ’en pourrait demonstrer par geometrie et appert par expe-
140 rience que .xx. pyramides réguliers emplent toute l’espace corporele qui est en­
viron un point, et sont ou peuent estre conjoins ensemble sans aucune vie-
denge et font un corps régulier appellé ycocedron. Item, ou centre ou milieu de
cest corps conviennent et sont assemblés .xx. angles ou pointes corporeles de
ces .xx. pyramides. Item, cest corps dist ycocedron, a .xx. co- // (178c) stéz et
145 .xii. angles36 corporelz et en chascun de ces .xii. angles conviennent et sont as­
semblés .v. pointes ou .v. angles corporelz de ,v. pyramides. Item, en chas-
cune pointe de ces .xii. angles d’ycocedron peuent convenir sanz viedenge
28 B C D E F omit falsigrafime. Cf. Juntas, 32 A C Avenroys.
t.c. 66, 225C-M. 33 E faicte.
29 A cubes ensemble comme. 34 B desus.
30 E mises valent .xxxxvi. angles. 35 B ces .vi. p.
31 E faicte.
36 F omits et .xii. angles.
BooklII, Chapter 12, fols. I78a-i 78c | S 49
filling space. T o prove this, Averroes makes afalsigrafime or false argument which,
briefly, is this : the material space around a point is filled by eight cubes, as stated,
and at this point are assembled eight material cubic angles, each o f which is con­
tained by three // (178a) right-angled planes; around this point, then, there are
twenty-four right angles. Each angle o f a pyramid is contained in three plane tri­
angular angles, each equal to two-thirds o f a right angle, and, therefore, three pyr­
amidal angles are equal to tw o right angles, and thirty-six are equal to twenty-
four plane right angles and twelve points o f twelve pyramids placed together have
thirty-six such angles. From this fact it follows that twelve pyramids fill all the
material space around a point. A ll this is true, save, however, the last conclusion,
which is false ; for the proportion o f material angles among them is not proportional
to the plane angles which contain them. So, it is perceptibly evident that the con­
clusion stated b y Averroes is false, for, assuming that above six triangles forming
Fig- 7
a plane hexagon we put six pyramids having six points which come together at
mid-point e, it is wholly clear that these six pyramids do not completely fill/(178b)
the place or material space which exists around and above point e [see Fig. 7].
Likewise, six other pyramids placed underneath and against these six under this
hexagonal plane would not fill from the other direction all the material space near
this point. Therefore, twelve pyramids do not fill all the space around one point.
I f they could fill all the space, it would follow necessarily that these twelve pyr­
amids fitted together would make a regular body with twelve triangular faces which
would be a dodecahedron; and this is impossible because the twelve faces o f a
dodecahedron are pentagons with five angles, as geometry makes clear. However,
there is another consideration : it can be demonstrated by geometry and it is evi­
dent from experience that twenty regular pyramids fill all the material space
around a point, and they are or can be placed together with no intervening spaces
to form a body called an icosahedron. N o w , in the center or middle o f this body
twenty angles or material points o f the twenty pyramids merge and are assembled
together. This so-called icosahedron has twenty sides // (178c) and twelve material
angles, and in each angle five points or five material angles o f five pyramids meet
and come together. In each point o f the twelve angles o f the icosahedron, fifteen
other points o f fifteen pyramids can meet, leaving no empty space and forming,
 f
6jo Le Livre du ciel et du monde
<.xv. autres pointes d e )37 .xv. pyramides en faisant aveques ces .v. un ycoce-
dron qui participe38 aveques le premier. E t ainsi peut Ten adjouster et met-
i5o tre ensemble sanz viedenge tant de pyramides comme il plaist et sanz fin.
Mais pluseurs ycocedrons séparés et qui ne participent ensamble ne peuent
pas ainsi estre adjoustéz sanz viedenge ou sans entremesler pyramides. E t
tout ce appert par raysons demonstratives et sensiblement, et est chose bien
plaisante a esperimenter. Item, pour ce que l ’espace corporele d’environ un
i55 point vaut .viii. angles drois corporelz, si comme il fu dit devant, il convient
que .xx.39 angles de pyramides qui emplent tele espace vaillent .viii. angles
drois corporelz. E t donques les .v. valent .ii. et, par consequent, chascun tel
angle de pyramide vault .ii. quintes de angle droit corporel. Item, par ce s’en­
suit que / (178d) .v. telz angles de pyramides valent .ii. angles drois corporelz.
160 E t chascun des .xii. angles de ycocedron contient .v. angles de pyramide et
donques chascun tel vault .ii. angles drois corporelz, et les .xii. valent .xxiiii.
et les .iiii. valent .viii. Mais l’en ne peut pas ainsi appliquier .iiii. ycocedrons
ensemble et pour ce, ne sont ce pas corps qui tout rëemplent. Item, la pro­
portion des .iii. angles superficielz qui contiennent angle droit corporel aus
165 .iii. angles superficielz qui contiennent angle de pyramide est comme .iii. a .ii.
E t donques elle n’est pas tele comme la proportion de angle droit corporel
et de cube a angle de pyramide laquelle est comme de .v. a .ii., si comme il
appert par ce que dit est. E t donques la consequence et la rayson que fait
Averroïz sont fauses et est vérité que seulement .ii. corps réguliers emplent
170 espace et lieu en la maniéré desus dite.
13. Ou .xiii.<e>1 chapitre il prouve encore par .ix. raisons plus
especiales que les elemens ne sont pas determinéz par figures.
T . Mais encore, ces philosophes qui resgardent principalment aus pro­
priétés // (179a) et aus vertus des elemens en leur assignant teles figures, leur
distribuent incongruement et improprement, car au feu, pour ce que il est de
legier mouvable et que il est eschaufant et embrasant, les uns le faisoient de
5 figure sperique et les autres de pyramide. E t les premiers le disoient pour ce
que figure sperique est de legier mobile et ne giest pas fermement, car elle
touche pou ce sus quoy elle est ; et pour ce que le feu est de legier mobile, il
disoient que il est de tele figure. Mais pour ce que figure angulaire est pou gi-
tive, elle est eschaufante et embrasante; et pyramide est toute angle, car de
o toutes les figures regulieres elle a les angles plus acuz ; et pour ce, il dient que
le feu est de figure pyramide.
ta k
37 A omits .xv. autres pointes de. 39 B .v. ; C D E F .xxi.
38 E principe. 1 A .xiii.
Book III, Chapters 1 2 - 1 3 , fois. i 7 8 d - i 7 9 a | 6j i
with these five pyramids, an icosahedron which participates in the first twenty­
sided body. Thus one can arrange and put together without intervening spaces as
many as he wishes o f an unlimited number o f pyramids. However, separate and
individual icosahedrons, without connection with other similar bodies, cannot be
fitted together without intervening spaces or without intermingling pyramids from
one to another. This is apparent from demonstrable arguments and also from the
evidence o f the senses, and it is a pleasant subject for experimentation. Since the
material space around a point is equal to eight material right angles, as previously
stated, it must be that the twenty pyramidal angles filling such a space are equal to
eight material right angles. So, if five angles are equal to two right angles, conse­
quently each such angle o f a pyramid equals two-fifths o f a material right angle.
Then, it follows that / (iy8d) five such pyramidal angles are equal to tw o material
right angles. Each o f the twelve angles o f an icosahedron contains five pyramidal
angles, each o f which, therefore, equals tw o material right angles, the twelve are
equal to twenty-four right angles, and four are equal to eight. But we cannot ar­
range four icosahedrons together, and so they are not bodies which completely fill
space. Th e proportion o f the three plane angles containing a material right angle
to the three plane angles containing a pyramidal angle is 3:2, and, thus, it is not the
same proportion that the material right angle o f a cube has to the angle o f a pyra­
mid, which is 5:2, as is apparent from an earlier statement. So, the conclusion and
the argument that Averroes presents are false, and it is a fact that only two regular
bodies completely fill space and place, in the manner indicated above.
13. In Chapter Thirteen he offers nine more specific arguments
to explain why the elements are not limited in shape.
T . Moreover, those philosophers who concern themselves principally with the
properties //(179a) and powers o f the elements, assigning to them such geometrical
figures, do not distribute such shapes to them with any attention to congruity or
suitability; because fire is so light, mobile, and heats and burns, some philosophers
made it spherical and others made it pyramidal. Th e former claimed that fire is
spherical because it is extremely mobile and does not lie solidly in place since it
barely touches the body upon which it stands ; and because o f this mobility, they
said fire to be o f spherical shape. However, since an angularly shaped body is very
unstable, it is best able to heat and burn ; a pyramid is all angles, and since the pyr­
amid has the sharpest angles o f all the regular figures, then the others say that fire
is pyramidal in shape.
 6j2 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G . Apres il les reprent.
T .2 Mais premièrement, il faillent en ce que il dient de mouvement, car
combien que ces .ii. figures, espere et pyramide, soient de legier mobiles, ce
i5 n’est pas de mouvement naturel a feu, car le feu est meu en haut et selon
droite ligne et ces figures sont de legier mobile<s>3 de mouvement appellé
volutacion qui est comme / (179b) roeler ou tumber. Item, il dient que la terre
est cubique pour ce que tele figure giest fermement et est habile a reposer ; et
la terre ne repose pas partout, mais seulement en son lieu et quant elle est en
20 aucun lieu et elle4 n’a empeeschement, elle est meue a son lieu et le feu aussi
et les autres elemens. E t donques, selon leur posicion, chascun element en
autre lieu que ou sien seroit espere ou pyramide pour estre meu, et en son
propre lieu il seroit cube ou cubique pour soy reposer. Item, se le feu eschau-
fe et art pour ce que il est de figure qui a angles, il s’ensuit que touz les ele-
25 mens eschaufent, combien, par aventure, que un eschaufast plus que l’autre;
car, selon cez ici, tous les elemens ont angles, si comme celui qui a .viii. fa­
ces et celui qui en a .xii. E t encore dist Democritus que espere art pour ce que
ce est tout angle et donques tous les elemens feroient chaleur et ardroient
un plus, l’autre moins ; et ce appert manifestement faulz.
30 G . Il fu dit ou chapitre precedent comment les anciens atribuoient et dis-
tribuoient les figures aus elemens.
T . Item, se le feu fait cha- // (179c) leur pour ce que il a angles, il s’ensuit
que corps mathématiques es quelz ne est quelcunque qualité sensible ardroi­
ent et eschauferoient, car telz corps ainsi ymaginéz ou consideréz sans quali-
35 téz ont angles. E t selon cez ici, en telz corps sont pyramides et esperes indi­
visibles selon quantité. E t se les corps naturelz eschaufent et les mathémati­
ques non, l’en devroit dire la cause de la difference, et tou tevoi(e)s,5 la cause
que il mettent est semblablement es uns6 comme es autres. Item, se le feu art
pour ce que il est espere ou pyramide, il s’ensuit par neccessité que la chose
40 que il art et convertist en feu soit faite espere ou pyramide, car, selon cez ici,
le feu divise la chose que il art. E t donques se elle estoit de figure pyramide,
comme peust estre un fust, il la diviseroit en pyramides. E t dire que pyrami­
des sont diviséz en pyramides7 et esperes en esperes, ce est chose dutoutdes-
raysonnable et est semblable comme se l’en disoit que glaives sont diviséz en
45 glaivez et8 falcilles en faucilles. Item,9 dire que feu est de tele figure pour ce
que de / (i79d) sa nature il divise les choses, ce est une derision, car sa nature
est plus congreger et assembler que séparer ne diviser, car il depart et sé­
paré les choses qui ne sont pas d’une espece ou d ’une maniéré et assemble
celles qui sont d ’une nature. E t est de sa nature que il fait congregacion et
X to
omits Tiexte. 6 A est semblablement est es uns.
mobile. 7 D E omit E t dire... diviséz en pyramides.
4 B C D E F omit est en aucun lieu et elle. 8 A repeats et.
5 A toute vois. 9 D E insert Item, dire que feu est de telle
Book III, Chapter 13, fols. I79b-i79d | 6 jj
G . N o w he refutes these opinions.
T . In the first place, they are wrong in what they say about movement, for, even
i f these tw o shapes— the sphere and pyramid— are extremely mobile, this is still
not the natural motion o f fire ; fire moves upward in a straight line and the sphere
and the pyramid m ove readily with a naturally circular motion called volutation,
which is like / (179b) rolling or tumbling along. Also, they say that the earth is a
cube because a cubic figure lies solidly and with stability and is suited for repose
and that the earth does not rest just anywhere, but only in its proper place; and
when it is in any other place and unhindered, it moves to its proper place, just as
fire and the other elements do. Therefore, depending upon their position, each
element in another than its own natural place would be a sphere or pyramid when
moved and a cube or cube-shaped at rest in its own natural place. I f fire heats and
burns because o f its angular shape, it follows that all the elements give off heat—
although one may possibly give off more heat than another— because, according
to these philosophers, all the elements have angles, like those with eight or twelve
faces. Democritus says that the sphere burns because it contains all angles; conse­
quently, all the elements would produce heat and would burn— one more and an­
other less. A n d this is obviously and manifestly false.
G . It was noted in the preceding chapter how the ancients attributed and distrib­
uted shapes to the elements [see fols. 175d ff.].
T . N o w , if fire causes heat // (179c) because it has angles, it follows that mathe­
matical bodies in which there is no sensory quality would burn and give off heat,
for such bodies, so considered or imagined without these attributes, have angles.
A n d according to these philosophers, in such bodies there are pyramids and quali­
tatively indivisible spheres. N o w , i f natural bodies give off heat and mathematical
bodies do not, we should be required to state the cause o f this difference; however,
the cause they give is the same for one as for the other. I f fire burns because it is a
sphere or pyramid, it must follow that what it burns and converts into fire is also
made into a sphere or pyramid, for, according to them, fire divides the thing that it
burns. Therefore, if the thing were pyramidal in shape, as a log might be, fire would
divide the log into pyramids. But to maintain that pyramids are divided into pyra­
mids and spheres into spheres is completely absurd, like saying that swords are di­
vided into swords and sickles into sickles. Likewise, to say that fire has this shape
because it is / (179d) its nature to divide things is an absurdity, for its nature is more
to gather and assemble things together than to separate or divide them. It parts and
separates the different things not o f one species or kind, and it assembles those o f
the same nature. It has a natural capacity to unite, to assemble, and to limit, but it
figure qui a angles, il s’ensuit que toulz (E eschaufast par nature (E aventure) plus que
tous) les elemens eschaufent, combien que un l’autre.
 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
assemble et termine, mais il sepere par accident ce qui n’est pas de la nature
de la chose que il assemble. E t pour ce, cez ci lui deussent baillier figure ha­
bile a assembler et a diviser, et plus a assembler.
G . L ’en voit par experience que par force de feu d’une masse ou il a de l’or,
l’or est tout assemblé en un et toutes les autres choses sont separees de l’or et
chascune assemblée en un.
T '. Item, pour ce que chaut et froit sont contraires, ce est impossible de
rendre ou atribuer figure a element qui est froit, car il dient que element chaut
est chaut pour sa figure. E t donques a element qui est froit de sa nature, il
convendroit assigner figure contraire ; et rien ne est contraire a figure quel-
cunque.
G . Si comme il appert par la diffinicion // (180a) de contraires.10
T . E t ces anciens lessierent a parler de ceste chose et toutevoies, il conven-
oit que il applicassent figures a tous les elemens ou a nul. Item, aucuns qui
se efforcent de rendre cause de teles vertus dont une eschaufe et l’autre re­
froide dient contre eulz meismes, car il dient que l’element froit est froit pour
ce que il est de grandes parties ou pieces, et pour ce il estraint le ( s ) 11 pores
ou petis partuiz et ne peust entrer par tel pores. Mais l’element chaut entre
et passe legierement par (te lz )12 pores pour ce que il est de très subtiles et de
très petites parties. E t donques s’ensuit il que l’element chaut et le froit dif­
ferent par grandeur et par petitesce et non pas par figures, si comme il di­
soient. Item, se il dient que les pyramides sont inequales, donques les gran­
des ne seront pas feu et ne seront pas cause de arder ou de eschaufer, mais du
contraire et de fredeur.
G . E t tou tevo i(e)z,13 il disoient que les elemens froiz ne sont pas de figure
pyramide, mais le feu.
T . O r appert donques par / (180b) les choses desus dites que les elemens
ne different pas par figures. Mais pour ce que les très propres différences des
corps naturelz sont (selo n )14 leurs vertus actives et passives et selon leurs
operacions, nous dirons premièrement de ces choses et quant nous avrons de
ce considéré, nous pa(r)leronsIS des differences que telz corps ont un ou res-
gart de l’autre.
C y fenist le tiers livre D u C ie l et du monde.l6
Metaphysicorutn, IV .3-8; especially 1008a 13 A toutevoiz.
011a 2. 14 A omits selon.
A C F le. 15 A palerons.
A omits telz.
16 B C D E F omit Cy fen ist... du monde.
Book III, Chapter 13, fols. i8oa-i8ob | 6j j
expels by accident whatever is foreign to the nature o f the thing being unified.
Accordingly, these philosophers should assign to fire a shape or figure capable
both o f assembling and o f dividing, but more o f assembling [or unifying].
G . W e can see from experience that, by the strength or force o f fire, gold can be
smelted or extracted from a mixed body which contains some gold, all the other
things being separated from the gold and assembled into individual units.
T . Since hot and cold are contraries, it is impossible to attribute or assign a
shape to the cold as an element; so they say that a hot element is hot because o f its
shape. Therefore, an element cold by nature should have assigned to it a contrary
shape, but shape has no contrary.
G . A s it appears from the definition // (180a) o f contraries.
T . These ancient philosophers failed to explain this matter o f coldness, but they
should have assigned shapes to all the elements or to none. Some who have tried
to find a cause for these powers that produce heat and cold contradict themselves,
for they say that the element o f coldness is cold because it is made up o f large
parts or pieces whereby it clogs up and cannot pass through the pores or tiny
channels. However, the element o f heat enters and passes through such pores
readily because heat is composed o f very subtle and tiny parts. Thus, it follows
that the elements o f heat and cold differ in size, but not in shape, as they maintained.
I f they say, further, that the pyramids are o f unequal sizes, then the large ones will
not be fire ; nor will they cause burning or heating, but rather the reverse or coldness.
G . Nevertheless, they maintained that the element o f fire, not that o f cold, is
pyramidal in shape.
T . From what has been said, it is apparent / (180b) that it is not shape that dif­
ferentiates the elements. Since the principal differences between natural bodies are
those between their active and passive powers and their capacities for action, we
shall first take up these problems ; and when we have considered them, w e shall
talk about the differences that one element has with respect to another.
Here ends the third B ook o f The Heavens and the World.
 6j6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Livre IV]
C y commence le quart livre du C ie l et du monde ouquel Aristote determine
selon sa propre opinion des corps meus de mouvement droit, et contient .xii.
chapitres.
[Table sommaire des chapitres du quart livre]
1. O u premier chapitre il enquiert et met la diffinicion de chose pesante et
chose legiere et que ce segnefie. [i 8od]
2. O u secont il tracte aucunes opinions anciennes des choses desus dites
lesquelles sont pesant et // (i 8oc) legier. [i 8ib]
5 3. O u tiers il commence a determiner selon son opinion des choses pe­
santes et des legieres, et premièrement pourquoy les unes sont meues en haut
et les autres en bas. [186a]
4. O u quart il declaire plus a plain la cause desus mise. [187b]
5. O u quint il determine des differences des choses pesantes et legieres en
10 tant comme teles. [189b]
6. O u sixte il monstre principalment que des corps simples il convient que
aucun soit simplement legier et aucun simplement pesant. [191a]
7. O u .vii.e il conclut le nombre des elemens. [193c]
8. En le ,viii.e il reprouve aucuns opinions anciens. [196b]
15 9. O u .ix.e il monstre comment les figures des corps pesanz <et des le-
giers)1 font a leur mouvement et comment non. [197c]
10. Apres sont .iii. chapitres du translateur comment les choses dehors ce
monde sont en lieu et comment elles sont meues, et est le .x.e chapitre des
choses incorporeles. [200a]
20 11. Le .xi.e est quant a ce generalment des choses corpoteles. [201a] /
(i8od) 12. Le .xii.e est en especial du corps de Jhesucrist. [2oid]
1. Ou premier chapitre il enquiert et met la diffinicion de
chose pesante et de chose legiere et que ce segnefie.
T . O r est a considérer de chose pesante et de chose legiere, de chascune
quoy ce est et quelle est leur nature et pour quelle cause elles ont ces vertus.
1 A omits et des legiers.
Book IV : List o f Chapters | 6jy
[Book IV]
Here begins the fourth Book o f The Heavens and the Worlds in which Aristotle
states his own opinions concerning rectangular motion o f bodies, and it contains
twelve chapters.
[Index o f the Chapters o f Book IV]
1. In Chapter One he investigates the problem and gives a definition o f heavi­
ness and lightness and states their significance. [i8od]
2. In Chapter T w o he discusses some former opinions regarding the problem o f
heavy and // (180c) light things. [18id]
3. In Chapter Three he begins to formulate his opinion about heavy and light
things and, first o f all, he inquires w h y some things move upward and others
downward. [185 d]
4. In Chapter Four he explains more fully the cause stated above. [187b]
5. In Chapter Five he examines the differences between heavy and light things
considered by themselves. [189b]
6. In Chapter Six his principal concern is to show that one o f the simple bodies
[or elements] must be absolutely light and another absolutely heavy. [191a]
7. In Chapter Seven he decides upon the number o f the elements. [193c]
8. In Chapter E igh t he rejects some earlier opinions. [196b]
9. In Chapter Nine he explains how the shapes o f heavy and light bodies affect
and do not affect their movements. [197c]
10. Th e next three chapters are by the translator, explaining how bodies out­
side our world exist in their places and how they move. Th e tenth chapter is about
immaterial bodies. [200a]
11. Chapter Eleven is concerned in general with material bodies. [201a] /
(18od) 12. Chapter Tw elve is concerned especially with the body o f Jesus Christ.
[20 id]
1. In Chapter One he investigates the problem and gives a definition
o f heaviness and lightness and states their significance.
T . N ext we have to investigate the problem o f weight and lightness— what they
are, their nature, and the cause o f their powers. Th e investigation o f these subjects
 6j8 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Car la consideracion de ces choses est propre a la science naturele qui est de
mouvement, pour ce que nous disons aucunement chose pesante et legiere
5 en tant comme elle peust estre meue naturelment, car nul ne les nomme ainsi
se il ne cuide que elles aient tele inclinacion quant a leurs operacions. E t pour
ce que science naturele est de mouvement et choses pesantes et legieres ont
en elles principe de mouvement, tous naturiens usent en leur parler de leurs
vertus ; mais toutevoies, il ne en déterminent fors pou de choses.
io G . K (i 8ia) Aussi comme une chose est nommee chaude pour ce que elle
eschaufe et froide pour ( c e ) 1 que elle refroide, semblablement elle est dite
pesante pour ce que elle est encline a descendre, etc. ; et science naturele con­
sidéré de mouvement. Apres il touche l ’ordre de procéder.
T . E t premièrement, nous voirrons ce que les autres en ont dit et mettrons
i5 divisions ou distinctions teles comme sont neccessaires a ceste consideracion.
E t ainsi nous dirons de ces choses ce que nous en semble.
G . Apres il met une distinction.
T . Mais une chose est pesante ou legiere ou simplement ou ou resgart
d’autre chose, car des choses pesantes nous disons que une est plus legiere et
20 l’autre plus pesante, si comme fust est plus legier que aerain. E t des choses
qui sont dites simplement teles, rien ne est dit par ceulz qui ont esté devant
nous; mais de celles qui sont dites (teles)2 ou resgart d ’autre, encore ne
dient il pas quoy est pesant ou quoy est legier. Mais des choses qui ont pe­
santeur, il dient bien quoi / (18 ib) est plus pesant et quoy est plus legier.
25 G . Apres il met .ii.3 supposicions.
T . E t ce que nous disons simplement pesant ou legier appert par ce que
s’ensuit : premièrement, car unes choses tendent et sont meues naturelment
a soy esloingnier du milieu et les autres a soy approchier. Item, celle qui s’en
esloigne, nous disons que elle est meue en haut et celle qui tent au milieu,
30 nous disons que elle est meue en bas.
G . Apres il met et puis oste .ii. erreurs.
T . E t cuider que ou monde ne4 soit et haut et bas, ce est inconvenient, si
comme aucuns disoient.
G . Anaximandrus et Democritus disoient que pour ce que tout est infini,
35 il n’i a ne haut ne bas simplement.3 E t Plato disoit5
6 que pour ce que le ciel est
tout environ semblable, il n’i a ne haut ne bas.
T . Car il dient que une chose n’est pas haut et l’autre bas pour ce que tout
est samblable de toutes pars. E t se un honme environnoit la terre, il seroit
antipode a soy meisme, ce est a dire que il avroit ses piés au contraire de la
40 maniéré comment il les a quant il seroit de l ’autre part // (181c) de la terre.
Mais nous disons que le extrémité de tout, ce est a dire ce que est le plus loing
du milieu, est haut selon posicion et est premier par nature. E t donques pour
omits ce. 3 B .iii.
omits teles. 4 B omits ne.
Book IV, Chapter 1, fols. i8 ia -i8 ic | 6j?
is relevant to natural science, which treats o f motion, because, when we speak o f
heavy or light bodies, we refer to their capacity for a certain kind o f natural mo­
tion; no one considers them apart from their capacity for such action. Since natural
science is concerned with movement and since heavy and light bodies possess
within themselves the principle o f movement, all natural philosophers employ
these natural capacities in their discussions, but they have actually reached few final
conclusions about them.
G . /I (181 a) Just as a thing is called hot because it heats or cold because it cools,
so it is called heavy because it is inclined to move downward, etc. A nd natural
science investigates movement. Afterward, he sets forth his method o f procedure.
T . First, we shall see what others have said on this subject, and then w e shall
establish divisions or distinctions which may be required for this investigation. In
this way we shall express our own opinions about these things.
G . N o w he makes a distinction.
T . A n object is heavy or light either absolutely or relative to another object, for
in speaking o f heavy bodies w e say that one is lighter and the other heavier, as
wood is lighter than bronze. Regarding absolute weight and lightness, our pred­
ecessors have said nothing ; but they have limited their discussions to the relative
weight o f various things without defining what is meant by the terms heavy and
light.They have discussed weight merely as / (181b) something heavier or some­
thing lighter.
G . N ext he states two theories.
T . What we mean when we speak o f heaviness or lightness in absolute terms will
appear from the following : first, we observe that some things tend to move and
are moved naturally away from the center o f the world, while others m ove natural­
ly toward the center. That which moves away from the center we say moves up­
ward; that which tends toward the center we say moves downward.
G . He now recounts and corrects two mistaken views.
T. T o assume there is no up nor down in the world, as some have said, is ab­
surd.
G . Anaximander and Democritus used to maintain that, since everything is in­
finite, there can be no absolute up or down. And Plato claimed that, since the heav­
ens are everywhere alike, there can be no up or down.
T . For they say a thing is neither up nor down because everything is every­
where alike. I f a man went around the earth, he would be at his own antipodes,
that is, his feet would be opposite to the way they are when he is on the opposite
II (181c) side o f the earth. For our part, we maintain that the extremity o f the
world, that is, the greatest distance from its center, is the top or upward in position
5 Hermann Diels, Die Fragmente der Vorso- 6 Timaeus, 62D.
kratiker (Berlin, 19x2), vol. 1, 88; vol. 2, 134.
66o | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
ce que ou monde a extrémité et circunference et si y a moien et centre ou mi­
lieu, il convient que il y ait et haut et bas. E t ce dient pluseurs, mes non pas
45 souffissanment et la cause est car il cuident que le ciel ne soit pas semblable­
ment tout environ en circuite, mais que il n’i a de ciel fors sus nostre emis-
pere.
G . E t que la terre est desouz infinie, si comme il fu dit ou .xxvii.e chapitre
du secont.
50 T . Mais ceulz qui tiennent que le ciel est tel tout en circuite et regarde le
milieu de toutes pars semblablement, il convient que eulz octrient que le ciel
est haut et que le milieu est bas.
G .7 Apres il conclut la diffinicion ou descripcion de pesant et de legier sim­
plement, et de plus pesant et de plus legier en resgart d’autre.
55 T . E t donques la chose est simplement legiere qui est meue en haut et tout
haut a la circunference concave de tout le ciel, et celle est sim- / (i8 id ) ple-
ment pesante qui est meue au milieu et au centre du monde. E t la chose est
legiere ou resgart d’autre ou plus legiere, ou se .ii. choses ont pesanteur et
sont d’une quantité, celle qui par nature descent plus isnelement est la plus
6o pesante.
G . E t l’autre est dite plus legiere. E t semblablement des choses qui sont
naturelment meues en haut, celle qui monte plus tost est la plus legiere. E t
tout ce est a entendre se les autres choses sont pareilles et se ces choses sont
hors de leurs lieus naturelz et tout empeeschement soit osté. Mais que l’en
65 doit entendre par haut et par bas, il fu plus a plain déclaré et en partie contre
Aristote ou tiers point de la glose du .xxfiii.e chapitre du premier.
2. Ou secont chapitre il tracte aucuns opinions anciens des
choses desus dites qui sont pesant et legier.
T . D e 1 ceulz qui au devant de nous sont venus a ceste consideracion, pres­
que la plus grande partie ont parlé seulement des choses qui sont telement
pesantes et legieres que les unes et les au- // (182a) très ont pesanteur. Mais
une est dite plus legiere que l’autre pour ce que elle est moins pesante, et en pas-
5 sant ainsi il cuident avoir déterminé de ce que est simplement legier et sim­
plement pesant. Mais leur opinion ne est pas raysonnable, si comme il appar-
ra en procédant et recitant leurs dis.
G . Apres il parle de l ’opinion de Plato.
T . E t les uns dient, si comme il <est>2 escript in Thymeo,3 que la chose est
7 D E omit Glose. 2 A omits est.
1 Guthrie, ch. 2. D E Se ceulz. 3 63C.
Book IV, Chapters 1-2, fols. i8id-i82a 661
and that this position is naturally primary. Since there are an extremity, a circum­
ference, an intermediate space, and a center or middle, there must also be an up and
down. M any agree with this, but not completely, because they do not think that
the heavens are alike everywhere in their sphere, but, rather, that there is no heav­
en, save above our own hemisphere.
G . A n d that the earth beneath is infinite, as stated in Chapter Twenty-seven o f
Book II [see fol. 146b].
T . However, those who maintain that the heavens are the same everywhere
around their circuit and look down upon the middle o f the world in the same manner
from every direction must admit that the heavens are up and the center o f the
world is down.
G . He completes his definition or description o f absolute heaviness and light­
ness and o f heavier and lighter relative to each other.
T . So, that thing is absolutely light which moves upward higher and higher to
the concave circumference o f the heavens, and that thing is absolutely / (18id)
heavy which moves to the middle or center o f the world. The thing is light with
regard to another thing or which is lighter than another; or if two things are
heavy and o f the same quantity, the one which by nature falls faster is the heavier.
G . A n d the other thing is called the lighter. Similarly with things which natural­
ly move upward, that which goes up fastest is the lightest. A ll this is to be under­
stood i f other things are equal and if the objects are outside their natural places
with no hindrance to interfere with their movements. But what one should under­
stand by up and down was explained more fully and partly in opposition to Aris­
totle’s views in the third part o f the gloss in Chapter Twenty-four o f Book I [see
fol. 37d].
2. In Chapter Tw o he discusses some former opinions regarding
the problem o f heavy and light things.
T . M ost o f the thinkers who have previously considered these problems have
spoken only o f things so heavy and so light that both // (182a) possess weight; but
one thing is called lighter than another because it is less heavy and, in so doing,
these thinkers imagine that they have explained what is meant b y absolute lightness
and heaviness. Their opinion, however, is inapplicable [to this abstract concept],
as will become apparent as we proceed to relate their statements.
G . Then he speaks o f Plato’s opinion.
T . There are some who say, as it is described in the Timaeus> that the heavier
 662 j Le Livre du ciel et du monde
10
plus pesante qui est faite et composée de pluseurs triangles et celle est plus
legiere qui est composée de moins, aussi comme en une meisme espece un
pion est plus pesant que .i. autre mendre pion et aerain que aerain; et sem­
blablement en autres choses qui sont d ’une espece, car chascune chose tant
a plus de parties equales et elle est plus pesante. E t en ceste maniéré est il des
15 choses qui sont de diverses especes ; et pour ce dient il que le pion est plus
pesant que le fust, car toutes choses sont faites d’une meisme chose et d ’une
matière autre que les choses qui en sont faites.
G . Apres il blasme cest opinion par .ii. raysons.
T . J (182b) Mais par ce n’est4 pas dit quelle chose est simplement legiere et
20
maintenant nous voions que feu est tous] ours legier <et tous jours)5 est meu
en haut, et terre et toutes choses terrestes sont meues en bas et au milieu. E t
donques ce n’est pas pour ce que telz corps sont composés de pou de trian­
gles, si comme il dient, que le feu est meu naturelment en haut, car tant se-
roit un feu plus grant et il seroit moins isnelement meu en haut et seroit plus
25 pesant pour ce que il seroit composé de plus de trigones ou de triangles. O r
est ainsi que l’en voit tout le contraire, car tant est un feu plus grant et il est
plus legier et plus isnelement meu en haut, et tant est plus petit et il est plus
isnelement et plus aesiement meu en bas, et tant est plus grant et il est plus
tardivement meu en bas. Item, il dient que la chose est plus legiere qui a
30 moins de telz triangles semblables et celle qui en a plus est plus pesante ; et
dient que le aer et l’eaue et le feu sont d’uns meismes triangles, mais il diffe­
rent selon ce que il en ont plus ou moins, et pour ce celui qui en a le moins
est le plus legier et qui plus, plus // (182c) est pesant. E t donques s’ensuit
que une grande multitude ou porcion de aer seroit plus pesante que une pe­
35 tite porcion de eaue, car elle avroit plus de telz triangles. E t l’en voit tout le
contraire, car tant est un aer plus grant et il est plus tost meu en haut quant il
est en eaue. E t briefment, chascune partie de aer est encline a estre meue en
haut quant elle est en eaue. E t ainsi déterminent cez ici de pesant et de legier.
G . Apres il met un autre opinion.
40 T . E t iljsemble aus autres que il ne souffist pas mettre tele difference entre
pesant et legier, mais furent aucuns plus anciens qui entendirent ceste chose
plus subtilment.
G . Ce furent Democritus et Leucippus.
T . Car nous voions que de .ii. corps aucune fois le mendre est le plus pe­
45 sant. E t donques ne soufist il pas dire que les corps sont equalment pesans
qui sont de equalz nombres des premiers corps indivisibles, car touz corps
peseroient equalment qui seroient de equale quantité. E t pour ce, ces ici ne se
y arrestent pas. Mais ceus qui mettent les corps estre composés de superfices
indivisibles / (18 2d) non-pesantes, il convient que il octrient moult d’incon-
5° veniens; et ceulz qui mettent que les corps sont de indivisibles solides et pe-
* A ce est n’est. 5 ^4 omits et tousjours.
Book IV, Chapter 2, fols. iSzb-iB zd | 66}
body is composed o f many triangles and the lighter body o f fewer, just as occurs in
the same species when one ball o f lead is heavier than a smaller ball or one bronze
object heavier than another; similarly with other things o f the same species, the
more equal parts each separate thing has, the heavier it is. Th e same applies to
things o f diverse species ; and thus they say that lead is heavier than w ood because
all things are made from one and the same element but o f a substance different
from that o f the things made from it.
G . He criticizes this opinion with two arguments.
T . j (182b) Still, this does not explain the nature o f absolute lightness, and we ac­
tually can see that fire is always light and always moves upward while earth and all
earthly things move downward toward the center o f the world. This does not hap­
pen, as they state, because such bodies are composed o f fewer triangles, for fire
moves upward naturally; if it were composed o f triangles, the larger the fire, the
more it would weigh and the more slowly it would m ove upward. W e can observe
the opposite, for the larger the fire, the lighter it is and the faster it rises ; and the
smaller the fire, the more quickly and easily it is moved downward, and the larger
the fire, the slower is its downward motion. N o w , they state that the object is
lighter which has fewer such equal triangles, while the one which has more o f
them is heavier; and they say that air, water, and fire have the same species o f tri­
angles, but that in each element they differ in number ; for this reason the element
with the least triangles is lightest and the one with the most is // (182c) heaviest.
Therefore, it follows that a great mass or quantity o f air would be heavier than a
small quantity o f water since it would have more such triangles. A n d we can ob­
serve the exact opposite, for the larger the quantity o f air, the faster it moves up­
ward when it is in water. In brief, every particle o f air tends to rise when it is in
water. This is the way in which these thinkers have explained the terms heavy and
light.
G . N ext he relates another opinion.
T . T o other thinkers it seemed that this statement o f the difference between
heaviness and lightness was not satisfactory; indeed, there were still earlier think­
ers whose views on this subject were more subtle.
G . These were Democritus and Leucippus.
T . For we can observe that the smaller of two bodies is often the heavier. Thus,
it is not sufficient to say that those bodies are o f equal weight which have equal
numbers o f indivisible primary bodies, for in that case all bodies o f equal bulk
would weigh the same. There is no limit to the ridiculousness o f those w ho main­
tain that solid bodies are composed o f weightless, indivisible plane surfaces, / (182d)
for they will admit many absurdities ; those who maintain that bodies are heavy in-
 664 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book IV, Chapter 2, fols. 183a-! 83b | 66j

sans assignent miex cause pourquoy une chose est plus pesante que l’autre.
Car les corps qui sont composés de telz athomes indivisibles ne sont pas touz
d’une maniéré, mais voions que aucuns corps plus petis sont plus pesans que
telz sont moult plus grans, si comme plun que laine. E t pour ce, cez ici assi-
55 gnent autre cause et client que vieu— vacuum— est melley en aucuns grans corps
et les fait estre plus legiers, et par ce avient moult de fois que .ii. corps sont
composéz de equalz nombres de athomes indivisibles et que le mendre poise
le plus, et le grant est le plus legier. E t la cause est car plus de vieu est meslé ou
mixtioné ou grant que ou petit. E t ce est ce que il dient.
60 G . Apres il improuve ceste opinion par .ix. raisons.
T . Mais il fust neccessité que ceulz qui ainsi déterminent ne meissent pas
seulement que avoir en soy plus de vieu est cause en un corps d’estre plus le­
gier, mais deussentadjou- // (183a) ster et dire plus de legier et moins de plain
ou de solide ; car se un excede l’autre seulement en regardant a la proporcion
65 de vieu a vieu, celui6 qui est le7 plus legier ne seroit pas le plus legier. E t il
dient que le feu est le plus legier des elemens pour ce que il a plus de vieu. E t
donques s’ensuit il que un grant corps de or seroit plus legier que un petit
corps de feu, car il a en soy plus de vieu que ce petit feu— qui ne mettroit que
cel or aveques ce a plus de solide ou de plain. E t donques il le deussent dire.
70 G . Apres il fait mémoire d’aucunes opinions.
T . E t aucuns qui ne disoient pas que rien fust vieu ne determinerent rien de
ces qualités pesant et legier, si comme Anaxagoras et Empedocles. E t ceulz
qui en ont déterminé et ne ont pas dit que rien soit vieu, il ne ont pas dit8*cau­
se pourquoy les unes choses sont simplement pesantes et les autres simple-
75 ment legieres, et que aucuns corps sont meuz tous jours en bas et les autres
divisible solids offer a far better explanation for one thing weighing more than an­
other. Bodies compounded o f such indivisible atoms are not all o f one kind, and we
can see that some smaller bodies weigh more than many larger ones, just as lead
weighs more than wool. Accordingly, these thinkers assign another cause, saying
that a vacuum is mixed or compounded in many large bodies and makes them
lighter, which explains why it happens that the smaller o f two bodies composed o f
an equal number o f indivisible atoms weighs more, and the larger less. Their the­
ory is that more void or vacuum is mingled or mixed within the larger than within
the smaller body.
G . N o w he rejects this opinion with nine arguments.
T . Those who reason in this way must admit not only that the possession o f
more vacuum is the cause o f greater lightness in a body, but also they should add
I j (183 a) greater lightness and less fullness or less solidity; for, i f one exceeds the
other merely with respect to the proportion o f one void to another, the lighter body
would no longer be the lighter. Th ey say that fire is the lightest o f the elements
because it has more vacuum. Then it follows that a large body made o f gold would
be lighter than a small body o f fire because it has within it more vacuum or void
than this small fire— unless we add that the golden body has more solidity or full­
ness. A nd this they should have stated.
G . N ext he recalls a few other theories.
T . Some o f those who did not maintain that there is a void offered no explana­
tion o f these heavy and light qualities, as, for example, Anaxagoras and Em pedo­
cles. A n d those who have examined this problem without saying that there is no
void did not give any cause for some things being absolutely heavy and others ab­
solutely light or for some bodies always m oving downward and others always up­

touzjours <en>9 haut. E t encore ne se recorderent il onques de dire la cause ward. N or did they ever remember to assign a cause for some / (183b) very large

de ce que aucuns / (183b) corps bien grans sont plus legiers que telz sont bodies being lighter than some much smaller ones, and there is no explanation in
moult plus petiz, et si ne appert par leur diz comment l’en puisse salver les their statements to account for the phenomena which anyone can observe with his
apparences que l’en voit sensiblement. own eyes.
80 G .10 Ce furent les Platoniens lesquelz il improuve apres. G . These were the members o f Plato’s school, whom he later refutes.

T . Mais il convient par neccessité que cez ici encheient et soient detenuz en T . These philosophers must necessarily fall into and be restrained by the same

celles meismes difficultés comme ceulz qui dient que le feu est legier pour difficulties as those who claim that fire is light in weight because it contains within
cause que il a en soy moult de vieu, car il dient que le feu est legier pour ce

6 A vieu, et celui. dam quidem igitur non dicentium esse va­

7 D E omit le.
8 B omits que rien ...d it. In ail six mss.,
Oresme’s French is ambiguous in this pas­
sage. The omission o f “ ne” following “ rien”
as subject, with negative sense of “ nothing”
is found occasionally in early French texts, but
rarely as late as the second half o f the 14th
century. The Latin text o f this passage implies
that rien should here mean “ anything” : “ Q ui­
c u u m ...” and the following sentence like­
wise: “ Qui autem determinaverunt quidem,
non dicentes autem esse vacuum __” Barthé­
lemy de Saint-Hilaire, translating from the
Greek, wrote: “ Quelques-uns des philosophes
qui ont nié l’existence du vide n’ont rien
d it... .” Guthrie translates: “ Those therefore
who deny the existence o f void have either
offered no explanation o f lightness and weight
(1e.g., Anaxagoras and Empedocles), or if they
did explain them, but clung to the denial of
void, have given no reason why bodies should
be absolutely light or heavy__” Both Guthrie
and Barthélemy translate pd) cpaoxévTcov as
deny, but do not allege or do not believe would
seem to be closer to the central meaning o f
çâmcto, “ to say,” which was what it meant to
Moerbeke, with his “ non dicentium” and his
“ non dicentes,” taken quite literally by Ores-
me. Historically, Anaxagoras and Empedocles
are classified as “ doubters o f the void.” See
W. von Wartburg, Fran^osisches etymologisches
Wôrterbuch, vol. 12, under rien.
9 A omits en.
10 B D E omit Glose.
666 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
seulement que il a en soy moins de solide ou de plain, combien que selon
85 aucuns il ait plus de vieu. Etdonques sera une multitude de feu ou un grant
feu duquel les solides ou plains contenuz en lui excéderont11 les solides d’une
petite terre.
G . E t par consequent, ceste petite terre sera plus legiere que ce grant feu.
Apres il met la tierce ray son contre ceulz qui diraient que plain et vieu sont
90 causes de ces choses.
T . Item, se il disoient que aveques plain ou solide vieu est cause de teles
choses, je demande comment12 il détermineront simplement pesant: ou pour
ce que il avra plus de solide? ou par- // (183c) ce que il avra moins de vieu?13
Se il dient par plus de solide, donques un grant feu ou il a plus de solide que14
95 en une petite terre sera plus pesant que la petite terre; et se il dient que ce est
par moins de vieu, donques un petit feu ou il a moins de vieu que en une
grant terre sera plus pesant que ceste terre et ceste terre plus legiere. E t ainsi
sera au cune chose plus’ legiere que ce qui est simplement legier. E t la terre
qui touz jours est meue en bas sera plus legiere que ce qui est touzjours meu
100 en haut; et ce est impossible, car ce qui est simplement legier est tousjours
plus legier que ne sont les choses qui ont pesanteur et descendent en bas, mais
ce que est plus legier ne est pas touzjours legier pour ce que de .ii. choses qui
ont pesanteur, une est aucune fois dite plus legiere que l’autre, si comme
l’eaue15 est dite plus legiere que la terre.
105 G . Apres il argue contre ceulz qui diroient que selon la proporcion que
ont ensemble plain et vieu en un corps, selon ce il est plus pesant ou plus
l ’gier.16
T . Item, dire que une chose est plus legiere que l’autre /(183d) pour ce que
le vieu qui est en elle a plus grande proporcion au plain qui est en elle que en
no l’autre chose, ce ne soufïst pas a souldre ceste doubte, car il s’ensuit impossi­
ble ; car en un grant feu et en un petit, le plain ou solide au vieu a tele pro­
porcion en l’un comme en l’autre. E t nous voions que le grant est meu en
haut plus isnelement que le petit, et semblablement le grant or est meu en bas
plus isnelement que le petit,17 et aussi du plun et de toutes autres choses pe­
ns santés. E t il ne serait pas ainsi se choses legieres et choses pesantes estoient
determinees en la maniéré que il dient.
G . Car se ou petit feu sont .iii. de plain et .x. de vieu, donques ou feu qui
est plus grant au double sont .vi. de plain et .xx. de vieu; et la proporcion de
.x. a .iii. et celle de .xx. a .vi. sont equales. E t donques ces .ii. feuz sont equal-
i2o ment legiers.18 Apres il argue generalment que vieu n’est pas cause de le-
giere<té>.19
T . Item, se les corps sont meuz en haut pour le vieu qui est en eulz et vieu
tïl ÎL tï]
contenuz en l’air excederent. moins de solide vieu.
demande et comment. 14 D E solide ou parce que il avra moins de
solide ou moins pource que il avra vuit que en une petite terre.
Book IV, Chapter 2, fols. 1830-183d | 66j
itself a great deal o f void, for the former say that fire has lightness only because
it contains less solidity or fullness whereas the latter maintain that it contains more
void. Therefore, there can be a huge quantity o f fire or a great fire whose solids
and full portions contained therein will exceed those o f a small clod o f earth.
G . Consequently, this small clod will weigh less than the great fire. Then he
states his third argument against those who would claim that fullness and void
cause heaviness and lightness.
T . If they were to say that void along with fullness or solidity are the causes o f
these phenomena, I ask how will they define absolute weight, or what will happen
if there is an excess o f solidity or // (183 c) too little void? I f they answer that more
solidity is the cause o f weight, then a great fire with more solids than are contained
within a small portion o f earth would be heavier than the small quantity o f earth;
and if they say that it is due to less void, then a small fire having less void than a
large portion o f earth would be heavier than this earth and this portion o f earth
lighter than the small fire. Thus, something would be lighter than that which is ab­
solutely light, and the earth, which always moves downward, would be lighter in
weight than that which always moves upward, and this is impossible. For what is
absolutely light is always lighter than those things which have weight and tend
downward. However, that which is lighter is not always light, because, when two
things have weight, one is sometimes called lighter than the other, as water is said
to be lighter than earth.
G . Afterward, he argues against those who would maintain that a body is heav­
ier or lighter depending upon the proportion o f fullness to void within the body.
T . T o resolve this doubt, it is not sufficiently convincing to say that one thing is
lighter than another /(183d) because in the lighter body the proportion o f void to
fullness is greater than that in the heavier, for an impossibility is created. For in a
large or small fire the proportion o f the full or solid portion to the void is the same.
A nd we can see that the large fire moves upward faster than the small and also that
the large ball o f gold moves downward faster than the small, and the same is true
o f lead and all other heavy materials. It would not happen in this way if light and
heavy things behaved in the manner stated by these philosophers.
G . If in the small fire there are three parts o f solid and ten o f void, then in afire
twice as large there are six parts o f solid and twenty parts o f void, and the propor­
tion o f 3:10 is equal to that o f 6:20. And, as a result, the two fires are equal in light­
ness. He then argues in general terms that void is not the cause o f lightness.
T . N o w , if these bodies are moved upward by the void within them and if a
void does not naturally move // (184a) upward, then this argument is absurd. I f a
15 B C D E F la terre. 18 A legiers. Glose. Apres.
16 B omits ou plus legier. 19 A legiere.
17 D repeats et semblablement le grant o r ...
que le petit.
 668 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
de sa nature ne est meu en // (184a) haut, ce est inconvenient. E t se il est en­
clin de nature a estre meu en haut et plain a estre meu en bas et que pour ce il
125 sont cause aus autres corps d’estre meuz les uns haut les autres bas, donques
ne convenoit il pas parler des corps qui sont composts de vieu et de plain
pourquoy les uns sont legiers les autres pesans, mais seulement il dévoient
dire pourquoy vieu est legier et plain est pesant. Item, se il est ainsi comme si
est selon leur opinion, il ne pourroient assigner cause pourquoy plain et vieu
130 ne se départent des corps ou il sont, et que un ne s’en va en haut et l ’autre en
bas.
G .20 Car il convendroit que il fussent en telz corps en leur propre forme ou
propre nature, et ne pourroit l’en dire qui les tenist ensemble.
T . Item, ce est chose desraisonnable de assigner a vieu region et lieu21 aus-
135 si comme se vieu ne fust pas region et lieu.
G . E t si est selon eulz, car vieu est lieu qui n’est pas plain de corps. E t
donques de lieu seroit lieu et ainsi sanz fin.
T . Item, se vieu est meu, il convient par neccessité que il ait un / (184b)
lieu duquel il est transmué et22 un autre lieu auquel il est transmué.
140 G . E t que ces lieus fussent contraires, et l’en ne pourroit telle contrariété
assigner en l’espace wide infinie que mettoient ces philosophes.
T . Item, il ne peuent23 assigner cause du mouvement de vieu, car il dient
que vieu tout seul ne se meut, mais plain et vieu ensemble.
G . E t ausi vieu ne a quelcunque nature, et nature est principe et cause de
145 mouvement. Apres il reprouve une autre opinion.
T . E t semblablement s’ensuient inconveniens se aucun disoit que legier
et pesant sont determinéz par grandeur et petitesce, posé que il meissent que
touz corps sont d’une matière ou que il fussent de pluseurs matières con­
traires.
150 G . Teles opinions furent recite<e>z24 ou .ix.<e) 2s chapitre du tiers et en­
viron.
T . Car qui diroit que touz corps sont d’une meisme matière, rien ne seroit
simplement pesant ou simplement legier, si comme disoient ceulz qui met­
toient que tous corps sont composts de trigones.
155 G . Car se ceste matière est pe- // (184c) santé, rien n’est simplement le­
gier; et se elle est legiere, rien ne est simplement pesant.
T . E t ceulz qui mettent que les corps sont de matières contraires comme
sont plain et vieu, il ne peuent rendre cause pourquoy des corps moiens les uns
sont plus pesans ou plus legiers que les autres, puisque vieu par soy n’est
160 simplement legier. Item, dire que les choses pesantes et legieres sont déter­
minées par grandeur et par petitesce semble une chose feinte26 plus que au­
cuns autres opinions devant dis, car ceulz qui mettent maniéré par quoy les
20 D E omit Glose. 22 E transmue en un.
21 B vieu. 23 Lacuna in C extending to i86d, note 8.
Book IV, Chapter 2, fols. i84a-i84c | 669
void is naturally inclined to move upward, and a plenum to move downward, and
that as a result they cause other bodies to move, some upward and some downward,
then they cannot properly explain on the basis o f void and plenum why some are
light and others heavy ; but rather they should explain w hy void is light and plenum
heavy. A n d if this is the explanation, as it is in their opinion, they still could not
assign a cause for the fullness and void not separating from the bodies in which
they are present and for the void not escaping upward and the plenum downward.
G . They would have to be present in such bodies in their proper form or nature,
and thus there would be no cause w hy they should be held together.
T . Moreover, it is illogical to assign space and place to void, as though in and o f
itself it were not space and place.
G . A n d so it is, according to these philosophers, for void is a place which is not
filled with bodies. So, place would become place ad infinitum.
T . I f void moves, there must be a / (184b) place from which and another to
which it can be transferred.
G . A n d these places must be contraries, but we could not assign such contrariety
in infinite empty space as these philosophers did.
T . They cannot give any cause for the motion o f a void, for they say that a void
does not m ove o f itself, but that only plenum and void together move.
G . Also, a void has no characteristic nature, and nature is the principle and cause
o f motion. Then he rejects another opinion.
T . We encounter similar difficulties i f we say that lightness and heaviness are
relative to large and small bodily size, assuming that all bodies are o f one substance
or even o f several contrary substances.
G . Such theories were discussed in Chapter Nine o f Book III and in nearby
passages [see fols, iyod ff.].
T . For, if one claimed that all bodies were o f the same substance, there would be
nothing absolutely heavy or light, as those philosophers said who maintained that
all bodies are composed o f triangles.
G . For, if this substance is heavy, If (184c) then nothing is absolutely light; and
if it is light, then nothing is absolutely heavy.
T . Those who state that bodies are composed o f contrary substances, like a ple­
num and void, cannot find an explanation for the heaviness o f some intermediate
bodies and the lightness o f others since a void in and o f itself is not absolutely light.
The statement that heavy and light bodies are to be differentiated on the basis o f
large and small size seems an even more misleading opinion than some o f the others
mentioned above; for those who explain how the four elements can be distin-
24 A B F recitez. 26 D faite; F feicte.
25 .ix.
 6yo | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Book IV, Chapter 2, fols. i84d-i85b | 6j i
•üii. elemens peuent estre distinguiéz parlent plus subtilment; car a dire que
guished speak more subtly. I f one says that all bodies are o f the same nature, but that
tous corps sont d’une nature, mes pesant est de plus grandes parties et legier
heavy pertains to the larger parts and light to the smaller and more subtle parts, it
165 de plus petites et plus subtiles, il s’ensuit que rien n’est simplement legier ne
must follow that nothing is absolutely light or moves upward, but that all bodies
meu en haut, mais tous corps seroient meuz une voie, un plus tost, l’autre
would move in one direction, one faster and the other more slowly, as we can
plus tart, aussi comme nous voions des choses meues par violence. Item, se il
observe in the case o f things moved violently. I f what they say were true, it would
estoit si comme il dient, il s’ensuiroit que une grande multitude de teles pe- /
follow that a great quantity o f such little /(i84d) parts would weigh more than a
(i84d) tites parties seroient plus pesante que un petit nombre de grandes par-
small number o f large parts since all o f them have the same nature. A nd if this were
170 ties, puisque toutes sont d’une nature. E t se ainsi estoit, un grant aer ou un
so, then a large quantity o f air or fire would weigh more than a small quantity o f
grant feu seroit plus pesant que une petite eaue ou que une petite terre; et ce
water or earth; and this is impossible. Thus, we have presented the speculations o f
est impossible. E t ainsi sont recitéz les diz des autres en ceste matière.
other thinkers on this subject.
G .27 II me semble que par tele rayson comme est la quarte que Aristote fait
G . It seems to me that, by employing an argument such as the fourth above which
contre ceulz qui mettent que le vieu qui est es28 corps est cause de legiereté,
Aristotle raises against those who hold that the void in bodies is the cause o f light­
175 l’en pourroit faire un fort arguement a prouver que les elemens ne sont pas
ness, we could prove that in mixed bodies the elements are not present in their
es corps mixtes en leur propre forme; car Aristote dist, et ce est vérité, que
proper form; for Aristotle says, and truly, that, if the bodies were lighter or heav­
se les corps estoient29 pesanz et legiers plus ou moins selon la proporcion que
ier in accordance with the proportion o f the plenum to the void within them o f
plain et vieu, dont il sont composéz, ont l’un a l’autre, il s’ensuiroit que le
which they are composed, it would follow that the large and small bodies being o f
grant et le petit qui sont d’une espece fussent equalment pesanz et legiers. E t
the same species would be equally heavy and light. Likewise, if the elements were
180 semblablement, se les elemens estoient es corps mixtes en leur propre forme,
present in mixed bodies in their proper form, it would follow that the large mixed
il s’ensuiroit que le grant corps mixte et le petit d ’une espece fussent equal-
body and the small body composed o f only one element would weigh exactly the
ment // (185a) pesans. E t nous voions le contraire. E t que il s’ensuie, je le
same. //(185 a) A n d we can observe the opposite to be true. That such a conclusion
monstre et suppose que l’isneleté d’un mouvement est selon la proporcion
follows I will demonstrate; I assume that the velocity o f a motion depends upon
de la vertu motive a la resistence; et pour ce, se en .ii. corps meuz teles pro-
the ratio o f the motive force to the resistance, and, therefore, if in two m oving
185 porcions sont equales, il seront meuz de isneletés equales. O r pren je don-
bodies these proportions are equal, they will move with equal speeds. N o w , as an
ques, pour exemple, .ii. corps de fin argent dont l’un soit quadruple a l’autre
example, I take two bodies o f pure silver one o f which is four times the size o f the
en qualité, et pose que ou petit les elemens pesans ou resgart des legiers soi­
other, and I posit that in the smaller the ratio o f heavy to light elements is 6 :1 , and
ent comme .vi. a .i. ;3<>et donques ou grant qui est de mixtion semblable il
so in the larger body with the same mixture this ratio will be 24:4— a proportion
seront comme .xxiiii. a .iiii. et est tele proporcion comme de .vi. a .i.31 E t
identical with 6 :1 . Therefore, all things being equal, in accordance with this hy­
190 donques par la supposicion devant mise, le petit et le grant seront meuz en
pothesis, the large and the small body will move downward with the same speed and,
bas d’une meisme isneleté se les autres choses3^ sont pareilles et, par conse­
consequently, they weigh the same— which is a manifestly false conclusion. There­
quent, ces .ii. corps poisent equalment; et ce est faulz manifestement. E t don­
fore, the elements are not present in mixed bodies in their proper form. T o clarify
ques les elemens ne sont pas en leur propre forme es corps mixtes. Item, pour
this reasoning, I take, for example, a leather bag full o f air, like a blown-up bladder,
declarer ceste rayson, je met pour exemple que en .i. cuir plain de aer, comme
and put into it enough lead so that it will sink in water; I take another leather bag /
195 seroit une vessie, fust mis de plun tant que elle descendist mise en eaue, et que
(185 b) containing twice as much air and put into it twice as much lead as in the
en une autre / (185 b) fust aer au double et que l’en meist dedens de plun au
first; I maintain, and it is entirely reasonable, that these two bladder-like bodies
double plus que en l’autre; je di et appert par rayson que ces .ii. vessies des-
would sink in the water at equal rates o f speed and that they would weigh the
cendroient en l’eaue equalment et peseroient equalment. E t semblablement,
same. In similar manner, if one man pulls and moves a boat, two men o f the same
se un honme tire et meust une nef, .ii. honmes de equale force tireroient
strength would pull equally well a boat weighing twice as much. Also, if the ele­
200 equalment une nef plus pesante au double.33 E t ausi se les elemens estoient es
ments were present in mixed bodies as stated, they would be in the same propor-
corps mixtes comme dit est, il seroient en tele proporcion ou grant comme ou
27 A .B C D E F omit Glose. 30 E .vi. a .viii.
28 D E omit es. 31 B .vi. a .ii.
29 B corps mixtes estoient. 32 B autres .ii. choses.
33 On ship-hauling, see fol. 16 ic and note 17.
 672 L e Livre du ciel et du monde
petit d’une espece, et les legiers résistent aus pesans, et donques le grant mixte
ne seroit pasplus tost ne plus’pesant que le petit. Etlaresistencedel’aer <ou>34
de l’eaue dehors par quoy telz corps sont meuz ne empeesche en rien3
35 ces-
4 more than the smaller. N or does the resistance o f the outside air or water in which
ao5 te rayson, car encore a plus de tele resistence le grant que le petit, et donques
il devroit estre meu plus tardivement; et ce est faulz. E t pour ce plus decla­
rer, je argue au contraire et pose que en une masse de terre pure ou de pierre
fussent bien espés et equalment ou semblablement semés petis pertuis ou po­
res plains de aer, aussi comme pour exemple .x. pores, et que en une tele qui
210 fust .c. foys plus grande fussent mil // (185c) telz pores: il ne est pas vray-
semblable que la grande ne fust plus pesante que la petite et que elle ne fust
plus tost meue en bas ; et semblablement diroit l’en d’une grande piece d’ar­
gent et d’une petite, posé que les elemens fussent en elles en propre forme.
Item, se les elemens ne sont en propre forme es corps mixtes, toutevoi<e>s36
215 il y sont selon leurs vertus lesquelles sont en ces corps en tele proporcion com­
me seroient les elemens, se il estoient en leur propre forme. E t donques par la
rayson desus dite, se elle valoit, l’en conclurroit que le petit corps mixte est
aussi tost meu et aussi pesant comme le grant de semblable espece. A u premier,
je di que, ou cas mis, la grant pierre seroit moult plus pesante que la petite et
220 plus isnelement meue en l’aer, car l’aer en son lieu n’est pesant ne legier, mais
en eaue la raison conclude que elles peseroient equalment; et cuide que ce soit
vray se les autres choses estoient pareilles. A u secont, je di que quant l’en dist
que les elemens sont selon leurs {vertus)37 en un corps qui est mixte et est de
parties semblables, ce n’est pas a enten-/ (185 d) dre quant a propos que ces
225 vertus contraires qui sont pesanteur et legiereté soient ensamble par tout tel
corps en leur propre forme, car ainsi concluderoit cest arguement. Mais en
tel corps est tant seulement une tele qualité ou vertu motive, ce est a savoir
pesanteur, et est mendre et plus remisse que la pesanteur de terre qui est pur
element. E t pour ce, tel corps est plus legier selon vertu et ou resgart de terre
230 pure ou d’aucun autre corps, et non pas pour ce que il soit legier ne que il ait
en soy aucune legierté en quelcunque proporcion.38 E t ce est selon ce que
dist Aristote ou quart chapitre du tiers et en pluseurs autres lieus. Mais { s e )39
les elemens estoient en tel corps en propre forme, il seroit autrement. E t ce
est la difference par quoy appert la response au secont arguement. E t autre-
235 fois ay je monstré des autres qualités contraires, comme sont chaleur et froi­
deur, que elles ne peuent estre ensamble par tout un subject.
34 A omits ou. 37 ^4 omits vertus.
35 D E meuz ou empeschés en rien. 38 B porcion.
36 A toutevois. 39 A omits se.
B o o k I V , C h a p te r 2, fo ls. i8 5 < :-i8 5 d | 6 j$
tion in the large as in the small body o f the same species, and the light elements
resist the heavy so that the larger mixed body would not move faster nor weigh
the bodies m ove affect this argument, for the larger receives more resistance than
the smaller, and should therefore move more slowly, and this is false. T o clarify
this point, I argue to the contrary and assume that in a mass o f pure earth or rock
there are thickly but equally scattered or sown, for example, ten tiny tubes or pores
full o f air, while in another such mass one hundred times greater there are one
thousand // (185c) similar pores. It seems unlikely that the larger mass should not
weigh more than the smaller, nor that it would not move downward faster; and we
should say the same in the case o f a large and a small piece o f silver, assuming the
elements inside each to be in their proper form. I f the elements are not in their
proper form in the mixed bodies, nevertheless the powers o f the elements are pres­
ent in them in the same proportion as the elements would be if they were in their
proper form. From this argument, i f it were valid, we should conclude that the
small mixed body moves as fast and weighs as much as the large body o f the same
species. I reply to the first argument that, in the case as stated, the large stone would
be much heavier than the small one and would move faster through the air, for in its
proper place air is neither heavy nor light ; but in the water reason tells us that the
two bodies would weigh the same ; and I believe that this is true, other things being
equal. T o the second argument, I reply that, when someone says that the elements
maintain their powers in a mixed body o f like parts, we should not take this to mean
/ (185c!) that the counterforces o f heaviness and lightness exist together through­
out the entire body in their proper form, for thus this argument would end. But in
such a body there is only one such motive power or property— that is, heaviness—
and it is less and weaker than the heaviness o f the pure element earth. Therefore,
such a body is lighter with respect to its strength and in relation to pure earth or
any other body, not because it is absolutely light nor because it has within it any
proportion o f lightness whatever. A nd this is what Aristotle said in Chapter Four o f
Book III [see fol. 16id] and in several other passages. However, if the elements
were in such a body in their proper form, it would be otherwise. A n d this is the
difference noted in m y reply to the second argument. Concerning the other con­
trary qualities like heat and cold, I have previously shown that they cannot exist
simultaneously throughout a substratum.
 6 j4 I L e Livre du ciel et du monde
3. O u tiers chapitre il commence a determiner selon son opinion
des choses pesantes et legieres, et premièrement pour
quelle cause les unes sont // (186a) meues en
haut et les autres en bas.
T . N ous1 dirons premièrement de ce de quoy aucuns doubtent mais (m e)-
ment,2ce est a savoir pourquoy aucuns corps sont meuz en haut et les autres en
bas et touzjours selonc nature, et les autres sont meuz en haut et en bas. E t
apres ce, nous déterminerons de pesant et de legier et de leurs accidens ou
5 passions, de chascun pour quelle cause il est fait.
G . Apres il met .iiii. supposicions.
T . E t de ce que chascun corps mobile de mouvement naturel est meu a son
lieu, l’en doit estimer et cuider que la cause est a mettre semblablement com­
me es autres mouvemens et generacions et transmutacions. Item, les mouve-
10 mens sont de .iii. maniérés : car un est selon magnitude ou quantité, ce est
augmentacion et diminucion ; l’autre est selon espece ou qualité, ce est altera-
cion comme de chaut en froit et ainsi des autres qualités ; et l’autre est mou­
vement selon lieu. Item, en chascun de ces mouvemens nous voions que
transmuta- / (186b) cion est faite de termes contraires a termes contraires et
i5 par les entremoiens, et non pas de chose contingente en autre contingente.
G . Ce est a dire d’une chose et non pas en quelcunque, mais seulement en
sa contraire; si comme de chaleur non pas en blancheur ou en douceur, mes
en froideur. E t ne convient pas que les termes de tous mouvemens soient
simplement contraires, mais souffist que il y ait distance; si comme entre
20 petit et grant en augmentacion, et entre très chaut et moins chaut en altera­
tion, et entre bas et plus bas en mouvement local ou autrement selon aucune
distance.
T . Item, aussi comme le subject qui peut estre altéré et celui qui peust
estre augmenté different en tant comme telz, <aussi different)3 la vertu altera-
25 tive et la vertu augmentative. E t en ceste maniéré en mouvement selon lieu
ou local, le subject en tant comme tel différé des subjects des autres m ouve­
mens et semblablement de la vertu motive, car elle ne tent pas a quelcunque
fin ou terme indifferanment mais a certain terme.
G . Si comme la vertu motive qui meust .i. corps en bas ne tent pas en //
30 (186c) tant comme tele a chaleur ne a acressement en augmentacion, mais a
certain lieu. Apres il veult prouver ceste conclusion que les corps pesans et
legiers sont meuz a leurs lieus naturelz pour avoir leur perfection.
T . E t donques se la vertu motive qui meust .i. corps en bas est ce qui le
fait pesant, et celle qui meust un autre corps en haut est ce qui le fait legier, et
1 Guthrie, ch. 3. B nous devons; E nous 2 A maisment; D mesment.
avons. 3 A B comme teles la vertu.
B o o k I V , C h a p te r 3, fo ls. i 8 6 a - i 8 6 c | 67j
3. In Chapter Three he begins to formulate his ow n opinion
regarding heavy and light things and, first o f
all, he inquires w h y some // (186a) m ove
upward and others downward.
T . W e shall start with the investigation o f the problem which has troubled
some previous thinkers— that is, w hy certain bodies, by continual natural motion,
move upward and others downward, while still others m ove in both directions.
Afterward, we shall turn to the question o f heaviness and lightness, their accidents,
their inclinations or affections, and the causes o f each.
G . N ext he offers four hypotheses.
T . Since each mobile body moves naturally to its proper place, we must believe
that the cause is the same as in other kinds o f motion, generation, and changes.
Movements are o f three kinds: 1) change o f size or quantity, that is, increase or
decrease; 2) change o f form or quality, that is, alteration such as from heat into
cold, and so on with the other qualities; 3) change o f place. In each o f these move­
ments we see that change / (186b) proceeds from opposites to opposites through
the intermediate states, and not from one contingent or random thing to another.
G . That is to say, from one particular thing and not to just anything at all, but
only to its contrary; for example, from heat, not to whiteness or sweetness, but to
cold. It is not necessary that the limits o f all movements be absolute contraries, but
it is enough that there be distance between them— as, for example, between small
and large in the case o f growth, between very hot and less hot in the case o f altera­
tion, and between low and lower in the case o f local motion, or in some other man­
ner related to a certain distance between the two states.
T . Just as the thing which can be changed and the thing which can be increased
are different in nature, so also do the cause o f change and the cause o f increase or
growth differ from each other. In this same way, the thing capable o f local m ove­
ment differs in itself from the things capable o f other movements and also from
the motive power; for it does not tend indifferently toward an indefinite end or
limit, but rather is inclined to a certain definite limit.
G. For example, motive power which moves a body downward does not tend in
and o f itself // (186c) toward greater heat nor increase in expansion, but tends only
toward a certain place. Afterward, he wants to prove this conclusion : that heavy
and light bodies move toward their natural places to attain their perfection.
T . Therefore, if the motive power that moves a body downward is what makes
it heavy, and if that which moves another body upward is what makes it fight, and
 6 j6 | L e Livre du ciel et du monde
35 subject mobile est ce qui peust estre pesant ou legier, il s’ensuit que de chas-
cun corps estre meu a son lieu, ce est estre meu a son espece, ce est a dire a sa
forme et a sa perfection.
G . E t donques ce qui le meust t<en>t4 a celle fin et meust pour ce que le
corps meu ait sa perfection, car tous jours oevre nature pour aucune fin, si
40 comme il est dit ou secont de P hi si que.$ E t doit l’en savoir que aucune fois
ce qui meut en bas la chose pesante, ce est ce qui l’engendre et fait et aucune
foys, si comme apres ce que elle <est>6 faite, se elle est hors de son lieu, .ii.
choses la moevent : une est ce qui oste l’empeeschement par quoi elle estoit
tenue hors de son lieu; autre est sa propre pesanteur; et semblablement de la
45 chose legiere meue en haut. E t tout ce / (i86d) sera déclaré plus a plain ou
chapitre ensuiant. Item, la cause final prochaine de tel mouvement et que en­
tent la vertu m otive est la perfection de ce corps meu pour ce que en son lieu
naturel il est miex conservé et gardé et peust miex attaindre a la fin principal
pour quoy nature l’a fait, et est par ce en son droit ordre entre les corps du
5o monde. Apres il conferme son propos en ostant un opinion contraire.
T . E t ainsi appert de ce que aucuns anciens disoient que la terre et les au­
tres corps sont ainsi meuz pour ce que chascune chose est meue a son sambla-
ble; mais il ne est pas tousjours ainsi, car qui transposeroit ou transporteroit7
la terre la ou est maintenant la lune, et une petite partie de terre fust ici, elle
55 ne seroit pas m eu(e>8 vers la terre qui seroit la ou est la lune, mes seroit
meue la ou est maintenant la terre. E t ainsi convient il que toute terre soit
meue d’un mouvement et a un lieu, posé que en cel lieu soient corps sembla­
bles ou differenz. E t au lieu ou une petite partie est encline9 a estre meue, a
ce lieu est enclin son tout.
6o G . E t donques // (187a) est la terre meue en bas pour ce que ce est son lieu
ou elle a sa perfection. Apres il met a ce la tierce rayson.
T . Item, lieu est le extrémité ou desrenier terme de la chose qui contient.
G . Ce est la definition de lieu declaree plus a plain ou quart de Phisique.10
E t donques le lieu d’une chose est la superfice concave du corps qui la con-
65 tient ou qui11 est plus prochaine de la chose contenue.
T . E t le lieu extreme ou plus <haut>12 et le moien contiennent toutes cho­
ses qui sont meues en haut et qui sont meues en bas.
G . L e lieu extreme, ce est la superfice concave du ciel qui contient le feu;
et la superfice concave de l’espere du feu, ce est le lieu moien qui contient le
70 aer,13 et le aer l’eaue, et l’eaue la terre.
4 A tout. 9 A enclinee.
5 Physicorum, 11.8.199b 32. 10 Physicorum, IV.4.210b 34— 212a 30, es­
6 A omits est.
pecially 211a 28; 211b 19-29; 212a 28-31.
7 C lacuna extending from 184b, note 23, 11 D E contient un (E ung) qui est.
ends with trans-. lz A omits haut.
8 A meu. 13 A contient le fe le aer.
B o o k I V , C h a p te r 3, fo ls. i 8 6 d - i 8 7 a j 6yj
if a m oving object is capable o f being either heavy or light, then it follows that
by m oving toward its proper place each body is at the same time m oving toward
its own species, that is to say, toward its proper form or perfection.
G . Therefore, the power that moves the object moves it toward this goal— that
the body so moved may attain its perfection— because nature is always working to­
ward some objective, as is stated in the second book o f the Physics. It is to be noted
that sometimes that which moves a heavy body downward is the thing that pro­
duces its growth and creates it; and sometimes, as for instance after it has been
made, if it is outside its proper place, two things m ove it : one is that which re­
moves the hindrance by which it was held outside its proper place and the other
is its own weight. A n d it happens in a similar manner i f we consider the case o f the
light object m oved upward. A ll this /(i86d) will be clarified in the following chap­
ter [see foi. 187b ff.]. Th e proximate final cause o f such motion and that which
prompts the motive power is the desire for perfection o f the mobile object, be­
cause in its proper place it is better preserved and guarded and can better attain the
principal purpose for which nature made it and because in this way it is situated in
its proper and correct order among the bodies o f the world. N ext he confirms his
statement by the rejection o f a contrary opinion.
T . It is clear from the sayings o f certain ancient philosophers that the earth and
other bodies are moved in this way because everything is moved toward its like,
but this is not true in every case. I f we were to transpose or transport the earth to
the place where now the moon is, leaving a small part o f the earth here, this small
part would not be moved toward the earth occupying the moon’s place, but rather
that earth would be m oved back to its proper location. Thus all earth must be
m oved with a single motion and toward a single place, assuming that similar or dif­
ferent bodies are in that place. A n d to the place that a small part tends to be moved,
there also the whole body tends to move.
G . Accordingly, // (187a) the earth moves downward because that is the place
where it finds its perfection. N o w he states the third argument in support o f this
theory.
T . Place means the boundary or outer limit o f that which encloses it.
G . This is the definition o f place more fully stated in Book Four o f the Physics.
Thus, the place o f anything is the concave surface o f the body which contains it or
which is closest to the object contained.
T . And the extreme or highest and the intermediate places contain all things that
move either upward or downward.
G . The highest place is the concave surface o f the heavens which contains the
sphere o f fire, and the concave surface o f the fiery sphere is the intermediate place
which contains the air, and the air the water, and the water the earth.

r. Et ce qui contient est aucunement espece, ce est a dire forme ou per­
fection a la chose que il contient; et pour ce, estre meu a son lieu est estre
meu a son semblable, car les14 elemens qui sont ordenéz et contiennent l’un
îaotresoiitseiitibles aucunement, si comme l’eaue a l ’aer qui la contient et
U ta e m k
Es qualités simboles, car le feu et le aer sont / (187b) chauz, etle a e re t
l’eauesontmoistes,et Peaue et la terre sont fredes.
f,Etpont ce en descendant vers les moiens et non pas en m <ontan)tIS
vers i’extreme, Tun est perfection de l’autre, si comme le aer de l’eaue et
s» l’e iiiedelatette^ar tousjours l’element desus a celui qui est souz lui a tel
resgartaucunement comme forme ou espece17 a matière.
G, Caraussicomme forme est perfection de matière, semblablement l’ele-
ment contenant et qui est desus donne perfection a celui qui il contient, en
tant comme en ce lieu est sa conservation et generacion.
4. Ou quart chapitre il declare plus a plain la cause desus mise.
f, Et faire question pourquoy le feu est meu en haut et la terre en bas, ce
est une meisme chose comme qui demanderoit pourquoy un corps qui peust
avoir santé, se il e s t t r a n s m u é et altéré en tant comme tel, il vient a santé et ne
vient pas a blancheur; et semblablement de tous corps altérables ou qui peu-
5 entestrealteréz.
G, Car se le corps est transmué par alteration qui est ou tent a santé,1 se
aveques ce il devient blanc, ce est par accident et non pas en tant comme //
(i!|c)alterableasanté, mais par une autre alteracion.
f Etaussiseuocorps a possibilité d’estre augmenté ou creu et il soit mué
w seloncestepossibiïté et en tant comme tel, il ne vendra par ce en santé, mais
en excès de magnitude ou de quantité; et semblablement de chascun corps
selon ce que l’un est transmué en qualité, l’autre en quantité,2 l’autre selon
kEncesteim ere, les choses legieres sont meues en haut, et les pesans en
bas,
,j GEtainsiAristotea mise similitude et convenience entre mouvement lo-
caletlesautresmouvemens. Apres il met difference.
file s il j a defence, car les choses pesantes et legieres semblent avoir
ensofprindpeetcause de leur transmutation local et les autres non. Mais le
principe ou la vertu motive est hors le corps meu, si comme de celui qui est
î0 alterable a santé et de celui qui est transmuable en quantité et en cressance,
14DEcatseleselem ens, 17 E espere.
Mm oult;SCDEFmt. 1 D E qui est ostant (E obstant) santé.
16Bomittttl’eraedektttte. 2 B omits l’autre en quantité.
B o o k I V , C h a p te rs 3 - 4 , fo ls . 1 8 7 b -:! 8 7 c | 679
T . That which contains is a kind o f species— that is, the form o f perfection o f the
thing contained; so, to m ove to its proper place is to m ove to its like, for the ele­
ments that are arranged in order and contain one another are in a sense alike, just
as water is similar to the air which contains it, and air to fire.
G . In their characteristic qualities, for fire and air are / (187b) both hot, air and
water are both moist, and water and earth are both cold.
T . Consequently, one motion such as m oving downward toward the middle
spaces and one not risin g toward the highest outer limit is the perfection o f the
other, just as air is the perfection o f water, and water the perfection o f earth; for
the element above always stands to the element immediately below it as form or
species stands in relation to matter.
G . For, just as form is the perfection o f matter, so likewise the containing ele­
ment situated above gives perfection to that which it contains, to the extent that in
this place it finds its preservation and generation.
4. In Chapter Four he explains more fully the cause stated above.
T . Thus, to ask w hy fire moves upward and earth downward is the same thing
as asking why, when a body capable o f having health is transformed and changed in
bodily form, does it progress toward health and not toward whiteness; and the
same holds true for all alterable bodies or bodies which could be altered.
G . I f the body is transformed by a change tending toward health and, instead,
becomes white, this is accidental and not due to // (187c) the health-producing ac­
tion itself, but rather to some other kind o f change.
T . Also, if a body has a potential for growth or increase and is moved in accord­
ance with this potentiality or capacity, it will not progress toward health, but
rather toward an excess o f size or quantity; and the same holds true for each body,
depending upon whether one is altered in quality, another in quantity, and another
in place. In this way, light things move upward and heavy things downward.
G . Thus, Aristotle has established the similarity and correlation between local
and other types o f motion. N o w he states a difference between them.
T . However, there is a difference ; for heavy and light things seem to have within
themselves the principle and cause o f their local changes which the others do not
have. But the principle or motive power is outside the m oving body, as in the case
o f the body capable o f change toward health or the body capable o f change o f
 68o L e Livre du ciel et du monde
combien que aucune foys par .i. petit mouvement fait par cause dehors tel<z>3
corps soient transmuéz de eulz meisme <s>4 et vient l’un a santé et l’autre en
cressance.5 E t pour ce que un me- / (i8yd) isme corps subject est receptible
ou peust recevoir santé et langueur, se il est meu selon ce ou en tant comme
25 il est receptible de santé, il est meu et transmué en santé. E t se il est meu selon
ce que il est receptible de enfermeté, il sera meu a enfermeté. Mais les choses
pesantes et les legier<e)s6 semblent plus avoir en soy meisme principe ou
cause efficiente de leurs mouvemens pour ce que leur matière est très pro­
chaine de leur substance.
30 G . Car il sont, quant aus elemens, composés seulement de forme et de ma­
tière, si comme il fu dit ou .vii.e chapitre du tiers ; ou l’en pourroit dire que
leur matière est près de leur substance, ce est a dire de ces qualités motives
pesanteur et legiereté qui sont naturelment premieres.
T . E t de ce est signe que es corps absoluz, ce est a dire mixtes et perfectz,
33 mouvement local est desrenier par generacion. E t donques il est premier se­
lon substance et selon perfection.
G . Car les bestes ont en elles alteracion et augmentacion avant que il aient
mouvement local, et donques est ce // (188a) mouvement plus perfect; et tout
ce appert en le .viii.e de P h i si que.1 Mais l’autre difference que il met devant
40 entre8mouvement local et les autres est obscure et doubteuse, car vérité est
que un element legier ou pesant comme terre ou eaue quant il est par violen­
ce hors de son lieu et l’empeeschement est osté, telle terre ou eaue se meut par
soy meisme et descent. E t la forme substanciele de elle aveques sa pesanteur
est cause efficiente9 de ce mouvement. E t toute ceste eaue par raison de sa
45 matière10 est subject de ce mouvement. E t selon ce est a entendre que tel ele­
ment11 a en soy principe de son mouvement local. Mais, par aventure, ausi
bien pourroit l’en dire que tele chose a en soy principe de son alteracion et
semblablement, car quant une eaue ou une pierre est par violence eschaufee
et mise hors de sa fredeur naturele et empeeschement est osté, elle retourne
50 toute par soy a sa propre nature et a plus grant fredure que ne est celle de
l’aer circunstant. E t ainsi l’en diroit que la forme substanciele de ceste chose,
aveques sa froi- / (188b) dure essenciele ou naturele ou le résidu de elle, est
cause efficiente de ceste alteracion ; et ceste chose par raison de sa matière en
est subject. E t semblablement l’en diroit que .i. corps enferme retourne par
55 soy meisme a sa santé naturele quant l’empeeschement est osté, combien que,
pour ce que il est dessemblable en ses parties, une altéré l’autre, si comme le
cuer les autres membres; mais peust estre que aucune altéré et guerist soy
3 A C D E F tel. 7 Physicorum, V III.7 .261a 13-28.
4 A meisme. 8 E autre.
5 F omits combien que aucune fo y s.. .l’au­ 9 B sufficiente.
tre en cressance. 10 B C D E F nature.
6 A legiers. 11 B F mouvement.
B o o k I V , C h a p te r 4, fo ls. i 8 y d - i 8 8 b | 681
quantity or size, although, sometimes, by a slight movement caused by a force out­
side the body, they are transformed on their own account, one progressing toward
health and the other increasing in size. A nd since one and the same / (18yd) body is
capable o f receiving or is receptive to both health and disease, if it moves so as to
be receptive to health, it will progress toward health; if it is moved so as to be re­
ceptive to sickness, it will progress toward sickness. But heavy and light things
seem rather to possess within themselves the principle or efficient cause o f their
movements because their matter is very closely related to their substance [or per­
fected state o f being].
G . A s far as the elements are concerned, they are composed only o f form and
matter, as was stated in Chapter Seven o f Book III [see fol. i 6 yc] ; or we could say
that their matter is much like their substance, that is, much like the motive qualities
o f heaviness and lightness, which are, by nature, primary.
T . It is evident that in the case o f absolute or independent bodies or entities—
that is, those that are mixed and perfected— local motion is last in the order o f gen­
eration and, thus, primary in the order o f substance and perfection.
G . For animals possess within themselves the potential for change and increase
in size before they are capable o f locomotion, and it therefore is //(18 8 a) a more petr
feet motion; this is all clearly explained in the eighth book o f the Physics. But the
other previously stated difference between local and other kinds o f motion is ob­
scure and dubious, for the fact is that, when a light or a heavy element like earth
or water is violently or forcibly outside its proper place and once we remove the
hindrance, such earth or water moves o f its own accord and falls downward. Its
substantial form and weight are the efficient cause o f this movement. A ll this water,
by reason o f its matter, is subject to this motion. And, accordingly, we are to un­
derstand that such an element possesses within itself the principle o f its own local
motion. Perhaps we could also say in the same way and with equal justice that
such a body possesses within itself the principle o f its own alteration, because when
water or a stone is heated violently and thus transformed from its natural coldness
and when the hindrance is removed, it returns all by itself to its proper nature and
becomes even colder than the air surrounding it. So, one could say that the sub­
stantial form o f this thing, together with its essential or natural coldness / (188b) or
its residue, is the efficient cause o f this change and that this thing, by reason o f its
matter, is the subject or substratum o f this change. Likewise, one could say that a
diseased body returns o f its own accord to its state o f natural health when the hin­
drance is removed, although, since it is unlike in its parts, one part alters another,
just as the heart changes the other bodily members; but it can happen that one
part alters and cures itself. Therefore, one could say that the bodies possess within
 68z L e Livre du ciel et du monde
meisme. E t donques diroit l’en que les corps ont ausi bien en eulz principe de
alteracion comme de mouvement local. Mais, par aventure, Aristote veult
60 dire que il ne appert tant et que pour ce dist il: N isi quod hec vident<ur>12
habere, etc., hec13 autem non.14 Apres il declare comme telz corps sont meuz
selon lieu.
T . E t donques quant de l’eaue est fait aer et de pesant legier, il est meu en
haut et est ensemble et en un temps fait legier et meu en haut. E t quant il est
65 fait du tout, il ne est plus fait ne plus meu, mais est en son lieu. E t par ce ap­
pert que ce qui estoit en puissance ou possi- // (188c) bilité de venir a aucun
fait, vient a tel fait selon forme et substance et selon qualité et selon quantité.
E t par ceste meisme cause, quant le feu et l ’eaue sont ja fais et il ne est chose
qui les empeesche, il sont meuz a leurs lieus.
70 G . E n la generacion d’un element d’autre, si comme quant aer est fait de
eaue, est premièrement alteracion.15 E t l’eaue eschaufee et rarefiee e<s>tl6
faite plus legiere et en ce ne est rien fait ensemble soudainnement, mais chas-
cune de ces qualitéz est faite partie apres autre et est ceste transmutacion suc­
cessive en .ii. maniérés : une est selon les parties de la matière ou du subject et
75 selon extension ; l’autre est selon les degrés ou intension de chascune tele
qualité. E t ceste alteracion est dispositive et preparative a la generacion de
l’aer et de sa forme substanciele, laquelle generacion est successive seulement
en la premiere maniéré, ce est a savoir selon les parties du subject en quel la
forme est introduite partie apres autre, mes non pas selon les degrés de tele
80 forme, car elle ne est pas ainsi divisible. E t donques / (i88d) la chose qui fait
et engendre aer de eaue eschaufe et raréfié et alegie la matière et apres introduist
la forme partie apres17 autre comme dit est. E t quant la legiereté de la ma­
tière18 aveques la forme de le aer seurmonte la19 pesanteur de elle et autre
resistence, adonques ce corps est meu en haut tous jours plus et plus selon ce
85 que plus y a de la forme de le aer et de legiereté. E t se empeeschement est par
quoy la matière soit detenue et ne puisse estre meue en haut, nientmoins
peust estre que le aer sera fait et apres, quant l’empeeschement sera hors, il
sera meu en haut par sa forme et par legiereté.
T . E t ausi en un corps v if quant le nourrissement est prest, il est meu au
90 membre ou il doit aler se empeeschement n’i est. E t semblablement est meu
et altéré un corps a santé.
G . E t donques, si comme je ay dit devant, un corps est altéré de soy meis­
me ou par soy, ausi comme il descent ou monte par soy. Apres il parle encore
du principe motif.
12 A vident. 16 A C D E F et.
13 B etc. et hec. 17 D E introduist la partie forme apres.
14 Cf. Juntas, 251 A. 18 B C D E F omit de la matière.
Is B omits est premièrement alteracion. 19 B aer sont monte la p.
B o o k I V , C h a p te r 4, fo ls . i 8 8 c - i 8 8 d | 68$
themselves the principle o f change as well as that o f local motion. Perhaps, how ­
ever, Aristotle means that this is not so apparent, and for this reason he says above :
.. .except that these seem to possess, etc., these others not [see fol. 187c). Then he
explains how such bodies m ove with respect to place.
T . Whenever air is made from water and changed from heaviness to lightness, it
moves upward, and so at one and the same time it becomes light and rises. When
this action is completed, it is no longer in the process o f becoming or m oving, but
is in its proper place. From this, it is apparent that what has the potentiality or ca­
pacity // ( 188c) to progress to actuality is accomplished by attaining form and sub­
stance and quality and quantity. For the same reason, when fire and water are al­
ready realities and when there is nothing to prevent them, they will move to their
proper places.
G . In the generation o f one element from another, for example, when air is made
from water, the first step is alteration. The heated and rarefied water becomes
lighter; in this process nothing is joined together suddenly, but each o f these qual­
ities is produced one step after another. This transmutation is successive in two
ways : one depends upon the parts o f the matter or substratum and upon extension;
the other depends upon the degree or intensity o f each such quality. This alteration
disposes and prepares for the generation o f the air and for its substantial form, this
generation being successive only in the first manner above— that is, depending
upon the parts o f the substratum into which the form is introduced step by step,
but not depending upon the intensity o f such form since in this respect it is not
divisible. Therefore, / (i88d) the thing which makes and generates air from water
also heats, rarefies, and lightens the matter, and then introduces the form part af­
ter part, as just stated. When the lightness o f the matter, having the form o f air,
overcomes the weight o f the matter and other resistance, then this body moves
upward higher and higher in proportion to the greater amount it possesses o f the
form o f air and in proportion to its lightness. I f there is resistance which holds
back the matter so that it cannot move upward, nevertheless, the air can be made
and later, when the resistance has disappeared, it will move upward by reason o f
its form and lightness.
T . A lso in a living body, when the nourishment is ready, it moves toward the
member for which it is intended, i f nothing prevents it. In the same way, a body
moves and is changed toward a state o f health.
G . Therefore, as I have stated before, a body has the capacity to change itself o f
its own accord, just as it can descend or rise o f its own accord. He speaks again o f
the motive principle.
68z | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
meisme. E t donques diroit l’en que les corps ont ausi bien en eulz principe de
alteracion comme de mouvement local. Mais, par aventure, Aristote veult
60 dire que il ne appert tant et que pour ce dist il: Nisi quod hec vident<ur>12
habere, etc., hec13 autem non.14 Apres il declare comme telz corps sont meuz
selon lieu.
T . E t donques quant de l’eaue est fait aer et de pesant legier, il est meu en
haut et est ensemble et en un temps fait legier et meu en haut. E t quant il est
65 fait du tout, il ne est plus fait ne plus meu, mais est en son lieu. E t par ce ap­
pert que ce qui estoit en puissance ou possi- JJ (188c) bilité de venir a aucun
fait, vient a tel fait selon forme et substance et selon qualité et selon quantité.
E t par ceste meisme cause, quant le feu et l’eaue sont ja fais et il ne est chose
qui les empeesche, il sont meuz a leurs lieus.
70 G . E n la generacion d’un element d’autre, si comme quant aer est fait de
eaue, est premièrement alteracion.15 E t l’eaue eschaufee et rarefiee e<s>tl6
faite plus legiere et en ce ne est rien fait ensemble soudainnement, mais chas-
cune de ces qualitéz est faite partie apres autre et est ceste transmutacion suc­
cessive en .ii. maniérés : une est selon les parties de la matière ou du subject et
75 selon extension ; l’autre est selon les degrés ou intension de chascune tele
qualité. E t ceste alteracion est dispositive et preparative a la generacion de
l’aer et de sa forme substanciele, laquelle generacion est successive seulement
en la premiere maniéré, ce est a savoir selon les parties du subject en quel la
forme est introduite partie apres autre, mes non pas selon les degrés de tele
80 forme, car elle ne est pas ainsi divisible. E t donques / (188d) la chose qui fait
et engendre aer de eaue eschaufe et raréfié et alegie la matière et apres introduist
la forme partie apres17 autre comme dit est. E t quant la legiereté de la ma­
tière18 aveques la forme de le aer seurmonte la 19 pesanteur de elle et autre
resistence, adonques ce corps est meu en haut tous jours plus et plus selon ce
85 que plus y a de la forme de le aer et de legiereté. E t se empeeschement est par
quoy la matière soit detenue et ne puisse estre meue en haut, nientmoins
peust estre que le aer sera fait et apres, quant l’empeeschement sera hors, il
sera meu en haut par sa forme et par legiereté.
T . E t ausi en un corps v if quant le nourrissement est prest, il est meu au
90 membre ou il doit aler se empeeschement n’i est. E t semblablement est meu
et altéré un corps a santé.
G . E t donques, si comme je ay dit devant, un corps est altéré de soy meis­
me ou par soy, ausi comme il descent ou monte par soy. Apres il parle encore
du principe motif.
12 A vident. 16 A C D E F et.
13 B etc. et hec. 17 D E introduist la partie forme apres.
14 Cf. Juntas, 251 A . 18 B C D E F omit de la matière.
15 B omits est premièrement alteracion. 19 B aer sont monte la p.
Book IV, Chapter 4, fols. i88c-i88d | 683
themselves the principle o f change as well as that o f local motion. Perhaps, how­
ever, Aristotle means that this is not so apparent, and for this reason he says above :
.. .except that these seem to possess, etc., these others not [see fol. 187c). Then he
explains how such bodies m ove with respect to place.
T . Whenever air is made from water and changed from heaviness to lightness, it
moves upward, and so at one and the same time it becomes light and rises. When
this action is completed, it is no longer in the process o f becoming or moving, but
is in its proper place. From this, it is apparent that what has the potentiality or ca­
pacity JJ (188c) to progress to actuality is accomplished by attaining form and sub­
stance and quality and quantity. For the same reason, when fire and water are al­
ready realities and when there is nothing to prevent them, they will m ove to their
proper places.
G . In the generation o f one element from another, for example, when air is made
from water, the first step is alteration. Th e heated and rarefied water becomes
lighter; in this process nothing is joined together suddenly, but each o f these qual­
ities is produced one step after another. This transmutation is successive in two
ways : one depends upon the parts o f the matter or substratum and upon extension ;
the other depends upon the degree or intensity o f each such quality. This alteration
disposes and prepares for the generation o f the air and for its substantial form, this
generation being successive only in the first manner above— that is, depending
upon the parts o f the substratum into which the form is introduced step by step,
but not depending upon the intensity o f such form since in this respect it is not
divisible. Therefore, / (i88d) the thing which makes and generates air from water
also heats, rarefies, and lightens the matter, and then introduces the form part af­
ter part, as just stated. When the lightness o f the matter, having the form o f air,
overcomes the weight o f the matter and other resistance, then this body moves
upward higher and higher in proportion to the greater amount it possesses o f the
form o f air and in proportion to its lightness. I f there is resistance which holds
back the matter so that it cannot move upward, nevertheless, the air can be made
and later, when the resistance has disappeared, it will move upward by reason o f
its form and lightness.
T . Also in a living body, when the nourishment is ready, it moves toward the
member for which it is intended, i f nothing prevents it. In the same way, a body
moves and is changed toward a state o f health.
G . Therefore, as I have stated before, a body has the capacity to change itself o f
its own accord, just as it can descend or rise o f its own accord. He speaks again o f
the motive principle.
684 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
95 T . E t ce qui meust tele chose legiere ou pesante, ce est <ce>20 qui la fait
ou commencement; et aucune fois // (189a) est ce qui oste l’empeeschement,
ou la chose qui la fait retorner ou resortir ou rebondir, si comme il fu dit es
premiers paroles ou nous determinasmes que rien de telles choses ne meust
soy meisme.
100 G . Ce est <en>21 le .viii.e de Phisique.22 E t quant a propos, vérité est que la
chose pesante ou legiere se meust de elle meisme, mais tout ne est pas mou­
vant et tout meu, car la matière de l’element ne est pas cause motive ou mou­
vante, si comme il appert par ce <que>23 je ay dit devant. E t nientmoins, tel
mouvement ne peust estre sans autre vertu motive qui est cause du commen­
ts cement de cest mouvement et est ce qui fait et engendre tel corps, et donques
est il dit estre meu de puissance ou de possibilité essencial; ou ce est <ce>24
qui oste l’empeeschement, et donques est il dit estre meu de puissance ou de
possibilité accidentai. Mais de ce que Aristote parle de ce qui fait la chose re­
sortir, ce est en mouvement violent duquel fu dit ou .xiii.e chapitre du secont.
x10 T . O r est donques dit pour quelle cause chascun corps pesant ou legier
est meu et quoy ce est que estre meu a son lieu.
5. Ou quint chapitre il determine / (189b) des differences1 des
choses pesantes et de<s>2 legieres en tant comme teles.
T . O r3 disons donques maintenant les differences et les accidens des cho­
ses pesantes et des legieres. E t premièrement soit déterminé, si comme il
semble a touz, que corps simplement pesant est celui qui repose ou est mis
souz tous autres, et celui est simplement legier qui est sus tous autres.
5 G . Ce est la propre descripcion ou diffinicion de simplement pesant et de
simplement legier et est donnée par repos ; et l’autre que il mist ou premier
chapitre est donnée par mouvement lequel ne est pas si propre a telz corps
comme est repos, car il ne sont meuz fors quant il sont fais ou engendréz hors
leur lieu ou quant il en sont hors par violence. E t est a savoir que le feu en
10 son lieu ne repose pas du tout, mais il repose par privacion de mouvement
droit. Item, de ce que Aristote dist que corps simplement legier est sus tous
autres, ce est a entendre sus tous autres4 qui sont mobiles ou mouvables de
mouvement droit, car le ciel est sus le feu— a prendre sus en une maniéré.5
Apres il expose ceste descrip- // (189c) cion.
X îk
omits ce. 24 A omits ce.
omits en. 1 E omits des differences.
22 Physicorum, VIII.4.225a x— 255b 13. 2 A de; B C D E F omit de.
23 A omits que. 3 Guthrie, ch. 4.
Book IV, Chapters 4-5, fols. 189a-! 89b | 68j
T . Th e cause o f motion in such a light or heavy body is the same thing that
caused or made it in the first place; sometimes // (189a) it is that which removes
the hindrance or the thing that makes it turn, m ove outward, or bound backward,
as was said in our opening words where we declared that none o f these things
moves itself.
G . This is stated in the eighth book o f the Physics. A s for the present problem, it
is true that a heavy or light body moves on its own accord, but everything is not
m oving nor completely m oved; for the matter o f the element is not a cause o f mo­
tion, nor is the matter itself mobile, as is clear from what I have said before. H ow ­
ever, such motion cannot exist without another motive power which causes the
motion to begin and which creates and generates such a body; and so it is said to
m ove because o f its inherent potentiality or capacity for motion; or else it may be
because the hindrance or resistance is removed, in which case the body is said to
move by reason o f its accidental potentiality or capacity. What Aristotle says about
the cause o f its bounding back is due to violent motion o f which we spoke in
Chapter Thirteen o f Book II [see fol. 105 c].
T . Thus, we have explained w hy each heavy or light body moves and what is in­
volved in the motion o f a body to its proper place.
5. In Chapter Five he examines / (189b) the difference between
T . We are now in a position to examine the individual differences and accidental
properties o f heavy and light bodies. A t the outset let us confirm what everyone
can observe, that an absolutely heavy body will repose or settle below all other
bodies while the absolutely light body will rise above all others.
G . This is the correct description or definition o f absolutely heavy and absolutely
light, and it can be expressed as repose or rest; the other definition that he gave in
Chapter One [see fol. 18 ib] is characterized by motion which is not so proper to
such a body as repose ; for such bodies move only when they are created or gener­
ated outside their proper place or are outside it by reason o f violence. It should be
pointed out that in its proper place fire does not rest at all, but it rests because o f a
privation [or loss] o f its rectilinear motion. Aristotle’s statement that an absolutely
light body rises above all others means that it rises above all others capable o f rec­
tilinear motion— because the heavens are above fire— taking above in one [special]
sense. Afterward, he comments upon this description. //
4 B omits ce est... autres. dre ... maniéré.
s C D E F le feu a près sus ; B omits a pren­
686 | jLe Livre du ciel et du monde
i5 T . E t je entent les corps estre simplement telz en resgardant a leur gerre ou
a leur nature es quelz ne sont pas les .ii. qualitéz, ce est a savoir pesanteur et
legiereté. E t tel corps comme je entent est le feu duquel quelcunque partie,
tant soit petite, est meue tout en haut se elle ne a empeeschement; et un autre
tel est la terre de laquelle <chascune>6 partie est semblablement meue tout en
20 bas. E t aussi de telz corps tou<t>7 le plus grant est meu plus isnelement.
G . Ce est a entendre se8les autres choses sont pareilles et se telz corps sont
hors de leurs lieus, etc. Apres il met la diffinicion des corps qui sont telz et
non pas simplement.9
T . Mais pesant et legier sont dis autrement 'des corps qui ont ces .ii. quali-
25 tés et qui sont meuz ou sont sus aucuns corps et sont souz autres, si comme
sont le aer et l’eaue. Car nul de ces .ii. ne est simplement legier ou pesant, mais
touz .ii. sont plus legiers que terre, car chascune partie de ces .ii. corps, tant
soit petite, est ou t<en>t <a>10 estre sus la terre; et ces .ii. corps sont plus
pesans que le feu, car chascune partie de eulz, / (i89d) tant soit petite, est ou
30 tent a estre souz le feu. E t se ces .ii. corps sont comparéz un a l’autre, un est
simplement plus pesant et l’autre est simplement plus legier, car tout aer,
tant soit grant ou petit, est sus l’eaue ou tent a estre, et toute eaue souz11
l’aer.
G . 12 L ’en ne doit pas entendre que aer ou eaue aient en soy .ii. qualités
35 motives, pesanteur et legiereté, absoluement aussi comme, selon aucuns, .ii.
contraires sont ou moien, si comme chaleur et fredeur en ce qui est tyede ;
mais l’aer a une seule qualité motive aussi simple13 comme est celle du feu ou
de la terre, laquelle est dite legiereté ou resgart et ou lieu de la terre et de
l’eaue, et est dite pesanteur ou resgart et ou lieu du feu. E t semblablement est
40 il de la qualité motive de l’eaue ou resgart d’autres corps. Apres ce que il a dit
que ces qualités sont es corps simples, il parle de leurs differences es corps
mixtes.
T . E t par ce peust apparoir comment les corps autres que les elemens ont
pesanteur et legiereté, car la pesanteur et la legiereté des corps simples est
45 cause de toute la difference de teles qualités es corps composts et mixtes, //
(190a) car selon ce que il a plus ou moins1* de elemens pesans et legiers es corps
composts, selon ce sont telz corps les uns plus legiers, les autres plus pesans.
E t pour ce l’en doit dire et determiner, quant a ces qualitéz, des elemens et
des premiers corps, caries autres les ensuient. E t est ce que nous disions que il
50 convient faire et deussent faire ceulz qui mettent que plain est cause de pe­
santeur et vieu de legiere<té>.15
G . Ce fu en la quinte rayson du secont chapitre. E t doit l’en savoir que
quant a propos sont .ii. maniérés de corps mixtes : car aucuns ne sont pas
^ X X
omits chascune. 9 B omits et non pas simplement,
touz. 10 A tout. A B C D E F omit a.
est a en se; D E est air se. 11 B sus.
Book IV, Chapter 5, fols. 18 9 0 190a | 68j
(189c) T . I mean that bodies are absolutely heavy or light with respect to their
genus or nature in which neither o f the two qualities o f heaviness and lightness is
present. A s I understand it, such a body is fire o f which any part whatsoever, no
matter how small, moves straight upward if not hindered; another such body is the
earth o f which each part is moved downward. A n d also the largest o f such bodies
moves most rapidly.
G . That is, if other things are equal and if these bodies are outside their proper
places, etc. N ext he gives a definition o f bodies o f this kind which are not absolute­
ly light or heavy.
T . But heavy and light are used in a different sense in referring to bodies which
have these two qualities and which m ove or are above certain bodies and beneath
others, like air and water. For neither o f these tw o bodies is absolutely heavy or
light, but both are lighter than earth, because each part o f both bodies, however
small, is or seeks to be above the earth; and both are heavier than fire, and each o f
their parts, / (189d) however small, is or seeks to be below fire. I f we compare these
two bodies with each other, we find one absolutely heavier and the other absolute­
ly lighter ; for all air, no matter how large or small in quantity, is or tends to be above
water, and all water below air.
G . One should not understand that air and water possess within themselves the
tw o motive qualities o f weight and lightness in the absolute manner that, in the
opinion o f some people, two contraries have in relation to their intermediate state,
as, for example, heat and cold from which tepid or lukewarm is derived; for air has
a single m otive quality as absolute as that o f fire or earth, and it is called lightness
with regard to earth and water and to their proper places, and weight with regard
to fire and to its proper place. It is the same with the motive quality o f water with
respect to other bodies. H aving shown that these qualities are present in simple
bodies, he now discusses their differences in mixed bodies.
T . So, it becomes apparent how bodies other than the elements have weight and
lightness, for the weight and lightness o f the simple bodies cause all the differences
in such qualities in compound or mixed bodies; // (190a) the greater or lesser
amount o f heavy and light elements present in the composition o f mixed bodies, the
lighter or heavier they are. Accordingly, it is necessary to ascertain with respect to
these qualities what elements and primary bodies are present, for the others will
depend upon them. This is our reason for pointing out that those who hold that
fullness is the cause o f weight and void the cause o f lightness must consider this
matter more carefully.
G . This was in the fifth argument in Chapter T w o [see fol. 183a]. It ought to be
pointed out in this regard that there are two kinds o f mixed bodies : some are not
12 B D E omit Glose. 14 A moiens.
13 B omits aussi simple. 15 A legiere.
 690 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde Book IV, Chapter 5, fol. 191a 691

legier ne pesant.23Item, par samblable l ’en diroit que touz elemens en leur re­
gion ont legiereté fors la terre, aussi comme tous ont pesanteur fors le feu. E t
a l’experience que met Aristote de la vessie enflee, premièrement, si comme
95 recite saint Thomas24 d’Aquin, Simplicius et Themistius et aucuns autres
tempterent ceste chose a grant diligence et fu trouvé que aucune tele chose
plaine de aer pesoit equalment comme wide de aer, et aucune fois moins et
aucune fois plus ; et peut estre que plus souvent plus pour ce que le aer de
cibas est mixtioné de vapeurs et plus froit que pur aer, ou pour ce que en em-
ioo plant tel vaisel le aer estoit altéré et engroucié et refredi et appesanti, et au­
cune fois estoit altéré au contraire et alegi. E t donques la cause de ce que un
grant fust poise en le aer plus que .i. petit plun et en l’eaue au contraire est
ceste: car l’un et l ’autre en le aer a .ii. elemens // (191a) pesans, scilicet eaue
et terre, et le grant fust en a moult plus et se il <en)2S a plus du feu qui est le-
105 gier, ce est en mendre proporcion. Mais en l’eaue chascun a .ii. elemens le-
giers, scilicet aer et feu, et le fust en a moult plus que le plun et se il a plus
<de>26 terre, ce est en mendre proporcion et pour ce il noe en eaue. E t je cui-
de que le aer qui est enclos es pores du fust et qui ne est pas de sa nature face
plus a ce que le fust noe que ne fait son aer complexionel qui est en lui selon
110 vertu, comme les elemens sont en corps mixte. E t ce appert par .ii. signes : un
est car quant tel fust a longuement trempé en l’eaue, tant que le aer qui estoit
en ces pores est hors et que il sont plains de eaue, lors le fust descent en l’eaue ;
un autre signe est car aucun fust est de tele nature que il descent en eaue, et
en a de tel assez près de Paris. E t la cause est car il a en soy pou ou nul de telz
115 pores ou aer soit enclos pour ce que il est ferme et compact.
ments in its proper place is either heavy or lig h t. In the same way one could say that
all the elements, except the earth, have lightness in their proper place and also that
all, except fire, have weight. Regarding the experiment with the inflated bladder
related by Aristotle, St. Thomas Aquinas states that both Simplicius and Themis­
tius and some others tested this experiment with great care, and it was found that
such an object, whether filled with or empty o f air, weighed the same and that it
sometimes weighed more and sometimes less, possibly more often weighing more
because the air here below is mixed with vapors and so is colder than pure air, or
perhaps because in filling the receptacle the air was changed and increased in vo l­
ume and so colder and heavier, while at other times it was changed in the opposite
manner and made lighter. Therefore, a big lo g o f w ood weighs more in the air
than a small lead ball and the opposite occurs in water for the following cause : in
the air both objects possess two heavy elements, //(191a) water and earth, with the
big log possessing much the greater amount, for, i f it also possesses more o f the
light element fire, it is in lesser proportion. Yet, in the water each object has two
light elements, namely, air and fire, and the wooden log has much more o f them
than the lead has ; and if it has more earth, it is in lesser proportion, and, as a result,
the wood floats in the water. N o w , I am o f the opinion that the air enclosed within
the pores o f the w ood— and which is not to be considered inherently natural to it
— is more responsible for this floating than the power or force o f the elemental air
in its composition, in the same way the elements are present in a mixed body. There
are two indications that this is so : one is that, when such a log has soaked a long
time in water until the air which was in the pores has left and they have filled with
water, then the log sinks into the water; another is that certain logs are o f such
nature that they settle down into the water, and o f these there are plenty near the
city o f Paris. Th e cause is that this type o f log has within it few or none o f the pores
where air can be enclosed because the wood is firm and compact.

23 Cf. Duhem, Etudes sur Léonard de Vinci,
vol. 1, 274, and his historical analysis o f the
problem, ibid., p. 16 ff. See also Clagett and
Moody, The Medieval Science of Weights, passim.
24 Cf. note to Book IV , Sancti Thomae Aqui-
natis commentaria in libros Aristotelis De caelo et
mundo, vol. 3 in the Leonine ed., p. xii; The-
mistii in libros Aristotelis de caelo (Commentaria
in Aristotelem Graeca, vol. 5), ed. S. Landauer
(Berlin, 1902), p. 233, 1. 9 ff. ; Simplicii in Aris­
totelis de caelo commentaria (Commentaria in
Aristotelem Graeca, vol. 8), ed. I. L. Heiberg
(Berlin, 1894), p. 710, 1. 26 ff. Cf. also note to
section 5, p. 309, in J. Barthélemy Saint-Hi­
laire, Traité du ciel et du monde: “ Simplicius
conteste l’exactitude de cette expérience, et il
déclare que, l’ayant essayé plus d ’une fois, il
a constaté que l’outre gonflée d’air n’a pas plus
de poids et qu’elle en aurait peut-être moins
que quant elle est vide. Il a cependant quelque
peine à contredire Aristote; et il suppose que cette discussion, y fait figurer Thémistius a la
soufflait l’air y introduisait aussi de l’humidité
le philosophe n’aura sans doute pas fait atten­ place de Ptolomée.”
et un peu d’eau. Il paraît d’ailleurs que Sim­
tion en gonflant l’outre, que l’haleine qui y 25 A omits en.
plicius ne faisait ici que répéter une objection
26 A omits de.
de Ptolomée. Saint Thomas, en rapportant
 692 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
6. Ou sixte chapitre il monstre principalment que des corps
simples il convient que aucun soit simplement legier
et aucun simplement pesant. /
(191b) T . E t que aucun corps est simplement legier et aucun simplement
pesant il appert par ce que s’ensuit. E t je entent par simplement legier corps
qui est touzjours meu en haut en quelcunque lieu que il soit ailleurs, et par
simplement pesant celui qui est partout enclin a estre meu en bas se il ne est
5 empeeschié ; car telz sont ces corps et ne est pas si comme aucuns cuident,
scilicet que tous corps aient pesanteur. Mes pesanteur est en aucuns autres
corps et sont touzjours meuz en bas1 en aucuns lieus, et semblablement telz
corps ont legiereté.
G . Ce sont les .ii. elemens moiens, comme souvent dit est. Apres il prouve
10 son propos par .ii. raysons principales.
T . O r voions nous, si comme il est dit devant, que toutes choses terrestres
sont desouz toutes autres et sont meues au milieu. E t ce milieu est déterminé
et en certain lieu. E t donques, se aucune chose est que est portée et meue sus
toutes— si comme est le feu lequel est meu en haut en le aer meisme qui repo-
i5 se— il s’ensuit que ce feu est meu au plus haut, aussi comme la terre est meue
au I f (191c) plus bas. E t donques est ce impossible que il ait aucune pesan­
teur, car se ainsi estoit, le feu seroit souz2 aucun autre corps ; et se ainsi estoit,
cel autre corps seroit meu tout au plus haut par desus tous autres. E t l’en ne
voit onques quelcunque tel corps. E t donques le feu ne a quelcunque pesan-
20 teur ne la terre quelcunque legiereté, car elle est souz3 toutes autres choses et
tele chose est meue au milieu.
G . Legiereté est une qualité motive qui encline a estre meu en haut en au­
cun lieu ; et il ne est lieu ou la terre soit a ce encline. E t donques elle n’est le-
giere en quelcunque lieu ne ou resgart de quelcunque autre corps, ne le feu
25 pesant par semblable rayson.4 Apres il prouve une chose que il avoit sup­
posée et par .ii. raysons.
T . E t que un milieu soit auquel sont meues les choses qui ont pesanteur et
duquel se esloignent les legieres, il appert par pluseurs choses; première­
ment, car ce est impossible que mouvement droit procédé sanz fin et soit in-
30 fini, car tout tel mouvement est d’au- / (191 d) cun terme et tent a aucun terme
certain.
G . Ce fu prouvé plus a plain ou premier livre ou .xiii.<e>s et ou .xviii.e
chapitre et en pluseurs lieus.
T . Item, quant pluseurs parties <de feu sont meues en haut et pluseurs par-
1 F omits en bas. 4 B omits ne le fe u .. .rayson.
2 D E sans. 5 A xiii; E xviii; B ou premier livre ou
3 B C D F s u s . Cf. Juntas, 259A: cum descen- .xviii. chapitre. //
dat sub omnibus corporibus.
Book IV, Chapter 6, fols. i9 ib -i9 id | 693
6. In Chapter Six his principal concern is to show that one o f the
simple bodies [or elements] must be absolutely light
and another absolutely heavy. /
(191b) T . That there is some body absolutely light and another absolutely heavy
can be demonstrated in the following manner. A n d by absolutely light I mean a body
which invariably moves upward wherever and in whatever place it may be, and by
absolutely heavy I mean one which is everywhere inclined to move downward unless
hindered or prevented; for there are bodies o f both kinds, and it is not, as some
think, that all bodies are heavy. However, certain bodies have weight and are al­
ways moved downward in certain places, and yet such bodies also have lightness.
G . These are the two intermediate or middle elements [air and water], as we
have often said. Then he proves his thesis by two principal arguments.
T . N o w we can see, as stated above, that all terrestrial objects are below or be­
neath all other objects and that they move toward the universal center, which is
determined and fixed in a certain place. Therefore, if there is something which is
borne upward, m oving over and above all other things, just as fire is m oved up­
ward in the very air which remains stationary, then it follows that fire is m oving
toward the highest possible limit just as the earth moves to // (191c) the lowest.
So, it is impossible that fire have any weight whatever, for, if it did have, fire would
remain under or beneath some other body; and if this were so, the other body
would move to the highest limit above all other bodies. A n d we have never ob­
served any such body. Accordingly, fire has no weight at all, nor has the earth any
lightness at all, for the earth is below all other things and any such body moves to­
ward the center.
G . Lightness is a motive quality or force which tends to move upward in any
place, and there is no place to which the earth is so inclined. Thus the earth is not
light in any place whatever nor in relation to any other body; for the same reason
neither is fire heavy. Next, using two arguments, he gives proof o f something he
had previously assumed.
T . There are several reasons for believing that there is a center toward which
heavy bodies m ove and away from which light bodies m ove; first, because no
rectilinear motion can be continued endlessly and so cannot be infinite, for every
such motion has a / (19id) limit and tends toward a definite limit.
G . This was proved more fully in Chapters Thirteen and Eighteen o f Book I
and in numerous passages [see fols. 22d, 29a ff.].
T . When several parts o f fire move upward and several parts o f earth downward,
694 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
35 ties)67de terre en bas, ces mouvemens sont fais selon lignes qui causent sus
corps speriques semblables angles, et donques convient il que ces lignes, se il
estoient pourtraictes, eusent concurrence ou milieu et ou centre.
G J Ceste rayson fu mise ou .xxix.e et ou .xxx.<e) 8 chapitres du secont et
declaree en figure.
40 T . E t donques par neccessité, tout corps qui a pesanteur est meu au milieu,
mais se ce est au milieu9 de la terre ou au milieu de tout le monde, ce est un
autre propos.
G . Ceste question fu determinee ou .xxx.e chapitre du secont et appert as-
sés la response par ce que fu dit ou tiers chapitre de ce quart, car se toute la
45 terre estoit maintenant la ou est la lune et une partie de terre fust ici faite de
nouvel, ceste terre ne seroit pas meue vers le ciel mais vers le // (192a) cen­
tre10 du monde. Apres ce que il a prouvé que le lieu de bas est certain et dé­
terminé, il prouve ausi du lieu de haut.
T . E t pour ce que tout corps qui est souz touz autres est meu au milieu et
50 au centre, il convient par neccessité que le corps qui est sus touz soit meu a
certaine circunference laquelle est extrémité de la region ou t e l( z ) 11 corps
font leur mouvement; car le milieu et tele extrémité sont lieus12 contraires
et ne peuent plus estre distans, et aussi le corps qui est souz touz est contraire
a celui qui est sus touz.
55 G . D e ce fu dit ou ,xviii.e chapitre du premier. O r appert donques, selon
Aristote, que aussi comme rien ne peust estre plus bas que le centre du mon­
de, semblablement ce est impossible que rien soit plus haut que la circunfe­
rence de la region des elemens, laquelle est superfice convexe13 de l’espere
du feu qui est conjointe a la superfice concave de tout le ciel. E t par ce s’en-
60 suit que a prendre haut et bas ou desuz et desouz selon ce que il resgardent
monter et descendre, le ciel ne est haut ne bas, ne ou ciel ne sont ces diffe-
ren- / 192b) ces. E t se ou ciel ou hors le ciel estoit une porcion de feu ou de
terre, elle ne avroit quelcunque inclinacion a descendre ne a monter ne, par
consequent, pesanteur ne legiereté. E t de ce fu dit plus a plain en la fin du
65 .xxiiii.e chapitre <du premier).14 Apres il met la seconde rayson a sa princi­
pal conclusion.
T . E t pour ce, a parler raysonnablement, .ii. choses sont : une simplement
pesante et l ’autre simplement legiere. E t la cause est car .ii. lieus souveraine­
ment distans et contraires sont, ce est a savoir le milieu et la extrémité ou cir-
70 cunference.
G . Apres il monstre que aucuns corps sont qui ne sont pas simplement pe-
sans ne simplement legiers.
6 A omits de feu ... parties. 10 A pas ciel centre.
7 D E omit Glose. 11A D tel.
8 A B xxx. 12 E leurs.
9 E omits mais se ce est au milieu. 13 A convexee.
Book IV, Chapter 6, fols. 192a-! 92b | 69j
their motions m ove along lines that form identical angles above spherical bodies ;
and it would follow that these lines, if continued, must meet in the middle or center
o f the spheres.
G . This argument was stated in Chapters Twenty-nine and Thirty o f B ook II
and illustrated by diagram [see fols. 149c If., and Fig. 36].
T . Therefore, by necessity, every body having weight moves toward the center,
but whether toward the center o f the earth or o f the world is another question.
G . This question was answered in Chapter Thirty o f Book II [see fol. 15 ia ff.],
and the reply is clear enough from what was said in Chapter Three o f this B ook I V
[see fol. 186a ff.]; for if all the earth were now there where the moon is and if a
small part were created here once more, then this new earth would not move to­
ward the heavens, but rather toward the // (192a) center o f the universe. After he
has proved that the place called down is certain and fixed, he proves the same for
the place called above.
T . A n d since any body that is beneath all the other bodies moves toward the
middle or center, then the body which is above all others must necessarily move
toward a certain circumference which is the extreme limit o f the region toward
which such bodies m ove; thus, the center and such a circumferential limit con­
stitute contraries and cannot be more distant from each other, and the body under­
neath everything is the opposite o f the one that is above everything.
G . This was discussed in Chapter Eighteen o f Book I [see fol. 29b]. Therefore,
according to Aristotle, it appears that, just as nothing can be lower than the center
o f the world, it is also impossible that anything be higher than the circumference o f
the region o f the elements, which is the convex surface o f the sphere o f fire that
joins onto the concave surface o f the heavens. From this fact, it follows that, to
understand high and low, above and below in the sense o f m oving upward or
downward, the heavens are neither high nor low, nor do such differences exist in
the heavens. / (192b) I f there were a small portion o f fire or o f earth inside or out­
side the heavens, it would have no tendency whatever to descend or to ascend and,
consequently, it would have neither weight nor lightness. This was discussed
more fully at the end o f Chapter Twenty-four o f Book I. Afterward, he presents
the second argument in support o f his principal conclusion.
T . Reasonably speaking, then, we find that two things exist: one absolutely
heavy and the other absolutely light. This is caused by the existence o f two places,
the center and the extremity or circumference, supremely distant and contrary to
each other.
G . N ext he points out that there are some bodies which are not absolutely heavy
nor absolutely light.
14 A omits du premier.
 696 I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
T . Mais entre ces .ii. choses est moien lequel est legier ou resgart de l ’une
et pesant ou resgart de l’autre, car entre les .ii. lieus desus dis, dont un est le
75 centre et l’autre la circunference, <est moien qui est circunference)15 ou res­
gart de l’un et milieu16 ou resgart de l’autre. E t pour ce, en ce lieu moien sont
.ii. corps, un pesant, l’autre legier et sont eaue et aer.
G . Car ce est impossible que tel lieu moien soit vieu. E t doit l’en // (192c)
savoir que se un vaisel plain de eaue estoit en l’espere du feu près du ciel et en
8o cel<le>17 eaue fust aer, cest aer monteroit siques au ciel et naturelment. E t
semblablement, eaue descendroit siques au centre du monde, se elle estoit en
aer18 qui fust la desouz. E t pour tout miex entendre, je répété un cas que je
mis ou quart chapitre du premier, et pose par ymaginacion que un tuel ou
canel de cuivre ou d’autre matière soit si long que il attaigne du centre du
85 monde siques au ciel; et met ou pose premièrement que il soit plain de aer
fors que emprés le ciel soit un petit de eaue. Je di que ceste eaue descendroit
siques au centre. Item, je met que ce tuel fust plain de eaue fors que près du
centre fust un petit de aer. Je di que cest aer monteroit siques au ciel. Item,
je met que il fust plain de feu qui est pur element fors que près du ciel fust un
90 petit de aer. Je di que cest aer descendroit siques au centre par le semidyame-
tre de l’espere des elemens. E t la cause est pour ce que l’ordenance naturele
des elemens est tele que eaue descent en aer et aer / (i92d) en feu et monte en
eaue et partout. E t combien que, par aventure, l’en pourroit dire que telz
mouvemens en ce cas ne sont pas du tout naturelz, si comme je dis ou quart
95 chapitre du premier, toutevoies il me semble que l’en doit miex dire que chas-
cun de ces mouvemens est du tout et en tout naturel et d’une maniéré et n’i
pourroit pas bien assigner proprement difference. Je di donques que ce est
possible que aer soit meu naturelment du centre siques au ciel et au contraire, du
ciel siques au centre.19 E t peust l’en dire <que>20 ces .ii. mouvemens ne sont
100 pas proprement contraires, car il ne sont pas faiz par un moien, car un est par
eaue et l’autre par feu; et ausi par ces .ii. mouvemens Je aer tent a une meisme
fin, ce est a estre en son ordre naturel selon ce que il est possible. E t donques
chascun de ces .ii. mouvemens H est naturel. E t ce que Aristote dist ou tiers
chapitre du premier que d’un corps simple est .i. seul mouvement simple, ce
105
est a entendre en un meisme moien. Item, pour ce sel’aer descent naturelment
// ( 193a) en tel cas siques au centre du monde, il ne s’ensuit pas que il soit
simplement pesant, car il ne seroit pas ainsi meu par tout autre element moi­
en. E t semblablement, se en autre cas il monte tout en haut siques au ciel, il
ne s’ensuit pas pour ce que il soit simplement legier, car il ne monteroit pas
ainsi parmi tout autre element moien et n’est pas en ce cas sus tous autres
A omits est m oien ... circunference. 18 B C F omit aer; D E lieu.
16 B C D E F moyen. 19 B C D E F omit Je d i...a u centre.
17 A B C F cel. 20 A de.
Book IV, Chapter 6, fols. i92c-i93a | 697
T . However, between these two absolutes there is an intermediate range for ob­
jects which are light as compared to the heavy and heavy as compared to the light ;
for between the two above-mentioned places— one the center and the other the
circumference— there is an intermediate region which provides a circumference or
outer limit for one body and a center for another. A nd so in this middle region
there are two bodies, one heavy and the other light, and they are water and air.
G . Because such a middle region cannot possibly be empty. A nd it is well known
U (192c) that, if a receptacle filled with water stood in the sphere o f fire near the
heavens and if there were air in that water, this air would rise quite naturally up to the
heavens. Likewise, if there were water in the air down below, this water would m ove
downward to the center o f the world. T o expound this more clearly, I am going
to repeat here a case which I gave as an example in Chapter Four o f Book I [see
fol. ioab] and I posit an imaginary tile or pipe o f copper or o f another material to
be made so long that it reaches from the world’s center to the heavens and I posit
primarily that this pipe be filled with air, except at a point near the heavens above
which there will be a small quantity o f water. I say that this water would descend to
the center. N o w I claim that this pipe or tube is filled with water, save for a small
amount o f air near the center. I maintain that this air would rise up to the heavens.
Next, I posit that the tube is filled with the pure element fire, save that near the
heavens there is a little air. I say that this air would m ove toward the center to a
distance o f one-half the diameter o f the sphere o f the elements. The cau se is due to
the fact that the natural order o f the elements is such that water descends when en­
closed in air, and air / (i92d) descends when enclosed in fire and moves upward
when in water or elsewhere. Although it can perhaps be charged that in this case
such movements are not at all natural, as I indicated in Chapter Four o f Book I [see
fol. ioab], nevertheless, it seems to me that it would be better said that each o f
these movements as a whole is completely natural and o f one single kind and that
no essential difference in their general pattern could be adduced. Therefore, I say
that it is possible for air to m ove naturally from the center up to the heavens and,
in the contrary way, from the heavens down to the center. One can charge that
these two movements are not properly contrary, for they are not made through the
same medium or environment since one is through water and the other through
fire and also since by these two movements the air tends toward the same limit,
which is to reach and remain within its natural order in so far as possible. Accord­
ingly, each o f these two movements is natural to air. When Aristotle says in Chap­
ter Three o f Book I [see fol. 8a] that there is but one simple movement for each
simple body, we are to understand this to mean within the same identical medium
or environment. So, in such a case, if air descends naturally // (193a) to the very
center o f the world, it does not follow that air is absolutely heavy, for it would not
move this way through every other intermediate element. Likewise, if, as in the
other example, air rises all the way up to the heavens, it does not fo llo w from this
action that it is absolutely light, for it would not ascend thus through every other
 698 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
elemens. Apres Aristote monstre une habitude ou resgart que les elemens ont
ensemble.
T . E t nous disons que l’element qui contient est si comme espece ou for­
me, et celui qui est contenu est aussi comme matière. E t ceste difference est en
u5 touz gerres et en qualité et en quantité que un est comme forme et l’autre
comme matière, et semblablement en contrariété qui est selon lieu, car le lieu
qui est haut est comme forme et le lieu de bas ou le corps qui est bas est com­
me matière.
G . La forme substancial est plus perfecte que la matie<re>21 et est perfec-
120 tion, et la conserve et contient et termine aucunement. E t pour ce que l’ele­
ment qui contient l’autre est desus et plus / (193b) perfect et conserve ce que
il contient, il est aussi comme forme ou resgart de l’autre qui est contenu ; et
ce fu dit ou tiers chapitre. E t en toutes transmutacions un terme est plus per­
fect que l’autre, et en contraires, si comme blanc que noir, chaut que froit,
125 grant que petit, feu que aer et aer que eaue, haut que bas et ainsi des autres.
E t le perfect est dit forme ou resgart de l’autre. E t selon ce appert ou secont
livre22 de Generation2* que quant feu est fait de aer, l’en dist que ce est gene-
racion et quant est au contraire, l’en dist que ce est corrupcion combien que
ce soit generacion de aer. E t aussi disons nous quant charoingne est engen-
i3o dree de beste ou de honme que ce est corrupcion. Apres il declare encore ce
que il a dit.
T . E t pour ce un meisme corps, si comme est eaue, peust estre corrumpu
en plus pesant et en plus legier aussi comme un corps peust estre transmué a
maladie et a santé, et a possibilité a chascune de ces qualités par diverses ray-
135 sons. E t ce que est simplement legier est partout meu en haut et ce que est de
matière simplement pesante tousjours et // (193c) partout est meu en bas. E t
les autres qui ont ces qualités non pas simplement mes en resgart, si comme
le aer et l’eaue, l ’eaue est souz touz elemens fors souz la terre, et le aer sus tous
fors sus le feu.
7. Ou .vii.e chapitre il conclut le nombre des elemens.
T . E t comme ainsi soit que un element est lequel est sus touz et un autre
lequel est s<o)usI tous, il s’ensuit par neccessité que .ii. autres elemens soient
qui sont souz un des .ii.2 desus dis et sont sus l’autre.
G . Ceste consequence n’est pas ici prouvée, mais elle appert assés ou se-
b k
matie. 23 De generatione, 11.4.331b 12-27.
E t secont aperti ou livre; E Et le 1 A B sus. Guthrie, ch. 5.
second appert ou livre. 2 D E sont un de .ii.
Book IV, Chapter 6, fols. 193b-!93c | 699
intermediate element, and, in this case, it is not above all other elements. N o w
Aristotle points out a feature held in common by all the elements together.
T. W e maintain also that the element which contains is designative o f the species
or form and that the element contained is designative o f the matter. This difference
exists in all the categories both in quality and quantity so that one represents, as it
were, the formal aspect and the other the material; and the same is true o f contraries
as far as place is concerned, for the place located above is like the form and the place
below in which the body is situated is like the matter.
G . Substantial form is more perfect than matter and constitutes its perfection,
preserving, containing, and limiting it in a sense. Since the element containing the
other one is above and so more / (193 b) perfect and preserves that which it con­
tains, it is comparable to form in relation to the other thing which is contained ;
this was stated in Chapter Three [see fol. 186a ff.]. In all processes o f change one
designation is more perfect than the other, and in contraries like white-black, hot-
cold, large-small, fire-air, air-water, high-low, and so forth with all the others, the
first term is more perfect than the second. Th e state o f perfection is called the form
in relation to the other thing called matter. Accordingly, in the second book o f
Generation, when fire is made from air, we say that this is growth or generation;
when the contrary occurs, we say that it is disintegration, although it is generation
o f air. Also, when a decaying carcass is produced from an animal or a man, we call
this disintegration. He explains again what he has said.
T . For this reason, one and the same body, for instance, water, can be altered
into a heavier or lighter state, just as a body can change from sickness to health,
having, for various reasons, a potential for each o f these qualities. That which is
absolutely light always and everywhere moves upward, while absolutely heavy
matter always and // (193 c) everywhere moves downward. Th e other elements like
air and water have these qualities but in a relative and not absolute manner; o f
these, water is below all other elements except earth, and air is above all others ex­
cept fire.
7. In Chapter Seven he decides upon the number o f the elements.
T . Since there is one element which is above and one which is below all the
others, it follows that there must be two others which are beneath one o f the two
mentioned before and above the other.
G . This consequence is not proved here, but it is adequately explained in the
JOO Le Livre du ciel et du monde
5 cont livre de Generation* la ou Aristote conclut le nombre des elemens par la
combinacion de<s)3
4* .iiii. premieres qualités actives et passives, car un ele­
ment est chaut et sec, et est le feu; l’autre chaut et moiste, <et est l’aer;3
l’autre fret et m oiste),6et est l’eaue; l’autre froit et sec, et est la terre. E t pour
ce que l’element qui est sus l’autre sanz moien est son lieu et le contient et
io conserve et comme forme du contenu, si comme il fu dit ou chapitre prece­
dent, ces .ii. elemens ont convenience en une qualité, si comme le feu et le
aer en chaleur et ainsi des autres. / (193d) Mais afin que generacion soit faite
entre eulz les uns des autres, telz elemens prochains ont contrariété en une
qualité, si comme le feu a l’aer en ce que il est sec, et le aer est moiste et ainsi
i5 des autres ; et pour ce dist il apres :
T . E t pour ce convient il que les matières des elemens soient en tel nombre
et que il soient .iiii., mais elles sont .iiii. telement que il ont une matière com­
mune, car autrement ne seroient il pas faiz les uns des autres.
G . Ce <est c e ) 7 que l’en appelle premiere matière qui est commune et une
20 meisme souz8 la forme d’un element et apres souz la forme de l’autre. E t les
.iiii. elemens peuent estre dis .iiii. matières des corps mixtes.
T . E t entre choses contraires est moien ou un ou pluseurs, si comme il est
es coleurs.
G . Car entre blanc et noir qui sont couleurs contraires sont pluseurs cou-
25 leurs moiennes. E t aussi, a propos, entre le lieu ou est le feu9 et le lieu ou est
la terre est lieu moien qui ne peust estre vieu. E t donques convient il que il y
ait un corps ou .ii. au moins et ce ne peust estre // (194a) un seul, car il con­
vient que le feu, qui est chaut et sec, ait un corps simple contraire par nature ;
et ce est l’eaue qui est froide et moiste. E t par semblable, il convient que la
3o terre ait un corps contraire, et ce est le aer. E t donques le aer et l’eaue sont
moiens10 selon lieu entre le feu et la terre. Mais Plato11 prouve ceste conclu­
sion par ce que entre .ii. nombres cubiques par neccessité sont .ii. autres nom­
bres moiens selon une proporcion et ne peuent estre plus ne moins ; si comme
en .viii.12 et .xxvii.13 qui sont premiers cubiques sont .xii. et .xviii. moiens14
35 selon proporcion sequialtere continuele. E t pour ce, selon Plato, entre le feu
et la terre sont .ii. elemens. Apres Aristote retourne a monstrer que le aer et
l’eaue ont pesanteur et legiereté.
T . E t des elemens qui ont pesanteur et legiereté, chascun a pesanteur en
sa region et la terre l’a en toutes, et les autres moiens ne ont legiere<té>15
3 De generations, 11.3.330a 30— 332a 28. 10 F moistes.
+ A C F de. 11 Timaeus, 43B.
L L ^
omits l’autre chaut et moiste, et est l’aer. 12 A .viii.e
omits et est l’aer; l’autre fret et moiste. 13 B .xviii.
omits est ce. 14 D E omit moiens.
8 D E sus.
15 A legiere.
9 D E omit est le feu.
Book IV, Chapter 7, fols. i93d-i94a | jo i
second book o f Generation, where Aristotle establishes the number o f the elements
by a combination o f the four primary active and passive qualities : one element, fire,
is hot and dry; another, air, is hot and moist; water is cold and moist; and earth is
cold and dry. Since the element above the one directly below it— without any inter­
vening body— is the proper place o f the one situated below and since it contains
and preserves it as though it were the form o f the thing contained, as explained in
the preceding chapter [see fol. 193a], then these two elements participate together
in one quality, just as fire and air share heat, and the same is true o f the other ele­
ments. / (193 d) But in order that generation may occur from one another, such
neighboring elements are opposites in one quality— just as air and fire are with re­
gard to dryness— fire being dry and air moist, and so on with the other elements.
Therefore, he continues :
T . Accordingly, the elements must be four in number and the four must be so
arranged that they have one material constituent in common, or otherwise they
could not be generated from one another.
G . What is o f common and identical form in one and subsequent elements is
known as primary matter so that the four elements may be described as the four
constituents o f mixed bodies.
T . Between contraries there may be one or several intermediate stages, as in the
case o f colors.
G . Between the contrary colors black and white, there are many intermediate
colors. Also, between the regions o f fire and earth there is an intermediate region
which cannot be empty and in which there must be at least one body or tw o ; it
cannot be // (194a) a single body because fire, which is hot and dry, must have a
simple body o f the opposite nature or water, which is cold and moist. Likewise, the
earth must have a contrary body, and this is the air. So, with respect to place, air
and water are intermediate bodies between the fire and earth. But Plato proves this
conclusion by pointing out that between the cubes o f two numbers there must nec­
essarily be tw o other mean [proportional] numbers, bearing not a greater or lesser
but the same proportion to each other as that between the numbers originally
cubed; as, for example, between the first cubic numbers 8 and 27 there are the
means [proportionals] 12 and 18, having to each other a continuous sesquialterate
proportion [ o f 2:3— which were the original numbers to be cubed]. In Plato’s opin­
ion, this explains the existence o f two elements, air and water, between the fire and
earth. Next, Aristotle demonstrates again that air and water have both weight and
lightness.
T . Each o f the elements possessing weight and lightness has weight in its own
place, while the earth has weight in all places and the middle elements have lightness

40 fors la ou il sont meus en haut. E t que le aer et l’eaue aient pesanteur en leur
region il appert, car pour ce / (194b) <que>16 quant l’en detrait ou soustrait
les corps qui sont sous eulz, il descendent en bas, ce est a savoir le aer en la
region de l’eaue et l’eaue en la region de la terre. Mais qui diviser oit ou oste-
roit du feu qui est desus le aer, cel aer ne monteroit pas en haut en la region
45 du feu fors par violence, ausi comme l’eaue est traite par violence en la region
de l’aer quant aucune chose est conjointe a la superfice de l’eaue et aucun la
trait en haut plus isnelement que l’eaue ne descendroit en bas.
G . Aussi comme quant une aes de fust est tiree de l’eaue bien isnelement,
l’eaue la suit17 afin que rien ne demeure vieu; et ausi comme l ’en attrait le aer
5° par .i. calemel qui touche l’eaue et donques l’eaue monte par violence par ce
chalemel.
T . Mais la terre n’est pas ainsi, car la superfice ne se peust pas ainsi con-
joindre a un autre corps. E t pour ce, en un vaisel qui est chaufé, l’eaue est
attraite en haut et la terre non.
55 G .18 Si comme quant un pot boillt et il est couvert, l’eaue est eslevee par
fumee contre le couvercle, et les choses terrestres qui sont en ce // (194c) pot
n’i sont pas eslevees.
T . 19 E t aussi comme la terre n’est onques meue en haut fors par violence,
non est le feu en bas20 fors par violence qui soustrairoit l’aer qui est souz lui,
60 car le feu ne a quelcunque pesanteur ne en sa region ne ailleurs, aussi comme
la terre ne a quelcunque legiereté. Mais les .ii. elemens moiens sont meus en
bas quant l’en soustrait ce que <est>21 souz eulz, car la terre est simplement
pesante et souz tous autres. E t chascun des elemens moiens est aucunement
pesant et22 en resgart et en sa region pour la similitude de la matière des corps
65 sus quoy il est.
G . Car en le aer qui est près de l’eaue et de la terre sont vapeurs, et a simi­
litude a l’eaue et est plus gros et moins subtil et plus froit et, pour ce, plus
pesant ou moins legier que selon la nature de aer qui est pur element.
Mais il semble que Aristote veulle dire generalment ou quint chapitre et en
70 cestui que tout aer est pesant en sa region et ce veult prouver sa rayson, et a
ce il met ou quint chapitre une experience a la- / (i94d) quelle fu faite res­
ponse. E t pour declarer ce que je entent de ceste chose, je23 suppose que toute
la masse des .iiii. elemens et des corps [Fig. 1] qui sont en eulz est une espere
16 A omits que. 20 B C D F haut.
17 B C D E F omit l’eaue la suit. 21 A omits est.
omits Glose. 22 A repeats et.
omits Tiexte. 23 A chose et je.
Book IV, Chapter 7, fols. I94b-i94d | 70$
only when they have risen to their own places. It is clear that air and water have
weight in their regions because / (194b) when we remove the bodies situated beneath
them, they fall downward— that is, air falls to the region o f water, and water to the
region o f earth. However, if we divided or removed some o f the fire which is above
the air, this air would not mount to the region o f fire except by violence, just as
water is drawn violently into the region o f air when something is placed upon the
surface o f the water and someone lifts it up faster than the water can fall from it.
G . Similarly, when someone pulls a wooden plank rapidly out o f water, the
water follows the plank so that no void can remain ; and when someone sucks air
through a tube touching the surface o f the water, the water mounts through the
tube by violence.
T . But the earth does not react thus, for its surface cannot attach itself to another
body, and so from a receptacle that is heated, water is attracted upward, but earth
is not.
b
G . For example, when a covered pot boils, the water rises against the lid as va­
por, but terrestrial objects contained in this // (194c) pot are not upraised.
T . Just as earth never moves upward save by violence, so fire never moves
downward save b y violence which would also remove the air underneath it, be­
cause fire has no weight in its own region nor anywhere else just as earth has no
lightness at all. But the two intermediate elements move downward when what­
ever supports them is removed, while the earth is absolutely heavy and is below all
the other elements. Both intermediate elements are heavy to a degree in proportion
to the other two elements and to their own region or place by reason o f the ma­
terial similarity with the bodies above which they are placed.
G . For in air that is near water or earth, there are vapors similar to water, but
coarser, less subtle, and colder, and therefore heavier or less light than the pure
element air.
However, it seems that in Chapter Five and in this chapter Aristotle means to
say in general that all air is heavy in its own region and he would like to prove
this theory; and, accordingly, in Chapter Five [see fol. 190c ff.] he gave an account
o f an experiment / (i94d) to which we replied. In order to clarify what I think about
this matter, I assume that the whole mass o f the four elements, together with the
bodies contained within them, constitutes a solid sphere [see Fig. 1], the radius of
 jo/f | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
solide de laquelle <le>24 semidyametre procédé de .a., le centre du monde, si-
75 ques a .b., la superfice concave du ciel. E t donques aucun pourrait ymaginer
que ceste masse ou espere est divisée en .iiii. parties selon ,iii.2S poins signés
en ce dyametre par distance equale ou inequale de inequalité quelle que elle
soit. E t soient ces Jii. // (195a) poins .c. et .d. et .e., et que selon ce sont .iiii.
regions determinees chascune pour un element selon leur ordre ;26 et semble
80 que ce fu l’opinion d’Aristote. Mais je cuide que elle n’est pas vraie, pre­
mièrement car l’en ne pourroit certainement assigner ou signer lieus ou fus­
sent ces .iii. poins determineement. E t pour exemple, je pren le point .d. qui
est entre le aer et eaue : car posé que il soit en un lieu déterminé, donques s’en­
suit il que se le aer descent plus bas, ce sera hors son lieu et hors sa region; et
85 donques ce sera par violence, aussi comme l’eaue monte oultre .d. par vio ­
lence. E t par consequent, le aer ne a pas plus pesanteur en sa region que
l’eaue a legiereté en la siene, et toutevoies Aristote dist le contraire. Item, il
s’ensuiroit que la partie de terre qui est descouverte d’eaue en la maniéré que
fu dit ou .xxxi.<e>27 chapitre du secont fust en la region de l’eaue ou que
90 l’eaue ne fust pas en sa propre region; et donques serait ce chose desnaturele
et violence et, par consequent, ce ne pourroit durer tant /( 195 b) longuement.
Item, je met que un vaisel comme une cuve fust plaine de eaue fors que ou
fonz fust un pou de aer; il est certain se ceste cuve estoit cent toises en par­
font desouz le point .d., que cest aer monteroit en haut et naturelment. Mais
95 posons que ceste cuve fust tout en haut emprés le point .e., cest aer monteroit
telement ne plus ne moins comme le faisoit quant il estoit souz .d., et ainsi
par toute l’espace ou distance moienne, car touzjours monte aer quant il est
en eaue, osté empeeschement. E t ne pourroit l’en dire que ce fust violence,
et donques est le aer Iegier en sa region; et se region a, et il est, il ne deust
100 pas monter a la region du feu. Item, se ceste cuve estoit tout haut28 sus le
point .e. en la region du feu et cest aer fust en mi l’eaue, se il a region,
il devroit descendre parmi l’eaue et venir vers sa region; et ce semble chose
desraisonnable. Item, mettons que ceste cuve fust pres <du>29 centre du
monde et que elle fust plaine de aer fors que en mi fust une goûte d ’eaue,
105 nul ne dirait que // (195 c) ceste goûte d ’eaue montast en haut parmi cest
aer, et toutevoies si devroit faire pour venir a sa region, se region30 a. Item,
selon ce que je dis ou sixte chapitre, se un tuel ou canel attaignoit du cen­
tre siques au ciel et il fust plain d’eaue fors que .i. pou de aer fust pres du
centre, cest aer monteroit siques au ciel de mouvement naturel, car l’en ne
no pourroit signer lieu ou il commensast estre violent fors en adiv<i>nant31 et
sans rayson. E t semblablement, se cest tuel estoit plain de aer fors que em­
prés le ciel fust une goûte d ’eaue, ceste goûte descendroit naturelment siques
24 A omits le. leur ordre.
25 B C D E F .iiii. poins. 27 A B C .xxxi.
26 C D element se leur ordre; E element si 28 B hors.
Book IV, Chapter 7, fols. i95a-i95C 7 °J
which proceeds from the center o f the world a to the concave surface o f the heav­
ens b. Anyone can imagine this mass to be divided into four parts along three
points indicated on the radius at an equal or unequal distance, whichever it may be.
Let these three // (195 a) points c, d, and e indicate four areas or regions, each ac­
corded to an element arranged in the usual order ; this seems to be the design Aris­
totle had in mind. Yet, I do not believe that it is valid because, first, it is impossible
to establish or indicate with certainty the exact places in which these three points
belong. For example, I take point d which stands between air and water; if we as­
sume this to be a fixed and established place, then it follows that, i f air descends
lower, it will be outside its proper place or area and will be there by violence, just
as water would mount above d by violence. Consequently, air has no more weight
in its region than water has lightness in its region, but nonetheless Aristotle states
the contrary. It would follow that the part o f the earth not covered by water, as
explained in Chapter Thirty-one o f Book II [see fols. 15 5b ff.] would be in the re­
gion o f water or that the water would not be in its proper place ; therefore, this
thing would be unnatural and violent and, as a result, could not last / (195 b) very
long. Next, I assume that a tub-shaped receptacle is full o f water, save for a small
amount o f air at the bottom ; it is certain that, if this tub were one hundred toises or
fathoms deep below point dy this air would mount upward naturally. N o w let us
assume that this tub is high up against point e ; the air would rise exactly the same,
no more and no less than it rase at point d, and it would behave in this w ay through­
out the entire intermediate space or distance because air always rises when in
water, provided that there is no hindrance. This cannot be said to be due to vio ­
lence, and so air is light in its own region ; if there is a region o f air, as there defi­
nitely is, then air should not rise to the region o f fire. N o w , if this tub were at the
very highest point above e and within the region o f fire and if air were inside the
water in the tub, it should descend through the water and come toward its own
proper region if there is a region o f air ; this seems altogether unreasonable. Again,
let us assume that this tub is near the center o f the world and that it is full o f air,
save for a drop o f water in the middle; no one would say that // (195 c) this drop o f
water would mount upward through the air, but, nevertheless, it should do so to
reach its proper region, i f such there be. As I said in Chapter Six [see fol. 192c],
if a tile or pipe full o f water, save for a small amount o f air near the center, reached
from the center o f the world to the heavens, this air would mount upward to the
heavens by natural motion ; nor could anyone, except by pure guesswork, establish
a place where it would begin to m ove by violence. Likewise, if this pipe were full
o f air, save for a small amount o f water near the end against the heavens, this drop
would naturally fall to the center through the air in the tube or pipe. I f either the
31 A adivnant.
29 A pres le centre.
3° E omits se region.
 yo6 ] Le Livre du ciel et du monde
au centre parmi cest aer.32 E t se ceste eaue33 ou cel aer avoient region deter-
minee, il s’i devroient arrester sanz passer oultre ou se il passoient oultre, ce
115 seroit violence, et l’en ne pourroit signer ou elle commenceroit, si comme dit
est. Item, selon Aristote en M etheores,34 aucunes montaingnes sont tant hau­
tes que elles passent la moienne region de l’aer, si comme est une appellee
Caucasus35 et une autre Parnasus es quelles sont estancs; et se une cisterne /
( 195 d) plaine de eaue estoit tout sus, ceste eaue y rep o sera it aussi naturelment
120 comme en une qui seroit en basse terre, et qui soustrairoit la terre desouz,
aussi descendroit l’eaue de l’une comme de l’autre.36 E t donques par ces rai­
sons, je conclu premièrement et di que les elemens n’ont pas regions ainsi
determinees et distinctees37 comme il est dit devant, mais toute la distance de
entre le centre38du monde et le ciel est indeterminee et indifférente quant a ce,
125 fors tant que le plus pesant est ou tent a estre sous le moin<s>39 pesant et
souz40 le plus legier, c’est a savoir ou centre ou plus près du centre selon ce
que il est possible; et semblablement du legier ou plus legier ou resgart du
ciel, car tele est leur ordenance naturele et a celle fin tendent leurs mouve-
mens naturelz. E t pour ce, se une g o û te o u porcion de eaue estoit ou centre
130 et autre chose plus pesante ne fust par desus elle et qui la compremsist ou
pesast sus elle,41 ceste eaue reposeroit illeques naturelment, car a ce lieu
pourroit elle estre meue // (196a) naturelment selon le cas devant mis en la
penultime rayson. E t semblablement par celle meisme raison pourroit une
porcion de aer reposer emprés le ciel en un tuel qui seroit plain de eaue de-
i35 souz cest aer, car a ceste eaue et a cest aer ce est le ordre naturel et sont les
lieus naturelz qui en telz cas leur sont possibles. Mais quant .i. element est
mis hors de son lieu et de son ordre naturel trait par violence, et l’autre l’en­
suit pour reemplir le lieu que il ne soit vieu, tel mouvement est violent. Apres
je di que les elemens moiens, scilicet aer et eaue, ne ont en leurs lieus naturelz
140 pesanteur ne legiereté. E t ce dient Ptholomee et les autres aucteurs qui ont
tractié des poies42 des choses, et le prouvent par ce que se un honme est bien
en parfont en eaue, il ne la sent en rien peser sus soy aussi comme non fait
celui qui est près de la superfice de l ’eaue. E t semblablement le aer ne poise
rien sus nous et nient plus ne le sent peser sus soy celui qui est bien bas que /
145 (196b) fait celui43 qui est sus une très haute montaingne et qui a moins de aer
sus soy. E t a l’experience que Aristote met au contraire, il fu respondu ou
quint chapitre, si comme je ay dit devant.
32 B siques au cest aer. 38 D E d’oultre le centre.
33 E cuve. 39 A moien.
34 Meteorologicorum, I.13. 349b 35— 350a 30. 40 B sus.
35 D E cantasus.
41 B C D E F omit et qu i...su s elle.
36 B descenderoit l ’une contre l’autre. 42 See i9od, note 23.
37 B distantes.
43 F omits qui est bien bas que fait celui.
Book IV, Chapter 7, fols. i95d-i96b | jo j
water or the air possessed a definite region or proper place, it should stop there
without going beyond; or if it did go beyond, it would be b y violence, and it
would be impossible to determine at which point this violence would begin, as
we have already stated. And, according to Aristotle in the M eteors, certain moun­
tains are so high that they extend beyond the middle region o f the air— such as
those called Caucasus and Parnassus, in both o f which there are ponds or lakes;
and if a cistern / (193 d) full o f water were on top o f them, this water would re­
main there as naturally as it would in one on low land; and if someone removed
the earth from underneath, the water would flow down from one as well as from
the other. From these arguments, therefore, I conclude and say, first, that the ele­
ments do not have the limited and distinct areas or regions stated above, but that
the entire distance between the center o f the world and the heavens is indeterminate
and indifferent to such division, except that the heaviest element is or tends to be
beneath the less heavy and lighter elements, or at or as near the center as possible,
and likewise with the light or lightest element in relation to the heavens, for such is
their natural arrangement and to this end all their natural movements tend. For
this reason, if one drop or portion o f water were at the center o f the world and if
no other heavier body were above it compressing or weighing it down, it would
remain there naturally, because, in accordance with the example above in the next-
to-last argument, it would have m oved there // (196a) in a natural manner. In the
same way and for the same reason a portion o f air at the top o f a water-filled tube
could stay close against the heavens, for this is the order or arrangement natural
to this water and air and the proper and natural places which in such cases are pos­
sible to them. However, when an element is put out o f its place and natural order
b y force or violence and another element comes in to fill its place in order to avoid
a vacuum, the motion o f the replacement is also violent. Next, I say that the inter­
mediate elements, air and water, do not possess any weight or lightness in their
natural places. This is mentioned by Ptolemy and the other authors who have
written about the weights o f things, and they prove their theory by the example o f
a man very deep in water who does not feel at all the water w eighing down upon
him any more than does one who is near the surface o f the water. Likewise, the air
over us weighs nothing, and a person who is very far down feels it no more than /
(196b) one who is on a very high mountain and has less air above him. Th e reply
to this experience, o f which Aristotle supports the contrary, is found in Chapter
Five, as previously stated [see fol. 190c].
 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
8. En le .viii.e chapitre il reprove aucuns opinions
anciens et par .iiii. raisons.
T . E t par ce que s’ensuit il appert que il convient par neccessité que les
differences des qualités ou vertus motives des elemens soient equales en nom­
bre aus elemens.1
G . Il veult dire que aussi comme .iiii. elemens sont, aussi sont .iiii. vertus
qui les moevent differentes en espece, car combien que la legiereté du feu et
celle de le aer soient d’un meisme gerre prochain, toutevoies elles ne sont pas
d’une meisme espece très especial, mais ont plus grant difference que selon
plus et selon moins, et semblablement de la pesanteur de la terre et de celle de
l’eaue. Mais les anciens que il a reprouvéz et veult encore reprouver ne met-
toient que .ii. vertus ou .ii. choses estre causes de pesanteur et de legiereté et
des mou- jJ (196c) vemens en haut et en bas, si comme il appert par ce que
s’ensuit.
T . Car se tous les elemens estoient d’une meisme matière en laquelle fust
mixcion de vieu et de plain ou de athomes grans et petis ou de triangles, il
convendroit que touz les elemens fussent meuz en bas et que d ’eulz ne fust
autre mouvement ou que rien ne fust simplement legier, mais que touz dé­
clinassent en bas, et plus les uns que les autres selon ce que il seroient de plus
grans athomes ou triangles ou de pluseurs teles choses ou que en eulz avroit
plus de plain.
G .2 Car selon leurs opinions, toutes les choses de quoy les elemens sont
sont pesantes, si comme sont triangles ou athomes ou plain, car se vieu est en
telz corps, si n’est il pas legier, si comme il fu prouvé ou secont chapitre.
T . E t nous voions et est monstré devant que aussi comme aucune chose
est touzjours et partout meue en bas, semblablement est aucune chose qui est
touz jours et partout meue en haut. Item, se ainsi est que vieu ou aucune3 tele
chose est qui soit cause de mouvement / (i9Ôd) en haut, donques ne sera pas
touzjours mouvement en bas, mais convendra il que aucun des elemens4 moi-
ens soit meu plus isnelement en bas que n’est la terre, car en un grant aer sont
plus de triangles ou de solides et de plain ou de petiz athomes que en une pe­
tite terre. E t toutevoies, l’en ne voit onques que quelcunque partie de aer
soit meue en bas. E t semblablement diroit l’en de la chose legiere se en elle
estoit plus de la matière qui fait monter en haut.
G . Briefment, ces opinions et ceste rayson et autres furent mises plus a
plain ou secont chapitre et pour ce je me passe de ce plus declarer.
T . Item, se ces ici mettent que .ii. elemens moiens sont, il ne pourroient
salver selon leur opinion ce que nous voions estre fait de le aer et de l’eaue.
B omits aus elemens. 3 F omits ainsi est que vieu ou aucune.
D E omit Glose. 4 B mouvemens.
Book IV, Chapter 8, fols, iq ô c-^ ô d | 709
8. In Chapter Eight he rejects some earlier opinions
by presenting four arguments.
T . It follows, then, that apparently by necessity the differences in the m otive
qualities or forces o f the elements are equal to the number o f the elements.
G . H e means that just as there are four elements, so are there four powers or
forces differing in species which m ove them ; although the lightness o f fire and o f
air are o f nearly the same genus, nevertheless they are not o f one very special
species, but differ from each other to a more or less considerable degree, and the
same applies to the weight o f earth and o f water. But the ancients, whose opinions
he has rejected and wishes to reject again, posited only tw o forces or things to
cause weight and lightness and //(196c) upward and downward motions, as is
made clear b y what follows.
T . I f all the elements were composed o f the same matter in which there was a
mixture o f void and fullness or o f atoms large and small or o f triangles, then all the
elements would o f necessity m ove downward and would have no other motion,
or else nothing would be absolutely light and all would m ove downward— some
more than others, depending upon whether they were composed o f larger atoms
or triangles or similar things or upon whether they had more fullness.
G . For in their opinions, all things o f which the elements are composed are
heavy, like triangles or atoms or fullness, and if there is a void in such a body, it is
not light, as we proved in Chapter T w o [see fols. 182d ff.].
T . W e can observe and it has been shown before that, just as something is always
and everywhere moved downward, so is something always and everywhere m oved
upward. N o w , if it is true that void or some such thing is the cause o f upward mo­
tion, / (i96d) then motion will not always be downward, but it will follow neces­
sarily that some o f the intermediate elements will m ove downward faster than the
earth, because in a large portion o f air there are more triangles, solids, fullness, or
little atoms than in a small quantity o f earth. Nonetheless, one never sees any part
or portion whatever o f air m oved downward. Likewise, the light object would
ascend if it were composed o f a greater part o f the matter which causes upward mo­
tion.
G . In brief, these opinions and this argument along with others were presented
more fully in Chapter T w o [see fols. 18 id ff.] and, therefore, I omit further exposi­
tion.
T . O n the other hand, if these philosophers maintain that there are two inter­
mediate elements, they could not explain on the basis o f their theory what we can
7i° Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Car se aucun dist que les elemens sont de vieu et de plain et que feu est vieu5
et pour ce il est meu en haut, et que terre est plaine et pour ce elle est meue en
bas, et le aer a en soy plus de feu que de terre et l’eaue a plus de terre // (197a)
40 que de feu, et donques s’ensuit il que une grant eaue avra en soy plus de feu
que ne a un petit aer et que .i. grant aer avra en soy plus de terre que ne a une
petite eaue, et ainsi il convendroit que cest aer fust meu en bas plus isnele-
ment que la petite eaue; et l’en ne voit onques tele chose.
G . E t se aucun disoit que il ne s’ensuit pas pour ce que cest grant aer aussi
45 comme il a plus de terre que la petite eaue, aussi a il a l’avenant et selon pro-
porcion plus de feu et de legiereté et par ce il ne sera pas meu en bas, je respon
et di que ce ne vault, car il s’ensuiroit que de tous corps composéz de plain et
de vieu le grant et le petit qui sont d ’une espece fussent meuz d ’une isneleté,
et ce est faulz. E t tout ce appert par une quinte rayson mise ou secont chapi-
50 tre.
T . Item, il convient donques par neccessité que aussi comme le feu est meu
en haut pour ce que il est tel si comme vieu selon leur opinion, et la terre en
bas pour ce que elle est plaine, aussi convient il que le aer soit meu a son lieu
et sus l’eaue pour / (197b) ce que il est tel, ce est a savoir par sa propre quali-
55 té ou vertu motive,6 et l’eaue aussi en bas sous le aer7 pour ce que elle est tele
et non pas pour ce que le aer et l’eaue participent en une difference plus ou
moins ou en .ii.
G . E n une, si comme en triangles ou en athomes ou en vieu ou en plain, ou
en vieu et plain qui sont .ii.8
60 T . Car se ainsi estoit, il s’ensuiroit de l’un et de l’autre que le grant exce-
dast le petit telement que une grant eaue9 fust plus tost meue en haut que un
petit aer, et un grant aer en bas plus tost que une petite eaue, si comme moult
de fois est dit.
G . Ceste raison quarte n’est fors conclusion et repeticion des raisons de-
65 vant mises ou secont chapitre et en cestuy. E t donques chascun element a sa
vertu motive differente des autres et qui lui est propre et par quoy il est meu
et repose en son ordre, et pour ce la legiereté du feu et celle de l ’aer different
en espece et aussi la pesanteur de la terre et celle de l’eaue, si comme devant
est dit.
5 D E omit et de plain... vieu. 8 B C D E F omit Glose. En u n e... qui sont
6 D E omit ou vertu motive. .ii.
7 B C D E F omit sous le aer. 9 B C D E F omit eaue.
Book IV, Chapter 8, fols. i97a-i97b | 7 11
observe o f the behavior o f air and water. For should someone say that the ele­
ments are compounded o f void and fullness, that fire is void and therefore moves
upward, that earth is a plenum and so moves downward, that air contains more
fire than earth, that water has more earth // (197a) than fire, and that as a result a
large quantity o f water will have to contain more fire than will a small amount o f
air and that a large amount o f air will contain more earth than will a small amount
o f water, then it would follow that this air will move downward faster than the
small quantity o f water; and such an occurrence we never see.
G . I f someone were to say that it does not follow that, just because this large
amount o f air has more earth than does the small quantity o f water, it has likewise
and proportionally more fire and lightness and, consequently, will not move down­
ward, I answer that this reply is not valid; for, in such a case, it would follow that,
o f all bodies composed o f a mixture o f fullness and void, the large and small bodies
o f the same form and species would m ove with the same speed, and this is false.
A ll this is apparent from the fifth argument in Chapter T w o [see fol. 184a].
T . Then, it necessarily must follow that, just as fire moves upward because, in
their opinion, it is similar to void and the earth moves downward because it is a
plenum, just so must air move to its proper place above the water by reason o f /
(197b) the nature o f its own quality or motive power and water must descend to a
place below the air by reason o f the nature o f its own force— and not because air
and water share more or less in one or two different kinds o f matter or powers.
G . In one kind, such as sharing triangles, atoms, a void, or a plenum ; or in two
different kinds, such as sharing void and plenum.
T . For if such were the case, it would follow that, with both elements, the larger
w ould exceed the smaller quantity in such a way that a large amount o f water would
be m oved higher faster than a small amount o f air, while a larger quantity o f air
would m ove downward faster than a small quantity o f water, as has been stated
several times.
G . This fourth argument is merely the conclusion and repetition o f the argu­
ments previously set forth in Chapter T w o [see fols. 18id ff.] and also in this one.
Thus, each element has a motive power, different from the others and proper to it,
by which it moves and rests in its own particular manner; accordingly, the light­
ness o f fire and o f air differs in species and, likewise, the weight o f earth and o f
water, as stated above.
 7 12 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
9. O u .ixe chapitre il monstre comment les figures des
corps pesans et des legiers // (197c) font1 a
leurs mouvemens et comment non.
T. Les figures des corps pesans et celles des legiers ne sont pas cause de
telz corps estre meuz simplement ou en bas ou en haut, mais elles sont bien
cause d’estre meuz plus isnelement ou plus tardivement. E t n’est pas fort de
veoir les causes pourquoy ce est.
5 G. Apres pour ce declarer il propose .ii. doubtes.
T. Mais maintenant l’en fait doubte pourquoy une grant piece de fer ou de
plum qui est de figure laee noe en l’eaue. . .
G. Si comme un bacin ou une poile.
T.z E t une autre chose moins pesante qui sera ronde ou besloingne, aussi
10 comme une acuille, descendra en l’eaue. Item, pourquoy aucunes choses ter­
restres pour leur petite quantité, si comme poudre, et aucunes autres pour la
tenuité ou tenüece de leur figure, si comme fuilles d ’or, se tiennent en l’aer
sanz estre meues en bas?
G. Apres il met une response qui n’est pas vraie.
i5 T. E t cuider ou dire que de toutes ces choses la cause soit telle comme /
(i97d) mettoit Democritus, ce n’est pas a droit dit, car il disoit que les exala-
cions ou vapeurs chaudes qui sont esleveez de l’eaue en haut rencontrent ces
choses pesantes et laees et le<s>3 reboutent en haut et empeeschent que elles
ne peuent descendre, mais les pesantes et de figure estroite cheent et descen-
20 dent en l’eaue pour ce que elles encontrent pou de teles chaudes exalacions.
G. Apres il oste ceste response.
T. Mes il convendroit que tele chose fust faite plus en le aer que en l’eaue.
G. Pour ce que il y a plus de teles chaudes exalacions.
T. E t ceste instance4 faisoit Democritus contre soy, mais il y soult et res-
25 pont fieblement, car il disoit que teles exalacions et vapeurs, quant elles vien­
nent et sont en l’aer, elles se espartissent et pour ce elles ne ont pas force de
soustenir les choses pesantes et laees.
G. Il ne reprouve plus ceste response, car elle a trop pou d ’apparence et
est assés réprouvée par les causes // (198a) que il met apres. E t premièrement
30 il met .ii. distinctions.
T. E t des corps continuz les uns sont divisibles de legier et les autres le
sont moins de legier.5 E t celui qui est de legier divisible, ce est celui qui es
bien terminable, ce est a dire de terme d’autre6 corps qui le contient et l’un
plus ou miex et l’autre moins, si comme le aer est divisible plus de legier que
35 n’est l’eaue et se termine plus de legier ou configure au corps ou au vaiseau
que il touche. E t l’eaue est plus <de legier)7 divisible que la terre et se confi-
1 B C D E sont. G uthrie, ch. 6. 3 A le.
2 E G lose. 4 E resistance.
Book IV, Chapter 9, fols. I97c-i98a | 713
9. In Chapter Nine he shows how the shapes o f heavy and light
bodies 11 (197c) affect and do not affect their movements.
T. Th e shapes o f both heavy and light bodies are not the cause o f their simple
upward or downward movement, but their shapes are indeed the reason that some
move more rapidly or more slowly than others. It is not hard to see w hy this is so.
G. Next, he raises tw o questions for the purpose o f clarifying this matter.
T. N o w , there is some uncertainty as to w h y a large flat piece o f iron or lead
floats on water . . .
G. Like a basin or a frying pan.
T. While another less heavy object, round or oblong like a needle, will sink in
water. Or, again, w hy do some earthly things, as for example powder, because o f
their small quantity and certain other things like gold foil because o f their tenuous
or thin shape maintain themselves in the air without m oving downward?
G. Then he makes a reply that is not valid.
T. T o think or to say that the cause o f these occurrences is such as / (19yd)
Democritus held is not correct; for he used to say that the exhalations or hot
vapors which rise above water meet these heavy flat bodies and push them up­
wards, preventing them from falling, and that the heavy bodies with narrow shapes
fall and sink in the water since they meet with little resistance from such hot ex­
halations.
G. N o w he rejects this reply.
T. But this should occur in the air rather than in the water.
G. Because there are more hot vapors in the air.
T. A n d Democritus raises this objection against his own argument, but his so­
lution and reply are weak; for he held that, when such exhalations and vapors
appear and rise in the air, they are scattered apart and, thus, do not have the
strength to support flat, heavy objects.
G. Aristotle does not refute his answer further because it has too little semblance
o f truth and is sufficiently disproved by the causes // (198a) he states immediately
afterward. Then, he offers two distinctions.
T. Some continuous bodies are easily divisible, and others less easily. The easily
divisible body is the one with well fixed limits, that is, delimited by the containing
body, and some are more or better defined than others, just as air is more readily
divisible than water and fits around or conforms more easily to the body or re­
ceptacle that it touches. Water is more readily divisible than earth and conforms
5 B omits et les autres. . .legier. 6 D E dire determine d’autre.
 714 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
gure plus legierement aus corps durs qui sont près de elle que ne fait la terre.
E t ainsi en chascun gerre ou maniéré de corps, un est plus de legier divisible
et peust plus legierement estre distrait et l’autre moins. Item, des corps qui
40 peuent diviser est il en ceste maniéré, car les uns peuent diviser plus legiere­
ment et les autres moins.
G. Selon la quantité de leur pesanteur et selon la qualité de leur figure.8
Apres il explique sa response.
T. E t pour ce que il est ainsi, / (198b) l’en doit cuider que ce sont les causes
45 de ce dont estoit doubte. E t donques les corps qui ont grant latitude selon
leur figure demeurent en haut ou ne peuent pas si isnelement descendre pour
ce que il comprennent souz eulz moût du corps moien par lequel il seroient
ou sont meus, lequel il ne peuent pas de legier diviser et ne peut de legier
estre detrait desouz telz corps. E t il est au contraire de ceulz qui sont autre-
50 ment figuréz de figure estroite ou acue pour ce que il comprennent pou du
moien ou du corps qui est desouz eulz, et pour ce sont il meuz en bas et peu­
ent tel corps legierement diviser. E t ce peuent il moult plus en aer que en
eaue, de tant comme l’aer est plus legierement divisible que n’est l’eaue.
G. E t par ce appert que la figure du corps pesant fait au mouvement aussi
55 comme par accident,9 car par ce le corps est disposé ou miex ou pis a ce que
il soit meu de la vertu motive laquelle est pesanteur en mouvement naturel.
E t selon ce il dist apres :
T. E t pour ce que pesanteur a ou est une vertu selon la-// (198c) quelle le
corps pesant est meu en bas et les corps moiens sont continuz et résistent que
il ne soient distrais ne diviséz, l’en doit ces .ii. choses comparer une a l’autre.
Car se la vertu de la pesanteur excede la vertu qui est ou moien par laquelle il
résisté que il ne soit distrait et divisé, le corps pesant passera par cest moien, et
tant plus le excedera et il sera meu plus isnelement; et se la pesanteur est plus
fieble que ceste resistence, il demourera desus aussi comme se il noast.
65 G. L ’en doit prendre la pesanteur qui est comme une livre ou .ii. ou si
comme il plaist, et aveques ce l’en doit prendre toute la habilité et disposicion
que elle a pour la figure du corps pesant ou autrement; et d ’autre partie, l’en
doit prendre toute la resistence du corps moien par lequel seroit le mouve­
ment. E t se ces .ii. choses sont equales ou se la resistence est plus forte, le
70 mouvement ne se fera pas. Mais se la vertu motive est plus grande, le corps
sera meu, et selon ce que ce sera en plus grant proporcion, l’isneleté sera plus
grant. E t par ce appert response aus .ii. doubtes desus mises.10 / (i98d) Apres
il recapitule.
T. E t en ceste maniéré soit déterminé de pesant et de legier et des accidens
75 qui sont vers teles choses.
7 A B omit de legier. comme par accident.
8 D E omit et selon... figure. 10 B C D E F omit et par c e ... mises.
9 B C D E F corps pesant au mouvement
Book IV, Chapter 9, fols. I98b-i98d | 71J
more easily to the hard bodies near it than the earth does. Thus, in each kind or
category o f bodies, one is more readily divisible or separated, and others less so.
G. According to the quantity o f their weight and the quality o f their shape. He
then explains his reply.
T. Because the situation is that described above, / (198b) we must believe that
these problems were the cause o f our doubts. Thus, the bodies having very broad
shapes remain high up or cannot sink so fast because they encompass beneath them
the large mass o f the intermediate body through which they would be or are m ov­
ed; they cannot easily cleave nor pull apart this intermediate body situated under­
neath such broadly shaped bodies. With bodies o f narrow or pointed shape, the
opposite occurs because they comprise but a small portion o f the intermediate ele­
ment or body below them and, therefore, they can m ove downward and divide or
cleave such a body with ease. This they can do much more promptly in air than in
water since air is much more readily divisible than water.
G. Thus, it is apparent that the shape o f a heavy body is related to its motion as
if b y accident, for by its shape the body is disposed in a better or worse manner to
be m oved by its m otive power, which, in the case o f natural movement, is its
weight. Accordingly, he next says :
T. However, since the weight has or is a force that //(198c) moves the heavy
body downward and since the intermediate bodies or medium through which it
passes are a continuum resisting separation or division, these tw o forces must be
reckoned in opposition to each other. I f the force o f the weight exceeds the force
o f the resistance o f the intermediate body to separation and division, then the
heavy body will pass through the intermediate, and the greater the excess o f the
weight over the resistance, the faster the body will m ove ; and i f the weight is less
powerful [or weaker] than this resistance, then the heavy body will remain above,
as if floating.
G. W e must take a weight such as one or two pounds or whatever we wish, and
w e must consider its capacity and disposition, or inability, for conformity to the
shape o f the heavy body; on the other hand, we must consider the entire resistance
o f the intermediate b o d y#through which the movement must pass. I f these tw o
things are equal or if the resistance is the stronger, then there will be no movement;
however, if the motive power is greater, the body will move, and the greater the
m otive force, the faster the movement proportionally. Thus, we have the reply to
the two questions raised above. / (i98d) N ext he recapitulates.
T. In this w ay we have explained weight and lightness and the accidental or
contingent qualities that appertain naturally to them.
 j i 6 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
G .11 Ce que dit est en ce chapitre ne soufist pas pour response a la doubte de­
sus mise. E t a ce declarer, pour grace d ’exemple, soit prins un vaisel plat et
laé comme un bacin lequel a un bort12 en maniéré de circunference et un
funz13 ront qui est comme un cercle plat. E t soit mis ce bacin en eaue. Je di
8o donques que le fonz de ce bacin tout seul comprent autant d’eaue souz soy
comme fait tout le bacin, et tout le bacin poise plus que ne fait le fonz tout
seul; et donques par la response devant mise, se elle estoit soufisante, tout le
bacin devroit plus descendre en l’eaue et non pas noer que le fonz tout seul,
car la vertu motive ou pesanteur du bacin est plus grande que du fonz tout
85 seul, et la resistence de l’eaue est equale, car autant en comprent14 souz soy
l’un comme l ’autre. E t toutesvoies nous voions sensiblement que le bacin
noera et le fonz tout seul descendroit, //(199a) et pour ce il convient en ce cas
et en samblables assigner et mettre autre resistence que celle par quoy l’eaue
résisté a ce que elle ne soit divisée ne distraite. E t me semble que ce est l’aer qui
90 est ou bacin qui résisté a descendre en l’eaue. E t toutevoies ce n’est pas pour
ce que l’aer ait region determinee de laquelle il refuse et résisté a issir, car se
ce bacin estoit en eaue sus la plus haute montaingne du monde, il noeroit en
l’eaue semblablement comme il fait ici bas et resisteroit l’aer a descendre; et
toutevoies il seroit en sa region se il a region determinee, mais non a, si com-
95 me il fu déclaré ou .vii.e chapitre. E t donques ce est seulement pour ce que il
résisté a descendre en l’eaue, comme dit est. Item, pour ce plus declarer, l’en
doit savoir que, selon les aucteurs qui ont tractié des poies des choses pesan­
tes,15 une chose se elle noe en eaue aussi comme ce bacin, elle occupe lieu en
l’eaue et en ce lieu pourroit estre ou estoit outant pesant de eaue comme la
100 chose poise; si comme se ce bacin <poise .x. livres, l ’eaue qui estoit ou pour­
roit estre en la fosse que il fait en celle eaue poise)16 .x. livres, et semblable­
ment d’une nef ou de quelcunque vaisel. E t ce est la cause / (199b) pourquoy
le vaisel plus chargié y entre plus avant et fait plus grant fosse, et pourquoy
aucune fois il y entre tout et pourquoy il entre moins en eaue de tant comme
105 elle est plus pesante, si comme en la mer que en eaue douce, etc. Item, quant
un vaisel, aussi comme ce bacin, noe ainsi en eaqe, il ne porroit plus aval
descendre se le aer qui est contenu en ce bacin ne descent aussi, car autrement
le lieu demoureroit vieu se autre corps n’i estoit; et ce est impossible naturel-
ment que lieu soit vieu. E t pour ce, quant le bacin est descendu tant que il a
110 widié de l’eaue souz soy autant pesant comme il poise ou près, lors le aer que
il c o n tie n t résisté que il ne descende plus aval. Mais le fonz tout seul ne con-
11 A B C D E F omit Glose.
median principle first formulated in the fifth
12 B bout.
proposition o f the first book o f Archimedes’
13 D E fin.
De corporibus fluitantibus. See Archimedes omnia
14 B E equale et comprent; C D F equale en opera, ed. J. L. Heiberg (Leipzig: Teubner,
comprent.
1913), vol. 2> 3 29 - The work or works to
15 An abbreviated statement o f the Archi- which Oresme had reference are doubtless
Book IV, Chapter 9, fols. 199a-199b 7*7
G . What has been presented in this chapter is not sufficient to answer the ques­
tion stated above. T o clarify it, let us take as an example a flat, wide receptacle like
a basin, having a round edge like a circumference and round bottom like a flat
circle. N o w , let us set this basin in water. I say that the bottom o f the basin by it­
self encompasses as much water beneath it as the whole basin does, and yet the
whole weighs more than the bottom alone ; therefore, if we accept the answer given
above, if the weight were enough, the whole basin should sink in the water and
not float only on its bottom ; for the motive power or weight o f the whole basin is
greater than that o f the bottom alone, and the resistance o f the water is equal since
as much is contained under one as under the other. But we can observe that the
basin floats and only the bottom sinks, // (199a) and so in this case and similar
ones we must adduce and reckon with resistance other than that o f the water,
which seeks to avoid being divided or separated. It seems to me that it is the air
contained in the basin which resists sinking into the water. Still, this is not due to
the fact that the air has a fixed location o f its own which it refuses to leave or
resists leaving, for, if the basin were in water on the highest mountain in the world,
it would float in water in the same manner it does here below ; and the air would
resist downward motion even though it would be in its proper location, if such it
had, but it does not have any such location, as was explained in Chapter Seven [see
fol. 194a]. Therefore, this happens simply because air resists m oving downward
into water, as we have said. T o make this still clearer, one should know that, ac­
cording to those authors who have treated this subject o f the weight o f heavy
bodies, anything like this basin which floats on water occupies space in it and that
the water in this place could be or was as heavy as the weight o f the floating body;
for example, i f this basin weighs ten pounds, the water which was or could be dis­
placed from the hollow caused by the basin weighs ten pounds; and the same
w ould occur in the case o f a ship or any other vessel. A n d this is the cause / (199b)
that the more heavily laden vessel sinks deeper into the water and creates a larger
hollow and that occasionally it sinks completely and, again, the heavier the water
is, the less it sinks— just as in sea water less than in fresh water, etc. When a recep­
tacle like this basin floats thus on the water, it could not sink deeper if the air which
it contains did not also sink with it, or else, if there were no body in it, the place
would remain empty; and it is impossible in nature that a place should remain
empty or void. Therefore, when the basin has sunk until it has displaced the water
under it to an amount equal or approximately equal to its own weight, then the air
it contains begins to resist further sinking. However, the bottom o f the basin alone
those mentioned by Duhem in Etudes sur Léo- passim.
nard de Vinci, vol. i, 257-316. See also Clagett 16 A omits poise .x. livres... en celle eaue
and Moody, The Medieval Science of Weights, poise.
 Book IV, Chapter 9, fols, 199C-199CI | 719

tient point de aer en soy, et pour ce l’eaue est tantost desus et ce fonz descent contains no air, and so the water quickly rises above it and the bottom sinks down­

aval. E t se tout le bacin estoit en l’eaue sanz aer, il descendroit plus isnele- ward. I f the entire basin contained no air and were in the water, it would sink faster

ment que le fonz tout seul, et nientmoins il peust noer desus et le fonz seul than the bottom b y itself; still, it can float above the -water and the bottom alone

non. O r avons donques que en ce cas et en touz semblables autre resistence cannot do so. N o w , in this case and in all similar ones, there is another force o f

est plus grande que ne est celle par quoy l’eaue résisté a estre // (199c) dis- greater resistance than that by which the water resists being // (199c) separated and

traicte et divisée. E t en telz cas ceste est très petite,17 et pour ce n’en font divided. In such a case, this resistance is very small, and, accordingly, is not taken
into account by those authors who claim that the floating object displaces beneath
compte les aucteurs qui mettent que la chose qui noe fait ceder souz elle
autant pesant de eaue comme elle poise. E t nientmoins, quant la liquer it water equal in weight to its own. However, when the liquid is o f both continu­

est forment continue et tenante ensemble, la chose qui noe en elle n’<e)n18 ous and resistant form, an object floating in it does not displace from beneath it its
own weight o f the liquid, but in water the ratio is almost equal. So, it seems to me,
fait pas ceder souz soy tant pesant comme elle poise, mais en eaue il s’en fault
with all deference to a better opinion, that a receptacle floating on water in the
très pou. Item, il me semble, sauf meilleur opinion, que un vaisel qui noe en
manner often mentioned rests there naturally, under these given circumstances, for
l’eaue en la maniéré souvent dite repose illeques naturelment, les choses es­
it can neither sink deeper nor rise without external force or violence, as is clear
tantes teles, car il ne peust plus aval descendre ne plus monter sans force
from experience. N o violent force can last naturally for a long time, and so i f this
et sans violence, si comme il appert par experience. Item, chose violente
receptacle were made o f durable matter and if the water were everlasting, the re­
quelcunque ne peust naturelment19 durer longuement et se ce vaisel estoit
ceptacle would remain there perpetually. I f a lighter or less heavy liquid is under
de matière perpetuele et l’eaue perpétuelle, il y reposeroit perpetuelment.
the receptacle, it does not follow from this fact that it will not remain at rest natur­
E t se plus legiere ou moins pesante chose est souz tel vaisel, il ne s’ensuit
ally; for, i f there were a small amount o f air in a little hole at the center o f the world,
pas pour ce que il ne repose naturelment, car se ou centre du monde avoit un
it does not follow therefrom that / (i99d) the entire earth is violently at rest, as
pou de aer en un petit treu, il ne s’ensuit pas pour ce que / (i99d) toute la
was explained in Chapter Twenty-four o f Book I [see fol. 36c]. Then, in the pre­
terre reposast violentement, si comme il fu déclaré ou .xxiiii.e chapitre du pre­
sent case, in order that such a receptacle remain at rest naturally, it suffices that the
mier. E t donques en ce cas, a ce que tel vaisel repose naturelment, il soufist
heavy bodies be arranged above the less heavy, etc., in so far as this is possible
que les choses pesantes soient ordenees sus le<s>20 moins pesantes, etc., se­
when all things are considered. Just as air resists sinking to the region proper to
lon ce que il est possible, tout considéré. Item, aussi comme aer résisté a des­
water or into the water, so does fire as a pure element resist m oving downward in­
cendre ou lieu de eaue ou en eaue, semblablement feu qui seroit pur element
to the air, and, thus, it follows that, if a receptacle o f heavy material were upon
résisté a descendre en aer et par ce s’ensuit que se un vaisel de matière pe­
high between the spheres o f fire and o f air, fire would resist downward movement
sante estoit lasus en haut entre l’espere du feu et celle de le aer, le feu résis­
in the same manner stated above that air causes a similar receptacle to resist sink­
terait que il ne descendist en la maniéré que le aer21 résisté que tel vaisel ne
ing into water. Thus between the regions o f fire and o f air a heavy receptacle could
descende en l’eaue, si comme il est dit devant. E t donques, entre le feu et le
float on the air and remain there at rest naturally just as a ship rests upon the sea or
aer, sus le aer pourrait noer un vaisel pesant et illeques reposer naturelment
the Seine River. This was explained more fully in Chapter Eleven o f B ook II [see
telement comme une naif repose en la mer ou en Seine. E t ce fu déclaré plus
fol. 102c ff.], where also the possible contrary arguments were answered.
a plain en le .xi.e chapitre du secont livre et illeques fu respondu aus argue-
mens qui pourroient estre au contraire.
ta ^ ^

petitece. 20

n on ’ 21 BCDEF omit le aer.

om its naturelment.
 y20 ) Le Livre du ciel et du monde
io. Apres sont .iii. chapitres du translateur et sont comment
les choses dehors ce monde sont // (200a) en lieu et
comment elles sont meues, et est le premier chapitre
des choses incorporelles et {est)1 le .x.e chapitre.
Apres ce que dit est des lieus et des mouvemens locate des principalz corps
ou elemens de ce monde et de leur ordre, nombre et figure et de pluseurs au­
tres propriétés et accidens de telz corps, il est bon de recapituler et dire au­
cune chose des choses qui sont ou peuent estre hors ce monde. Je di donques
3 que de teles choses les unes sont incorporelles, les autres sont ou peuent estre
corporelles. E t les incorporeles sont de .iii. maniérés : les unes sont les an-
gelz ou intelligences ; les autres sont les âmes separees et une autre est Dieu
en Trinité. E t premièrement, des angelz il fu dit ou secont chapitre du secont
comment et en quelle maniéré il sont en lieu et en quelz lieus il sont ; item,
10 comment un angel peust estre ensemble sus le ciel et en terre et en cent mille
lieus distanz en terre et en plus de cent mille lieus distanz, et sans ce que il /
(200b) tienne plus de lieu que devant ou plus d’espace que est l’espace d ’un
pié ou moins mille foiz ; item, comment les angelz sont ou peuent estre meuz
selon lieu et en quantes et quelles maniérés ; item, que par ce que concèdent
i5 ou octrient Aristote et Averroïz et par vraie astrologie, l’en peust conclurre
contre Aristote et contre Averroïz que il convient par neccessité que les an-
gelz que il appellent intelligences sont meues. E t tout ce est déclaré ou secont
chapitre du secont. Secondement, des âmes separees je di que, quant a estre
en lieu et quant a estre meues, il est de elles ne plus ne moins aussi comme il
20 est dit des angelz. E t par ce s’ensuit que l ’ame de la glorieuse vierge Marie ou
une autre sainte ame peust estre ensemble sus le ciel et en terre et en cent mil­
le lieus distanz et plus sans estre en plus grant lieu que l’espace qui seroit sim­
plement equale a l’espace que occupe une petite pomme. Tiercement, de Dieu
je di que II est partout et seroit simplement impossible que II se absentast
25 d’aucun lieu quelcunque qui soit ou qui puisse estre. // (200c) Item, par ce
s’ensuit que II est du tout immobile. E t la maniéré comme II est partout fu
mise ou secont chapitre du secont. Item, nonobstant ce que II est partout, si
est II simplement indivisible et aveques ( c e ) 2 infini selon .iii.3 propriétés les­
quelles sont divisibles es creatures, etlespovonsappellerduracionetposicion
30 et puissance ou parfection ; car des creatures leur duracion temporele est divi­
sible selon succession, leur posicion meismement des corporeles est divisible
selon extension, et leur puissance est aucunement divisible selon degrés ou
intension. Mais de Dieu la duracion est éternité indivisible et sanz succession
1 A omits est. 3 B .iiii.
2 A B C omit ce.
Book IV, Chapter 10, fols. 20oa-2ooc 721
10. The next three chapters are by the translator, and they
demonstrate how things beyond our world exist // (200a) in
their proper places and how they move; this is the first
[of three] chapters] dealing with incorporeal
bodies, and constitutes Chapter Ten.
After what has been said about the proper places and local motions o f the prin­
cipal bodies or elements o f this world and about their classification, number, shape,
and many other properties and accidents, it is fitting and proper to recapitulate
and say something about those things which are or can be outside this world. I say,
then, that some o f those things are incorporeal and that others are or may be cor­
poreal. There are three kinds o f incorporeal bodies : 1) the angels or intelligences ;
2) the separate or individual souls; and 3) G o d in [Three Persons or] Trinity.
First, concerning the angels, we stated in Chapter T w o o f Book II [see fol. 68a] how
and in what way they are in their proper places and where they are ; for instance, an
angel can be at one and the same time above the heavens and on earth and in a hun­
dred thousand or more than a hundred thousand distant places on earth without /
(200b) occupying more space than before or more than the width o f one foot or a
thousand times less ; how angels move or can move with respect to place and in
how many and in what different ways ; also, from what Aristotle and Averroes ad­
mit or grant and in accordance with true astronomy, we may conclude against
one or the other that the angels, which they call intelligences, must necessarily
move. A ll this is explained in Chapter T w o o f Book II [see fol. 68a ff.]. In the sec­
ond place, with regard to the separate souls. I say that, as for their being in a proper
place and as for their motion, their condition is neither more nor less different
from that o f the angels we have just described. Thus, the soul o f the glorious V ir­
gin M ary or o f another saint can be both above the heavens and in a hundred thou­
sand, and even more, distant places on earth without being in a place larger than
that equal simply to the space occupied by a small apple. Third, about G o d , I say
that He is everywhere and that it would be absolutely impossible for Him to ab­
sent Himself from any place whatsoever that exists or can exist. // (200c) It follows,
then, that He is completely immobile. The manner o f His being everywhere was
stated in Chapter T w o o f Book II [see fol. 68b]. Notwithstanding that He is every­
where, still is He absolutely indivisible and at the same time infinite with respect to
the three qualities that are divisible in living creatures, which we call duration,
position, and power or perfection ; for the temporal duration o f creatures is divi­
sible in succession ; their position, especially o f material bodies, is divisible in ex­
tension; and their power is divisible in any degree or intensity. But G o d ’ s duration
 7 22 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
de laquelle fu dit ou ,xxiiii.e chapitre du premier; sa posicion, ce est inmen-
35 sité indivisible et sanz extension de laquelle fu dit ou secont chapitre du se-
cont; et sa toute puissance ou parfection est plus que infinie et indivisible
sanz intension.4 E t de ces choses fu dit et a ce mises concordances ou premier
chapitre du secont. Item, encore di je que D ieu est simplement et souveraine­
ment / (2ood) indivisible nonobstant la trinité des personnes divines de la-
40 quelle fu dit ou premier chapitre du premier en faisant mencion comment
trinité est en pluseurs autres choses. E t sans celles trinités qui la furent mises
encore est une autre trinité qui fait a ce propos, car selon ce que fu dit ou
.xii.e chapitre du tiers, .iii. figures plaines regulieres sont, c ’est a savoir trigone
et quarré et exagone, dont chascune peust reemplir espace superficiele ou
45 superfice. E t est simplement neccessaire a ymaginacion que il en soit tant et
impossible que il en soit plus ; et semblablement sont et par neccessité .iii.
personnes divines dont chascune reemplist tout. E t de ce disoit le prophète
Ysaie: Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, Dominus Deus, etc.,5 plena est omnis terra
gloria tua. E t est un Dieu qui dist par son prophète Jeremie: Celum et ter-
5o ram ego impleo6 et duquel disoit Virgile : Jovis omnia plena.7 O r avons don-
ques comment les choses incorporeles qui sont ou peuent estre hors ce mon­
de sont en lieu et quelles ne // (201a) peuent estre meues et quelles le peuent
et comment.
11. Le .xi.e chapitre est quant a ce des choses corporeles.
Se nous prenons ce monde en la maniéré que le prent Aristote pour le des­
renier ciel meu circulairement appellé firm am ent et pour les corps qui sont de-
dens, encore hors ce monde est aucun corps non-vif, car selon la sainte Es-
cripture ou livre de Genesi1 eaues sont sus le firmament, et de Dieu dist D avid
5 le prophète : Q ui extendit celum sicut pellem ; qui tegis aquis superiora eius ;2
et en Daniel est escript: Bénédicité aque omnes,3 que super celos sunt, D o ­
mino.4 E t ceste eaue n’a pas inclinacion a descendre, si comme il appert par
ce que fu dit ou .xxiiii.<e>5 chapitre du premier et ou sixte chapitre du quart.
E t posé que elle fust pesante, nientmoins elle reposeroit illeques naturelment
IO si comme il fu dit ou .xxiiii.e chapitre du premier meismement, car selon les
docteurs, elle est aussi comme glacie et engelee, et pour ce il le appellent Je
ciel glacial ou cristallin. Item, sus touz les cielz sont ou peuent estre / (201b)
4 B C D E F extension. 7 Bucolica III.60.
5 B et. Cf. Isai. 613— Sanctus, sanctus, sanc- 1 Gen. 1 :7 — Et fecit Deus firmamentum.
tus, Dominus Deus exercituum, plena est Divisitque aquas, quae erant sub firmamento,
omnis terra gloria eius. ab his quae erant super firmamentum.
6 Jet. 25:24. 2 Cf. Ps. 103:2-3— Extendens coelum sicut
Book IV, Chapter 11, fols. 20od-20ib | 723
is eternity, indivisible and without succession, o f which we spoke in Chapter T w en­
ty-four o f B ook I [see fol. 38b ff.] ; His position is immensity, indivisible, and with­
out extension, o f which we spoke in Chapter T w o o f Book II [see fol. 68c]; His
omnipotence or perfection is more than infinite and indivisible in any degree.
These matters were set forth and reconciled in Chapter One o f Book II [see fol.
65c ff.]. Again, I say that G o d is absolutely and supremely / (2ood) indivisible, not­
withstanding the Trinity o f divine persons o f which we spoke in Chapter One o f
B ook I [see fol. 4c ff.], where we noted that trinity exists in many other things. Be­
sides the varieties o f trinity noted there, there is another which is pertinent to our
present discussion, because, in accord with what we said in Chapter Tw elve o f
Book III [see fol. 176b], there are three regular plane figures— the triangle, the
square, and the hexagon— each o f which we can imagine to be capable o f filling so
completely a flat area or surface that it is absolutely impossible that there could be
more space to be filled ; likewise, there are necessarily three divine persons, each o f
whom fills all space. Isaiah the Prophet spoke o f them thus: Holy, H oly, H oly,
Lord G od, etc., all the earth is full o f T h y glory. A n d there is one G od, who spoke
through His prophet Jeremiah: I fill heaven and earth; and o f whom V irgil said:
A ll things are replete with Jove. W e have thus explained how the incorporeal things
which are or can be outside our world are in their place and which ones // (201a)
cannot and which ones can m ove, and in what manner.
11. Chapter Eleven is concerned in general with material bodies.
I f we conceive this world to be, as Aristotle describes it, a supreme and final
heaven moved with circular motion and called the firm am ent with the bodies in­
side it, there still exists outside this world some inanimate body, for, according to
H oly Scripture in the book o f Genesis, there are waters above the firmament ; and
the Prophet D avid said o f G o d : W ho stretchest out the heaven like a pavilion,
W ho coverest the higher rooms thereof with water ; and in Daniel it is written :
A ll ye waters that are above the heavens, bless the Lord. This water has no incli­
nation to move downward, as was clearly stated in Chapter Twenty-four o f Book I
[see fol. 36c] and in Chapter Six o f Book IV [see fol. 191c]. This water, even as­
suming it to have weight, would nevertheless remain there naturally, as stated in
Chapter Twenty-four o f Book I [see fol. 38b], precisely because, as the learned doc­
tors maintain, it is in a frozen or solidified state called by them the glacial or crys­
talline heavens. N o w , above all the heavens there are or can be / (201b) several liv-
pellem; qui tegis aquis superiora eius. 4 Dan. 3 :60.
3 B omits omnes. s A .xxiiii.
 724 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
pluseurs corps vifz, si comme le corps de Jhesucrist duquel dist le Prophète :
Q ui ascendit super celum ceü,6 et que l’en doit entendre par celum celi il fu
i5 dit ou premier chapitre du secont ; et ou preface de la messe dit l’en de Jhesu­
crist: Q ui ascendens super omnes celos.7 E t illeques en sa compaingnie8 se­
ront les corps de ceulz qui seront salvéz apres la resurrection final. E t pour
ce II leur disoit en l’E w a n gile : V ado parare vobis locum ;9et iterum : ubi ego
sum, illic et minister meus erit.10 O r di je donques que ces corps ici, pour ce
20 que il ne sont pas ou seront en la concavité du ciel, il ne seront en cel lieu pe-
sans ne legiers, si comme il appert par ce que fu dit ou sixte chapitre du quart,
mais l’en peust ymaginer .iii. maniérés comment il y peuent estre : une est que
l’espace ou il seront soit maintenant simplement wide, et quant il y seront
que il n’i ait autre corps qui les contienne, mais est un lieu ymaginé vieu et
25 infini— ce est le immensité de Dieu et D ieu11 meisme, si comme il fu déclaré
en la fin du .xxiiii.e chapitre du premier.12 E t peust estre que ce entendoit Job
quant il dist de D ieu: // (201c) Q ui extendit aquilonem super vacuum.13 Une
autre maniéré est que telz corps fussent en un corps supercelestiel ou ciel aus­
si comme nous sommes maintenant en le aer, et que ce ciel cedast aus corps
30 glorifiéz sourvenans aussi comme le aer nous cede, fors que ce seroit sanz
quelcunque alteracion, excepté, par aventure, rarefacion et condempsacion
très petite et très subtille. La tierce maniéré seroit que ce ciel ou telz corps
sont ne leur cedast pas, mais que .ii. ou pluseurs corps fussent du tout ensem­
ble, si co m m e il peust estre fait par la vertu divine. E t de ces .iii. maniérés la-
35 quelle est vraie ou se il est autrement, ce <ne>14 peut savoir honme mortel
sanz revelacion de Dieu, car meisme les plus grans philosophes qui onques
furent ignorèrent moult de choses naturelez et défaillirent et errerent plu­
seurs fois, si comme je ay souvent monstré en ce livre D e celo en pluseurs
chapitres et en pluseurs pas. Item, des mouvemens des corps glorifiéz desus
40 dis je m’en passe briefment pour ce que les docteurs en ont soufisanment dé­
terminé, car telz corps sont / (2iod) ou seront douéz1* des dons de subtilité
et de agilité aveques les autres dons et si ne ont ou avront quelcunque incli-
nacion a descendre ne autre resistence dedens eulz comme dit est; et pour ce
il seront meuz seulement par volenté.16 Item, quant est de resistence qui se-
45 toit dehors eulz, se il sont meuz par vieu selon la premiere maniéré mainte­
nant touchiee ou se pluseurs corps seront ensemble selon la tierce maniéré,
telz corps glorieux ne ont dehors qui résisté a leur mouvement ; mais se il sont
meuz parmi un corps ou un ciel qui leur cede selon la seconde maniéré, tel
corps est plus rare et plus subtil que le aer de tant comme il est plus haut et
5o encore plus et est aussi comme esperituel; et pour ce se il fait resistence, elle
6 Ps. 67: 34. 9 j oan 14:2— E vobis parafe.
7 Preface o f the Mass for the feast o f Ascen- 10 Cf. Joan 12:26— Et ubi sum ego, illic et
sion. minister meus erit. E omits illic.
8 B C D E F omit en sa compaingnie. 11 B C D E F omit et Dieu.
Book IV, Chapter 11, fols. 2010-20id | 72/
ing bodies, like the body o f Jesus Christ, o f whom the Prophet said: Who mount-
eth above the heaven o f heavens ; what is to be understood by heaven o f heavens was
explained in Chapter One o f Book II [see fol. 66a]. In the preface o f the Mass, it is
said o f Jesus Christ: W ho mounting above all the heavens. There in His company
will be the bodies o f those who will be saved after the final resurrection. For this
reason He said to them in the Gospel o f John: I go to prepare a place for you; and
again: Where I am, there also shall my minister be. I say, therefore, that, since these
bodies are not or will not be within the concavity o f the heavens, in that place they
will be neither heavy nor light, as it appears from the discussion in Chapter Six o f
Book IV [see fol. 192a ff.] ; but we can imagine three ways is which they can exist
there: 1) the space where they will be is now absolutely empty, and when they are
there, no other body will contain or surround them, for it is a place imagined void
and infinite, the immensity o f G o d and G o d Himself, as we stated at the end o f
Chapter Twenty-four o f Book I [see fol. 38b] and as, possibly, Job had in mind
when he said o f G o d : // (201c) He stretched out the north over the empty space;
or 2) such bodies might be inside a supercelestial body or heaven just as we now
are in the air, and this heaven would make way for the arriving glorified bodies
just as the air yields before us, except that there would not be any bodily alteration,
save, perchance, rarefaction and condensation o f a very minor and subtle kind; or
3) the heaven in which these bodies are would not yield before them one by one,
but two or more bodies together could act as one, as it can indeed be done by di­
vine power. Which o f these three ways is true or not true no mortal man can know
without a relevation from G o d ; even the greatest philosophers who ever lived
were ignorant o f many things in nature and were mistaken and erred many times,
as I have often pointed out in many chapters and passages o f this book O n the H eav­
ens. I shall speak only briefly concerning the movements o f the glorified bodies
mentioned above because the Church doctors have already sufficiently clarified this
matter; such bodies are / (20 id) or will be endowed with gifts o f subtlety and agil­
ity along with their other capacities, and they neither have nor will have any incli­
nation to move downward nor any resistance within them, as has been stated;
therefore, they will move only in response to the will to move. As for the resistance
that will be outside them, whether they move through a void, as in the first man­
ner just mentioned, or whether several bodies will act together as in the third man­
ner, such glorious bodies have no force outside them to resist their movements;
but, if they move through a body or heaven which yields to their presence in the
second manner noted above, such a body is more rarefied and subtle than air in so
far as it is higher and still higher up and so, in a sense, purely spiritual; as a result,
12 B C D E F .xiiii. 15 D E donnez.
13 Job 26:7. 16 B E violence.
14 A omits ne.
yz6 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
est si très petite et tele que elle ne empeesche en rien que tielx corps ne soient
meuz de si grant isneleté comme il veulent, et peuent estre quant il leur plait
sus ce monde la ou il leur plaist, ou endroit des poles ou de l ’equinocial ou
d’orient ou d ’occident, etc.
12. Le .xii.e chapitre est en especial du corps de Jhesucrist. //
(202a) L ’en pourroit dire, par aventure, que le benoit corps de Jhesucrist
est en haut sus en1 la maniéré que seront les autres corps glorifiéz, si comme
il est dit ou chapitre precedent, fors tant que II est doué2 et a en Soy les dons
glorieus très excellement et merveilleusement outre mesure, plus que quel-
5 cunque autre corps. E t pour ce que II est tant bel, tout aussi comme les an-
gelz se delectent en voier Dieu duquel saint Pierre dist en sa Canonique : In
quem desiderant angeli prospicere,3 semblablement les corps beneurés se
delecteront en resgarder corporelment4 nostre humanité en leur créateur et
rédempteur qui est tant glorieuse. Mais pour ce que5 pluseurs ne tiennent pas
10 le conseil du Sage qui dist de Dieu : In pluribus operibus eius ne fueris curio-
sus ... ; non est enim tibi necessarium, ea que abscondita sunt, videre,6 aucun
tel trop curieux pourroit demander en quelle maniéré pourra chascun beneu-
ré veoir corporelment ceste humanité devant soy face a face, car il seront très
grant / (202b) multitude : V idi turbam magnam, quam dinum<(er>are7 nemo
i5 poterat.8 E t donques convendra il que les uns soient devant ceste humanité,
les autres a senestre ou desouz, comment ne en quelle disposicion peuent il
estre, etc. E t pour respondre a ce, je pensé pieça a une consideracion que9 je
veul exprimer : et premièrement d’une impression commune que nous apel-
lons l’arquenciel qui est de .iii. couleurs. Je suppose que toutes ces couleurs
20 et chascune de elle<s)10 est par toute la nue ou appert cest arc et qui est a ce
disposée ; et nientmoins, ces couleurs ne apparent pas a un honme par toute
la nue, mais en certaine figure et posicion11 qui est tele que la ligne droite qui
vient du centre du corps du soleil et passe par le ouyl, §elon ymaginacion
ceste ligne s’en va tout droit au centre12 de cest arc ou de la circunference
25 circulaire dont il est porcion. E t par ceste s’ensuit que .ii. honmes ne pluseurs,
se il ne estoient en celle ligne, ne peuent veoir cest arc en .i. meisme lieu ne
proprement un arc, et toutevoies un <le>13 voit aussi comme l’autre et de-
II (202c) vant sa face se il lui plaist. E t tout ce je suppose sans plus declarer
1 A sus les en. 5 B C D E F omit pour ce que.
2 B D E donne. 6 Ecclus. 3:22, 23. D E pluribus eius operi-
3 I Pet. 1:12. bus non.
4 F proprement. 7 A dinumare.
Book IV, Chapter 12, fols. 202a-202c | 727
if there is any resistance, it is so slight and o f such nature that it does not in any way
prevent as fast a motion as such bodies may wish, and they can be wherever they
please above our world— near the poles, the equinoctial, in the east, or in the west,
etc.
12. Chapter Twelve is concerned especially with
the body of Jesus Christ.//
(202a) It is probably correct to say that the blessed body o f Jesus Christ is on
high in the same way as the other glorified bodies, just as we explained in the pre­
ceding chapter, except that He is endowed with and possesses within Himself,
more than any other body does, glorious gifts most excellently and marvelously
beyond measure. Because He is so beautiful, just as the angels delight in seeing
G od, o f whom St. Peter says in his Epistle : O n whom the angels desire to look, so
in the same way will the blessed bodies be pleased to see bodily that so glorious incar­
nation o f our humanity in their Creator and Savior. However, since there are many
people who do not follow the counsel o f the Sage [Solomon] who said o f G o d : In
many o f His works be not curious. . . ; for it is not necessary for you to see with
thine eyes those things that are hid, some too inquisitive person could ask in what
way each blessed soul will be able to see bodily this humanity face to face, for there
will be such a very great / (202b) multitude o f them : I saw a great multitude, which
no man could number. Thus, it must be that some will stand in front o f this human­
ity, others on the left, or underneath, or in any position whatever that they may
find, etc. In reply to this question, I have recently thought o f an interpretation that
I should like to express here: first, with regard to a common phenomenon which
we call the rainbow, and which has three colors, I assume that all these colors, and
each one separately, are within the cloud where this rainbow appears and which is
correctly placed to reflect them ; however, to one man these colors do not appear to
be throughout the entire cloud, but rather o f such shape and position as a straight
line coming from the center o f the body o f the sun and passing through the eye;
this line is imagined to go straight to the center o f this arc or to the circular circum­
ference o f which it is a part. It follows therefrom that two or more men not on this
line cannot see this arc in the same identical place, nor can they see it as a proper arc ;
nevertheless, one man like the other sees it straight before // (202c) his face, i f he
8 Apoc. 7:9. B quam nemo dinumerare; F 11 E porcion.
nemo non poterat. 12 B C D E F omit du corps du soleil... droit
9 A repeats que. au centre.
10 A B elle; D F eulz; E eux. 13 A omits le.
 y 28 | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
comme vérité pure et neccessaire et demonstree en M etheores14 et en un petit
30 tractié qui se commence : Inter omnes impressiones, etc.,15 et a ce s’acorde ou
concorde toute experience que l ’en peust avoir de ceste chose. E t tel pourroit
faire la doubte desus dite qui ne savroit ceci entendre. E t pour ce, je lui de­
mande pourquoy Dieu qui est tout puissant ne peust faire sus les cielz chose
presque semblable, ce est a savoir ou ciel supercelestiel ou seront les corps
35 salvéz selon la seconde ou tierce maniéré mises ou chapitre precedent, et que
par tout ce ciel et en chascune partie soit tout le corps de Jhesucrist et chas-
cun de ses membres en la maniéré que les couleurs desus ditez et l’arc aussi
sont par toute une nue, fors que ce corps soit partout un meisme selon nom­
bre.16 E t ainsi II se monstrera et chascun corps saint ou que il soit le verra
4o devant soy face a face en sa propre figure, aussi comme dit est de l’arc cor­
ruptible que nous voions ici bas. E t en ceste maniéré ou sens que les doc­
teurs / (202d) appellent anagogique seroit lors acompli ce que nostre Seigneur
promist a l’umain lignage quant II dist : Arcum meum ponam in nubibus celi,
et erit signum federis inter me et terram, etc.17 Je mettray, dist II, mon arc es
45 nues du ciel, c ’est a savoir la ou seront les corps salvéz desquelz dist Ysaije:
Q ui sunt isti, qui ut nubes volant.18 E t ainsi sera Jhesucrist entre ses sains:
Quasi arcus refulgens inter nebulas glorie. Ecclesiasticus libro.19 E t est et
ser<a>20 comme dit est, le signe d ’aliance21 entre D ieu le Pere et creature hu­
maine, si comme II dist par son prophète Ysaïe: Dedi te in fedus populi;22 et
50 est médiateur de Dieu et des honmes selon ce que dist l’Apostre.23 Item, en
autre lieu en la sainte Escripture le Sage excite cuer humain a desirer la veue
de cest arc glorieux en disant ainsi: Vide arcum, et benedic[eum] qui fecit il­
ium :24 valde speciosus est in splendore suo ;25 il est très bel et très resplendis­
sant, car il est si comme dist D avid : Speciosus forma pre filiis hominum.26
55 E t apres sanz moien dist le Sage : Giravit27 celum in circui-// (203 a) tu glorie
sue ;28 il environne le ciel ou circuite de sa gloire. E t par ce sembleroit que le
Sage a la lettre entende de cest arc supercelestiel, car celui n’est pas si glo­
rieux que nous voions ici bas en aer tenebreux et plain de obscurté : In caligi-
noso loco tenebrarum harum.29 E t en signe de ce, l’en pourroit exposer et
60 entendre de <son>30 secont avenement du jugement final ce que dist saint
Jehan en son Apocalipse: Vidi alterum angelum fortem31 descendentem de
14 Meteorologicorum, 111.1.371b 19— 5.377a nubibus, et erit signum foederis inter me et
38. inter terram.
15 This minor work o f Oresme, first noted 18 Isai. 60:8.
by E. Borchert, Die Lehre von der Bewegung bei 19 Ecclus. 1:8. E libro ecclesiasticus libro.
N .O ., p. 16, has been edited by René Mathieu, 20 A seroit.
“ LTnter omnes impressiones de N. O .,” from 21 D E E t est sera comme est signe.
Bibl. Nat., ms. lat. 4082, 82d-85c. It deals 22 Isai. 62:6.
principally with comets. 23 I Tim. 2:5— Unus enim Deus, unus et
16 D E partout selon un meisme* nombre. mediator Dei et hominum, homo Christus Jé­
17 Cf. Gen. 9:13— Arcum meum ponam in sus.
Book IV, Chapter 12, fols. 202d-203a 729
so pleases. A ll this I assume, without further explanation, as pure and necessary
truth, demonstrated in the M eteors and in a short treatise beginning : “ A m ong all
our impressions. . . , ” etc. ; all experience that we can have agrees with this assump­
tion. Anyone could raise the doubt mentioned above if he did not understand this
explanation. Therefore, I ask him w hy Omnipotent G o d could not do something
similar above the heavens— that is, in the supercelestial heaven, where the saved
bodies would be situated in accordance with the second or third possibilities out­
lined in the preceding chapter [see fol. 201c]— and I ask w hy G o d could not have
the entire body o f Christ and each o f His members present throughout every part o f
this heaven in the same way that the colors o f the rainbow are situated in every part
o f a cloud, except that Christ’s body would be everywhere the same, even accord­
ing to number. A n d thus will He show Himself, and each holy body, wherever it
may be, will see Him face to face in His own shape, just as we have shown in the
case o f the changeable rainbow which we can see here below. In this way or mean­
ing, called anagogical by the doctors o f the Church / (202d), there would be accom­
plished what our Lord promised to humankind when He said : I will set m y rain­
bow in the clouds o f the sky as a sign o f the covenant between M e and the earth,
etc. I will place, said He, my arc in the clouds o f the sky— that is, where the saved
bodies will be, o f whom Isaiah said : W ho are these who fly like clouds ? In this
manner, then, will Christ be among His saints : A s the rainbow giving light in the
bright clouds.... In the book o f Ecclesiasticus. A n d it is and will be, as stated, the
sign or symbol o f the compact between G o d the Father and human creatures, as
He said through His Prophet Isaiah: I have given thee for a covenant o f the
people... , and Christ is the mediator between G o d and men, as the Apostle said.
In another passage o f H oly Scripture, the Sage [Solomon] stimulates the human
heart to desire the sight o f this glorious rainbow by saying : L ook upon the rain­
bow and bless Him that made it : it is very beautiful in its brightness. It is extremely
beautiful and resplendent, for it is as D avid said : Beautiful above the sons o f men.
A n d afterward in the very next verse, the Sage [Solomon] said : Giravit celum in
circuitu //(203a) glorie sue— it encompasseth the heaven about with the circle o f its
glory. It seems from this that the Sage literally means the supercelestial rainbow,
for the one that we see here below in the dark and cloudy air is not so glorious : A
light shining in a dark place__ A n d as evidence o f this, we might explain and in­
terpret what St. John says in his Apocalypse about the second coming and the last
24 B eum. 29 Cf. II Pet. 1:19— Quasi lucernae lucenti
25 Ecclus. 43:12. in caliginoso loco, donee dies elucescat.
26 Ps. 44:3. 30 A omits son.
27 B girant. 31 B omits fortem.
28 Ecclus. 43:13.
 jjo | Le Livre du ciel et du monde
celo amictum nube, et yris in capite eius, et faciès32 eius sicut sol.33 Item, en
cest aer nubileux ici bas appert aucune fois un secont arc contenant le pre­
mier lequel est principal, et aussi comme dit est du premier, toutes les cou-
65 leurs de ce secont et chascune de elles sont par toute la nue ou ces .ii. arcs
apparent et ne peuent naturelment apparoir pluseurs. E t donques, par aven­
ture, pourroit aucun dire que le corps de la glorieuse vierge Marie qui con­
tint34 en soy celui de Jhesucrist est aussi comme le secont arc et que ces .ii.
corps glorieux qui sont si prochains par nature, / (203 b) sont ou seront par
70 tout le ciel la ou seront les corps beneuréz et le rëempliront pareillement
quant a ce, et seront veus par tout ce ciel en leur propre figure en la maniéré
que dit est des .ii. arcs corruptibles que nous voions cibas. E t ainsi nous a-
vriens de ceste chose .ii. concordances en .ii. similitudes : une naturele des .ii.
arcs desus diz qui sont par toute la nue, et l’autre mathématique en ce que
75 seulement sont .ii. corps réguliers dont chascun rëemplist lieu ou espace cor-
porele, et ne peuent estre pluseurs : un est pyramide ou tetracedron, l’autre
est cube ou exacedron, si comme il fu dit et déclaré ou .xii.e chapitre du tiers.
E t tout ce je di et met sans affermer a grant humilité et cremeur de cuer, salve
tousjours la majesté de la foy catholique, et pour reprimer la curiosité ou pre-
80 sompcion d ’aucuns qui, par aventure, la voudroient calumpnier ou impug-
ner ou trop avant enquérir a leur confusion, car si comme dist le Sage : Qui
perscrutat<or>35 est maiestatis opprimetur a gloria.36 //
(203 c) E t ainsi a l’aide de Dieu, je <ay>37 acompli le livre D u C ie l et du mon­
de au commandement de très excellent prince Charles, quint de ce nom, par
85 la grace de Dieu roy de France, lequel en ce faisant m ’a fait evesque de Lisi­
eux. E t pour animer, exciter et esmouvoir les cuer s des jeunes honmes qui
ont subtilz et nobles engins et désir de science, afin que il estudient a dire en­
contre et a m oy reprendre pour amour et affection de vérité, je ose dire et me
faiz fort que il n’est honme mortel qui onques veist plus bel ne meilleur livre
90 de philosophie naturele que est cestui, ne en ebreu, ne en grec ou arabic68 ne
en latin, ne en françois.
Ecce librum celi. Karolo pro rege peregi.
Régi celesti gloria, laus et honor.
Nam naturalis liber unquam philosophie
95 Pulcrior aut potior nullus in orbe fuit. /
32 C D E F faciem. 35 A per scrutatie.
33 Cf. Apoc. 10:1— Et vidi alium angelum 36 Cf. Prov. 25:27— Sic qui scrutator es
fortem descendentem de coelo amictum nube, maiestatis, opprimetur a gloria.
et iris in capite eius, et facies eius erat ut sol. 37 A omits ay.
34 B D E F contient. 38 B omits_ou arabic.
Book IV, Chapter 12, fols. 203b-203C | 731
judgment: A n d I saw another m ighty angel come down from heaven clothed with
a cloud and a rainbow upon his head, and his face was as the sun__ In this cloudy
air here below there sometimes appears a second arc containing the first or princi­
pal rainbow ; and as we said o f the first, all the colors o f this second arc and each
separate one are present throughout the entire cloud in which the tw o rainbows ap­
pear; and b y nature more o f them cannot appear. Therefore, we could possibly say
that the body o f the glorious Virgin Mary, which contained the body o f Christ, is,
as it were, the second rainbow and that these two glorious bodies so close to each
other in nature / (203 b) are or will be throughout the entire heaven where the bles­
sed bodies are and the two will fill that place just as the rainbow does, and will be
seen throughout the heaven in their own proper shape, just as we said o f the two
perishable rainbows we can see here below. So, from this, we would have tw o con­
cordant similarities : one natural, o f the two arcs noted above which permeate the
entire cloud; the other, mathematical, in the sense that there are only two regular
bodies— and there cannot be any others— which fill a place or material space : one,
a pyramid or tetrahedron; and the other, a cube or hexahedron, as explained in
Chapter Tw elve o f B ook III [see fols. 173 d ff.]. W ithout vouching for it, I say and
set forth all this with great humility and fear in my heart, respecting always the
majesty o f the Catholic faith, in order to subdue the inquisitiveness or presump­
tion o f those who, by chance, would heap calumny upon it or impugn it or press
too far their curiosity to their own confusion, for as the Sage [Solomon] says : He
that is a searcher o f majesty shall be overwhelmed by glory. //
(203c) Thus, with G o d ’s help, I have finished the book on The Heavens and the
W orld at the command o f the very excellent Prince Charles, the fifth o f this name,
by the grace o f G od, K in g o f France, who, while I was doing this, has made me
Bishop o f Lisieux [1377]. For the purpose o f animating, exciting, and m oving the
hearts o f those young men who have subtle and noble talents and the desire for
knowledge to prepare themselves to argue against and to correct me because o f
their love and affection for the truth, I venture to say and feel quite certain that no
mortal man has ever seen a finer or better book o f natural philosophy in Hebrew,
in Greek or Arabic, in Latin or French than this one.
This is the Book o f the Heavens. I have completed it
for Charles the K ing.
G lory to the Heavenly K ing, praise and honor.
For never in this world was there a book
O n natural philosophy more beautiful or more powerful. /
732 L e Livre du ciel et du monde
[Table des matières]
(203 d) E n ces .iiii.1 livres sont choses bien notables desquelles pluseurs
peuent estre trouvées par Pintitulation des chapitres et par la table qui s’en­
suit ici, laquelle ne pourroit bonnement estre ordonee selon l’ordre des let­
tres de l’a b c.2
O u premier livre
D e la Trinité divine, ou premier chapitre et ou .x.e chapitre du quart [6a,
2ood].
D e mixtion de mouvemens et comment de pluseurs mouvemens drois
peust estre fait mouvement circulaire, et de pluseurs circulaires mouvement
5 droit, ou tiers chapitre [8a].
Comment aer peut monter et eaue descendre naturelement du centre siques
au ciel et du ciel siques au centre, ou quart chapitre; et de ce plus a plain ou
sixte chapitre du quart [10a, 192c].
D ’une mutacion merveilleuse qui apparut jadis en l’estoille] journal, ou
10 .vii.e chapitre4 [14b].
Comment ce est possibles naturelment que le soleil et les estoilles lèveront
/ / (204a) de la partie ou il couchent maintenant et coucheront de la partie ou
il lievent, en le .viii.e chapitre; et de ce par autre maniéré ou .xxxi.e chapitre
dusecont[i6d, 154c].
15 Que Dieu et nature ne font rien pour nient, en le .viii.e chapitre [16b].
Comment l’en peut ymaginer un corps pesant infini de toutes pars qui ne
pesera que une livre, et toutesvoies chascune partie de ce corps pesera, en le
.xi.e chapitre vers la fin [20c].
Contre Aristote, qui met ou .xii.e chapitre et ou .vii.e de Phisique que] de
ao tant comme la puissance motive est plus grande, de tant proportionelment
elle meut plus ysnelement; mais ce est faulz, si comme je <ay>6 demonstré ou
.xii.e chapitre [21a].
Contre Aristote, qui met se un corps est infini, il convient que il soit infini
de toutes pars; et comment il est possible ymaginer un corps <in)fini7 equal
25 a celui qui n’est que d’un pié en tous sens ou mendre. E t ce corps est infini en
1 C D E F omit .iiii. plied folio references.
2 B omits this entire paragraph. 4 £>E .xii.e chapitre.
3 To make this summary o f practical use as s B E impossible,
an index to the work, the editors have sup- 6 A omits ay.
Analytical Table o f Contents: B ook I, fols. 203d-204a j jy y
[Analytical Table o f Contents]
(203 d) In these four Books are many things worthy o f note which can be found
by consulting the chapter headings and the table which follows; this table could
not be satisfactorily arranged in alphabetical order.
In B ook I
O n the H oly Trinity— Chapter 1 o f Book I and Chapter 10 o f B ook I V [6a,
2ood].
O n the compounding o f movements and how circular motion can be composed
o f several rectilinear motions; and how rectilinear motion can be composed o f
several circular motions— Chapter 3 [8a].
H ow air can rise naturally from the center to the heavens and how water can
m ove downward from the heavens to the center— Chapter 4; more on this subject
in Chapter 6 o f Book I V [10a, 192c].
A bout a marvelous change which once appeared in the day star— Chapter 7
tub]. . . . ,
H ow it is possible in nature that the sun and stars will rise // (204a) in that part
o f the sky where they now set and how they will set in the part where they now
rise— Chapter 8 ; on this same topic in a different manner— Chapter 31 o f Book II
[i6d, 154c].
That G o d and Nature do nothing without some purpose— Chapter 8 [16b].
H ow to imagine a body heavy and infinite in every direction which will weigh
but one pound, and yet each part o f which will have weight— Chapter 11, toward
the end [20c].
Opposing Aristotle, who states in Chapter 12 and in Book V II o f the Physics that
the greater the motive force, the greater the speed proportionally, but this is in­
correct, as I have shown in Chapter 12 [21a].
Opposing Aristotle, who states that, if a body is infinite, it must be infinite in every
direction; and how it is possible to imagine an infinite body equal to one that is
only a foot or less in every direction. A nd this body is infinite in length and width
7 A fini.
734 | L e L iv r e du c ie l et du monde
lonc et en laé de tous costés. E t un autre / (204b) corps sera simplement infini
qui n’est infini fors seulement en lonc; ou .xiii.e chapitre [23a].
Un fort arguement contre ce que Aristote dist que se un autre monde estoit,
la terre de celui seroit meue au centre de cestui, et la response a ce ; ou .xvi.®
30 chapitre [27b].
Comment lieu est dit en .ii. maniérés, ou .xvii.e chapitre8[28b].
Quelz mouvemens sont plus isnelz en la fin que ou commencement et
quelz <non>,9 et comment et pour quelle cause; ou .xix.e chapitre. E t de ce
plus a plain ou .xiii.e chapitre du secont [30c, 106b].
35 Ave<r>roïz 10 met que en une espece inmateriele1 1 ne peut estre que un
seul supost. Raisons contre ce par les dis de lui meisme et de Aristote, ou
.xx.e chapitre [31a].
Quelles choses sont hors le ciel, ou .xxiiii.e chapitre; et de ce plus a plain es
.iii. chapitres qui sont apres la fin du quart livre [3 5c, 200a].
4o Comment éternité est toute ensemble et en un moment, ou .xxiiii.e chapi­
tre; et de ce ou premier et ou secont chapitre du secont [34d, 65a, 68a].
Responses aus resons12 // (204c) que fait Aristote a prouver que il ne peut
estre fors un seul monde, ou .xxiiii.e chapitre [35 c].
E n quantes et en quelles maniérés peuent estre pluseurs mondes, ou .xxiiii.e
45 chapitre [35 c].
Se une porcion de terre ou d’autre element ou un corps mixte estoit ou ciel
ou hors le ciel, il ne sero it pesant ne legier et n’avroit inclinacion au centre de
ce monde ne au contraire; et est contre Aristote, ou .xxiiii.e chapitre; et de ce
ou sixte chapitre du quart [36c, 192b].
50 II ne convient pas que la terre repose violentement pour ce se plus legiere
chose est ou centre du monde, ou .xxiiii.e chapitre [37a].
Comment sus le ciel peut estre eaue pesante, ou .xxiiii.e chapitre13 [3 6d],
Comment les vertus actives et passives sont determineez ou resgart des
choses en quoy elles peuent, ou .xxix.e chapitre [43a].
55 Comment naturelment aucune lumire peut avoir commencement sanz ja
avoir fin, contre Aristote ou .xxix.e chapitre [44b].
Comment ce est possi- / (204d) ble14 que aucun mouvement ait commence­
ment et dure sans fin, contre Aristote ou ,xxix.e chapitre [46a].
Contre ce que Aristote met que se un corps infini estoit, un autre corps in-
60 fini ne pourroit estre, ne que aussi ne peuent estre .ii. temps13 infiniz, ou
.xxx.e chapitre [47c].
Contre ce que il met que d ’une chose la possibilité a estre ne peut durer par
temps infini ne aussi la possibilité de elle a non estre, ou .xxx.e chapitre [50a].
cq ^
.xvi. c. 12 D E omit aus resons,
omits non. 13 A B .xxiiii. c.
10 A C Avenroiz. 14 B C D E F impossible.
11 B materiele. 15 B C D E F corps.
Analytical Table o f Contents: B ook I , fols. 204b-204d | 73j
on all sides. A n d another / (204b) body will be absolutely infinite although infinite
only in length— Chapter 13 [23 a].
A strong argument against Aristotle’s opinion that, if another world existed, the
earth o f our world would move to the center o f the other one, with the reply to
this argument— Chapter 16 [27b].
H ow place is used with two different meanings— Chapter 17 [28b].
Which movements are faster at their end than at their beginning and which are
not, and how and why— Chapter 19. More fully on this subject— Chapter 13 o f
B ook II [30c, 106b].
Averroes states that in an immaterial species there can be but one substratum ;
arguments against this drawn from Averroes himself and from Aristotle— Chapter
20 [31a].
W hich things are outside or beyond the heavens— Chapter 24 ; and more fully in
the three chapters at the end o f Book I V [35 c, 200a].
H ow eternity is altogether and in one moment— Chapter 24; and more fully
about this subject in Chapters 1 and 2 o f Book II [34d, 65a, 68a]
Replies to the arguments // (204c) Aristotle offers to prove that there can be but
one world— Chapter 24 [3 5c].
In how many and which ways can several worlds exist— Chapter 24 [35 c].
I f a little portion o f earth or another element or a mixed body were inside or out­
side the heavens, it would be neither heavy nor light and would have no tendency
om ove either toward the center o f the world nor in the contrary direction; this is
contrary to Aristotle’s opinion— Chapter 24, also Chapter 6 o f B ook I V [36c, 192b].
It is not necessary that the earth remain at rest by constraint simply because a
lighter element is at the center o f the world— Chapter 24 [37a].
H ow it is possible that above the heavens water may be heavy— Chapter 24
[36d].
H ow active and passive forces are identified in the objects in which they exert
their power— Chapter 29 [43a].
H ow a certain light may have a beginning without ever having an end, in oppo­
sition to Aristotle— Chapter 29 [44b].
H ow it is possible / (204d) for a movement to begin and last forever, contrary to
Aristotle’s opinion— Chapter 29 [46a].
Against Aristotle’s opinion that, if an infinite body existed, no other infinite
body could exist and also that there cannot be two infinite times— Chapter 30 [47c].
Against Aristotle’s opinion that the possibility o f a thing to exist and the possi­
bility o f its not existing cannot last through infinite time— Chapter 30 [50a].
yj 6 | L e L ivre du ciel et du monde
E n quantes maniérés est dit possible et en quantes im possible, ou .xxx.e cha-
65 pitre [48b].
Contre ceulz qui prouvent que Dieu est par un sophisme et cuident demon-
strer, ou .xxx.e chapitre [5 ia].
Responses aus resons que Aristote fait a prouver que chose corruptible ne
peut durer sans fin, ou .xxx.e chapitre [50a].
70 Response a une raison que il fait a prouver que chose qui durera sanz fin ne
peut avoir eu commencement, ou .xxx.e chapitre [5 od].
Responses aus raisons d’Aristote et d’Averroïz par les- // (205 a) quelles il
cuident prouver generalment que ce est impossible que chose qui ne a eu
commencement ait fin, et que chose qui ne avra fin ait16 eu commencement,
75 et que par neccessité toute chose qui a commencement a fin, et qui a fin a
commencement; ou .xxxi.e et .xxxii.e et .xxxiii.e et .xxxiiii.e chapitre [52a,
53c, 54b, 56b].
Contre Averroïz, qui suppose que un infini soit plus grant que l’autre, et le
contraire est monstré par beles ymaginacions, ou .xxxiii.e chapitre [5 5a].
80 Comment, se le monde avoit esté sanz commencement et durast sanz fin,
l ’en pourroit assigner cause naturelment neccessaire pourquoy une chose qui
avroit duré sanz commencement cesse estre en certain moment et ne peut en
autre ; et pourquoy chose qui durera sans fin commence estre en un moment
et non en autre; contre Aristote et contre Averroïz, ou .xxxiiii.e chapitre
85 [5 6d].
Q ue naturelement aucunes choses ont commencement qui dureront sans
fin, contre Aristote, ou .xxxiiii.e chapitre [58a]. /
(205 b) Q ue selon philosophie il ne convient pas quérir cause fors la vo -
lenté de Dieu pourquoy II créé une chose maintenant et non pas plus to s t ne
90 plus tart, ou .xxxiiii.e chapitre [5 8b].
Contre Aristote est monstré que chose corruptible peut durer sanz fin, et
responses aus raysons que il fait17 au contraire, ou .xxxv.e 18 chapitre [59b].
Contre Aristote est monstré que chose materiele et corruptible et qui a con­
traire selon ses qualités peut durer sans fin, et responses aus resons contraires,
95 ou .xxxvi.e chapitre [6od].
O u secont livre
Q ue est a dire seculum seculi et secula seculorum et celum celt et celi1 celorum, ou
premier chapitre [65 b].
Q ue estoit avant que ce monde fust, ou premier chapitre [66b].
16 D E omit et que chose... fin ait. 18 A .B C D F .xxxv. chapitre.
17 A. il a fait. 1 D E celum celorum.
Analytical Table o f Contents : Book II, fols. 205 a—205 b | 737
The number o f meanings o f possible and im possible— Chapter 30 [48b].
Against those who, proving the existence o f G o d by a sophism, think they have
demonstrated it— Chapter 30 [51a].
Replies to the arguments Aristotle gives to prove that a perishable thing cannot
last forever— Chapter 30 [50a].
Reply to an argument by Aristotle to prove that what will endure forever can
have had no beginning— Chapter 30 [5od].
Replies to arguments o f Aristotle and o f Averroes by which // (205 a) they intend
to prove in general that it is impossible for anything which had no beginning to
have an end and that anything which will have no end had a beginning, and that
necessarily everything which had a beginning will have an end and that what has
an end must have a beginning— Chapters 31, 32, 33, and 34 [52a, 53c, 54b, 56b].
Opposing Averroes, who posits that one infinite may be greater than another;
the contrary is demonstrated by means o f fine, imaginative arguments— Chapter
33 [5 5 a].
I f the world had been without beginning and were to last endlessly, h ow we
could adduce a naturally necessary cause w hy a thing which m ight have lasted thus
without any beginning would stop at a certain moment rather than at another; also
w hy a thing which will last endlessly begins to exist at one moment and not at an­
other, contrary to Aristotle and Averroes— Chapter 34 [5 6d].
That some things have a beginning naturally which will last forever, contrary to
Aristotle— Chapter 34 [58a]. /
(205 b) That, according to philosophy, it is not necessary to seek any cause other
than G o d ’s will for His creating a thing now rather than earlier or later— Chap­
ter 34 [58b].
Opposing Aristotle, it is shown that a perishable object can last eternally; and
replies contrary to his reasoning— Chapter 35 [59b].
Opposing Aristotle, it is shown that a perishable, material object having a con­
trary to its qualities can last forever, with answers to contrary arguments— Chapter
36 [6od].
In Book II
Th e meaning o f seculum seculi and secula seculorum and o f celum celi and celi celorum
— Chapter 1 [65 b].
What existed before the world existed— Chapter 1 [66b].
j $8 | L e Livre du ciel et du monde
Comment Dieu est ou ciel et comment II est partout, ou secont chapitre
5 [68a].
Comment les angelz // (205 c) sont en lieu et en quelz lieus il sont, ou secont
chapitre [69c].
Q ue il convient octrier selon philosophie que les intelligences sont meues,
ou secont chapitre [70c].
I0 Comment un angel peut estre en un meisme temps en ciel et en terre et en
plus de cent mille lieus distans sanz tenir plus de lieu ou d’espace equivale-
ment2 que l’espace d’un pié, ou secont chapitre [71b].
Q ue le ciel est meu sans labour et sans resistence, ou tiers chapitre [73 c].
Q ue desus et d e s o u d e s t r e et senestre, devant et desriere sont ou corps du ciel
i5 selon Aristote, ou quint chapitre [77d].
Q ue le ciel n’est pas corps v if par raysons naturelz et contre Aristote, ou
quint chapitre3 [78a].
Que en tout corps meu circulairement sont desus et desouz, et meisme-
ment ou ciel, et en quelle maniéré, ou quint chapitre [79d].
20 Comment les .vi. differences de posicion desuz dites / (20 5d) sont ou ciel
selon Aristote, ou sixte chapitre [8id].
Contre Aristote est monstré que, posé que le ciel fust corps vif, destre et
senestre, devant et derrière ne sont ou ciel fors par similitude, ou sixte chapi­
tre [82c].
25 Contre Aristote est monstré que selon vérité, pource que le ciel n’est pas
corps4 vif, desus et desouz ne sont ou ciel fors par similitude, ou sixte chapi­
tre [86a],
Belles raysons contre Aristote, qui met que nous qui habitons vers occi­
dent et vers le pole artique sommes en la partie senestre du monde et que
30 ceulz qui sont vers orient et vers midi sont en la destre, ou .vii.e chapitre
[87a].
Comment nous crestiens, meismement de cest païs, qui sommes vers occi­
dent et vers le pole artique, sommes en plus noble lieu et en plus noble assiete
de terre ou resgart du ciel que ne sont ceus qui habitent vers orient ou vers
35 l’autre pole dit antartique, ou .vii.e chapitre [88b].
Contre ce que Aristote dit que il convient, se Dieu est, que le mouvement
du ciel soit // (206a) perpétuel, en le .viii.e chapitre [91 d].
Contre ce que il5 dit que se le ciel est meu, il convient par neccessité que la
terre repose ou milieu du ciel ; et le contraire est monstré par pluseurs ray-
40 sons en le .viii.e chapitre [92c].
Que mouvement local est autre chose que le corps ainsi meu, en le .viii.e
chapitre [93 c].
2 D E equalment. 5 F omits dit que il convient se Dieu est...
3 B omits Que le ciel...ou quint chapitre. contre ce que il.
4 D E fors.
Analytical Table o f Contents : Book II, fols. 205 c-2o6a | 799
H ow G od exists in the heavens and everywhere— Chapter 2 [68a].
H ow the angels // (205 c) are located and where they are— Chapter 2 [69c].
That we must admit, according to philosophy, that the intelligences m ove—
Chapter 2 [70c].
H ow an angel can be at the same time in the heavens and in more than a hundred
thousand distant places on the earth without occupying more space than the equiva­
lent o f one foot— Chapter 2 [71b].
H ow angels m ove and in how many and in which ways they can move— Chapter
2 [71c].
That the heavens m ove without effort or resistance— Chapter 3 [73 c].
That above and below, right and le ft, fr o n t and rear appertain to the heavenly bodies,
according to Aristotle— Chapter 5 [77d].
Opposing Aristotle, who argues that for natural reasons the heavens are living
bodies— Chapter 5 [78a].
In what manner all bodies m oving in a circle have an above and a below, especi­
ally in the heavens— Chapter 5 [79d].
H ow the six positional differences noted above [77d] / (205 d) are, according to
Aristotle, present in the heavens— Chapter 6 [8id].
Opposing Aristotle, it is shown that, under the assumption that the heavens are
an animate body, right and left, front and rear are not present in the heavens, save
b y analogy— Chapter 6 [82c].
Opposing Aristotle, it is shown that, since the heavens are in reality not an ani­
mate body, above and below are not present in the heavens, save by analogy—
Chapter 6 [86a].
Sound arguments against Aristotle, who maintains that we who live in the west
near the arctic pole are situated in the left part o f the world, while those situated
toward the east and south are in the right part— Chapter 7 [87a].
H ow we Christians, even in this country, who are located toward the west and
near the arctic pole, are situated in a nobler place and a nobler terrestrial site with
respect to the heavens than those who dwell toward the east or toward the antarctic
pole— Chapter 7 [88b].
Opposing Aristotle, who says, if G o d exists, it must follow that the motion o f
the heavens is //(206a) perpetual— Chapter 8 [9id].
Opposing Aristotle, who says that, if the heavens move, the earth must neces­
sarily be at rest in the middle o f the heavens ; the contrary is demonstrated by sever­
al arguments— Chapter 8 [92c].
That local motion is something other than the m oving body— Chapter 8 [93c]
 740 L e L ivre du ciel et du monde
Contre ce que Aristote dit que se terre est il convient que feu soit, en le
.viii.e chapitre [94c].
45 Contre ce que il dit que se terre et feu sont, les autres elemens sont par nec-
cessité, en le .viii.e chapitre [94d].
Contre ce que il dit que se6 les .iiii. elemens sont, il convient que genera-
cion soit, en le .viii.e chapitre [94d].
Contre ce que il dit que se generacion est, il convient par neccessité que
50 pluseurs mouvemens soient ou ciel,7 en le .viii.e chapitre [95 a].
Concordance des poëtes et des hystoires des paiens a l’Escripture, qui met
que le soleil se arresta ou temps de Josué, en le .viii.e chapitre [95 a].
Q ue figure circulaire est la plus très petite de toutes les figures superficieles
et fi- / (206b) gure sperique la très plus petite de toutes les figures corporelles ;
55 et par ce s’ensuit de neccessité que figure circulaire et figure sperique sont de
plus grant capacité et plus peuent contenir que quelconques autres figures,
ou .x.e chapitre [100c].
Q ue l’element de le air est figuré presque aussi comme l’aubin d’un euf, en
le .xi.e chapitre [101b].
60 Que rien n’est si perfectement sperique ne si perfectement poli comme est
le ciel, en le .xi.e chapitre8[102c].
Que corps materiel ne peut estre perfectement poli quant est de soy, en le
.xi.e chapitre [103a].
Comment corps pesans peuent reposer sans violence lasus en haut sus l ’e-
65 lement de le aer, en le .xi.e chapitre7 [103b].
Quatre10 causes qui peuent mouver a enquérir de choses très fortes, et la
quarte est approuvée et les autres non, en le .xii.e chapitre [104c].
Que tout mouvement qui a fin et commencement ne peut estre régulier, ou
.xiii.e chapitre [105c].
70 Q ue tout tel mouvement commence a non gradu, et que c ’est a dire, ou
.xiii.e chapitre11 [106c]. //
(206c) Pourquoy tel mouvement, quant il est naturel, est plus isnel vers la
fin, et pourquoy son isneleté procédé en cressant, ou .xiii.e chapitre12 [106c].
Pour quelles causes mouvement violent est plus isnel et plus fort aucune
75 foys plus près du commencement, aucune foys plus loing, ou .xiii.e chapi­
tre [107a].
Les causes des accidens et des experiences que l’en voit en mouvemens
violens, ou .xiii.e chapitre [107a].
Contre Aristote est monstré comment ce est possible13 a ymaginacion et
80 simplement que l’isneleté du mouvement du ciel soit venue touzjours con-
tinuelment e<n>14 cressant par temps infini passé, et que elle procédé touz-
6 A C D F omit se. pitre.
7 B omits ou ciel. 9 F interchanges the order o f the last two
8 B C D E F omit Que rien ...en le .xi.e cha- items.
Analytical Table o f Contents : Book II, fols. 2o6b-2o6c | 741
Against Aristotle’ s statement that, if the earth exists, fire must exist— Chapter 8
[94c].
Opposing Aristotle, who states that, if earth and fire exist, o f necessity the other
elements must exist— Chapter 8 [94d].
Opposing Aristotle, who says that, if there are four elements, there must be gen­
eration or growth— Chapter 8 [94d].
Against Aristotle’s statement that, i f generation exists, there must be several dif­
ferent movements in the heavens— Chapter 8 [95 a].
Concordance o f pagan poets and stories with Scriptural accounts that the sun
stopped in its course in the time o f Joshua— Chapter 8 [95 a].
That the circle is the very smallest o f all two-dimensional figures and that the /
(206b) sphere is the very smallest o f all solid figures, fro m which it follows neces­
sarily that the circle and the sphere have the greatest capacity and can contain more
than any other figures whatsoever— Chapter 10 [100c].
That the element o f air is shaped almost like the white o f an egg— Chapter 11
[101b].
That nothing else is so perfectly spherical or so perfectly polished as are the
heavens— Chapter 11 [102c].
That a material body cannot be perfectly polished in and o f itself— Chapter 11
[103a].
H ow heavy bodies can rest without constraint up above the element o f air—
Chapter n [103b].
Four causes that can stimulate the investigation o f extremely difficult problems,
the fourth being approved and the others disapproved— Chapter 12 [104c].
That any movement having beginning and end cannot be regular— Chapter 13
[105c].
That all such motion begins at zero grade and what this means— Chapter 13
[106c]. H
(206c) W hy such movement, when natural, is faster toward the end and w hy its
speed progresses or accelerates— Chapter 13 [106c].
W hy violent motion is faster and stronger in certain cases near its beginning and
in other cases at a later point— Chapter 13 [107a].
The causes o f accidents and experiences which we can observe in the case o f
violent movements— Chapter 13 [107a].
Opposing Aristotle, it is shown how it is possible in imagination and in reality
that the speed o f heavenly motion has been continuously increasing through in-
10 On fol. 2o8d to 209c the scribe o f A began 12 Ibid.
to repeat himself from this point, continuing 13 B E impossible.
14 A C F et.
through to the end o f 207a.
11 B C .xiiii. c. ; D E .xiiii.e c.
 742 ! Le Livre du ciel et du monde Analytical Table o f Contents : Book II, fols. 2o6d-207a | 743

jours en appétissant par le temps infini a venir, au .xiiii.e chapitre15 [109c].
Que le mouvement du ciel est régulier et difforme, et est uniforme quant a
circuite, ou .xiiii.e chapitre [110c].
85 Comment le mouvement d’une chose qui descent et est meue en bas peut
estre uniforme et sa descendue difforme, ou .xiiii.e chapitre [n o d ].
Que chascune estoille est / (2o6d) de la nature et de l’espece du ciel ou-
quel elle est, ou .xv.e chapitre [11 ib].
Comment et pour quelle cause mouvement autre que du ciel est cause de
90 chaleur, ou .xv.e chapitre [114b].
Comment et pourquoy et en quelles choses le mouvement du ciel est cause
de chaleur,15 ou .xv.e chapitre [115b].
Que chascune planete et chascune estoille est fichiee en son ciel ou espere,
et meue au mouvement du ciel ou elle est fichiee aussi comme le clou qui est
95 fichié en un nef, etc., ou .xvi.e chapitre17 [1 16a].
Pour quelle cause les estoilles semblent aucune fois sintiller et ouilleter,18
ou .xvi.e chapitre [117a].
D e la tache ou figure qui appert en la lune, quelle elle est et pour quelle
cause, ou .xvi.e chapitre [118a].
100 Contre une rayson que Aristote fonde sus l’apparence de ceste figure a
monstrer que les estoilles ne sont pas meues par elles, ou .xvi.e chapitre
[119a].
Contre Averroïz et contre autres qui disoient que touz les cielz ou esperes
du ciel sont d’une meisme espece, // (207a) ou xvi.e chapitre [120b].
105 Contre ceulz qui dient que corps du ciel quelcunque n’est cause de fredeur,
ou .xvi.e chapitre [i2od].
Contre ce que Aristote dit que se les estoilles faisoient son par leurs mou-
vemens, elles estonneroient et corromperoient par leur son les corps de cibas,
ou ,xviii.e chapitre [124b].
110 Q ue les corps du ciel par leurs mouvemens ne font pas s<o)ns19 sensibles,
ou .xviii.e chapitre [124d].
Quelles proportions20 sont armoniques et quelles non, et quelles sont con-
sonancies et quelles non, ou .xviii.<e>21 chapitre [125c].
Comment ou ciel et sus le ciel est une musique esperituele et insensible, ou
ti5 .xviii.e chapitre [126a].
Q ue .iii. maniérés de musique sont : une humaine, autre mondaine, autre di­
vine, et quelles elles sont, ou .xviii.e chapitre [126c].
Comment les principalz regars des corps celestielz sont selon les propor­
tions de musique humaine ou selon parties de elles, ou .xviii.e chapitre22
120 [127a].
finite past time and will be continuously diminishing through infinite future time
— Chapter 14 [109 c].
That the movement o f the heavens is regular and uniformly variable, but is uni­
form in its revolution— Chapter 14 [110c].
H ow the motion o f a falling body may be o f uniform velocity or how its descent
may be o f uniformly variable velocity— Chapter 14 [n o d].
That each star / (2o6d) partakes o f the nature and o f the species or form o f the
heaven in which it is located— Chapter 15 [ m b ] .
H o w and for what cause motion, other than that o f the heavens, produces heat
— Chapter 15 [114b].
H ow and w hy and in what bodies the motion o f the heavens causes heat— Chap­
ter 15 [115b].
That each planet and each star is fixed in its heaven or sphere and moves equally
with the movement o f the heaven in which it is fixed, just as does a nail that is solid­
ly fixed in a ship^ etc.— Chapter 16 [116a].
What causey the stars to appear to flicker or twinkle— Chapter 16 [117a].
Concerning the dark spot or figure which appears on the moon, what it is and
what causes it— Chapter 16 [118a].
Opposing the argument that Aristotle bases upon the appearance o f this figure
to show that stars do not move by themselves— Chapter 16 [119a].
Opposing Averroes and others, who maintained that the entire heavens or all
the celestial spheres are o f one and the same species // (207a)— Chapter 16 [120b].
Opposing those who say that no heavenly body whatever is a cause o f cold—
Chapter 16 [i2od].
Against Aristotle’s statement that, i f the stars caused a sound by their motions,
they would disturb and destroy the bodies here below— Chapter 18 [124b].
That the heavenly bodies do not cause perceptible sounds by their motion—
Chapter 18 [i24d].
What proportions are and are not harmonic and what are and are not conso­
nances— Chapter 18 [125c].
In what manner there is within and above the heavens a spiritual and imper­
ceptible music— Chapter 18 [126a].
That there are three kinds o f music— human, mundane, and divine— and what
their particular characteristics are— Chapter 18 [126c].
H ow it happens that the principal ratios between the heavenly bodies or between
their parts are like the proportions characteristic o f human music— Chapter 18
[127a].

15 E .xiii. c. 17 B .xviii. c.; C D E F .xviii.e c. 20 E porcions. and ending here is repeated by the scribe o f
16 B C D E F omit Comment et pourquoy... 18 D E subtiller ou illeter. 21 A .xviii. A on folios 2o8d-209c; see 208c, note 7.
ou .xv.e chapitre. 19 A sens; B ne sont pas son sensibles. 22 The material beginning at 206b, note io,
 744 Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Comment la cause que / (207b) assigne Aristote pourquoy les mouvemens
du ciel et des planètes sont pluseurs et telement ordenéz n’est pas vraie ; et la
vraie cause pourquoy23 ce est, ou .xxii.e chapitre [132b].
Q ue la cause que il met pourquoy en le .viii.e ciel sont si grant multitude
125 de24 estoilles et en chascun des autres une seule n’est pas vraie; et la vraie
cause de ce,25 ou .xxiii.e chapitre [135b].
Que l’en ne pourroit prouver par quelcunque experience que le ciel soit
meu de mouvement journal et la terre non, ou .xxv.e chapitre [138b].
Que ce ne pourroit estre prové par rayson, ou .xxv.e chapitre [138b].
130 Pluseurs belles persuasions a monstrer que la terre est meue de mouve­
ment journal et le ciel non, ou .xxv.e chapitre [138b].
Comment teles consideracions sont profitables pour la deffense de nostre
foy, ou .xxvi.e chapitre26 [144c].
Que le centre de la terre n’est pas le centre du monde [15 3b].
135 Pourquoy une partie de la terre est descouverte de eaue [153d].
Comment diluge universal pourroit estre sans pluie [154].//
(207c) Comment ce est possible27 naturelment par autre maniéré que il ne
fu dit en le .viii.e chapitre du premier que le soleil et les estoilles ou temps a
venir lèveront de la partie ou il couchent maintenant, et coucheront de la
140 partie ou il lievent [154c].
Q ue il peut plus de eaue en un vaisel plat quant il est bas que quant il est
haut [15 5b].
Q ue une tour faite a plum est plus large haut que bas et pluseurs teles cho­
ses [155 c].
145 Q ue la voie d’un lieu a autre sans monter et sans devaler n’est pas si brive
comme seroit une en dévalant et puis en montant [155c].
Q ue le circuite de la terre n’est pas grant et seroit fait en pou de temps se
l’en povoit aler environ, et pou s’en fault que il ne peut bien estre fait [15 6a],
Q ue se .ii. honmes le faisoient en un meisme temps en alant un vers orient
i5o et l’autre vers occident, celui qui yroit vers orient avroit deux jours artifi-
cielz et .ii. nuis plus que celui qui yroit vers occident et en un meisme temps,
et pluseurs autres choses belles a considérer, tout ou .xxxi.e chapitre28 [15 6b].
I (20j d)
Ou tiers livre
C ontre ce que dit A risto te que chose non-pesante adjoustee a autre pesan­
te ne la peut faire plus pesante; .ii. fortes instances et responses a elles, ou
tiers chapitre [ 161 a ].
23 B C D E F n’est pas vraie cause pourquoy, 25 D E n’est pas vraie cause de ce.
24 A des. 26 A C D F .xxv. c.
Analytical Table o f Contents: Book III, fols. 207b-207d [ 7^/
H ow the cause that / (207b) Aristotle assigns for the fact that the movements o f
the heavens and o f the planets are multiple and ordered as they are is not true, and
what the correct cause is— Chapter 22 [13 2b].
That the cause given by Aristotle to explain w hy there are so many stars in the
eighth heaven and only one star in the other heavens is not true, and the real cause
for this— Chapter 22 [135b].
That it is impossible to prove by any experience whatever that the heavens have
daily motion and that the earth does not— Chapter 25 [138b].
That this cannot be proved by any arguments— Chapter 25 [138b].
Numerous fine reasonings to show that the earth moves in daily rotation and that
the heavens do not— Chapter 25 [138b].
H ow such investigations are profitable for the defense o f our faith— Chapter 26
[144c].
That the center o f the earth is not the center o f the world [153b].
W hy part o f the earth is not covered with water [153d].
H ow there could be a universal deluge without any rain [154a]. //
(207c) H o w it is possible in nature that the sun and stars in the future will rise
where they now set and will set where they now rise, discussed here [154c] in a dif­
ferent manner from that in Chapter Eight o f B ook I [16c].
That a receptacle holds more water when it is nearer the center o f the earth than
it does when it is higher up [155b].
That a tower made o f lead is wider at the top than at the bottom and several
other such items [155c].
That a level route without ascents and descents from one place to another is not
as short as one with hills and valleys [155c].
That the distance around the earth is not great and could be traveled in a short
time i f one could go around it, and indeed this would not be difficult to do [15 6a].
That if two men made this journey at the same time, one going east and the other
west, the one who went east would have two calendar days and two nights more
than the one going west, both within the same amount o f time, and several other
matters pleasant to ponder— Chapter 31 [156b]. / (20yd)
In Book III
Opposing Aristotle, who says that a weightless object added to a heavy body
cannot increase the latter’s weight; two strong examples and replies to them—
Chapter 3 [161a].
27 E impossible. 28 D E ou .xxxvi.e c.
74^ I Le Livre du ciel et du monde
Une très forte rayson du feu qui seroit ou centre du monde et sans parfaite
response, ou quart chapitre [162b].
Quelle chose est element, ou .vii.e chapitre [167c].
Q ue matière et forme sont premiers elemens, ou .vii.e chapitre [i6yd].
Q ue matière ne peut estre sans forme ne forme materiele sans matière, ou
•vii.e chapitre [i6yd].
10 Q ue les .iiii. elemens ne sont pas es corps mixtes en leurs propres fourmes,
ou .vii.e chapitre; et de ce ou secont chapitre du quart [168b, i84d].
Comment toutes figures superficieles rec<ti)lignesI sont triangles et réso­
lûtes en triangles, en le .xi.e chapitre [i74d].
Comment .iii. maniérés de tels figures regulieres sont dont chascune peut
i5 emplir espace superficiele, ou .xii.e chapitre [177a]. //
(208a) Comment .v. maniérés de corps réguliers sont et ne peuent estre
pluseurs, ou .xii.e chapitre2 [177d].
Q ue .ii. maniérés de telz corps sont dont chascun peut emplir lieu ou es­
pace corporele, et est impossible que pluseurs soient, etc., ou ,xii.e chapitre
20 [i77d]-
Comment Averroïz fait un faulz sophisme mathématique a monstrer que
.xii. pyramides emplent lieu; et ce est faulz, ou .xfi.e chapitre [17yd].
Comment .xx. pyramides emplent lieu et pluseurs belles consideracions en
ceste matière, ou .xii.e chapitre [178b].
Ou quart livre
Une belle rayson a monstrer que les elemens ne sont pas es corps mixtes en
leurs propres formes et arguemens au contraires et responses, ou secont cha­
pitre; et de ce ou .v i i . ^ ) 1 chapitre du tiers [i84d, 167c].
La cause final pourquoi les choses legieres sont meu- / (208b) es en haut et
5 les pesantes en bas, ou tiers et ou quart chapitre [186c, 188a].
Les causes motives ou efficientes de telz mouvemens, ou quart chapitre
[188c].
Pourquoy un grant fust poise plus en le aer que un petit plum, et en l’eaue
est le contraire; et ainsi de pluseurs autres corps, ou quint chapitre en .ii.
;o lieus [i9obc].
Contre ce que Aristote dit que le aer est pesant en sa region, ou quint cha­
pitre; et de ce plus a plain ou .vii.e chapitre [i9od, 194c].
Q ue il n’est rien plus haut que Pelement du feu et que outre ou ciel n’est
haut ne bas ; et se un corps terrestre y estoit ou autre, il ne seroit de fait pesant
1 A recalignes. 1 A C D vii.
2 B omits ou .xii.e chapitre.
Analytical Table o f Contents : Book IV, fols. 2o8a-2o8b | 747
A very strong argument about the fire assumed to be at the center o f the world
and without a perfect refutation— Chapter 4 [162b].
What an element is— Chapter 7 [167c].
That matter and form are primary elements— Chapter 7 [i6yd].
That matter cannot exist without form, nor material form without matter—
Chapter 7 [i6yd].
That the four elements are not present in mixed bodies in their proper forms—
Chapter 7; and compare with Chapter 2 o f Book I V [168b, i84d].
H o w all plane rectilinear figures are composed o f or resolved into triangles—
Chapter 11 [i74d].
H ow there are three such regular figures, each o f which can fill a plane area—
Chapter 12 [177a]. //
(208a) H ow there are five kinds o f regular bodies and can be no more— Chapter
12 [i77d].
That there are tw o kinds o f such bodies, each o f which can fill a place or material
space, and that it is impossible that there be more— Chapter 12 [17yd].
H ow Averroes presents a false mathematical sophism to show that twelve pyra­
mids will fill a place; this is false— Chapter 12 [17yd].
H ow twenty pyramids can fill a place, and several fine reasonings about this sub­
ject— Chapter 12 [178b].
In Book IV
A fine argument to show that the elements are not in mixed bodies in their pro­
per form, with arguments to the contrary and replies— Chapter 2 ; also Chapter 7 o f
Book III [i84d, 167c].
The final reason that light objects move / (208b) upward and heavy objects
downward— Chapters 3 and 4 [186c, 188a].
T h e motive or efficient causes o f such movements— Chapter 4 [188c].
W hy a large log weighs more than a small ball o f lead in the air and w hy in the
water the opposite is the case, and likewise with many other bodies— Chapter 5 in
two passages [i9obc].
Opposing Aristotle, who says that air is heavy in its own area or region— Chap­
ter 5 and more fully in Chapter 7 [i9od, 194c].
That nothing is higher than the element o f fire and also that there is neither high
nor low beyond or within the heavens ; if a terrestrial or any other body were there,
 74$ I Le Livre du ciel et du monde Analytical Table o f Contents : Book IV, fol. 208c | 749

i5 ne legier, ou sixte chapitre; et de ce ou .xxiiii.e chapitre du premier [i92ac,
37c].
Comment ce est possible2 que une porcion de aer soit meue naturelment
en montant du centre siques au ciel,3 et aussi naturelment en descendant du
ciel siques au centre, ou sixte chapitre [192c].
20 Que les elemens ne ont pas .iiii.4 regions determinees, si comme il semble
que Aristote entende, ou ,vii.e chapitre [194c]. //
(208c) Q ue leur ordre naturel est que le pesant soit sous legier et sous moins
pesant, et le plus legier sus5 le moins legier selon ce que il est possible tout
considéré, ou .vii.e chapitre [194c].
25 Q ue aer et eaue ne sont pas pesans en leur lieus naturelz ; et est contre ce
que dit Aristote ou .vii.e chapitre [195a].
Q ue une goûte ou porcion de eaue peut reposer naturelment ou centre du
monde et une porcion de aer emprés le ciel, en la fin du .vii.e chapitre [196a].
Q ue la legierté du feu et celle de l’aer different en espece et aussi la pesan-
30 teur de la terre et celle de l’eaue, en le ,viii.e chapitre [196b].
Comment la cause que met Aristote pourquoy aucuns corps pesans noent
en eaue ne souffist pas et la principal cause pourquoy ce est, ou .ix.e chapitre
[ i 9 gd].
it would actually be neither heavy nor light— Chapter 6, and Chapter 24 o f B ook I
[i92ac, 37c].
H ow it is possible that a portion o f air moves naturally upward from the center o f
the world to the heavens and also moves naturally downward from the heavens to
the center— Chapter 6 [192c].
That the elements do not have the four fixed regions that, it seems, Aristotle
maintains— Chapter 7 [194c]. //
(208c) That the natural order o f the elements is: the heavy underneath the light
and the less heavy, and the lightest above the less light, in so far as possible and all
things considered— Chapter 7 [194c]*
That air and water are not heavy in their natural places, contrary to what Aris­
totle says— Chapter 7 [195a].
That a drop or small portion o f water can rest naturally at the center o f the world
and a portion o f air can rest up against the heavens— at the end o f Chapter 7 [196a].
That the lightness o f fire and o f air differ in species, and likewise the weight o f
earth differs from that o f water— Chapter 8 [196b].
In what respect the cause that some heavy bodies float in water, as stated by
Aristotle, is insufficient, and what the principal cause is— Chapter 9 [i98d].
H ow heavy bodies can rest naturally above the sphere o f air Chapter 9 [i99d].

Comment choses pesantes peuent reposer naturelment sus l’espere de l’aer, O n the divine Trinity— Chapter 10 [20odj.
35 ou .ix.e chapitre [i99d]. H ow bodies o f the blessed will be situated in Paradise— Chapter 11 [20id].
D e la Trinité divine, ou .x.e chapitre [2ood]. In what manner the body o f Jesus Christ is present on high in Paradise— Chapter

Comment les corps de<s>6 beneurés seront en Paradis, en le .xi.e chapitre 12 [202a].
[20 id].
Comment le corps de Jhesucrist est lasus en Paradis, ou .xii.e chapitre7
40 [202a].

2 B impossible. humaine ou selon les parties de elles, ou .xviii.e

3 B montant siques monte le ciel.
4 B .iii.
5 B sous.
6 A B C de.
7 Beginning at the top o f 2o8d: “ Les choses
notables qui sont en ce contraire. Comment
.iiii. causes sont qui peuent mouvoir aucun a
enquérir de choses très fortes et la quarte est
approuvée ou .xii.e chapitre.” This material is
practically identical with the passage begin­
ning 206b, note 10, ending on 209c with:
“ Comment les principalz regars des corps ce-
lestielz sont selon les proporcions de musique
chapitre,” found at the bottom o f 207a. In this
material repeated by the scribe there are a few
minor differences o f vocabulary, sufficient to
indicate that he copied from a second manu­
script rather than that he merely turned back
a folio in that which he had been copying up
to this point. This repetition is peculiar to A
and does not appear in any one o f the five
other manuscripts. In the middle o f 209c ap­
pears the characteristic signature o f the Duke
o f Berry: “ Ce livre est au duc de Berry Jehan
B .”
Reference M a tter
 !

Bibliography

This bibliography is not a listing o f the titles o f all the works consulted in connection
with the preparation o f this edition. It is, rather, a compilation o f works which the editor
found to be significantly helpful either in a general sense or with regard to some particu­
lar aspect o f his labors. Titles in the footnotes o f both the Introduction and the text not
included in this selective bibliography are fully identified upon their first appearance in
each Book.

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753

1
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Hipparchus. The Geographical Fragments o f Hipparchus. Ed. D . R. Dicks. London, i960.
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his discovery o f Oresme’s Quaestiones super meteora.
Taton, René (ed.). See H istoire générale des sciences.
Thorndike, Lynn. “ Coelestinus’ Summary o f N. O. on Marvels.” Osiris, vol. 9 (1950),
629-35.
---------. History o f M agic and Experim ental Science. 8 vols. N ew Y ork, 1923-58. For
Oresme, see vol. 3, 398-471.
---------. “ More Questions on the Meteorologica,” Isis, vol. 46 (1955), 357-60.
---------. “ Oresme and Fourteenth-Century Commentaries on the M eteorologica,” Isis,
vol. 45, pt. 2 (1954), I45-52-
--------- . The Sphere o f Sacrobosco and its Commentators. Chicago, 1949. On Oresme’s D e
sphaera, see pp. 38-39; his Traitié de Vespere is not mentioned.
Bibliography | 761
---------. University Records and L ife in the M iddle Ages. N ew Y o rk : Columbia University
Press, 1944. Indispensable tool for the student o f medieval history o f Western Europe;
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--------- and Pearl Kibre. A Catalogue o f Incipits o f Medieval Scientific Writings in L atin.
Cambridge, Mass., 1937. Supplements in Speculum, vol. 14(1939), 17(1942), 26(1951).
Thurot, Charles. D e Vorganisation de renseignement dans P Université de Paris au moyen âge.
Paris et Besançon, 1850.
Villard de Honnecourt. The Sketchbook o f W illard de Honnecourt. Ed. Theodore Bowie.
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Walzer, Richard. “ Arabische Uebersetzungen aus dem greichischen,” Miscellanea Mediae-
valia, vol. 1 (Berlin, 1962), 178-95.
Weinberg, Julius R. Nicolaus o f Autrecourt, a Study in 14th Century Thought. Princeton,
1948.
Wieleitner, Heinrich. “ Der Tractatus de latitudinibus formarum des Oresme,” Bibliotheca
Mathematica, vol. 13 (1913), 115-45.
---------. “ Ueber dem Funktionsbegriff und die graphische Darstellung bei N . O .,” ibid.,
vol. 14 (191 4 ), I 93 - 2 4 3 -
---------. “ Zu r Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen im christlichen Mittelalter,” ibid., vol.
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Wiener, P. P. “ The Tradition behind Galileo’s M ethodology,” Osiris, vol. 1 (1936), 733-
46.
W olfson, Harry A . “ Revised Plan for the Publication o f a Corpus Commentatorium
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---------. “ Jean Buridan et les concepts du Point au 14e siècle,” Medieval and Renaissance
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---------. Leonardo da Vinchi, 14 4 2 -1 jig . Moscow, Isdatel'stvo A kadem iiN auk S S S R , 1961.
---------. “ Nicole Oresme et la musique,” Medieval and Renaissance Studies, vol. 5 (1961),
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---------. “ Nikolai Oresme i yevo matematiko-astronomicheskii Traktat ‘O soizmerimosti
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(i960), 301-400.
---------. “ O nekotorykh matematicheskikh trudakh Orema,” Trud Instituta Istorii estest-
vo^naniya i tekhniki A kadem ii N auk S S S R , vol. 34 (i960), 343-49.
-------- . “ Quelques observations sur l’auteur du traité anonyme ‘Utrum dyameter ali-
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author was probably Oresme).
---------. “ Traktat Nikolaia Orema cO Koniiguratsii Kachestv,’ ” Istoriko-matematicheskiye
762 j Bibliography

Issledovaniia, vol. n (1958), 601-731. Russian version with com m ents on selected
passages o f D e configurationibus qualitatum.
-------. “ Un voyage imaginaire autour du monde au xive siècle,” Congresso Internacio-
nal de Historia dos Descobrimentos, Lisbon, 1961. {Actas, vol. II, pp. 1-11). Material
based on Oresme’s Latin poem, end o f Book II (fol. 15 6cd), o f D u d e l.
------ . “ Une fausse attribution: le D e instantibus attribué à N. O .,” Archives Internatio­ A Selected List o f Technical Neologisms
nales de ! H istoire des Sciences, vol. n (1958), 377-78. (Rightful author, John o f H ol­
land).

As one o f the first to adapt and employ the vernacular for the expression o f serious
scientific ideas in mathematics, astronomy, politics, economics, and natural philosophy,
Nicole Oresme was driven by necessity to create French equivalents for many Latin
scientific and philosophical terms. His neologisms have been recognized in large part and
recorded with mention o f their source in scholarly dictionaries, etymological and other­
wise. The following is a selective list o f the more important new terms found in D u d e l
et du monde. Most are Oresme’s own constructions ; a few are found in his works only.
Some have disappeared from common usage, while others are still very much alive in
philosophical and scientific usage.
For economy, the following abbreviations are used in referring to the dictionaries
consulted. Some words were not listed in any o f the dictionaries.

BW Bloch-Von Wartburg, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue

française.V&sis, 1932. 3eéd., revised,Paris, i960. Most re­
cent complete work, containing brief summaries o f ex­
tensive word studies in V o n W artburg’s Frantçôsisches
Etymologisches Wôrterbuch, including references to Ores­
me’s neologisms, although far from comprehensive.
D Dauzat, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française. Paris,
1938. 10e éd., revised, Paris: Larousse, 1954. The revi­
sions do not include neologisms in D u d e l et du monde.
G Gamillscheg, Etymologisches Wôrterbuch der francçôsischen
Sprache. Heidelberg, 1928.
Gy Godefroy, Dictionnaire de l'ancienne langue française. Paris,
1881-1902. Reprint
DG Hatzfeld and Darmesteter, Dictionnaire général de la langue
française. 6e éd., Paris, 1920.
L Littré, Dictionnaire de la langue française. Paris, 1883.
TL Tobler, Altfrancçôsisches Wôrterbuch, hrsg. von Lommatzsch.
Berlin, 1925-63; vols. A — mon published.
a b n e g a t i o n : Or, pousons donques que .e. soit une chose moienne entre .a. et .b., c’est

assavoir par abnegation (5 id). D G 1492 ; D end 15C. ; BW 1377.

a c c i d e n t a l : vérité est que la chose pesante ou legiere se meut de elle meisme, mais tout

ne est pas mouvant et tout meu, car la matière de l’element ne est pas cause motive ou
mouvante, si comme il appert par ce (que) je ay dit devant. E t nientmoins, tel m ove­
ment ne peut estre sans autre vertu motive qui est cause du commencement de cest
763
 y6p | Selected List o f Technical Neologisms
mouvement et est ce qui fait et engendre tel corps, et donques est il dit estre meu de
puissance ou possibilité essencial; ou ce est (ce) qui oste l’empeeschement, et donques
est il dit estre meu de puissance ou de possibilité accidentai. Mais de ce que Aristote parle
de ce qui fait la chose resortir, ce est en movement vio len t... (189a). D G 16C. ; D variant
o f accidentel, 16C. and Cotgrave; BW accidentel, 13-14C., sometimes (16C.) accidental.
a l t e r a t i f : Item, aussi comme le subject qui peut estre altéré et celui qui peut estre aug­
menté different en tant comme telz, aussi different la vertu alterative et la vertu augmen­
tative (186b). G y Oresme.
E t en ceste maniéré que les docteurs appellent anagogique seroit (zo2d). D G
a n a g o g iq u e :
16C.; D , BW omit.
Se le ciel estoit de telle figure angulaire (99a); E t ainsi seroit il de quelcunque
a n g u l a ir e :
autre figure angulaire__Se le ciel estoit d’autre figure que angulaire (99ab). See also
170b, 179a. D G , D i j i i ; BW 1377.
a n n ih il a b l e : Plato disoit que les intelligences... sont de leur nature corruptibles ou
adnichilables (47d) ; Plato disoit que le monde et les anges eurent commencement et sont
anichilables quant est de leur nature (5 8d).
arquer : la partie obscure et convexe ou arcué devers la partie enluminee (15 2b). D G 15 C. ;
D 1 5 C ; BW 1377.
a t in t e r : Item, je pouse que la roe appellee .d. soit tellement atintee ou dispousee par
contrepoys et autrement (46b). D G quotes G y, 1446; D , BW do not list.
c e n t r a l : Il dit aucuns pour les parties centrales de la terre (61b). D G 1545 ; D 1503; BW
1377-
ciRCUMGiRATiON : E t de corps sperique par soi .ii. mouvemens pevent estre : un est cir-
cumgiration et l’autre volutacion (116b); se elles fussent meues seulement par circumgi-
racion ou tourniement, elles demourassent (116c); elle descent en bas par la force et
violence de la circungiracion ou revolucion du ciel (146c). G y Oresme.
ciR C U M PO sm oN : E t dient que d’un corps ne sont pas faiz pluseurs par corrupcion ne de
pluseurs un par generacion, mais tous corps sont faiz par la complication et circumposi-
cion ou application de ces indivisibles (i69d).
desquelles est composée musique humaine et sensible laquelle se conforme
c o l l ig a n c e :
et a une colligance et affinité a la musique celestiel (i2Ôd). N ot listed by D G , D , G y, T L ,
BW ; L ’s earliest example is from Christine de Pisan.
: E t donques est ce bien signe que ou ciel est musique et que entre elle et
c o l l ig a t io n
musique humaine de laquelle elle est cause sous Dieu est colligation (127b). N o t listed
in D G , D , or BW ; G y ’s earliest example, ca. 1373.
c o m e (estoille comee = comete) : Item, les impressions appellees estoilles courantes ou
qui cheent: stelle cadentes, ne les estoilles co^myees ou les cometes qui sont en l’aer (112a).
See also 1 1 2c.
com pact : de tant comme feu est en matière plus grosse et plus compacte et moins subtille,
de tant est il plus violent (103d); Item, et pourquoi une chose qui est compacte et plus
pesant, si comme pierre ou fer ou plum, donne plus fort coup et est plus fort gecté que
une moins compacte, comme seroit drap ou laine, car la cause est pource que telle chose
compacte reçoit plus l’impression de celle qualité nouvelle (107b); il a en soi pou ou nul
de telz pores ou aer soit enclos pource que il est ferme et compact (191a). D G , D 14C. ;
B W 1377.
COMPLEXIONEL : (“ elemental” i.e. one o f the elements): E t je cuide que le aer qui est enclos
Selected List of Technical Neologisms | 76j
es pores du fust et qui n’est pas de sa nature face plus a ce que le fust noe que ne
fait son aer complexionel qui est en lui selon vertu, comme les elemens sont en corps
mixte (191a).
c o m p l ic a t io n : tous corps sont faiz par la complication et circumposicion ou application
de ces indivisibles (iÔ9d). D 14C. ; D G 14-15C. ; BW 1377.
c o n c e v e m e n t : Briefment, combien que honme en universel ne soit autre chose fors ces-
tuy et cestuy, toutevoies la consideracion et l’intencion ou concevement de l’entendement
est autre de honme en espece et de cestuy ou de cestuy (3 2b) ; le concevement universel
comme seroit dire “ soleil” ou “ monde” est commun et indifférent a pluseurs supposts
qui sont ou qui pourroient estre. Mais le concevement particulier, comme dire “ ce soleil’
ou “ ce monde,” est propre et ne pourroit représenter autre solleil, pousé que il fust, ne
autre monde (3 2d). The meaning “ operation o f the understanding” is here opposed to
the more usual meaning, “ operation o f the imagination.”
c o n c u r r e n c e : Item, le solleil et la lune et les estoilles par la concurrence et configuration
de leurs lumières et de leurs influences sont causes des choses de cy bas (57b); et don­
ques convient il que ces lignes, se il estoient pourtraictes, eusent concurrence ou milieu et
ou centre (i9 id ). D G 1 4 - 1 5 C ; D end 14C. G (sic) Deschamps; B W omits.
c o n c u r r e n t : l’influence des corps du ciel dont les rays sont concurrens vers le centre de la
terre doit yleuques faire action et alteracion (61 b); see also 105c, 117a. D 16C., “ ac-
courrant ensemble” and modem meaning; D G 12C.; BW omits.
CONDITIONELLE (“ a result depending on the truth o f another result” ) : Apres il met sa
raison, qui contient .vi. condicioneles ou .vi. consequences (8c)d) ; see also 93 d. G y and
T L list only adjectival use from Oresme; D G and L list subst. use, but assign no date;
D G and D assign adjectival use to Oresme; BW 1295, adj. only.
CONNOTATIF : Quar selonc leur opinion ceste masse est perpétuelle et c’est le monde, se il
ne vouloient dire que ceste masse est une foys monde et autre foys non. E t donques
“ monde” seroit un nom accidentel et conn^dytatif, et ce est faulz (41b). D G , D , G y,
T L , BW omit; L lists, but does not date.
connoter: E t telz moz impropres et aussi comme poétiques ne segnefient autre chose
que la pure substance de la matière, en connotant ou dénotant que, quant est de soy, elle
est indifférent a tote forme (6id).
c o n j o n c t io n : quant les centres .b. et .c. et .d. sont en conjonction précisément en une ligne
(46c); Si comme devant est dit de la conjonction de .iii. estoilles (5 7d). Aucune fois par la
ligne circulaire concave, si comme vers la conjonction devant et apres (152b); see also
57c. D G 12 C , meaning especially “ union charnelle,” ; D 14 C , Deschamps; BW 13 C ,
astronomical term; no date is assigned to the astronomical use.
c o n s is t a n c e : avant que il fust fait, il convenoit que aucune consistence ou matière fust de
quoy il fu fait (41c). D G 1425 ; D 1 6 C ; BW 1377.
Aristote prent yci continu ou continue largement pour ce qui est conti(g)>uet
c o n t ig u :
prochain sanz moien (98a). D G , D 1413; BW about 1360.
c o n t in e n c e : Et donques aussi comme le ciel qui contient un autre ciel est dit «celum
celi,» et aussi de pluseurs peut l’en dire «celum celorum» et «celi celorum» par conti­
nence local, semblablement dit l’en des siècles dont les uns contiennent les autres par
continence de duration (66a). This continence is not the containing o f oneself, but the con­
taining o f some other thing, concretely considered.
c o n t r e - m e t t r e : E t encore afferment ces philosophes que une autre terre est opposite a
 j 66 I Selected List of Technical Neologisms
ceste et que le feu est ou milieu entre ces .ii. terres, et celle autre terre il l’appellent
Antistona, ce est a dire contre-mise (i36d). G y notes one example o f contre-mettre as
reflexive, Deschamps; T L refer to Gy.
c o p u l a t iv e : chascune de ces .ii. proposicions par soy est possible, et la copulative des .ii.
est impossible (51a). D G lists the adjective copulatif, 14 C , Oresme; G y Deschamps,
with meaning “ conjunction” ; D , BW omit.
c o r r u p t i f : est une qualité active et corruptive de chaleur (121a). G y Oresme.
d e m i - c e r c l e : E t que le mouvement qui est selon demycercle de .a. jusques a .b. fust con­
traire au mouvement qui est de .b. jusques a .a. selonc cest demycercle (15b); see also i5d,
82d, 87a, 127a. D ,G 1539; D , BW omit.
: Par aventure que ces raysons ne sont pas purement évidentes ne simple­
d é m o n s t r a t if
ment demonstratives sanz autre chose suppouser (19a); les raisons que Aristote fait a ce
propos ne sont pas toutes demonstratives, combien que la conclusion soit necessaire
(i6od); see also 161c, 178c. D G Oresme; G y cites listin F . Meunier, E ssa i. .. sur N . O.;
B W 1550; D 14 C , rare before 18C.
: les anciens l’appellerent etheir et li metoient ceste denominacion en segne-
d e n o m in a t io n
fiantqu eilcou rtetestm eu (i4d); et prent sa d(en)ominacion ou est ainsi dicte de ce qu’i
est chose inmortelle et divine (34d). D G , D 13C. ; G y rare before 16C. ; BW 1377, first
appearance in 13 C.
(var. “ dessiner” ): Quant la chose en quoy la puissance finie puet ou a quoy
d e s ig n e r :
elle est comparée est designee par nombre, si comme en disant .c. livres (43a); l’en ne
pourroit assigner ou designer quantité si petite que mendre, combien que fust, ne
souffist par semblable raison (92d). D G , D , B W 14 C , dessiner-, G y, BW designer rare
before 16C.
d ia p a s o n : Et de ces .iiii. proporcions une est dyapason ou double qui est de .ii. a .i. (123d).
D G 12C. ; D 12C. rare before 16C. ; BW 12C., unusual before 17C.
d is t r a i r e : E t ainsi en chascun gerre ou maniéré de corps, un est plus de legier divisible
et peut plus legierement estre distrait et l’autre moins (198a) ; les corps moiens sont con-
tinuz et résistent que il ne soient distrais ne diviséz__Car se la vertu de la pesanteur
excede la vertu qui est ou moien par laquelle il résisté que il ne soit distrait et divisé, le
corps pesant passera par cest moien (198b); see also 199a, 199c. D G , D 14C. ; BW 1377.
d u a l it é : car il mettent cede aussi comme un ou selon unité, et triangle selon dualité ou
aussi comme .ii. (97b). D G , A D 1585 ; BW 1377.
DUODECEDRON : Le quart est de .xii. faces dont chascune est de .v. angles et de .v. costés
equalz et est appellé duodecedron (176a). See also 176b, 178b. G y lists one example from
Jean de Meung, meaning “ roue” ; D G , D , G , L, T L , and BW omit.
e n v i e r : (context requires meaning “ vitalized” or “ enlivened” ): Apres je di que a parler
proprement, ceste matière n’est enviee ne asaciee de quelconque forme (6id). Oresme
appears to have coined the word from vita : in-vita-are.
e p i c y c l e : (subst. and adj.): si comme qui signeroit un point en la circonférence d’un
epicycle, cest point pourroit descripre une ligne droit par son propre mouvement cir­
culaire environ le centre de Yepicicle et par le mouvement de Yepicicle environ le centre
du grant cercle (8d) ; et pose pour exemple que la lune soit en son ciel epicicle et si est
elle, car elle est fichiee près de la circunference de son ciel epicicle (70b) ; see also 12d,
46b, 70a, 78b, 78c. D G lists noun 14C. ; G y cites D G ; G 16C. ; D , BW omit.
e q u iv a l e m e n t : Comment un angel peut estre en un meisme temps en ciel et en terre et en
Selected List of Technical Neologisms | y6y
plus de cent mille lieus distans sans tenir plus de lieu ou d’espace equivalement que l’es­
pace d’un pié (205 c). Listed only by L, without date.
FALSiGRAFiME : (“ false argument” ) : E t ce a prouver A verroïz fait un falsigrafime, ce est a
dire une fause raison (177). Coined presumably from falsum and the Greek root graph-
“ to write” .
f in i: (“ finite” ): se les simples sont finis, le corps qui est compousé de eulz est fin i, car le
cors qui est composé de corps finis en multitude et en quantité est finie en multitude et
en quantité (17c); Se de temps fin i l’en oste partie fin i le résidu est finy, see also i7d,
18a, 18b. D G and L list, but to do not date.
g e n e r a b l e : Il convient premièrement deviser comment nous disons aucunes estre inge-
nerables et generables (4id); et d’estre apres se elle est generable ou puis commencier a
estre (56c); see also i72d, 173a. G y Oresme.
: Par tele giracion ceulz qui vennent le blé font venir les pierretes ou milieu du
g ir a t io n
van (146c); Mais posé que la vélocité ou isneleté de la giracion ou revolucion du ciel
(146); see also 147a, b. G y Oresme.
GiTiF (“ quiescent, tranquil, passive” ) : Mais pour ce que figure angulaire est pou gitive, elle
est eschaufante et embrasante; et pyramide est toute angle, car de toutes les figures ré­
gulières elle a les angles plus acuz (179a).
: Item, ceste dominacion est a entendre quant as qualités motives lesquelles sont
g r a v it é
gravité et levité, ce est a dire pesanteur et legiereté (9a) ; le ciel n’a en soy quelconque le-
giereté ne quelconque gravité ou pesanteur (i2d). D G not dated; D “ sens physique,”
16C. ; BW ( = “ pesanteur” ) 1626.
h a b it (“ permanent characteristic” ): Quar alteracion est mouvement selonc qualité et les
habis des qualités et les disposicions, si comme santé et langueur, ne sont pas sanz
transmutacion qui est selonc passions (13d).
hexacedron: et est comme un dé et est appellé cubus ou exacedron (176a); see also 176c,
203b. D G , D , G , G y, L, BW omit; D G lists hexaedre, 1701.
h e x a g o n e : la tierce est exagone, qui a .vi. costés et .vi. angles equalz (176b); see also 96c,
177a, 177c, 178a, 178b, 2ood. D G 1 6 C ; D 1534; Laurent, Romania vo\. 51 (1925), 33,
assigns 1450; BW 1377.
Le quint a .xx. faces, chascune triangulaire equilatere et est appelléycocedron
ic o c e d r o n :
(176a); Item, cest corps dit ycocedron a .xx. costéz et .xii. angles corporelz (178b); see
also 176b, 178c. D G , D , 1542; BW omits.
quar par une partie de mouvement laquelle seroit insensible et impercep­
im p e r c e p t ib l e :
tible (48c) ; noientmoins tel son seroit imperceptible a nous et ne pourroit estre ouÿ (124c) ;
comme l’isneleté des estoilles qui est imperceptible excede l’isneleté de la foudre (i24d);
see also 102c. D G , D , 1425, BW 1377.
im pr e ssio n(“ visible natural phenomenon,” gen. pi.) : Mais en aucuns corps mixtes im-
parfés, legiereté habonde et a dominacion, si comme sont flamme, fumee, exalacions et
aucunes impressions dont est traité au livre de Metheores (9a) ; Item, les impressions qui
semblent estoilles qui cheent selonc droit mouvement (i2d); celle superfice de l ’aer
est bien loing de la ou sont vent et pluie et autres impressions(io2d) ; see also 112a, 115a,
118c, 202b.
E t se elle ne se povoit deviser, elle ne se m ouvroit pour Y indifference et
in d if f e r e n c e :
seroit aussi comme un fer entre .ii. aymans (27c); il disoient que par tele indifference
repose la terre ou milieu (148a). D G 1629; D 16C.; BW 1377.
 j6 8 | Selected List o f Technical Neologisms
l’isneleté du ciel est merveill(eus>ement et excessivement grande et ausi
in e s t im a b l e :
comme inopinable et inestimable (143c). D G , D , BW , 14c.
in h e r e n c e : Item, quelcunque ange n’est pas ou corps ou es corps... par informacion, si
comme ame humaine est en son corps, ou par in h eren ce ou adherence ne par appro-
priacion (71b) ; Mais que ces intelligences soient âmes du ciel du soleil et que elles soient
unies au corps de ce ciel par informacion ou par inherence ou autrement (78a). D G 14-
1 5 C ; D 14C.; both cite Gy, Supplément, rare until 18C. ; BW 1633, previously in 1377.
in s t a n t : E t donques se ceste vertu n’avoit resistence, elle m ouvroit le ciel soudainement
en instant ou moment indivisible (73 c); Item, par semblable il convendroit que le temps,
qui est chose continue, fust composé de instant ou de momens indivisibles (162a); see
also 72c. D G , D 16C; BW 1377.
: E t les autres substances incorporelles appellees intelligences sont ou ciel
in t e l l i g e n c e
et non ailleurs (14b); se un autre monde estoit, il convendroit que le premier mouve­
ment de ce monde fust fait par une autre intelligence et d’autre espece que celle qui fait le
premier mouvement de cest monde (31a); E t donques convient il dire par neccessité,
selonc Averroïs, ou que ces intelligences inmaterielles sont plusseurs en une espece dif­
ferentes en nombre, ou que plusseurs intelligences de diverses especes meuvent plusseurs
corps (31b); Les intelligences ou angelz eurent commencement (47d); see also 34c, 37b,
38c. See A . Lalande, Vocabulaire technique et critique de la philosophie, vol. 2 (Paris, 1928),
1027.
car son éternité est sanz succession et son immensité sanz extension et sa
in t e n s io n :
toute-puissance sanz intension (66c) ; et est ceste transmutacion successive en .ii. ma­
niérés: une est selon les parties de la matière du subject et selon extension; l’autre est
selon les degrés ou intension de chascune tele qualité (188c); leur puissance est aucune­
ment divisible selon degrés ou intension... et sa toute-puissance ou parfection est plus
que infinie et indivisible sanz intension (200c). The intension and remission o f forms
was a major concern o f Scholastic philosophy and the intensity o f the qualities or pro­
perties o f things— the increase or decrease o f heat or moisture, the acceleration or de­
celeration o f motion, for example— were measured in degrees o f their intension or
intensity.
en une plaine superfice l’en peut ymaginer .ii. lingnes qui se intersequent en
in t e r s e q u e r :
un point (4b). G y Oresme.
laps : Et soit posé, si comme il est possible, que ce fust par un degré et que apres par un
grant laps de temps et par semblable maniéré fust plus elevé par un autre degré (1 54bc).
D G , D 1 5 C ; BW 1266.
: La longitude du ciel est de pole a pole et la latitude seroit d’orient en occident.
l o n g it u d e
E t les astrologiens mettent, au contraire, la longitude est de orient en occident et la la­
titude est de pole a pole (8iab); Autrement l’en ne pourroit réduire a cause celestiel
aucunes diversités qui sont en terre selon longitude, c’est a savoir en procédant d’orient
vers occident, ou, au contraire, sans approchier ou esloignier des poles (84a). Where lon­
gitude — “ length,” D G , D , and BW assign priority to Oresme; in its modern geograph­
ical meaning they assign it to Oronce Fine, 1534. The above passages seem to in­
dicate that Oresme used longitude with a geographical meaning. Similar uses occur in
his Traictié de Pespere.
E t par l’inconmensurableté desus dicte, puet estre que le solleil en un merid(i~)-
m é r id ie n :
an est si loing de la terre que oncques ne puet ne ja ne porra estre autrefoys si loing en
Selected List o f Technical Neologisms | 7 69
cest meridian (45 a) ; il avenoit que en ce meridian la lune estoit le plus près de terre que
elle puisse estre (45b); il est possible que .iii. planètes soient conjointes précisément en
un meridian ou corporelment (57b); l’autre souz le meridian du milieu de terre habitable
(87a); see also 84c. D 16C.; BW , as astronomical term, 1377.
m il l iè m e : Chascune chose, tant soit petite, est grande ou regart de la .m.e (B CD E F m il­
lième) partie de elle (36c). D G no date; D 16C.; BW 1377.
m ix t io n n e r : un corps mixte ou m ixtionê equalment de ces .ii. qualités motives ne puet
durer (9b) ; le aer et le feu sont composés et mixtionês de corps invisibles de parties sem­
blables (168d ); see also 153c, 173d, i82d, i9od. D G cites G y 1397; D , BW do not list.
m o b il e : destre et senestre et les autres differences sont corporelles et de corps ou en corps
mobiles et divisibles (83c); car tout corps est mobile ou mouvable (84a); ce n’est pas dit
selon raison que un corps qui est mobile selon lieu soit perpétuel (91b); see also io6d,
179a, 186a, 186c, 189b. D G no date; D 1564; BW 1377.
m o t e u r : et ceste qualité ou redeur fait aide en mouvement naturel et meut la chose meue
viole<n>tement quant elle est separee du premier moteur ou m otif (io6d). D G , D 15-
16C.; BW 1377.
m oyennant (prep.) : E t la terre pure a puissance de engendrer chaleur moiennant tel mouve­
ment et telle violence ( 1 14b). D G , D 1408 ; B W not listed.
m o y e n n e m e n t (adv.) : la plus haute espere resone le plus gros son ou le plus bas, et les
autres moiennement par ordre, la plus basse touzjours plus acuement (126a). G y 14C. ; D ,
B W not listed.
: quar de ce qui est tous jours existent et de ce qui est touzjours non existent,
n o n - e x is t e n t
une chose est moienne laquelle ne s’ensuit a l’un ne a l’autre (5 3a). D G , D do not list;
BW 18C.
: mouvements de ciel lesquelles ont esté apparceues et cogneues ou temps
o b s e r v a t io n
passé par observacions (70a); les anciens Egipciens et Babiloniens qui ont jadis et par
pluseurs ans pris garde a telz choses et en ont faites observacions (i3 id ). D G 1549; D
15C.; BW about 1200.
octocedron: Le tiers a .viii. faces dont chascune est triangle equilatere et est appellé
octocedron (176a); see also 176b. D G under octaèdre, 1542; D , BW do not list.
o c t u p l e : se par les parties propo<r>cionelles d’une heure une matière estoit en la pre­
miere rarefiee ou estendue au double, et en l’autre apres en quadruple et puis a Y octuple
et ainsi ensuianment (60c). D G 1532; D , BW do not list; Laurent, Romania, vol. 65
( i 9 3 9 )» I 7 7 >m id -ijC .
ovale: je di que se le derrenier ciel estoit de telle figure ovale ou comme est un oeuf (99d);
see also 98cd. D G 1642 ovale (masc. and fem.); 16C. Rabelais oval-e\ D oval 1546; BW
first use 1370.
p an sp er m e : E t disoient que l’aer et l’eaue et les autres different selon grandeur et petitece
et que leur nature est pansperme, ce est a dire toute semence de touz les elemens (170a).
N ot listed in D G , D , G y, G , BW ; L lists panspermie without date.
p a r e il l e m e n t : .ii. choses sont a considérer ou ciel, c’est a savoir mouvement et circuite,
et .ii. es choses pesantes, c’est a savoir mouvement et descente, et pareillement es legieres
(110c). D G , D , 1 5 C ; BW omits.
: La science naturele, presque toute, est de ces corps et des magnitudes qui sont,
p as s io n
et de leurs passions ou qualitéz (3a); les habis des qualités et les disposicions, si comme
sont santé et langueur, ne sont pas sanz transmutacion qui sont selonc passions. Glose.
 jjo | Selected List o f Technical Neologisms
C ’est a savoir, selonc qualités actives et passives (13d); see also 160a, 186a. The Greek
pathos, translated into medieval Latin by passio, means (a) a property in respect to which
a thing is liable to change and (b) the appetency to change that is natural to all
matter. Cf. A . Lalande, Vocabulaire... de la philosophie, vol. 2, art. Passion, pp. 563-64.
The second meaning is akin to the modern sense: movement or modification o f the
soul.
penth agone: Le quart est de .xii. faces dont chascune est de .v. angles et de .v. costés
equalz et est appelé duodecedron et chascune de ses faces est appellee penthagone (176a);
see also 96b, 177b, 178b. D G , D 1542; BW 1377.
p er c u s sio n : il dit “ propter plagam,” c’est a dire pour la percussion selon les expositeurs,
que il eschaufe combien que la percussion ou confricacion, que les parties de l’aer, qui est
un corps mol, font les unes contre les autres (113d); car ce que est meu en corps meu
continuelment et semblablement et sanz faire plaie, c’est a dire percussion et division
(124a); son ne peut estre sans ce que division soit faite et percussion et violence (124a);
see also 125a. D G 14C. ; D 14 C , rare before 18C.; BW about 1330, rare before 18C.
p e r sp e c t iv e : Et la cause est assés legiere a entendre, car, selon la science de perspective et
selon experience (1 i8d); ce jugement est fait par les sens de dedens, si comme il met en
Perspective, et sont telz sens souvent deceus (144b). D G , D 14C.; BW about 1360 in
masc., meaning “ réfraction” ; in fem. as term in painting, 1551.
p e r t i n e n t : par ce l’en pourroit respondre a toutes autres a ce pertinentes (140b). D G , D
1 5 C ; BW 1377.
: E t pour ce est ce un philosophisme ou question dont touz les anciens sont
p h ilo s o ph ism e
eshabis et merveilliéz (145a). D G attributes to Arnauld (1612-94); L 17C., from D G ;
D , Gy, G , BW do not fist.
plage: Autre cause est car celle partie de terre ou celle plage qui regarde le pole antartique
(88d). D G 16 C ; D 1553; BW 1456.
p o i n t u : au feu il assignent figure de pyramide, ce est a dire pointue (170a). D G , D , 1420;
BW 1377.
pole: si comme tout le ciel, fust meue de orient en occident sus .ii .poles si comme le pole
artique et le pole ant<ar>tique, et aveques ce que le ciel fust meu sus .ii. autres poles,
un ymaginé en orient et l’autre en occident, en tant que par procès de temps, le pole
artique venist par ce mouvement la ou est le pole antartique (16c); see also 17a, 19b. D G
1372; D 1372, rare until 17C; BW 1295, rare before 17C.
pouls : Et telle circulacion n’est pas inconveniente, aussi comme l’en diroit que l’en s<ce>t
que le cuer est chaut parce que le pouh? est hastif comme par signe, et ce que le cuer est
chaut est cause de ce que le peuls est h a stif (105b). D G , D , BW state that the form with
“ 1” was created on the model o f the Latin; D , BW 16C., D G no date.
p r ecis : pour ce ne pevent par nature pluseurs corps estre en un lieu propre et precis
(69d); selonc proporcionalité precise (129a). D G 1 4 - 1 5 C ; D 14C.; BW 1377.
p r e d o m in a n t : le mouvement du simple element qui est predominant et a la seingnourie en
tel corps compost (8a); selonc la nature du simple corps qui en tel mixte est predominant
et a seingneurie (9d). D G 1599; D , BW list only the verb prédominer 1580.
p r é ex is t e r : Mais posé que corps ne puisse estre fait fors d’autre corps preexistent ou pre­
cedent par generacion naturele (i6yab); il s’ensuit que .ii. corps seront ensemble par
tout un lieu, ce est a savoir celui qui est fait de nouvel et la preexistent ou precedent
(173a). D G ï 5C .; D 1 5 C , rare before 18C.; BW 1377, rare before 18C.
Selected List o f Technical Neologisms | jji
p r é p a r a t if : E t ceste alteracion est dispositive et preparative a la gene radon de l’aer
(188c). D G , D 14C.; BW 1377.
p u l s if : je di que il ne pourroit estre vertu pulsive quelcunque si petite ou vertu motive
dehors tant fust petite qui ne peust mouver ou faire roueler ceste espere (129c). N ot
listed in D G , D , G y, G , L, BW ; to be distinguishedfrom^o^n//(“ heavily breathing” )
which they do list.
rare : et que ce fust très pure element tant rare ou tant cler que nature ne le peust faire
plus rare ou plus cler (162b) ; Item, il ne pourroit estre plus estendu ne estre plus rare ne
plus cler (162c); selon ce que il veulent, subtil et rare sont une chose et aussi espés et
gros sont une chose (171a); see also i7 id , 20id. D G , D 1539; B W 1377.
r e c l u s io n : telles choses ne pueent touzjours durer par nature ne passer certains termes...
se ainsi n’estoit que l’action des contraires fust suspendue ou naturelement et a temps
par aucune reclusion, si comme l’en dit de ceulz qui dormirent en Sardine (54d). D G , D
1642; BW 13C.
r e f r a c t io n : en telz corps la lumière se parfonde pou ou nient, mais elle retourne par
reflexion ou par refraction__E t se il ne sont poliz, la reflexion ou refraction est faite sans
ordre (119a). D G , D 16C.; BW about 1360.
r é v o l u : Et se aucuns dient que la terre est ou centre du monde et que elle est revolute et
meue en circuite environ le pole (138a); Les autres mettent que elle ... est tournee et
revolute environ son centre (i48d). D G , D 15C. ; BW 1377.
s e c o n d a ir e : la cause qui est premiere influe et fait plus a l’effect que celle qui est secondaire
(121b). D G 1372; BW 1372, rare before 16C.
s e g r e g a t io n : E t ce appert clerement, car terre et feu sont fais de telz corps par segregacion
et par resolucion (168c); l’element qui est fait de l’autre estoit en cel autre et en est es-
troit par segregacion ou separacion (173c)); l’eaue, quant elle est segregiee et separeede
l’aer, soit faite plus pesante seulement parce que elle est comprimée par telle segregacion
(173d); see also 174a, b. D G , D 1550 vb. segreger, 1552; BW not listed.
sem i - d ia m è t r e : Et par ce appert que l’air puet naturelment descendre et monter par le
s(e)>mydiamettre de l’espere des elemens (10a); see also 23b, 62b, 192c, i94d.
s e s q u ia l t er e : et celle qui ce feroit en .iiii. jours seroit plus grande que n’est .viii. en une
proporcion qui n’est pas en nombres et est appellé mediieytas sequialtere (21c) ; entre .ac.
et .ad. la moitié de proporcion sequialtere, laquelle sequialtere est de Jii. a .ii. (127a); si
comme en .viii. et .xxvii. qui sont premiers cubiques, sont .xii. et .xviii., moiens selon
proporcion sequialtere continuele (194a). D G , D 1484; B W 1377.
s e x t il : selon les astrologiens, es corps du ciel sont .iiii. principaulz regars, c’est a savoir
le sex til ou sixte, et le quart, et la trine ou tiers et l’opposite (127a). D G , D 1690; BW
not listed.
siGNATiON : Divisible est dit en .ii. maniérés : une par separacion de parties reaiment, et
l’autre par signacion de entendement (3a) ; mais tout continue ou m agnitude est divisible
par signacion en entendement en parties touzjours divisibles (3c). Quant a parler pro­
prement il n’a fin ne commencement fors par signacion volontaire (35 c); see also 67c.
Oresme uses the term to signify the mental apperception o f an abstract assertion rela­
tive to some fact.
E t ce appert clerement, car il descripte mendre cede en .i. jour naturel quant il
s o l s t ic e :
est es solstices que quant il est en l’equinocial (106a). D G Jean de M eung; D 13 C , rare
until 17C. ; B W 1377, rare before 17C.
 jj2 | Selected List o f Technical Neologisms Selected List o f Technical Neologisms | jjy

s o u s c o n t r a ir e : E t pour ce convient par neccessité que les negacions des .ii. co n tra d ic­
toires), c’est assavoir des .ii. subcontraires, soient dictes d’une meisme chose (51c). G y
Oresme (Politiques); D G , D , G , BW do not list; L undated.
s o u s q u a d r u b l e : E t je ... supouse qu’il est possible que une puissance soit mendre telle
que elle puet m ouvoir ceste resistance par isneleté sousdouble précisément, et une autre
qui puet par isneleté subquadruble (21b). G y Oresme.
s p h e r e : et par le secont celum il entent la noviesme ou octiesme espere (mss. D E spere)
qui contient toute la masse des autres cielz (66a); see also 108b. D G 13 C espere ; D , BW
sphere, 1546; espere, 13C; BW notes spherique (130c), 1377.
s p is s it u d e : Troys dimensions ou mesures sont longitude et latitude et spissitude ou par-
fondesce (4a) ; see also 4b, 4c. G y Oresme.
s t a t i o n a ir e : Et selon ce, aucunes sont stationaires et plus drectes et retrogrades et en
telles disposicions qu’i ne peuent estre sanz irrégularité de mouvement (106a). D G 1372;
D 1372, rare in middle French; BW 1360.
s u b d iv is e r : Et chascun de ces .iii. degrés moiens a grant latitude et peut estre devisé et
subdivisé en pluseurs (134a). D G , D 15 G ; BW 1377.
s u p e r c e le s t ie l : Une autre maniéré est que telz corps fussent en un corps supercelestiel ou
ciel aussi comme nous sommes maintenant en le aer (201c); je lui demande pourquoy
Dieu qui est tout puissant ne peut faire sus les cielz chose presque samblable, ce est ou
ciel supercelestiel ou seront les corps salvéz (202c); see also 203a.
s u p e r e m in e n c e : E t se le ciel avoit angle et supereminence qui fust meue circulairement
(98d); la superfice de elle n’est pas droite ne plaine, mais a supereminence et boce et tent
a rondesce (102b); sanz aucune inequalité ou aspérité et supereminence (102c). G y Ores­
me.
suppôt : Et pour ce, selonc la vérité, il est possible que d’une espece esperituelle et inma-
terielle soient plusseurs supposts, si comme sont plusseurs âmes humaines et plusseurs
angelz (31b); E t de toutes choses dont l’en puet considérer, aucune forme selonc elle et
aucune espece de telle chose sont de fait plusseurs supposts singuliers ou pueent estre
(3 2c) ; le concevement universel, comme seroit dire “ soleil” ou “ monde” , est commun
et indifferent a plusseurs supposts qui sont ou qui pourroient estre (32d); see also 33a,
78a, ii5 d , 12ic, 204b. Used to translate the Scholastic suppositum, suppôt means a sub­
stance or a subject, in so far as it is considered a complete and absolutely individual
substance or subject. Cf. Lalande, Vocabulaire technique et critique de la philosophie, vol. 2,
839. D G assigns suppôt to 14-15C.; D 14C., philosophical term; BW about 1300.
sym bole : les elemens qui sont ordenéz et contiennent l’un l’autre sont semblables aucu­
poudre, et aucunes autres pour la tenuité ou tenuëce de leur figure, si comme fuilles d’or
(197c). D G 1526; D 1490; BW 1377.
t e t r a c e d r o n : le premier est de .iiii. faces dont chascun<e> est triangle de costés equalz
et est appelé pyramide et plus proprement tetracedron, car infiniz pyramides peuent estre
qui ne sont pas corps réguliers (176a); see also 203b. D G 1542; D , BW do not list.
t it u b a t io n : E t de corps spherique par soy .ii. mouvemens pevent estre ; un est circum-
giracion et l’autre volutationou///»^/o«(n6bc). D G i6 C .;D 1552; BW 1377.
t r a n s f o r m a t io n : E t n’est rien permanent ne fichié fors celle seule chose de laquelle
toutes les autres sont faites par transformation (159b). D G , D 1 4 C ; BW 18 C , once in
14C.
t r ia n g u l a ir e : Mais une autre figure est tele, ce est a savoir pyramide, qui a .iiii. faces
triangulaires et .iiii. angles (17yd); E t de pyramide chascun angle est contenu de .iii.
angles superficielz triangulaires dont chascun vaut .ii. tiers de angle droit (178a). D G
1530; D 1488; Laurent, Romania, vol. 51 (1925), 45, gives 1450; BW 1377.
t r i g o n e : ce est a savoir, trigone ou triangle (176b) ; .vi. telz angles valent .iiii. angles drois
et, par consequent, .vi. trigones (177b); see also 177a, 182b, 184b, 2ood. G y Oresme.
t r o p iq u e : car la partie du ciel en laquelle cuerent les planètes entre les .ii. tropiques ou sous
le zodyaque a plus grande estente ou distance (8 ib) ; E t le soleil, selon l’esdrecement de
ses rayz, est plus prochain des parties des elemens qui sont entre les deux tropiques et
sous la partie du ciel la ou il a son cours (101c). D G 1 6 C ; D 1J46; B W 1377, once in
Oresme.
E t de corps sperique par soy .ii. mouvemens peuent estre: une est circum-
v o l u t a t io n :
giracion et l’autre volutacion ou titubacion (116b); ces figures sont de legier mobiles de
mouvement appellé volutacion, qui est comme roeler ou tumber (179a). G y Oresme.

nement, si comme l’eaue a l’aer qui la contient, et l’aer au feu. Glose. Es qualités sym­
boles, car le feu et le aer sont chauz, et le aer et l’eaue sont moistes, et l’eaue et la terre
sont fredes (i87ab). None o f the dictionairies consulted offers the required meaning o f
“ analagous, characteristic qualities.” BW lists symboliser, 14C., meaning “ avoir du
rapport avec, s’accorder avec,” its only meaning until 19C.
t a r d iv e t é : l’en peut rendre cause de toutes les apparences et de toutes les experiences

que l’en voit en mouvemens violens, soient droit en haut ou droit en bas ou en travers
ou circulaires, quant a leur isneleté et tardiveté et reflexion ou retour (107a). D G 1539;
D 14 C , about 1327; BW 1360, once before that date; Laurent, Romania,v o l. 51 (1925),
45, gives 1529.
t e n u it é : Item, pourquoy aucunes choses terrestres pour leur petite quantité, si comme
 General Index

This is primarily an index to the significant proper names that appear in the text. Page ref­
erences are to the English translation, and proper names and titles are given in the accepted
modern English form.

Achaia, 87 — , Meteorologica: translation into French, 5

Adam, 251 mentioned, 67, 77, 81, 283, 319, 363, 367,
Africa, 347 397, 4 °i, 435, 443, 455, 463, 4 ^7, 4 83, 5*7 ,
Albertus Magnus, 455, 461 521, 7° 7, 729
Almagest. See Ptolemy — , Nicomachean Ethics, 3, 5, 185, 261, 357, 589
Alcmena, 375 — , Physics, 45, 47, 53, 59, 81, 95, 99, h i , 1 1 3,
A ir : characteristics of, 681-91, 705. See also Ele­ 115, 127, 139, 149, 159, 163, 173, 177, 189,
ments 233, 255, 259, 267, 301, 361, 363, 377, 381,
Anaxagoras, 43, 75, 8 9 ,171,18 1,18 5,18 7,543 , 383> 389, 391, 407, 419, 425, 427, 5° 9, 527,
607, 619, 621, 663 585, 589, 591, 599, 611, 613, 623, 631, 633,
Anaximander, 549, 625, 659 677, 685, 733
Anaximenes, 343, 589, 625 — , Politics : Oresme’s translation of, 4,14 ; men­
Angels: Oresme’s views summarized, 23 ; cor­ tioned, 509
ruptible nature, 217, 247; Oresme equates Arim, 331, 333, 335, 337
with intelligences, 289; ubiquity of, 289-91, Astrology: Oresme’s attitude, 5-6
295-97; good and bad, 291 ; four methods o f Atlantic Ocean, 303
motion, 293-95 Atlas, 301, 303, 329, 331, 333, 343
Antichrist, 189, 223 Avenartha, 457
Apocalypse, 293, 729 Averroes: Oresme’s frequent use of, 10; doc­
Archimedes, 65, 401, 7x7 trine o f motionless earth refuted, 59; doc­
Aristotle: Oresme’s translations of, 6-7; cos­ trine o f one world refuted, 149; views on
mological system challenged, 365-73, 521- beginning-and-end discussed, 223-39passim ;
37; Oresme’s refutations of, listed, 733-49 on infinity, 235 ; De substantia orbis on celes­
passim tial bodies, 315; twelve pyramids fill a space,
— , De anima, 475, 477 647-49; mentioned, 59, 71, 149, 151, 181,
— , De animalium incessu, 307 205, 207, 213, 219, 223, 235, 239, 241, 245,
— , De caelo et mundo: translations of, 10, 1 m3 ; 255, 259, 261, 267, 275, 277, 279, 281, 285,
quality o f Oresme’s translation, 11-14. For 287, 299, 303, 305, 307, 315, 323, 325, 329,
medieval commentaries on De caelo, see A l­ 339, 347, 349, 353, 357, 3^3, 377, 4° 7 , 4° 9 ,
bertus Magnus; Simplicius; Themistius; 413, 433, 449, 451, 457, 461, 463, 465, 467,
Thomas Aquinas 475, 493, 499, 5or, 5° 3, 5° 9 , 527, 533, 567,
— , D e generationee tcorruptione, 67, 81, 253, 257, 601, 649, 651, 721, 735, 737, 743, 747
361, 363,571,587, 589,617,619,623,699,701 Avicenna, 149, 461
— , De substantia orbis, 315
— , Economics : translated by Oresme, 6 Babylon, 349
— , Metaphysics, 149, 175, 179, 277, 287, 3x3, Babylonians, 499
3 r5, 393. 465. 5° 9, 615 Berbers, 567

775
 jj6 | General Index General Index | 7/7

Being and not-being, 207, 215, 227-29, 239-45 Empedocles, 43, 181, 185, 303, 407, 541, 547, Hippocrates, 309 M oerbeke, W illiam of. See W illiam o f M oerbe-
Bernard Sylvester, 283 549, 603, 605, 6x9, 621, 633, 665 History of the Lombards, 233 ke
Bodies: definition of, 47; divisibility of, 47, Encheladus, 279 Horace, 407 M oham m ed, 567
637; nature of, 61-63, 647-49 ! infinity of, Ephesus, 181 M oon : eclipses of, 199; face in, 45 5 ; m otion of,
123, 207-9; in water, 401-3, 719; light and Epicycle, 287 Impetus: Oresme’s views summarized, 25 ; hy­ 45 5 ; phases of, 495 ; mountains on, 497
heavy, 675-83 Eustrathios, X85, 261, 589 pothesis of, 113 ; as factor in motion, 145-47, M oses, 269
Boethius, 421, 483 Evrart de Conti, 5 613, 685 M otion: all corporeal things capable of, 59;
Impossibility. See Possibility measurement of, 59 -6 1,19 5-9 7 ; direction of,
Fire : place of, X73 ; nature of, 403-5 ; nobleness Incommensurability, 197-99, 209-11 6 1,3 2 1 ; simple o r com pound, 61-65 ; m ixed,
Cassiodorus, 479
of, 517 India, 349, 567 63-67, 6 1 1 -1 3 ; natural, 67, 283, 285, 415,
Cato, 407
Force: definition of, 191-95 Infinity : nature of, 119 ; relation o f infinite with 695 ; o f celestial bodies, 69, 283, 365-73, 375,
Caucasus, 707
France, 39, 73x finite bodies, 123-25 429,477, 521-39,599-60 1; violent, 14 7,4 15,
Celestial bodies. See Comets ; Heavens ; Moon ;
Infinite series, 103-5 611 ; perpetual, 198/7, 203, 345 ; relativity of,
Planets; Stars; Worlds
Galen, 309 Intelligences, 315-19. See also Angels 321-25, 335-37; local, 369; nature of, 4 13 -
Chaldea, 181, 277
Gargan, Mt., 295 Isaiah, 269, 279, 293, 723, 729 15, 441, 685. See also Impetus
Charles V (of France), 3-6
Generation: nature o f defined, 189, 253-61 Italian school. See Pythagorean school M usic: three kinds of, 483-85. See also Spheres,
Cicero: De natura deorum, 85, 283
Genesis, 732 Ixion, 305 music o f
Circle: nature of, 65-67, 393
Citadel o f Jove, 517 Geocentric theory, 519-37
Geometry. See Euclid Jeremiah, 279, 723 N adir, 199
Claudianus, Claudius: Gigantomachia, 279
Gibeon, 375-77 Jerusalem, 295 Nebuchadnezzar, 405
Climate : causes of, 353
Gigantomachia. See Claudianus, Claudius Jesus Christ: in Paradise, 721 N oah, 337
Comets, 81, 435
Giraldus Cambrensis, 351 Jews, 181 Non gradu : defined, 415
Contradictories, 223-25
G od : infinite abode and power of, 175, 277-81, Job, 259, 303, 367, 483, 487, 725 Num bers : even and odd, 51-5 3 ; perfect, 55-57
Convertible terms, 229-33
Corruptibility: definition of, 189-91; and in­ 363 John o f Damascus, 365
Gods, pagan : nature of, 511 Josephus, 295 O gy ge s, 87
corruptibility, 215-19, 241, 251-55, 259-61
Goliath, 289 Joshua: sun’s course arrested in time of, 87, Old Hag, The. See De vetula
Cyprus, 565
Graecismus. See Eberhard 375-77, 531» 537i mentioned, 339, 365,421, On the Nature of the Gods. See Cicero
Greece, 347 527, 741 O resm e, Guillaum e, 6
Daniel, 293, 723 Oresm e, N ico le: relations w ith Charles V , 3-6;
Greeks, 85, 157, 181, 275, 291, 377, 435 Jove. See Jupiter
David, 259, 261, 271, 289, 351, 363, 365, 543, attitude to astrology, 5-6 ; translations o f A r ­
Juno, 511
723, 725 , 729 Habitable lands : Oresme’s views summarized, istotle, 6-7, 11-15 ; biography of, 8-9; neol­
De architecture. See Vitruvius ogism s, 30; im aginary voyage around the
24-25 ; distance between eastern and western “ Legend o f St. Michael,” 295
Democritus, 129, 141, 187, 543, 591, 605, 607, “ Legend o f St. Maurice,” 289 earth, 579
ends, 327; position of, 331, 347-49, 35 3; lim­
623, 635, 653, 659, 663,713 — , A lgo rism o f Proportions, 48 5
its of, 569-71 Leucippus, 129, 605, 607, 623, 663
De vetula, 49 — , Com m entary on the Sentences, 245
Haly ibn Ridwan, 567 Liber de causis, 363, 465
Diana (goddess), 51 x — , Contra fudiciarios astronomos, 6
Harmony o f the spheres. See Spheres, music o f Light, celestial, 195-97, 199, 205, 249
Diogenes, 625 — , De commensurabilitate vel incommensurabilitate
Heat: sources of, 439, 441-43, 445 Lucan, 321, 351
Heavenly bodies : nature of, 46 ; motion of, 1o 3- motuum celi, 197, 201, 203
Earth: center of, 27, 569; movement of, 59, 5, *95-97, 285, 299; influence of, 277 Macrobius, 461, 463, 483, 485, 511 — , Inter omnes impressiones, 729
171-73, 365-77, 519-39; circumference of, Heavens : summary o f Oresme’s views, 17-18 ; Magnitudes: natural science concerned with, — , Questions on the Physics, 145, 425-27, 599
565. See also Heavens; World corruptibility o f disproved, 87, 365, 375-77, 45, 53, 61 — , Treatise on the Sphere, 353,487,563,565,567,
Eberhard, 51 531, 537; what exists beyond, 165-67, 721; Mappemonde. See Priscian 573 , 577 , 579 , 581
Ecclesiastes, 58, 87 definition o f word “ heavens,” 271-73; and Mars, 197, 487, 499, 507, 511, 533 O rigen, 167
Ecclesiasticus, 253, 377, 729 Martianus Capella, 291, 435 O vid , 255, 267, 281, 303, 305, 385, 401, 451,
God, 277-81, 363; nature of, 315. See also
Egypt, 87, 1 17, 297, 565 Earth; World Marvels of Ireland, The. See Giraldus Cambrensis 587, 589
Egyptians, 499 Heraclides o f Pontus, 521 Matter: inseparable from form, 615-17
Elements: Oresme’s views summarized, 29; Heraclitus, 181, 589 Maxima and Minima, 595 Paradise, 727
nature of, 59, 68-69, 637, 697-99, 699-701; Hermes, 297 Maximianus, 257 Paris, 219, 291, 369, 375, 577, 691
definition of, 615 ; substantial form of, 681 ; Hesiod, 589 Melissus, 587 Parmenides, 587
dominant element controls local motion, Hezekiah, 87, 421, 527, 531, 537 Mercury, 487, 491, 499, 511 Parnassus, 707
705-7; generation of, 683 Hippo, 625 Michael Scot: Translation o f De caelo, 10 Perspective. See W itelo
7 7 8 | General Index

Phaeton, 375 Secrets of Numbers, 51

Pillars o f Hercules, 567 Seculum\ definition of, 267-69
Place: natural, 59; definition of, 139 Seine, 403, 719
Planets: motion of, 287, 353 Seneca, 67
Plato : Aristotle takes issue with, 185,261, 589; Sentences. See Oresme : Commentary on the Sen­
Timaeus, 187, 375, 519, 597, 605, 643, 661; tences
doctrines more agreeable to Catholic faith, Ship-hauling, 595, 671
263; mentioned, 43, 55, 181, 183, 209, 247, Simplicius, 473, 691
261, 267, 375, 483, 519, 583, 589, 591, 597, Solinus, 97
605, 659, 661, 701 Solomon, 261, 407, 501, 727, 729, 731
Platonists, 185, 403, 639, 665 Spain, 301, 349
.Plenum, 669, 711 Spheres: perfection of, 389; material body of,
Pliny, 243, 467 399; music of, 477-83. See also Heavens
Poles: arctic and antarctic, 347 Sphere-wrapping experiment, 121,167, 237-39
Possibility: definitions of, 191-93, 209-11, 213 Stars : place and number of, 351-5 3 ; fixed, 351,
Pomponius Mela, 97 451 ; why they twinkle, 451
Prague, 577 Suppositum : definition of, 315
Priscian, 271, 617
Problemafa (pseudo-Aristotle): translation o f Thales Milesius, 543
for Charles V , 5 Themistius, 691
Ptolemy: Almagest, 287; mentioned, 499, 521, Theory of the Planets, 287
7°7 Thomas Aquinas, 473, 691
Pythagoras, 49, 305, 469, 473 Transmutation o f elements. See Elements: na­
Pythagoreans, 49, 51, 55, 305, 307, 311, 313, ture of
347, 47 C 473, 5 * 5, 5 *7» 5 *9, 5§7, 599 Triangle, 51, 637
Trinity, 49, 51, 723
Questions about Nature. See Seneca
Vacuum. See Void
Rainbow: as analogy with vision o f God, 727- Varro, 87
3 * Velocity: cannot be infinite, 301; cannot be
Ratios: harmonic, 479 uniform, 413-15. See also Impetus theory;
Regimen of Agues, 309 Motion
Remigius, 291, 435 Venus, 451, 487, 491, 511
Rome, 291, 349 Villard de Honnecourt, 202-3
Rota viva, 203 V irgil, 51, 279, 723
Rouen, 39, 291, 577 Vitruvius, 437
Void, 661, 665-71, 709-11
St. Augustine, 87, 261, 269, 377, 441, 483
St. Gregory, 439 Water. See Elements
St. Jerome, 167, 351, 377 Weights: science of, 401
St. John, 295, 729 William ofM oerbeke, 10, 11
St. .Michael, 295 Witelo, 523, 527
St. Paul, 247, 269, 729 World: definition of “ world,” 39; plurality of
St. Peter, 727 worlds, 105, 149, 165-69; eternity of, 181-
Sardinia, 233 84; creation ex nihilo, 183
Satan, 293
Saturn, 197, 487, 507, 511, 513 Xenophanes o f Colophon, 541
Saturnalia. See Macrobius