Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INDIA : CLIMATE,
VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
NATURAL VEGETATION
We see a variety of plant life in our
surroundings. How nice it is to play in a
field with green grasses. There are also
small plants called bushes and shrubs like
cactus and flowering plants etc. Besides
there are many tall trees some with many
branches and leaves like neem, mango or
some which stand with few leaves such as
palm. The grasses, shrubs and trees, which
grow on their own without interference or
help from human beings are called natural
vegetation. Do you wonder how these differ
from each other. Different types of natural
vegetation are dependent on different
climatic conditions, among which the
amount of rainfall is very important.
Due to varied climatic conditions, India
has a wide range of natural vegetation.
Vegetation of India can be divided into five
types – Tropical evergreen forest, Tropical
deciduous forest, Thorny bushes,
Mountain vegetation and Mangrove
forests.
THORNY BUSHES
This type of vegetation is found in dry areas of the
country. The leaves are in the form of spines to reduce
the loss of water. Cactus, khair, babool, keekar are
important and are found in the states of Rajasthan,
Punjab, Haryana, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats and
Gujarat.
MOUNTAIN VEGETATION
A wide range of species is found in the mountains
according to the variation in height. With increase in
height, the temperature falls. At a height between 1500
MANGROVE FORESTS
These forests can survive in saline water.
They are found mainly in Sunderbans in
Figure 8.5 : Mangrove Vegetation
1. Make a list of trees in your surroundings and collect the pictures of plants,
animals and birds and paste them in your copy.
2. Plant a sapling near your home and nurture it and write down the changes
you observe for a few months.
3. Does any migratory bird come in your locality? Try to idenfity that. Be watchful
in winter season.
4. Visit a zoo in your city or visit a nearby forest or sanctuary with your elders.
Watch various types of wildlife there.
Hu
Natural Human
ma man
de
made
Land Components
(Lithosphere) Roads
of
Environment
Human
Individual Political
Situation
Family
Economic
Community
Religion Educational
Fig. 1.1: Components of Environment
Atmosphere
Let’s do
Biosphere
ENVIRONMENT 3
Glossary from the harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun.
It consists of a number of gases, dust and water vapour.
Ecosystem: It is a The changes in the atmosphere produce changes in
system formed by the the weather and climate.
interaction of all
Plant and animal kingdom together make biosphere
living organisms with
each other and with
or the living world. It is a narrow zone of the earth
the physical and where land, water and air interact with each other to
chemical factors of support life.
the environment in What is ecosystem?
which they live, all
linked by transfer of At an NCC camp that Ravi’s class was attending, Jessy
energy and material. exclaimed, “What a heavy downpour. It reminds me of
my home in Kerala. You should come and see how it
pours and pours and pours over the lush green fields
and coconut plantations.”
Let’s do Heera from Jaisalmer exclaimed, “We get no rains.
Sketch or bring We see only ‘kikar’ and sand, as far as the eyes can
photographs of your see.” “But you also find camels”, said Ravi.
place like the
students in the story.
4 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Heera says, “Not just camels. If you visit our desert, Do you know?
you will see snakes, lizards and many insects too.”
Ravi wondered, “Why do the animals, the vegetation On 5 June every year
World Environment
and the way people live vary from place to place? Are
Day is celebrated.
they all related to each other?”
“Oh yes, very much so”, the teacher replied.
All plants, animals and human beings depend on
their immediate surroundings. Often they are also Glossary
interdependent on each other. This relation between the
living organisms, as well as the relation between the Barter System:
organisms and their surroundings form an ecosystem. It is a trade in which
There could be an ecosystem of large rain forest, goods are exchanged
without the use of
grassland, desert, mountains, lake, river, ocean and even
money.
a small pond.
Do you think the park in which Ravi and his friends
played formed an ecosystem?
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
Human beings interact with the environment and modify
it according to their need. Early humans adapted
themselves to the natural surroundings. They led a
simple life and fulfilled their requirements from the
nature around them. With time needs grew and became Let’s do
more varied. Humans learn new ways to use and change
environment. They learn to grow crops, domesticate Talk to some elderly
animals and lead a settled life. The wheel was invented, person in your
neighbourhood and
surplus food was produced, barter system emerged, trade
collect information
started and commerce developed. Industrial revolution
about–
enabled large scale production. Transportation became • The trees in his/
faster. Information revolution made communication her neighbourhood
easier and speedy across the world. when he/ she was
Have you ever thought why you love eating a juicy your age.
watermelon in summer and hot roasted peanuts in • The indoor games
winter? A perfect balance is necessary between the he/she played.
natural and human environment. Humans must learn • His/her favourite
to live and use their environment in a harmonious way. fruit at your age.
• How did they make
Nurie, a girl from Mizoram from Ravi’s class often talks themselves
about the lush green surroundings of her place. Seeing comfortable during
Ravi upset at having lost his playground, Nurie invited hot summers and
him to visit her home state during the coming vacation. cold winters?
Ravi’s teacher asked the students to draw the landscape, Display your answers
houses and activities of the people and places they visit on a wall/bulletin
during the holidays. board.
ENVIRONMENT 5
Exercises
6 OUR ENVIRONMENT
2 Inside Our Earth
Let’s do
Collect pictures of some monuments and find out which are the rocks
used to build them. Two pictures have been collected for you.
The Red Fort is made of red sandstone The Taj Mahal is made of white marble
Exercises
10 OUR ENVIRONMENT
4. Give reasons.
(i) We cannot go to the centre of the earth.
(ii) Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments.
(iii) Limestone is changed into marble.
5. For fun.
(i) What are the minerals most commonly used in the following objects?
(ii) Identify some more objects made up of different minerals.
Karhai Ornaments
Pan/Tava
Hammer
Bell
Lamp
Volcano Wind
Glossary
Landslides Sea-waves
Lithospheric plates:
The earth’s crust Glaciers
consists of several
large and some small, Fig. 3.1: Evolution of Landforms
rigid, irregularly-
shaped plates (slabs) Endogenic forces sometimes produce sudden movements
which carry and at the other times produce slow movements. Sudden
continents and the movements like earthquakes and volcanoes cause mass
ocean floor. destruction over the surface of the earth.
A volcano is a vent (opening) in the Word Origin
earth’s crust through which molten
material erupts suddenly (Fig. 3.2).
Endo Endogenic
(inside) + genic
Gases and ash Exo (origin)
Crater (outside) Exogenic
Vent
Lava Activity
Lava
tube
Take a container, fill
it with water and
Crust close it with a lid. Put
Magma the water to boil. Now
Mantle Chamber
put some peas, spoon
Fig. 3.2: A Volcano and beads on top on
the lid. What do you
notice? As the water
Similarly, when the Lithospheric plates move, the boils the lid begins to
surface of the earth vibrates. The vibrations can travel shake. The things
all round the earth. These vibrations are called which you have put
earthquakes (Fig. 3.3). The place in the crust where the on the lid also
movement starts is called the focus. The place on the vibrate. The beads roll
surface above the focus is called the epicentre. down and the spoon
Vibrations travel outwards from the epicentre as waves. vibrates to make a
Greatest damage is usually closest to the epicentre and sound. In the same
manner, the earth
the strength of the earthquake decreases away from
vibrates when an
the centre.
earthquake occurs.
Plate boundary Epicentre Seismic waves radiate
out in all directions
Do you know?
14 OUR ENVIRONMENT
MAJOR LAND FORMS Do you know?
The landscape is being continuously worn away by two • There are
processes – weathering and erosion. Weathering is the thousands of small
breaking up of the rocks on the earth’s surface. Erosion waterfalls in the
is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents world. The highest
like water, wind and ice. The eroded material is carried waterfall is Angel
away or transported by water, wind, etc. and eventually Falls of Venezuela
deposited. This process of erosion and deposition create in South America.
different landforms on the surface of the earth. The other waterfalls
are Niagara falls
Work of a River located on the
The running water in the river erodes the landscape. When border between
the river tumbles at steep angle over very hard rocks or Canada and USA in
North America and
down a steep valley side it forms a waterfall (Fig. 3.4).
Victoria Falls on
the borders of
Zambia and
Zimbabwe in Africa.
Hard rock
Softer rock undercut
by the power of
the water
Exercises
18 OUR ENVIRONMENT
6. For fun.
Solve the crossword puzzle with the help of given clues.
Across Down
2. Loop like bend of river 1. Rise and fall of water caused by friction
4. Solid form of water of wind on water surface
7. Moving mass of ice 3. Flow of water in channel
9. Sudden descent of water in bed of river 5. Steep perpendicular face of rock along
sea coast
11. Natural cavity on weak rocks formed by
action of waves 6. Debris of boulder and coarse material
carried by glacier
12. Embankment on river that keeps river
in its channel 8. Crescent shaped lake formed by river
meander
13. Large body of sea water
10. Fine sand deposited by action of wind
14. Dry area where sand dunes are found
13. Isolated mass of rising steep rock near
15. Small hill of sand piled by action of wind
coastline
16. Flat plain formed by river deposits during
14. Alluvial tracts of land at mouth of river
time of flood
formed by river deposits
AIR 21
STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Our atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from
the earth’s sur face. These are T roposphere,
Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and
Exosphere (Fig. 4.2).
Troposphere: This layer is the most important layer of
the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km. The air
we breathe exists here.
Almost all the weather
EXOSPHERE
phenomena like rainfall,
fog and hailstorm occur in
THERMOSPHERE this layer.
100
Stratosphere: Above the
troposphere lies the
90 stratosphere. It extends up
to a height of 50 km. This
Mesopause
layer is almost free from
80 clouds and associated
weather phenomenon,
making conditions most
70 ideal for flying aeroplanes.
One important feature of
stratosphere is that it
Height (km)
MESOSPHERE
60 contains a layer of ozone
gas. We have just learnt
how it protects us from
50 the harmful effect of the
Stratopause sun rays.
Exosphere: The upper most layer of the atmosphere For ten days note
is known as exosphere. This layer has very thin air. down weather report
Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into the from a local
space from here. newspaper and
observe the changes
WEATHER AND CLIMATE occurring in the
weather.
“Is it going to rain today?” “Will it be bright and sunny
today?” How many times have we heard this from
anxious cricket fans speculating the fate of a One Day
match? If we imagine our body to be a radio and the
mind its speaker, weather is something that fiddles Do you know?
with its control knobs. Weather is this hour-to-hour,
day to day condition of the atmosphere. A hot or humid You will be surprised
weather may make one irritable. A pleasant, breezy to know that the
weather may make one cheerful and even plan for an earth receives only 1
outing. Weather can change dramatically from day to in 2,000,000,0000
day. However, the average weather condition of a place parts of the sun’s
for a longer period of time represents the climate of a energy.
place. Now do you understand why we have daily
weather forecasts.
Temperature
The temperature you feel everyday
is the temperataure of the
atmosphere. The degree of hotness
and coldness of the air is known
as temperature.
Thermometer:
The temperature of the
Measures Barometre: Measures
atmosphere changes not only the temperature atmospheric pressure
between day and night but also
from season to season. Summers
are hotter than winters.
An important factor that
influences the distribution of
temperature is insolation.
Insolation is the incoming solar
energy intercepted by the earth.
The amount of insolation Rain Gauge: Measures Wind Vane: Shows the
the amount of rainfall direction of the wind
decreases from the equator
towards the poles. Therefore, the Fig. 4.3: Weather Instruments
AIR 23
Do you know? temperature decreases in the same manner. Now do
you understand why poles are covered with snow? If
The standard unit of the earth’s temperature rises too high, it would become
measuring too warm for some crops to grow. Temperature in cities
temperature is degree is much higher than that of villages. The concrete and
Celsius. It was metals in buildings and the asaphalt of roads get
invented by Anders
heated up during the day. This heat is released during
Celsius. On the
Celsius scale the
the night.
water freezes at 0°C Also, the crowded high rise buildings of the cities
and boils at 100°C. trap the warm air and thus raise the temperature of
the cities.
Air Pressure
You will be surprised to know that air above us presses
Do you know? us with a great force on our bodies. However, we don’t
even feel it. This is because the air presses us from all
On the moon there is directions and our body exerts a counter pressure.
no air and hence no Air pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the
air pressure. weight of air on the earth’s surface. As we go up the
Astronauts have to layers of atmosphere, the pressure falls rapidly. The air
wear special pressure is highest at sea level and decreases with height.
protective space suits Horizontally the distribution of air pressure is influenced
filled with air when by temperature of air at a given place. In areas where
they go to the moon. If temperature is high the air gets heated and rises. This
they did not wear creates a low-pressure area. Low pressure is associated
these space suits, the
with cloudy skies and wet weather.
counter pressure
exerted by the body of
In areas having lower temperature, the air is cold. It
the astronauts would is therefore heavy. Heavy air sinks and creates a high
make the blood vessels pressure area. High pressure is associated with clear and
burst. The astronauts sunny skies.
would bleed. The air always moves from high pressure areas to low
pressure areas.
Wind
The movement of air from high pressure area to low
Do you know? pressure areas is called wind. You can see wind at work
as it blows dry leaves down the pavement or uproots
A wind is named after trees during a storm. Sometimes when the wind blows
the direction from gently you can even see it blowing away smoke or fine
which it blows, e.g. dust. At times wind can be so strong that it is difficult
the wind blowing from to walk against it. You must have experienced it is not
the west is called easy to hold an umbrella on a windy day. Think of
westerly.
some other examples when strong winds have created
24 OUR ENVIRONMENT
problems for you. Winds can be 90°N
High Pressure
broadly divided into three types.
Polar Easterlies
1. Permanent winds – The trade
winds, westerlies and easterlies 60°N Sub-Polar Low Pressure
AIR 25
The cyclone originated as a “depression” in the Gulf of Thailand,
near east of Port Blair, on 25 October 1999 and gradually moved in a
northwestward direction. It intensified into a supercyclone and hit the area
between Erasama and Balikuda in Orissa on 29 October at 10.30 a.m.
The supercyclone swept entire the coast of Orissa including the
cities of Bhubaneshwar and Cuttack and 28 coastal towns. About 13
million people were affected. A large number of livestock were killed.
Standing crops of paddy, vegetables and fruits were heavily damaged.
Due to salinisation caused by tidal surge, large tracts of agricultural
land have turned infertile. Large tracts of sal, teak and bamboo
plantations have disappeared. The mangrove forests between Paradeep
and Konark vanished.
Moisture
Cold When water evaporates from land and different
air water bodies, it becomes water vapour. Moisture
Warm
air in the air at any time, is known as humidity.
When the air is full of water vapour we call it a
humid day. As the air gets warmer, its capacity
to hold the water vapour increases and so it
becomes more and more humid. On a humid
Cyclonic Rainfall day, clothes take longer to dry and sweat from
our body does not evaporate easily, making us
feel very uncomfortable.
When the water vapour rises, it starts cooling.
The water vapour condenses causing formation
Moist of droplets of water. Clouds are just masses of
air
such water droplets. When these droplets of water
become too heavy to float in air, then they come
down as precipitation.
Jet planes flying in the sky leave a white trail
behind them. The moisture from their engines
Relief (Orographic) Rainfall
condenses. We see trails of this condensed
moisture for some time when there is no air
movement to disturb it.
Precipitation that comes down to the earth
in liquid form is called rain. Most of the ground
water comes from rainwater. Plants help preserve
water. When trees on hill sides are cut, rainwater
Warm
air flows down the bare mountains and can cause
flooding of low lying areas. On the basis of
mechanism, there are three types of rainfall: the
Convectional Rainfall convectional rainfall, the orographic rainfall and
Fig. 4.5: Types of Rainfall the cyclonic rainfall (Fig. 4.5).
26 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Rainfall is very important for the survival of plants and Do you know?
animals. It brings fresh water to the earth’s surface. If
rainfall is less – water scacity and drought occur. On the Other forms of
other hand if it is more, floods take place. precipitation are
snow, sleet, hail.
Exercises
AIR 27
5. For fun.
(i) Solve this Crossword puzzle with the help of given clues:
Across Down
6. An Indian tree having extraordinary 1. Amount of water vapour in air
quality of providing oxygen round the 2. Condensation of water vapours around
clock dust particles in atmosphere
8. Gas present in atmosphere occupying 3. Example of local wind blowing in summer
only 0.03% by volume in northern india
11. Outermost layer of atmosphere 4. Short term changes in atmosphere
12. Mixture of many gases 5. Precipitation in liquid form
14. Life giving gas 7. Blanket of air around the earth
15. Air in motion 9. Instrument to measure pressure
16. An indian tree valued highly for 10. Incoming solar radiation
medicinal properties
13. Reduces visibility in winters
18. Gas protecting us from harmful sunrays
17. It is ....... time when sun is overhead
19. Low pressure area
28 OUR ENVIRONMENT
(ii) Make a weather calendar for one week. Use pictures or symbols to show
different types of weather. You can use more than one symbol in a day, if
the weather changes. For example, the sun comes out when rain stops. An
example is given below:
Day Weather
1. Sunny day
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
AIR 29
5 Water
Glossary When you think of water, what images come to your
mind? You think of rivers, the waterfalls, the pitter patter
Terrarium: It is an of raindrops, water in your taps... Children love to float
artificial enclosure for paper boats in rain puddles. By noon the puddles vanish.
keeping small house Where does the water go?
plants. The sun’s heat causes evaporation of water vapour.
When the water vapour cools down, it condenses and
forms clouds. From there it may fall on the land or sea
Activity
in the form of rain, snow or sleet.
Make your own The process by which water continually changes its
Terrarium form and circulates between oceans,
atmosphere and land is known
as the water cycle (Fig 5.1).
Our earth is like a
terrarium. The same water Condensation
that existed centuries ago
still exists today. The Precipitation
A Terrarium
water used to irrigate a
field in Haryana may
Fill one-fourth of a big
jar with soil and have flowed down the
press it well. Put a Amazon River a
thin layer of humus hundred years ago.
on top of it. Plant the The major sources
largest plants first of fresh water are the
and then arrange the rivers, ponds, Run off
smaller area around springs and
them. Spray the Evaporation
glaciers. The
arrangement with
water and close the
ocean bodies and
jar. The water that the seas contain
evaporates from the salty water. The
leaves and soil water of the
condenses and falls oceans is salty or
back as forms of saline as it
water drops. contains large Fig. 5.1: Water Cycle
Fig. 5.2: World – Major Seas, Lakes and Rivers
Activity
OCEAN CIRCULATION
There is something magical about walking bare feet Do you know?
on the seashore. The wet sand on the beach, the cool
March 22 is
breeze, the seabirds, the smell of the salt in the air
celebrated as World
and music of the waves; everything is so fascinating.
Water Day when the
Unlike the calm waters of ponds and lakes, ocean water need to conserve
keeps moving continuously. It is never still. The water is reinforced in
movements that occur in oceans can be broadly different ways.
categorised as: waves, tides and currents.
WATER 33
Do you know? Waves
When you are playing throw ball on the beach and the
Waves are formed ball falls into the water, what happens? It is fun to watch
when gentle winds
how the ball gets washed
scrape across the
ocean surface. The
back to the shore by the
stronger the wind waves. When the water on the
blows, the bigger the surface of the ocean rises and
wave becomes. falls alternately, they are
called waves.
The tsunami that ravaged the South and South east Asian coasts in
December 2004, is the most devastating tsunami in the last several
hundred years. The large damage caused to life and property was
primarily a result of lack of monitoring, the early warning systems and
knowledge among the coast dwellers of Indian ocean.
The first indication that tsunami is approaching is the rapid
withdrawal of water from the coastal region, followed by destructive
wave. When this happened on the coast, instead of people going to high
ground, they started assembling at the coast to view the miracle. As a
consequence there was a large casualty of curious onlookers when the
gigantic wave (tsunami) struck.
Tides
The rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a
day is called a tide. It is high tide when water covers
much of the shore by rising to its highest level. It is
low tide when water falls to its lowest level and recedes
from the shore.
WATER 35
Neap Tide Moon The strong gravitational pull
exerted by the sun and the moon
on the earth’s surface causes the
tides. The water of the earth closer
Sun Earth
to the moon gets pulled under
the influence of the moon’s
gravitational force and causes high
tide. During the full moon and new
Spring Tide
moon days, the sun, the moon and
the earth are in the same line and
the tides are highest. These tides
Sun Earth are called spring tides. But when
Moon the moon is in its first and last
quarter, the ocean waters get drawn
in diagonally opposite directions by
the gravitational pull of sun and
earth resulting in low tides. These
Sun Earth
tides are called neap tides (Fig. 5.5).
Moon High tides help in navigation.
They raise the water level close to
the shores. This helps the ships to
Fig. 5.5: Spring Tides and Neap Tide arrive at the harbour more easily.
The high tides also help in fishing.
Many more fish come closer to the
shore during the high tide. This enables fishermen
to get a plentiful catch. The rise and fall of water due
to tides is being used to generate electricity in
some places.
Activity
36 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Fig. 5.6: Ocean Currents
Exercises
WATER 37
3. Tick the correct answer.
(i) The process by which water continually changes its form and circulates
between oceans, atmosphere and land
(a) Water cycle (b) Tides (c) Ocean currents
(ii) Generally the warm ocean currents originate near
(a) Poles (b) Equator (c) None of these
(iii) The rythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day is called
(a) Tide (b) Ocean current (c) Wave
4. Match the following.
(i) Caspian Sea Largest lake
(ii) Tide Periodic rise and fall of water
(iii) Tsunami Strong seismic waves.
(iv) Ocean currents Streams of water moving in definite paths.
5. For fun.
Be a Detective
(i) The name of one river is hidden in each of the sentences below. Spot it.
Example: Mandra, Vijayalakshmi and Surinder are my best friends
Answer: Ravi
(a) The snake charmer’s bustee, stables where horses are housed, and
the piles of wood, all caught fire accidentally. (Hint: Another name for
River Brahmputra)
(b) The conference manager put pad, material for reading and a pencil for
each participant. (Hint: A distributary on the Ganga-Brahmputra delta)
(c) Either jealousy or anger cause a person’s fall (Hint: Name of a juicy fruit!)
(d) Bhavani germinated the seeds in a pot (Hint: Look for her in West Africa)
(e) “I am a zonal champion now” declared the excited atheletic. (Hint: The
river that has he biggest basin in the world)
(f) The tiffin box rolled down and all the food fell in dusty potholes. (Hint:
Rises in India and journeys through Pakistan)
(g) Malini leaned against the pole when she felt that she was going to faint.
(Hint: Her delta in Egypt is famous)
(h) Samantha mesmerised everybody with her magic tricks. (Hint: London
is situated on her estuary)
(i) “In this neighbourhood, please don’t yell! Owners of these houses like
to have peace”. Warned my father when we moved into our new flat”.
(Hint: colour!)
(j) ‘Write the following words, Marc!’ “On”, “go”, “in”…….. said the teacher
to the little boy in KG Class. (Hint: Rhymes with ‘bongo’)
Now make some more on your own and ask your classmates to spot the
hidden name. You can do this with any name: that of a lake, mountains,
trees, fruits, school items etc.
Carry on Detective
(ii) With the help of an atlas, draw each river which you discoverd in
For fun (i), on an outline map of the world.
38 OUR ENVIRONMENT
6 Natural Vegetation
and Wild Life
Salima was excited about the summer camp she was
attending. She had gone to visit Manali in Himachal Let’s do
Pradesh along with her class mates. She recalled how
surprised she was to see the changes in the landform Now can you tell why
Salima saw changes
and natural vegetation as the bus climbed higher and in the natural
higher. The deep jungles of the foothills comprising sal vegetation as she
and teak slowly disappeared. She could see tall trees climbed higher and
with thin pointed leaves and cone shaped canopies on higher? What type of
the mountain slopes. She learnt that those were coniferous vegetations did she
trees. She noticed blooms of bright flowers on tall trees. see in the Himalayas
These were the rhododendrons. From Manali as she was starting with the
travelling up to Rohtang pass she saw that the land was foothills and going to
the higher altitudes?
covered with short grass and snow in some places.
From Salima’s
observations, we surmise
Let’s do
that there is a close
relationship between • Like Salima, when
height of land and the you go to visit any
character of vegetations. new place, notice
With the change in height, the type of natural
the climate changes and vegetation occurring
there and try to
that changes natural
think of factors
Fig. 6.1: Rhododendron
vegetation. The growth of responsible for the
vegetation depends on growth of such
temperature and moisture. It also depends on factors vegetation in that
like slope and thickness of soil. habitat.
The type and thickness of natural vegetation varies • Note down if any
from place to place because of the variation in these factors. human interference
Natural vegetation is generally classified in to three has taken place in
broad categories as follows: that area in terms
of deforestation,
(a) Forests: Which grow where temperature and rainfall grazing, cultivation
are plentiful to support a tree cover. Depending upon of cash crops,
these factors, dense and open forests grown. constructional
activities etc.
(b) Grasslands: Which grow in the region of moderate rain.
(c) Shrubs: Thorny shrurbs and scrubs grow in the dry
region (Fig. 6.2).
Salima was sharing her experience of Himalayan trip
with her father. Her father visited various places in the
world. He told Salima about his observations of the variety
of vegetation in different parts of different continents.He
Fig. 6.2: Thorny shrubs mentioned about coniferous forests in the sub polar
regions, thorny bushes in the deserts, thick tropical
hardwood forest in the humid regions and many more.
Salima realised the Himalayas have almost all variety of
vegetation which one can see while moving from the
equator to the polar region.
The changes in the type of natural vegetation occur
mainly because of the changes of climatic condition. Let
us get to know the different types of natural vegetation
of the world with their characteristic features and wildlife
inhabiting there.
Do you know?
40 OUR ENVIRONMENT
Tropical Deciduous Forests Let’s do
Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests found in
• Where in India do
the large part of India,northern Australia and in central tropical evergreen
America (Fig. 6.4).These regions experience seasonal and tropical
changes. Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to deciduous forests
conserve water. The hardwood trees found in these occur? Name the
forests are sal, teak, neem and shisham. Hardwood trees states.
are extremely useful for making furniture, transport • Which type of forest
and constructional materials. Tigers, lions, elephants, dominates most
langoors and monkeys are the common animals of these part of India?
regions (Fig. 6.5, 6.6 and 6.8).
Mediterranean Vegetation
Do you know? You have learnt that most of the east and north east
margins of the continents are covered by temperate
• Mediterranean trees evergreen and deciduous trees. The west and south west
adapt themselves to margins of the continents are different. They have
dry summers with Mediterranean vegetation (Fig. 6.12). It is mostly found
the help of their in the areas around the Mediterranean sea in Europe,
thick barks and wax Africa and Asia, hence the name. This kind of vegetation
coated leaves which is also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in
help them reduce California in the USA, south west Africa, south western
transpiration.
• Mediterranean
regions are known
as ‘Orchards of the
world’ for their fruit
cultivation.
42 OUR ENVIRONMENT
South America and South west Australia. These regions Let’s do
are marked for hot dry summers and mild rainy winters.
Citrus fruits such as oranges, figs, olives and grapes are • Look around in your
commonly cultivated here because people have removed surroundings and
the natural vegetation in order to cultivate what they find out the articles
want to. There isn’t much wildlife here. made of hard wood
and soft wood.
Coniferous Forests • Find out and learn
few names of trees
In the higher latitudes (50° – 70°) of Northern
of your locality.
hemisphere the spectacular Coniferous forests are found
(Fig. 6.13 a and b). These are also called as Taiga. These
forests are also seen in the higher altitudes. These are
the trees which Salima found in the Himalayas in
abundance. They are tall, softwood evergreen trees.
Do you know?
These woods are very useful for making pulp, which is
used for manufacturing paper and newsprint. Match Taiga means pure or
boxes and packing boxes are also made from softwood. untouched in the
Chir, pine, cedar are the important variety of trees in Russian language
these forests. Silver fox, mink, polar bear are the
common animals found here.
Fig. 6.13 (a): Coniferous Forest Fig. 6.13 (b): Snow covered Coniferous Forest
GRASSLANDS
Tropical grasslands: These grow on either
side of the equator and extend till the tropics
(Fig. 6.14). This vegetation grows in the
areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.
They can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres
in height. Savannah grasslands of Africa
are of this type. Elephants, zebras, giraffes,
deer, leopards are common in tropical
grasslands (Fig. 6.15). Fig. 6.14: Tropical Grassland
M T N L P L M E H R T B A M B O O P N A
B E A R A I X S E E R C M W H A L E D C
T L P F L O R A N L E O P A R D C E E M
A E I A M N L I C H E N S L F O A P E S
N P G U D O G R T Z X E D R H X M A R J
A H T N H N D P I N E S C U I V E L D K
C A C A M P O S G V N N A S E A L M Q U
O N A C F O W L E E E A C D E O D A R M
N T C H I R N G R V E K T M O S S E S O
D O T E A K S R S E M E U S A P C G A N
A X U R M A A N G R A S S W K A R Q V K
P S S B H F T A I G A T U L S I U Y A E
G H F I R P R A I R I E S A B E B O N Y
B R B R G O A T D E C I D U O U S W N A
T U N D R A X Z E B R A H O R S E L A K
C B E E A X L L A N O S A T P A M P A S
46 OUR ENVIRONMENT
7
Weather, Climate and
Adaptations of Animals to
Climate
D
o you remember the things that
you were asked to pack when
you were heading for a hill
station? When the sky is cloudy, your
parents insist that you carry an
umbrella. Have you heard elders in your
family discuss the weather before Fig. 7.1 A sample of a weather report from a
planning a family function? You must newspaper
have also heard the experts discussing
the weather before the start of a game.
Have you ever wondered why? The I wonder who prepares
weather may have a profound effect on these reports!
the game. It has a profound effect on
our lives. Many of our daily activities are The weather reports are prepared by
planned based on the weather predicted the Meteorological Department of the
for that day. There are daily reports of Government. This department collects
the weather on the television and data on temperature, wind, etc., and
radio and in the newspapers. But do you makes the weather prediction.
know what this weather really is?
In this chapter, we will study about Activity 7.1
the weather and climate. We will also
Cut out the weather reports of the last
see how different forms of life are
week from any newspaper. If you do not
adapted to the climate of their habitat.
get a newspaper at home borrow from
7.1 WEATHER your neighbours or friends and copy
In Fig. 7.1 a sample of weather report these reports in your notebook. You can
from a newspaper is given. also collect weather reports from a
We find that the daily weather report library. Paste all the cut-outs on a white
carries information about the sheet or on a chart paper.
temperature, humidity and rainfall Now record the information from the
during the past 24 hours. It also weather reports collected by you in
predicts the weather for the day. Table 7.1. The first row is just a sample.
Humidity, as you might know, is a Fill all the columns according to the data
measure of the moisture in air. in the chart that you have prepared.
68 SCIENCE
Table 7.1
Weather data of a week
*(Rainfall may not be recorded for all the days since it may not rain everyday. Leave
the space for rainfall blank if the data is not available.)
03-08-06 26.0°C
04-08-06 23.5°C
05-08-06 25.0°C
06-08-06 22.0°C
07-08-06 25.5°C
08-08-06 23.3°C
09-08-06 24.4°C
Fig. 7.2 Graph showing the variation of maximum temperature during 03 to 09 August 2006
As it is clear from any weather report, that there are special thermometers for
the maximum and minimum this purpose, called maximum and
temperatures are recorded every day. Do minimum thermometers
thermometers. Can you
you know how these temperatures are guess when during the day we have the
recorded. In Chapter 4 you have learnt maximum temperature and when the
minimum?
The maximum temperature of the day
occurs generally in the afternoon while
I wonder why weather the minimum temperature occurs
changes so frequently! generally in the early morning. Can you
now understand why in summers we feel
What is the source of weather so miserable in the afternoon and
in the first place? comparatively comfortable early in the
morning?
All changes in the weather are caused by the sun sun. The sun is a huge sphere of
hot gases at a very high temperature. The distance of the sun from us is very
large. Even then the energy sent out by the sun is so huge that it is the source of
all heat and light on the earth. So, the sun is the primary source of energy that
causes changes in the weather. Energy absorbed and reflected by the earth’s
surface, oceans and the atmosphere play important roles in determining the
weather at any place. If you live near the sea, you would have realised that the
weather at your place is different from that of a place in a desert, or near a mountain.
70 SCIENCE
What about the times of sunrise and of the time, then we say that the climate
sunset? You know that in winters it of that place is hot. If there is also heavy
becomes dark early and you do not get rainfall on most of the days in the same
much time to play. Are the days shorter place, then we can say that the climate
in winter than in summer? Try to find of that place is hot and wet.
it out yourself by completing the project In Table 7.2 and 7.3, we have given
given at the end of the chapter. the climatic condition at two places in
India. The mean temperature for a given
7.2 CLIMATE
month is found in two steps. First we
Meteorologists record the weather every find the average of the temperatures
day. The records of the weather have
recorded during the month. Second, we
been preserved for the past several
calculate the average of such average
decades. These help us to determine the temperatures over many years. That
weather pattern at a place. The average
gives the mean temperature. The two
weather pattern taken over a long
places are: Srinagar in Jammu and
time, say 25 years, is called the
Kashmir, and Thiruvananthapuram in
climate of the place. If we find that
Kerala.
the temperature at a place is high most
72 SCIENCE
their predators. It also helps them in Another well-known animal living in
catching their prey. To protect them the polar regions is the penguin
from extreme cold, they have two thick (Fig. 7.4). It is also white and merges
layers of fur. They also have a layer of well with the white background. It also
fat under their skin. In fact, they are so has a thick skin and a lot of fat to protect
well-insulated that they have to move it from cold. You may have seen pictures
slowly and rest often to avoid getting of penguins huddled together. This they
overheated. do to keep warm. Recall how warm you
Physical activities on warm days feel when you are in a hall full of people.
necessitate cooling. So, the polar bear
goes for swimming. It is a good
swimmer. Its paws are wide and large,
which help it not only to swim well but
also walk with ease in the snow. While
swimming under water, it can close its
nostrils and can remain under water for
long durations. It has a strong sense of
smell so that it can catch its prey
for food. We can understand the Fig. 7.4 Penguins huddled together
adaptations of polar bears with the help
of the flow chart shown in Fig. 7.3.
Some migratory birds travel as much as 15000 km to escape the extreme climatic
conditions at home. Generally they fly high where the wind flow is helpful and
the cold conditions allow them to disperse the heat generated by their flight
muscles. But how these birds travel to the same place year after year is still a
mystery. It seems that these birds have a built–in sense of direction and know in
which direction to travel. Some birds probably use landmarks to guide them. Many
birds may be guided by the sun during the day and stars at night. There is some
evidence that birds may use the magnetic field of the earth to find direction. And
it is not only birds that migrate; mammals, many types of fish and insects are
also known to migrate seasonally in search of more hospitable climates.
74 SCIENCE
wetlands of north east and some other
parts of India (Fig. 7.6).
(ii) The tropical rainforests
The tropical region has generally a hot
climate because of its location around
Fig. 7.7 Red-eyed frog
the equator. Even in the coldest month
the temperature is generally higher than
about 15°C. During hot summers, the
temperature may cross 40°C. Days and
nights are almost equal in length
throughout the year. These regions get
plenty of rainfall. An important feature
of this region is the tropical rainforests.
Tropical rainforests are found in
Western Ghats and Assam in India,
Southeast Asia, Central America and
Central Africa. Because of continuous
warmth and rain, this region supports
wide variety of plants and animals. The
major types of animals living in the
rainforests are monkeys, apes, gorillas,
Fig. 7.8 A new world monkey
lions, tigers, elephants, leopards, lizards,
snakes, birds and insects. are such that they can easily hold on to
Let us read about the adaptations of the branches.
these animals to a hot, humid climate. As there is competition for food, some
The climatic conditions in rainforests animals are adapted to get food not
are highly suitable for supporting an easily reachable. A striking example is
enormous number and variety of that of the bird Toucan (Fig. 7.9), which
animals. possesses a long, large beak. This helps
Since the numbers are large, there a toucan to reach the fruits on branches
is intense competition for food and which are otherwise too weak to support
shelter. Many animals are adapted to its weight.
living on the trees. Red-eyed frog Many tropical animals have sensitive
(Fig. 7.7) has developed sticky pads on hearing, sharp eyesight, thick skin and
its feet to help it climb trees on which it a skin colour which helps them to
lives. To help them live on the trees, camouflage by blending with the
monkeys (Fig. 7.8) have long tails for surroundings. This is to protect them
grasping branches. Their hands and feet from predators. For example, big cats
Keywords
76 SCIENCE
What you have learnt
The day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at a place with respect to
the temperature, humidity, rainfall, wind-speed, etc., is called the
weather at that place.
The weather is generally not the same on any two days and week after
week.
The maximum temperature of the day occurs generally in the afternoon
while the minimum temperature occurs in the early morning.
The times of sunrise and sunset also change during the year.
All the changes in the weather are driven by the sun.
The average weather pattern taken over a long time, say 25 years, is
called the climate of the place.
The tropical and the polar regions are the two regions of the earth,
which have severe climatic conditions.
Animals are adapted to the conditions in which they live.
The polar regions are very cold throughout the year. The sun does not
set for six months in a year and in the other six months it does not rise.
Animals in the polar region are adapted to the extremely cold climate by
having some special characteristics such as white fur, strong sense of
smell, a layer of fat under the skin, wide and large paws for swimming
and walking, etc.
Migration is another means to escape the harsh, cold conditions.
Because of the hospitable climatic conditions huge populations of plants
and animals are found in the tropical rainforests.
Animals in the tropical rainforests are adapted such that they eat
different kinds of food to overcome the competition for food and shelter.
Some adaptations of animals living in the tropical rainforests include
living on the trees, development of strong tails, long and large beaks,
bright colours, sharp patterns, loud voice, diet of fruits, sensitive hearing,
sharp eyesight, thick skin, ability to camouflage in order to protect
themselves from predators, etc.
Exercises
1. Name the elements that determine the weather of a place.
2. When are the maximum and minimum temperature likely to occur
during the day?
3. Fill in the blanks:
(i) The average weather taken over a long time is called ___________.
78 SCIENCE
12. Which option best describes a tropical region?
(i) hot and humid
(ii) moderate temperature, heavy rainfall
(iii) cold and humid
(iv) hot and dry
You are perhaps aware that 22 March is teachers must very often be advising you
celebrated as the world water day day! A not to waste water. No wonder we
school celebrated ‘water day’ and invited celebrate water day every year to attract
posters from the children of your age the attention of everybody towards the
group. Some of the posters presented importance of conserving water.
on that day are shown in Fig. 16.1. The amount of water recommended
by the United Nations for drinking,
washing, cooking and maintaining proper
hygiene is a minimum of 50 litres per
person per day. This amount is about
two and a half buckets of water per
person per day. Is your family getting at
least this much of water? If yes, you
should consider yourself fortunate
because millions of people in our
country do not get enough water. What
about your friends and their families?
Share your experience with them.
In some places there is an acute
shortage of water. Taps running dry,
Fig. 16.1 Collage of posters
long queues for water (Fig. 16.2), fights,
marches and protests for demand of
What is the message you get from water have become a common sight,
these posters? Write your observations especially during summers. Some of the
in your notebook and discuss them in newspaper clippings shown in Fig. 16.3
the class. clearly indicate this message. Is it not
Have you ever felt a shortage of water true that we face acute shortage of
at home or at school? Your parents or water?
Fig. 16.2 Long queue for water
Fig. 16.3 Newspaper clippings
194 SCIENCE
following activity to estimate roughly Activity 16.2
the relative amount of water available
Most of us assume water to be a limitless
in some of these sources.
resource. From this activity can you
1. rudgon rawet
4
3 2. atooniaervp
7
3. acestoonnnid
5 4. duclos
2
5. tspratniaoinr
6
6. aitfinlronit
7. ntciepirtaipo
1
196 SCIENCE
bodies. The water is drawn from
nearby lakes, rivers, ponds or
wells. The water is supplied
through a network of pipes.
Many villages do not have such
a water supply system. There
people fetch water directly from
the sources. Often women and
children have to walk several
kilometres to fetch water
(Fig. 16.6). The children suffer
a lot. They cannot attend
school regularly since they
spend hours in fetching water.
Stream or lake
Recharge
Water table
Aquifer
Groundwater
where do the workers get water for agricultural activities are some common
construction? May be you have seen factors affecting water table. Scanty
boring being done at such sites to reach rainfall is another factor that may
the water table. Enquire from the people deplete the water table. Yet another
working there how deep they have to dig. factor affecting water table could be
Can we keep on drawing water from deforestation and decrease in the
under the ground? How will it affect the effective area for seepage of water.
water table?
Increasing population
16.4 DEPLETION OF WATER TABLE Increasing population creates demand
Water drawn from under the ground gets for construction of houses, shops,
replenished by seepage of rainwater. The offices, roads and pavements. This
water table does not get affected as long decreases the open areas like parks, and
as we draw as much water as is playgrounds. This, in turn, decreases the
replenished by natural processes. seepage of rainwater into the ground.
However, water table may go down if the What could be the consequence? Recall
water is not sufficiently replenished. that a pukka floor does not allow water
This may happen due to many reasons. to seep in easily, while in a grass lawn
Increase in population, industrial and water seeps through in no time.
198 SCIENCE
Moreover a huge amount of water is day by day. This results in depletion of
required for construction work. Often water table.
groundwater is used for this purpose.
16.5 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
So, on the one hand we are
The distribution of water over the globe
consuming more groundwater, and on
is quite uneven due to a number of
the other we are allowing lesser water
factors.
to seep into the ground. This results in
Some places have good amount of
depletion of water table. In fact, the
rain and are water-rich. On the other
water table in some parts of many cities
hand, there are deserts which have
has gone down to alarmingly low levels.
scanty rainfall.
Increasing industries India is a vast country and the
Water is used by all the industries. rainfall is not the same everywhere.
Almost everything that we use needs Some regions have excessive rains while
water somewhere in its production some others have very little rainfall.
process. The number of industries is Excessive rains cause floods, whereas
increasing continuously. Water used by the absence of rains results in droughts.
most of the industries is drawn from the Therefore, some regions in our country
ground. may have floods while others may suffer
from droughts at the same time.
Activity 16.4
Activity 16.5
Name some industries familiar to you.
Given here is the rainfall map of India
Make a list of the products obtained
(Fig. 16.8). It gives the average annual
from these and used in our daily life.
rainfall in different regions of our country.
Discuss with your teacher and parents
Locate on the map the place you live
how the growing industrial activity is
in.
responsible for the depletion of water
Are you blessed with sufficient
table.
rainfall?
Agricultural activities Is there sufficient water available in
A majority of farmers in India depend your area throughout the year?
upon rains for irrigating their crops. It may be possible that we are living
Irrigation systems such as canals are in an area where there is sufficient
there only in a few places. Even these rainfall yet there is shortage of water. Can
systems may suffer from lack of water we attribute this to mismanagement of
due to erratic rainfall. Therefore, farmers water resources?
have to use groundwater for irrigation. 16.6 WATER MANAGEMENT
Population pressure on agriculture You have read in Class VI that in many
forces increasing use of groundwater places a regular supply of water is
200 SCIENCE
provided by a well-planned pipe system. rainwater harvesting,
harvesting about which you
When the civic authorities supply water have learnt in Class VI.
through pipes not all of it may reach Find out if the buildings in your
the destination. You might have seen neighbourhood have water harvesting
water supply pipes leaking and a lot of systems installed.
water gushing out of the pipes. It is We have at many places in India an
the responsibility of the civic age old practice of water storage and
authorities to prevent such wastage of water recharge like the bawris. Bawri
precious water. was the traditional way of collecting
Mismanagement or wastage may water. With time the bawris fell into
take place at the level of individuals also. disuse and garbage started piling in these
All of us, knowingly or unknowingly, reservoirs. However, because of the acute
waste water while brushing teeth, water shortage, people in these areas
shaving, bathing, washing and during have had to rethink. The bawris are being
many other activities. Leaking taps is revived. Today the situation is that inspite
another source of huge water wastage. of scanty rains these places are
We waste water as though we do not need managing their water needs well.
water the next time! A farmer using water in the field can
We have seen that most of the water also use water economically. Maybe
that we get as rainfall just flows away. you have heard of drip irrigation
This is a waste of precious natural (Fig. 16.9). Drip irrigation is a technique
resource. The rainwater can be used to of watering plants by making use of
recharge the groundwater. This is narrow tubings which deliver water
referred to as water harvesting or directly at the base of the plant.
A case study
Bhujpur in the Kutch area of Gujarat has a very erratic rainfall. The only source
of freshwater lies underground because rivers in this area do not have water
throughout the year. Over the years, demand for water has grown. The withdrawal
of groundwater has far exceeded recharge. As a result the water table has gone
down alarmingly.
In 1989, the villagers along with a non-governmental organisation, decided to
harvest rainwater. Eighteen check-dams were built on the Rukmavati river and
its many tributaries. The water so collected increased percolation through the
soil and recharged the aquifers.
According to farmers, the wells have water now and the water that flowed into
the sea and was wasted has become available for irrigation.
A successful initiative
Rajasthan is a hot and dry place. The challenge of natural scarcity of water was
met by a successful experiment. A band of social workers has transformed a dry
area in the Alwar district into a green place. They have revived five dried-up
rivers — Arveri, Ruparel, Sarsa, Bhagani and Jahazwali by constructing water-
harvesting structures.
Keywords
202 SCIENCE
What you have learnt
Water is essential for all living beings. There can be no life without it.
Water exists in three forms: solid, liquid and vapour.
Though water is maintained by the water cycle, yet there is an acute
scarcity of water in many parts of the globe.
There is an uneven distribution of water. Much of it has resulted from
human activities.
Rapid growth of industries, increasing population, growing irrigation
requirements and mismanagement are some of the causes for water
shortage.
We need to be worried about the wastage during the supply of water
through pipes, the leaking taps in buildings and other places.
Unnecessary use of water and overdrawing from groundwater should be
avoided. Recharge of water to the ground should be increased.
The need of the hour is that every individual uses water economically.
Plants wilt and ultimately dry-up if they are not watered for a few days.
Exercises
1. Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false:
(a) The freshwater stored in the ground is much more than that
present in the rivers and lakes of the world. (T/F)
(b) Water shortage is a problem faced only by people living in rural
areas. (T/F)
(c) Water from rivers is the only source for irrigation in the fields. (T/F)
(d) Rain is the ultimate source of water. (T/F)
2. Explain how groundwater is recharged?
3. There are ten tubewells in a lane of fifty houses. What could be the long
term impact on the water table?
4. You have been asked to maintain a garden. How will you minimise the
use of water?
5. Explain the factors responsible for the depletion of water table.
6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate answers:
(a) People obtain groundwater through________ and ________.
204 SCIENCE
4. Conservation of water
Carrry out a campaign to conserve water at home and in the school.
Design posters to remind others of the importance of water resources.
5. Create a logo
Hold a competition to create a logo or a symbol depicting water scarcity.
O
ne evening Boojho entered the “This is because the forests serve as
park with an elderly person. He green lungs and water purifying systems
introduced him to his friends. in nature”, Prof Ahmad explained. The
Prof Ahmad was a scientist working in children were confused. Prof Ahmad
the university. The children started realised that the children had not visited
playing while Prof Ahmad sat on a a forest. The children also wanted to
bench in the corner. He was tired as he know more about the forest, so they
had participated in the golden jubilee decided to visit it with Prof Ahmad.
celebrations of the town. After a while,
17.1 VISIT TO A FOREST
the children also came and sat around
One Sunday morning, the children
him. They wanted to know about the
packed a few things like a knife, a hand
celebrations. Prof Ahmad told them that
lens, a stick, a notebook and walked
after the cultural programme, the
together through a forest trail near a
senior people discussed the town’s
village. On their way, they met Tibu, a
unemployment problem. A plan was
young boy of their age group, of nearby
proposed to put up a factory by clearing
village, who was taking cattle for grazing
an area of the forest just outside the
along with his aunt. He was very agile,
town. This would give the increasing
running here and there to keep the herd
population of the town a chance to get
together. When he saw the children,
jobs. The children were very surprised
Tibu also started walking along with
when Prof Ahmad told them that many
them, while his aunt went on a different
people had objected to this idea.
path. As soon as they entered the forest
Tibu raised his hand and signalled them
to keep quiet because noise could
disturb the animals living in the forest.
Tibu then took them to a place at a
height to show them the broad view of
the forest. Children were surprised
because they could not see any land
(Fig. 17.1). The different treetops had
formed green cover over the land. However,
the cover was not uniformly green. The
Fig. 17.1 A view of a forest
206 SCIENCE
environment was peaceful and a cool
breeze was blowing. This made children
quite fresh and happy.
While coming down, they got excited
on hearing a sudden sound of birds and
some noise from the top branches of the
trees. Tibu told them to relax since it
was a normal phenomenon here.
Because of the children’s presence, some
monkeys had climbed higher up on the
trees where they disturbed the birds.
Animals often give this type of warning
call to alert other animals. Tibu also told
that many other animals like boar,
bison, jackals, porcupine, elephants live
in the deeper areas of the forest Fig. 17.3 Forest as habitat
(Fig. 17.2). Prof Ahmad cautioned
children that they should not go deep an example of a habitat in Class VI
into the forest. (Fig. 17.3). They could see now how the
Boojho and Paheli remembered that forest provides a home for many animals
they have studied about forests as and plants.
Sheesham
Semal
208 SCIENCE
Sheila wondered who would have Prof Ahmad asked children to look
planted these trees. Prof Ahmad replied up and observe how the branches of the
that in nature trees produce enough tall trees look like a roof over the other
seeds. The forest floor provides plants in the forest. He told them that
favourable conditions for them to this is called a canopy (Fig. 17.7).
germinate and develop into seedlings
Activity 17.2
Visit a forest or a park in your
neighbourhood. Observe the trees and
Honey try to identify them. You can take the
help of some elders or books on trees.
List the characteristics of the trees that
you observe, such as the height, shape
of leaves, crown, flowers, and fruits. Also
Sealing wax draw the crowns of some trees.
Wooden
statue
Prof Ahmad pointed out that trees
had crowns of different types and sizes.
These had created different horizontal
layers in the forest. These are known as
understoreys (Fig. 17.7). Giant and tall
trees constituted the top layer followed
by shrubs and tall grasses, and herbs
Catechu
formed the lowest layer.
Gum “Would we see similar kind of trees
Fig. 17.5 Forest products in every forest?” — asked Boojho.
Prof Ahmad said, “No, due to different
and saplings. Some grow up into trees. climatic conditions there are variations
He added that branchy part of a tree in the types of trees and other plants.
above the stem is known as the crown The types of animals also differ from
of the tree (Fig. 17.6). forest to forest.”
Understorey
210 SCIENCE
upper layer of the soil. Does the pit feel insects, which in turn, is taken by the
warm inside? frog. The frog is consumed by snakes.
Paheli asked, “There are so many This is said to form a food chain:
trees here. Also, there are many forest Grass → insects → frog → snake → eagle.
like this. What difference will it make if Many food chains can be found in the
we cut some trees for a factory?” forest. All food chains are linked. If any
Prof Ahmad said, “You have read one food chain is disturbed, it affects
about autotrophs, heterotrophs and other food chains. Every part of the
saprotrophs. You have learnt how green forest is dependent on the other parts.
plants produce food. All animals, If we remove one component, say trees,
whether herbivores or carnivores, all other components would be affected.”
depend ultimately on plants for food. Prof Ahmad asked children to pick
Organisms which feed on plants often up leaves from the forest floor and
get eaten by other organisms, and so observe them under a hand lens. They
on. For example, grass is eaten by found tiny mushrooms over the
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Photosynthesis
Decomposers
Soil Water
Nutrients
presence of humus ensures that the The children saw clouds forming in
nutrients of the dead plants and the sky. Boojho recalled what he had
animals are released into the soil. From learnt about the water cycle in Class VI.
there, these nutrients are again absorbed Trees take in water from their roots and
by the roots of the living plants. “What release water vapour into the air
happens if an animal dies in the forest?” through evaporation.
Sheila asked. Tibu replied the dead If there were fewer trees, how will the
animals become food for vultures, crows, water cycle be affected?
jackals and insects.” In this way, the Tibu told them that the forest is not
nutrients are cycled. So, nothing goes just home to plants and animals. Many
waste in a forest (Fig. 17.9). people also live in the forest. Some of
Paheli reminded Prof Ahmad that he them may belong to different tribes. Tibu
had not explained why forests are called explained that these people depend
green lungs. Prof Ahmad explained that mostly on the forests. The forest provides
212 SCIENCE
them with food, shelter, water and between various types of droppings.
medicines. They have traditional Prof Ahmad informed them that the
knowledge about many medicinal plants forest officers could recognise the
in the forest. presence of some animals in the forest
While Boojho was drinking water by their droppings and footprints.
from a small stream, he saw some deer Boojho called every one and showed
crossing the stream (Fig. 17.11). They them a large, decaying heap of animal
disappeared into the bushes. The dense dropping. Several beetles and grubs
bushes and the tall grass provide were feeding on the heap and a bunch
animals with the food and shelter. They of seedlings was sprouting. “These
also protect them from carnivores that seedlings are of the herbs and shrubs.
live in the forest. The animals also disperse the seeds of
certain plants and help the forest to grow
Water table
Fig. 17.13 Rainwater drips from the trees and seeps into the ground
helps the forest to regenerate and grow. suggested another route for going back.
Decomposers help in maintaining the While they were going back, it started
supply of nutrients to the growing plants raining. However, surprisingly, they saw
in the forest. Therefore, the forest is a that the raindrops were not hitting the
dynamic living entity’
‘dynamic entity — full of life and forest floor directly. The uppermost layer
vitality.” of the forest canopy intercepted the flow
It was about afternoon and the of raindrops, and most of the water was
children wanted to go back. Tibu coming down through the branches and
214 SCIENCE
the stems of the trees. From the leaves villages and the agricultural fields of
it was dripping slowly over branches of that area were created after clearing the
the shrubs and herbs (Fig. 17.13). They forest about sixty years ago. Tibu’s
found that the ground was still dry. After grandfather told them that when he was
about half an hour, the rain stopped. young, the village was not as large as it
They noticed that the layer of dead was now. It was also surrounded
leaves over the forest floor appeared wet by forests. Construction of roads,
now. But water did not stagnate in the buildings, industrial development and
forest. increasing demand of wood created
Boojho thought that if it had rained pressure on the forests and it started
so heavily in his town, it would have vanishing. He was not happy that the
flooded the drains and roads. forest adjoining their village is not
What would happen if it rains heavily regenerating and is on the verge of
in your town? disappearing due to overgrazing of
Prof Ahmad told them that the forest animals and indiscriminate felling of
also acts as a natural absorber of trees. Prof Ahmad said that if we did
rainwater and allows it to seep. It helps things wisely we could preserve forests
maintain the water table throughout the and environment as well as have
year. Forests not only help in controlling development.
floods but also help maintain the flow Children prepared a few pictures to
of water in the streams so that we get a show the consequences of such an
steady supply of water. On the other event.
hand, if trees are not present, rain hits At the end of the visit, Prof Ahmad
the ground directly and may flood the asked children to sum up the
area around it. Heavy rain may also importance of forests. The children
damages the soil. Roots of trees normally wrote: Forests provide us with oxygen.
bind the soil together, but in their They protect soil and provide habitat to
absence the soil is washed away or a large number of animals. Forests
eroded. help in bringing good rainfall in
The children spent an hour at Tibu’s neighbouring areas. They are a source
village on their way back. The weather of medicinal plants, timber and many
of the village was quite pleasant. Villagers other useful products. We must preserve
told them that due to the surrounding our forests.
forest, they receive good rainfall. The air
also remained cool. Noise pollution, too
is less because the forest absorbs the
noise of the nearby highway. What would happen if forests
The children learnt about the history disappear?
of the village. It surprised them that the
3 4
216 SCIENCE
Keywords
Exercises
1. Explain how animals dwelling in the forest help it grow and regenerate.
2. Explain how forests prevent floods.
3. What are decomposers? Name any two of them. What do they do in the
forest?
4. Explain the role of forest in maintaining the balance between oxygen
and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
5. Explain why there is no waste in a forest.
6. List five products we get from forests?
Fig. 17.15
218 SCIENCE
13. Micro-organisms act upon the dead plants to produce
(i) sand (ii) mushrooms (iii) humus (iv) wood
220 SCIENCE
18.2 WHAT IS SEWAGE? pesticides,
Sewage is wastewater released by homes, herbicides, fruit
industries, hospitals, offices and other and vegetable
users. It also includes rainwater that has waste, etc.
run down the street during a storm or Inorganic impurities – Nitrates,
heavy rain. The water that washes off Phosphates,
roads and rooftops carries harmful metals.
substances with it. Sewage is a liquid waste. Nutrients – Phosphorus
Most of it is water, which has dissolved and Nitrogen.
and suspended impurities. These Bacteria – Such as which
impurities are called contaminants
contaminants. cause cholera
and typhoid.
Activity 18.2 Other microbes – Such as which
Locate an open drain near your home, cause dysentery.
school or on the roadside and inspect 18.3 WATER FRESHENS UP — AN
water flowing through it.
EVENTFUL JOURNEY
Record colour, odour and any other
In a home or a public building generally
observation. Discuss with your friends
one set of pipes brings clean water and
and your teacher and fill up the
following Table 18.1. another set of pipes takes away
wastewater. Imagine that we could see
We know that sewage is a complex
through the ground. We would see a
mixture containing suspended solids,
network of big and small pipes, called
organic and inorganic impurities,
sewers
sewers, forming the sewerage
sewerage. It is like
nutrients, saprotrophic and disease
a transport system that carries sewage
causing bacteria and other microbes.
from the point of being produced to the
Organic impurities – Human faeces,
point of disposal, i.e. treatment plant.
animal waste,
Manholes are located at every 50 m
oil, urea (urine),
to 60 m in the sewerage, at the junction
Table 18.1 Contaminant survey
222 SCIENCE
Fig. 18.2 Filtration process Fig. 18.3 Bar screen
Observe carefully the samples in all 2. Water then goes to a grit and sand
the test tubes. Do not taste
taste! Just removal tank. The speed of the
smell them! incoming wastewater is decreased to
Now answer the following questions: allow sand, grit and pebbles to settle
(a) What changes did you observe in the down (Fig. 18.4).
appearance of the liquid after
aeration?
(b) Did aeration change the odour?
(c) What was removed by the sand filter?
(d) Did chlorine remove the colour?
(e) Did chlorine have an odour? Was it
worse than that of the wastewater?
18.4 WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
(WWTP)
Fig. 18.4 Grit and sand removal tank
Treatment of wastewater involves
physical, chemical, and biological 3. The water is then allowed to settle in
processes, which remove physical, a large tank which is sloped towards
chemical and biological matter that the middle. Solids like faeces settle
contaminates the wastewater. at the bottom and are removed with
1. Wastewater is passed through bar a scraper. This is the sludge
sludge. A
screens. Large objects like rags, skimmer removes the floatable solids
sticks, cans, plastic packets, napkins like oil and grease. Water so cleared
are removed (Fig. 18.3). is called clarified water (Fig. 18.5).
224 SCIENCE
worsens in the rainy season when the Used tealeaves, solid food remains,
drains start overflowing. We have to soft toys, cotton, sanitary towels, etc.
wade through the mud pools on the should also be thrown in the dustbin
roads. Most unhygienic and unsanitary (Fig. 18.7). These wastes choke the
conditions prevail. Flies, mosquitoes and
other insects breed in it.
You can be an enlightened citizen
and approach the municipality or the
gram panchayat. Insist that the open
drains be covered. If the sewage of
any particular house makes the
neighbourhood dirty, you should
harden and block the pipes. In an drains. They do not allow free flow
open drain the fats clog the soil pores of oxygen. This hampers the
reducing its effectiveness in filtering degradation process.
water. Throw oil and fats in the
dustbin. 18.7 SANITATION AND DISEASE
Chemicals like paints, solvents, Poor sanitation and contaminated
insecticides, motor oil, medicines drinking water is the cause of a large
may kill microbes that help purify number of diseases.
water. So do not throw them down Let us look at our own country. A
the drain. vast number of our people are still
226 SCIENCE
Conclusion Influence others with your energy, ideas
We all have a role to play in keeping our and optimism. A lot can be done if people
environment clean and healthy. You work together. There is great power in
must realise your responsibility in collective action.
maintaining the water sources in a Mahatma Gandhi said:
healthy state. Adopting good sanitation
“No one need to wait for anyone else
practices should be our way of life. As
to adopt a humane and enlightened
an agent of change your individual
course of action.”
initiative will make a great difference.
Keywords
Aeration Contaminant Sewerage
Aerobic bacteria Sanitation Sludge
Anaerobic bacteria Sewage Wastewater
Biogas Sewer
228 SCIENCE
Across
3. Liquid waste products
4. Solid waste extracted in sewage treatment
6. A word related to hygiene
8. Waste matter discharged from human body
Down
1. Used water
2. A pipe carrying sewage
5. Micro-organisms which causes cholera
7. A chemical to disinfect water
12. Study the following statements about ozone:
(a) It is essential for breathing of living organisms.
(b) It is used to disinfect water.
(c) It absorbs ultraviolet rays.
(d) Its proportion in air is about 3%.
Which of these statements are correct?
(i) (a), (b) and (c)
(ii) (b) and (c)
(iii) (a) and (d)
(iv) All four
“By providing clean water and sanitation to the poorest people on the
planet, we can reduce poverty and suffering and ensure education for all
children.” — UNICEF
230 SCIENCE
Land,
Soil, Water,
Natural Vegetation
and Wildlife Resources
In a small village in Tanzania, Africa, Mamba gets up
very early in the morning to fetch water. She has to walk
a long way and returns after a few hours. She then helps Let’s do
her mother in the house and joins her brothers in taking Observe the land,
care of their goats. All her family owns is a piece of rocky type of soil and
land around their small hut. Mamba’s father can barely water availability
grow some maize and beans on it after toiling hard. This in the region you
live. Discuss in
is not enough to feed their family for the whole year. your class, how it
Peter lives in the heart of the sheep rearing region in has influenced the
New Zealand where his family runs a wool processing lifestyle of people
factory. Everyday when he returns from school, Peter there.
watches his uncle taking care of their sheep. Their sheep
yard is situated on a wide grassy plain with hills in the
far distance. It is managed in a scientific way using the
latest technology. Peter’s family also grows vegetables
through organic farming.
Mamba and Peter stay in two different parts of the
world and lead very different lives. This difference is
because of the differences in the quality of land, soil,
water, natural vegetation, animals and the usage of Do you know?
technology. The availability of such resources is the Ninety per cent
main reason places differ from each other. of the world
population
occupies only
LAND thirty per cent of
Land is among the most important natural resources. land area. The
It covers only about thirty per cent of the total area of remaining seventy
the earth’s surface and all parts of this small percentage per cent of the
land is either
are not habitable.
sparsely populated
The uneven distribution of population in different or uninhabited.
parts of the world is mainly due to varied characteristics
of land and climate. The rugged topography, steep slopes
of the mountains, low-lying areas susceptible to water
logging, desert areas, thick forested areas are normally
sparsely populated or uninhabited. Plains and river
valleys offer suitable land for agriculture. Hence, these
are the densely populated areas of the world.
LAND USE
Land is used for different purposes such as agriculture,
forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of
industries. This is commonly
termed as Land use. Can you
list out the different ways in
which Mamba’s and Peter’s
family use their land?
The use of land is
determined by physical
factors such as topography,
soil, climate, minerals and
availability of water. Human
factors such as population
and technology are also
Fig. 2.1: Salzburg in Austria important determinants of
Notice in how many ways the land has been used in the land use pattern.
above picture.
Percentage of area in
Countries Cropland Pasture Forest Other Use
Notes Australia 6 56 14 24
Brazil 9 20 66 5
Canada 5 4 39 52
China 10 34 14 42
France 35 21 27 17
India 57 4 22 17
Japan 12 2 67 19
Russia 8 5 44 44
UK 29 46 10 16
USA 21 26 32 21
World 11 26 31 32
Study the above table and answer the following:
(i) Name the countries having the highest percentage of land under
cropland, forest, pasture and other uses.
(ii) How would you relate the land use patterns of these countries
with the probable economic activities?
1. 2.
3. 4.
Landslides
Landslides are simply defined as the mass movement
of rock, debris or earth down a slope. They often take
place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods and
volcanoes. A prolonged spell of rainfall can cause
heavy landslide that can block the flow of river for
quite some time. The formation of river blocks can
cause havoc to the settlements downstream on its
bursting. In the hilly terrain landslides have been a
major and widely spread natural disaster that often
strike life and property and occupy a position of major A Landslide
concern.
A Case Study
A massive landslide hit Pangi village near Reckong Peo in Kinnaur district of
Himachal Pradesh and damaged a 200-meter stretch of old Hindustan-Tibet
road, National Highway - 22. This landslide was triggered by intense blasting
at Pangi village. Due to the blasting this weak zone of slope collapsed and
caused intense damage to the road and nearby villages. The Pangi village was
completely vacated to avoid any possible loss of life.
Mitigation Mechanism
Advancement in scientific techniques has empowered us to understand what
factors cause landslides and how to manage them. Some broad mitigation
techniques of landslide are as follows:
• Hazard mapping locate areas prone to
landslides. Hence, such areas can be avoided
for building settlements.
• Construction of retention wall to stop land from
slipping.
• Increase in the vegetation cover is an effective
way to arrest landslide.
• The surface drainage control works are Retention Wall
implemented to control the movement of
landslide along with rain water and spring flows.
Parent Rock
Determines colour, Climate
texture, chemical Temperature,
properties Rainfall influence
mineral, content, Soil rate of weathering
permeability and humus
Relief
Flora, Fauna and
Altitude and Time
Micro-organism
slope, determine Determines thickness
Affect the rate of humus
accumulation of soil profile
formation
of soil
WATER
Water is a vital renewable natural resource. Three-
fourth’s of the earth’s surface is covered with water.
It is therefore appropriately called the ‘water planet’.
It was in the primitive oceans that life began almost Do you know?
3.5 billion years back. Even today, the oceans cover In 1975, the
two-thirds of the earth’s surface and support a rich consumption of
variety of plant and animal life. The ocean water is water for human
use was 3850cu
however saline and not fit for human consumption.
km/year. It soared
Fresh water accounts for only about 2.7 per cent. Nearly to more than 6000
70 per cent of this occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in cu km/year in the
Antarctica, Greenland and mountain regions. Due to year 2000.
their location they are inaccessible. Only 1 per cent of
freshwater is available and fit for human use. It is found
as ground water, as surface water in rivers and lakes
and as water vapour in the atmosphere.
Fresh water is therefore, the most precious substance
on earth. Water can neither be added nor subtracted
from the earth. Its total volume remains constant.
Its abundance only seems to vary because it is in Do you know?
constant motion, cycling through the oceans, the A dripping tap
air, the land and back again, through the processes wastes1200
of evaporation, precipitation and run-off. This as litres in a year.
you already know is referred to as the ‘water cycle’.
LAND, SOIL, WATER, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 15
Humans use huge amounts of water not only for
drinking and washing but also in the process of
production. Water for agriculture, industries,
generating electricity
through reservoirs of
Activity dams are the other
An average urban Indian uses about 135 litres usages. Increasing
of water every day. population, rising
Use Litres per person per day
demands for food and
Drinking 3
Cooking 4 cash crops, increasing
Bathing 20 urbanisation and rising
Flushing 40 standards of living
Washing clothes 40 are the major factors
Washing utensils 20 leading to shortages in
Gardening 23 supply of fresh water
Total 135
either due to drying
Can you suggest some ways to bring down this use?
up of water sources or
water pollution.
CONSERVATION OF WATER
RESOURCES
Access to clean and adequate water
sources is a major problem facing the
world today. Steps have to be taken to
conserve this dwindling resource. Even
though water is a renewable resource, its
overuse and pollution make it unfit for
use. Discharge of untreated or partially
treated sewage, agricultural chemicals
and industrial effluents in water bodies
Fig 2.8: Yamuna is getting polluted due to
sewage, industrial effluents and garbage are major contaminants. They pollute
water with nitrates, metals and pesticides.
16 RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT
Most of these chemicals being non-biodegradable reach
human bodies through water. Water pollution can be
controlled by treating these effluents suitably before
releasing them in water bodies.
Forest and other vegetation cover slow the
surface runoff and replenish underground
water. Water harvesting is another method
to save surface runoff. Water is used for
irrigating fields. The canals should be
properly lined to minimise losses by water
seepage. Sprinklers effectively irrigate the
area by checking water losses through
seepage and evaporation. In dry regions
with high rates of evaporation, drip or
Fig 2.9: A Water Sprinkler
trickle irrigation is very useful. The valuable
water resource can therefore be conserved
by adopting these means of conservation. Do you know?
Rain water
harvesting is
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE the process of
Some school children were visiting an exhibition on collecting rain
handicrafts. The articles in the exhibition were collected water from roof
from different parts of the country. Mona picked up a bag tops and directing
it to an appropriate
and exclaimed, “This is a beautiful handbag!” “Yes, it location and
is made from Jute,” the teacher said. “Do you see those storing if for
baskets, lamp shades and chairs? Those are made of future use. On an
canes and bamboos. In the eastern and north eastern average, one spell
humid regions of India, bamboo grows in plenty.” Jassy of rain for two
was excited to see a silk scarf. “See this beautiful hours is enough to
scarf”. The teacher explained that silk is obtained from save 8,000 litres of
water.
silk worms that are bred on Mulberry trees. The children
understood that plants provide us with many different
products that we use in our day-to-day life.
Natural vegetation and wildlife exist only
in the narrow zone of contact between the
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere that
we call biosphere. In the biosphere living beings
are inter-related and interdependent on each
other for survival. This life supporting system
is known as the ecosystem. Vegetation and
wildlife are valuable resources. Plants provide
us with timber, give shelter to animals, produce
oxygen we breathe, protects soils so essential
for growing crops, act as shelter belts, help in Fig 2.10: Silk Worms
LAND, SOIL, WATER, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 17
storage of underground water,
give us fruits, nuts, latex,
turpentine oil, gum, medicinal
plants and also the paper that
is so essential for your studies.
Do you know? There are innumerable uses of
Vultures in plants and you can add some
the Indian
subcontinent were
more.
dying of kidney Wildlife includes animals,
failure shortly birds, insects as well as
after scavenging the aquatic life forms. They
livestock treated provide us milk, meat, hides
with diclofenac, a and wool. Insects like bees
painkiller that is provide us honey, help in
similar to aspirin Fig 2.11: Brahma Kamal
or ibuprofen.
pollination of flowers and a Medicinal Herb
Efforts are on to have an important role to
ban the drug for play as decomposers in
livestock use and the ecosystem. The birds
breed vultures in feed on insects and act as
captivity. decomposers as well. Vulture
due to its ability to feed on
dead livestock is a scavenger
and considered a vital
cleanser of the environment.
So animals big or small, all
are integral to maintaining Fig 2.12: A Blue Kingfisher
balance in the ecosystem.
CONSERVATION OF NATURAL
VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
Forests are our wealth. Plants give shelter to
the animals and together they maintain the
ecosystem. Changes of climate and human
interferences can cause the loss of natural
habitats for the plants and animals. Many
species have become vulnerable or
endangered and some are on the verge
of extinction. Deforestation, soil erosion,
constructional activities, forest fires,
tsunami and landslides are some of the Fig. 2.16: Loss of rainforest in
human made and natural factors which Great Nicobar after Tsunami
LAND, SOIL, WATER, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 19
together accelerate the process of extinction
of these great natural resources. One of the
major concerns is the increasing incidents
of poaching that result in a sharp decline
in the number of particular species. The
animals are poached for collection and illegal
trade of hides, skins, nails, teeth, horns
as well as feathers. Some of these animals
are tiger, lion, elephant, deer, black buck,
crocodile, rhinoceros, snow leopard, ostrich
and peacock. These can be conserved by
Fig. 2.17: Black buck also needs protection increasing awareness.
Forest Fire
Activity
Read the news item and find out how fire started in California ? Could it be avoided?
Know More
Forest fire is a threat to entire region of fauna and flora. It occurs mainly due to three
reasons.
1. Natural fire due to lightening etc.
2. Fire due to heat generated in the litter due to carelessness of people.
3. Purposely caused fire by local inhabitants.
Some Control Measures
1. Prevention of human-caused fires through education.
2. Prompt detection of fires through well co-ordinated network of obsevation points,
efficient ground patroling and communication network.
Do you know?
CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between
governments. It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of
wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Roughly 5,000
species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected. Bears,
dolphins, cacti, corals, orchids and aloes are some examples.
W
e saw in Class VII that Some natural causes of deforestation
Paheli and Boojho had visited are forest fires and severe droughts.
the forest along with Prof.
Ahmad and Tibu. They were eager to Activity 7.1
share their experiences with their
Add more causes of deforestation to
classmates. Other children in the class
your list and classify them into
were also eager to share their experiences
natural and man-made.
as some of them had visited Bharatpur
Sanctuary. Some others had heard
about Kaziranga National Park, 7.2 Consequences of
Lockchao Wildlife Sanctuary, Great Deforestation
Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and Tiger Paheli and Boojho recalled the
Reserve, etc. consequences of deforestation. They
remembered that deforestation increases
the temperature and pollution level on
What is the purpose of the earth. It increases the level of carbon
making national parks, dioxide in the atmosphere. Ground water
wildlife sanctuaries and level also gets lowered. They know that
biosphere reserves?
deforestation disturbs the balance in
nature. They were told by Prof. Ahmad
7.1 Deforestation and Its that if cutting of trees continues, rainfall
Causes and the fertility of the soil will decrease.
A great variety of plants and animals
exists on earth. They are essential for
the wellbeing and survival of mankind. How does deforestation reduce
Today, a major threat to survival of these rainfall on the one hand and
organisms is deforestation. We know lead to floods on the other?
that deforestation means clearing of
forests and using that land for other Moreover, there will be increased
purposes. Trees in the forest are cut for chances of natural calamities such as
some of the purposes mentioned below: floods and droughts.
Procuring land for cultivation. Recall that plants need carbon
Building houses and factories. dioxide for photosynthesis. Fewer trees
Making furniture or using wood as would mean that less carbon dioxide will
fuel. be used up resulting in its increased
amount in the atmosphere. This will lead Prof. Ahmad organises a visit to a
to global warming as carbon dioxide biosphere reserve for Paheli, Boojho and
traps the heat rays reflected by the earth. their classmates. He selects a place
The increase in temperature on the earth named Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. He
disturbs the water cycle and may reduce knows that the plants and animals found
rainfall. This could cause droughts. here are similar to those of the upper
Deforestation is a major cause which Himalayan peaks and to those belonging
leads to the change in soil properties. to the lower western ghats. Prof. Ahmad
Physical properties of the soil get affected believes that the biodiversity found here
by plantation and vegetation. Recall is unique. He requests Madhavji, a forest
from Class VII how trees prevent soil employee, to guide the children inside
erosion. Fewer trees result in more soil the biosphere reserve. He explains that
erosion. Removal of the top layer of the preserving areas of such biological
soil exposes the lower, hard and rocky importance make them a part of our
layers. This soil has less humus and is national heritage.
less fertile. Gradually the fertile land Biosphere is that part of the earth in
gets converted into deserts. It is called which living organisms exist or which
desertification. supports life. Biological diversity or
Deforestation also leads to a decrease biodiversity, refers to the variety of
in the water holding capacity of the soil. organisms existing on the earth, their
The movement of water from the soil interrelationships and their
surface into the ground (infiltration rate) relationship with the environment.
is reduced. So, there are floods. The
Madhavji explains to the children
other properties of the soil like nutrient
that apart from our personal efforts and
content, texture, etc., also change
efforts of the society, government
because of deforestation.
agencies also take care of the forests and
We have studied in Class VII that we
animals. The government lays down
get many products from forests. List these rules, methods and policies to protect
products. Will we face the shortage of these and conserve them. Wildlife sanctuaries,
products if we continue cutting trees? national parks, biosphere reserves, etc.,
are protected areas for conservation of
Activity 7.2 plants and animals present in that area.
Animal life is also affected by
deforestation. How? List the points To protect our flora and fauna and
and discuss them in your class. their habitats, protected areas
called sanctuaries, national parks and
biosphere reserves have been
7.3 Conservation of Forest earmarked. Plantation, cultivation,
and Wildlife grazing, felling trees, hunting and
poaching are prohibited there.
Having become aware of the effects of
Sanctuary : Areas where animals are
deforestation, Paheli and Boojho are
protected from any disturbance to
worried. They go to Prof. Ahmad and ask them and their habitat.
him how forests and wildlife can be saved.
78 SCIENCE
National Park : Areas reserved for 7.4 Biosphere Reserve
wild life where they can freely use Children along with Prof. Ahmad and
the habitats and natural resources. Madhavji enter the biosphere reserve
Biosphere Reserve : Large areas of
area. Madhavji explains that biosphere
protected land for conservation of wild
life, plant and animal resources and
reserves are the areas meant for
traditional life of the tribals living in conservation of biodiversity. As you are
the area. aware that biodiversity is the variety of
plants, animals and microorganisms
Activity 7.3 generally found in an area. The
biosphere reserves help to maintain the
Find out the number of national biodiversity and culture of that area. A
parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserve may also contain
biosphere reserves in your district, other protected areas in it. The
state and country. Record in Table Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve consists
of one national park named Satpura and
7.1. Show these areas in an outline
two wildlife sanctuaries named Bori and
map of your state and India.
Pachmarhi (Fig. 7.1).
In my district
In my state
In my country
↑N PACHMARHI SANCTUARY
TAWA
TO PIPARIYA
RESERVIOR
NEEMGHAN
PANARPANI GATE
SATPURA NATIONAL PARK
CHURNA PACHMARHI
DHAIN BORI
BORI SANCTUARY
80 SCIENCE
Activity 7.5
Try to identify the flora and fauna
of your area and list them.
I have heard that some of the
endemic species may vanish.
7.6 Endemic Species Is it true?
Soon the group quietly enters the deep
endemic flora of the Pachmarhi
forest. Children are surprised to see a
very big squirrel. This squirrel has a big Biosphere Reserve. Bison, Indian giant
fluffy tail. They are very curious to know squirrel [Fig. 7.3 (b)] and flying squirrel
about it. Madhavji tells them that this are endemic fauna of this area. Prof.
is known as the giant squirrel and is Ahmad explains that the destruction of
endemic to this area. their habitat, increasing population and
Endemic species are those species introduction of new species may affect
of plants and animals which are found the natural habitat of endemic species
exclusively in a particular area. They are and endanger their existence.
not naturally found anywhere else. A
particular type of animal or plant may
be endemic to a zone, a state or a country.
Madhavji shows sal and wild mango
(Fig. 7.3 (a)] as two examples of the
Activity 7.6
Find out the endemic plants and
animals of the region where you live.
Fig. 7.3 : (a) Wild Mango
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 81
7.7 Wildlife Sanctuary instead of their natural habitat? In
Soon Paheli sees a board with ‘Pachmarhi your opinion, will the animals be
Wildlife Sanctuary’ written on it. comfortable in a zoo or in their
Prof. Ahmad explains that, like natural habitat?
reserve forests, wildlife sanctuaries
provide protection and suitable living 7.8 National Park
conditions to wild animals. Madhavji On the roadside there was another
further explains that sanctuaries are board on which was written ‘Satpura
places where killing (poaching) or National Park’.
capturing of animals is strictly Children are now eager to go there.
prohibited. Madhavji tells them that these reserves
are large and diverse enough to protect
Some of the threatened wild animals
whole sets of ecosystems. They
like black buck, white eyed buck,
elephant, golden cat, pink headed preserve flora, fauna, landscape and
duck, gharial, marsh crocodile, historic objects of an area. Satpura
python, rhinoceros, etc. are protected National Park is the first Reserve Forest
and preserved in our wild life of India. The finest Indian teak is
sanctuaries. Indian sanctuaries have found in this forest.
unique landscapes—broad level
forests, mountain forests and bush Rock shelters are also found inside
lands in deltas of big rivers. the Satpura National Park. These are
the prehistoric evidences of human
It is a pity that even protected forests life in these jungles. They give us an
are not safe because people living in the idea of the life of the primitive people.
neighbourhood encroach upon them Rock paintings are found in these
shelters. A total of 55 rock shelters
and destroy them.
have been identified in Pachmarhi
Children are reminded of their visit
Biosphere Reserve.
to the zoo. They recall that zoos are also Figures of animals and men fighting,
places where animals receive protection. hunting, dancing, and playing
musical instruments are depicted in
these paintings. Many tribals still
live in the area.
What is the difference
between a zoo and a As children move ahead, they see a
wildlife sanctuary? board with ‘Satpura Tiger Reserve’
written on it. Madhavji explains that
Activity 7.7 Project Tiger was launched by the
Visit a nearby zoo. Observe the government to protect the tigers in the
conditions provided to the animals. country. The objective of this project
Were they suitable for the animals? was to ensure the survival and
Can animals live in artificial setting maintenance of the tiger population in
the country.
82 SCIENCE
Fig. 7.4 : Tiger Fig. 7.5 : Wild buffalo Fig. 7.6 : Barasingha
84 SCIENCE
have already made a tremendous meeting the basic needs of the people
damage to our forests. If we have to living in or near the forests.
retain our green wealth for generations, After some rest Madhavji asks
plantation of more trees is the only children to start moving back because
option. it is not advisable to stay back in the
Prof. Ahmad told them that in India jungle after sunset. On getting back,
we have the Forest (Conservation) Act. Prof. Ahmad and the children thank
This act is aimed at preservation and Madhavji for guiding them through this
conservation of natural forests and exciting experience.
Exercises
(b) Environment
(e) Earth
5. Answer in brief:
(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals. Why?
7. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of your locality?
Make a list of actions to be taken by you.
9. Find out the information about the national parks in your state. Identify
and show their location on the outline map of India.
10. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you can save
paper.
EXERCISES
Down
1. Species on the verge of extinction.
2. A book carrying information about endangered species.
5. Consequence of deforestation.
Across
1. Species which have vanished.
3. Species found only in a particular habitat.
4. Variety of plants, animals and microorganisms found in an area.
88 SCIENCE
3. Is it justifiable to prevent tribals from staying in the core area of the
forest? Discuss the matter in your class and note down the points for
and against the motion in your notebook.
4. Study the biodiversity of a park nearby. Prepare a detailed report with
photographs and sketches of flora and fauna.
5. Make a list of the new information you have gathered from this chapter.
Which information did you like the most and why?
6. Make a list of various uses of papers. Observe currency notes carefully.
Do you find any difference between a currency paper and paper of your
notebook? Find out where currency paper is made.
7. Karnataka Government had launched ‘Project Elephant’ to save Asian
elephants in the state. Find out about this and other such campaigns
launched to protect threatened species.
P
aheli and Boojho were very excited You already know that air consists
to hear the news that Taj of a mixture of gases. By volume, about
Mahal in Agra is now one of the 78% of this mixture is nitrogen and
seven wonders of the world. But they about 21% is oxygen. Carbon dioxide,
were disappointed to hear that the argon, methane, ozone and water
beauty of this monument in white vapour are also present in very small
marble is being threatened by air quantities.
pollution in the area surrounding the
Taj. They were eager to know if Activity 18.1
something can be done to fight the air You may have covered your nose
and water pollution. while passing a brick kiln emitting
We are all aware that our smoke or started coughing while
environment is not what it used to be. walking on a busy road (Fig. 18.1).
Our elders talk about the blue sky, clean On the basis of your experience,
water and fresh air that was available compare the quality of air at the
in their times. Now the media regularly places given below:
reports on the falling quality of the
A park and a busy road.
environment. We ourselves feel the
A residential area and an
impact of the falling quality of air and
water in our lives. The number of people industrial area.
suffering from diseases of the respiratory A busy traffic intersection at
system, for example, is steadily rising. different times of the day e.g.
early morning, afternoon and
We dread to imagine a time when
clean air and water may no longer be evening.
available! You have learnt about the A village and a town.
importance of air and water in your
previous classes. In this chapter, we will
study about the harmful changes taking
place in our surroundings and their
effects on our lives.
242 SCIENCE
Boojho remembers seeing a thick Activity 18.3
fog-like layer in the atmosphere,
especially during winters. This is smog Prepare a table using the pollutants
which is made up of smoke and fog. mentioned above. You may even add
Smoke may contain oxides of nitrogen more data to the following Table.
which combine with other air pollutants Table 18.1
and fog to form smog. The smog causes Air Pollutants Sources Effects
breathing difficulties such as asthma,
cough and wheezing in children.
Many industries are also responsible
for causing air pollution. Petroleum
refineries are a major source of gaseous 18.3 Case Study : The Taj
pollutants like sulphur dioxide and Mahal
nitrogen dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is Over the past 2 decades, India’s most
produced by combustion of fuels like famous tourist attraction, Taj Mahal
coal in power plants. It can cause located in Agra (Fig. 18.4), has become
respiratory problems, including a matter of concern. Experts have
permanent lung damage. You have warned that pollutants in air are
already studied about the burning of discolouring its white marble. So, it is
fossil fuels in Chapter 5. not only living organisms that get
Other kinds of pollutants are affected by polluted air but non-living
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are things like buildings, monuments and
used in refrigerators, air conditioners statues also get affected.
and aerosol sprays. CFCs damage the The industries located in and around
ozone layer of the atmosphere. Recall Agra like rubber processing, automobile,
that the ozone layer protects us from chemicals and especially the Mathura oil
harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. Have refinery, have been responsible for
you heard of the ozone hole? Try to find producing pollutants like sulphur
out about it. Thankfully, less harmful dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. These
chemicals are now being used in place gases react with the water vapour present
of CFCs. in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid
In addition to the above mentioned and nitric acid. The acids drop down with
gases, automobiles which burn diesel rain, making the rain acidic. This is
and petrol, also produce tiny particles called acid rain. Acid rain corrodes the
which remain suspended in air for long marble of the monument. The
periods (Fig. 18.3). They reduce phenomenon is also called “Marble
visibility. When inhaled, they cause cancer”. Suspended particulate matter,
diseases. Such particles are also such as the soot particles emitted by
produced during industrial processes Mathura oil refinery, has contributed
like steel making and mining. Power towards yellowing of the marble.
plants give out tiny ash particles which The Supreme Court has taken
also pollute the atmosphere. several steps to save the Taj. It has
Fig. 18.8 : A polluted stretch of the river Fig. 18.9 : Industrial waste discharged into a
Ganga river
248 SCIENCE
and chemical factories. These industries food wastes, detergents, microor -
cause chemical contamination of water. ganisms, etc. Can ground water get
The chemicals released include arsenic, polluted by sewage? How? Water
lead and fluorides which lead to toxicity contaminated with sewage may contain
in plants and animals. There are bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites
regulations to prevent this. Industries which cause diseases like cholera,
are supposed to treat the waste typhoid and jaundice.
produced before discharging it into The bacteria present in the faeces
waters, but quite often the rules are not of mammals are indicators of the
followed. The soil is also affected by quality of water. If water has these
impure water, causing changes in bacteria, it means that it has been
acidity, growth of worms, etc. contaminated by fecal matter. If such
We have learnt in Chapter 1 the water is used by us, it can cause various
importance of pesticides and weedicides infections.
for the protection of crops. However, all
these chemicals dissolve in water and Do you know?
are washed into water bodies from the Hot water can also be a pollutant !
fields. They also seep into the ground This is usually water from power
to pollute ground water. plants and industries. It is released
Have you seen ponds which look into the rivers. It raises the
green from a distance because they have temperature of the waterbody,
a lot of algae growing in them? This is adversely affecting the animals and
caused by excessive quantities of plants living in it.
chemicals which get washed from the
fields. These act as nutrients for algae 18.8 What is Potable Water
to flourish. Once these algae die, they and How is Water
serve as food for decomposers like Purified ?
bacteria. A lot of oxygen in the water
body gets used up. This results in a
decrease in the oxygen level which may Activity 18.7
kill aquatic organisms.
Let us construct a water filter with
simple, everyday materials.
Recall Activity 18.6
Take a plastic bottle and cut it
You had investigated the sewage into 2 halves at the centre. Use the
disposal system of your locality in upper half as a funnel by putting it
Class VII. upside down in the lower half. Make
Do you remember how the layers in it with paper napkin or a
sewage was collected from your fine cloth followed by, cotton, sand
home and where it went thereafter. and then gravel. Now pour dirty
water through the filter and observe
Sometimes untreated sewage is
thrown directly into rivers. It contains the filtered water.
250 SCIENCE
Fig. 18.10 : Water treatment plant
water used for washing vegetables may of our daily lives. Unless we all realise
be used to water plants in the garden. our responsibility and start using
Pollution is no longer a distant environment-friendly processes, the very
phenomenon. It is affecting the quality survival of our planet is in danger.
Do you know?
While brushing your teeth, leaving the tap running may waste several litres of
water. A tap that drips once every second wastes a few thousand litres of water
every year. Think about it !
Exercises
Make a list of measures that would help your town to ensure the supply
of clean water to all its residents.
5. Explain the differences between pure air and polluted air.
6. Explain circumstances leading to acid rain. How does acid rain affect us?
7. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?
(a) Carbon dioxide
3. Organise a field visit to a river in or around your town with the help
of your teachers.
Cultural traditions.
Role of the river in meeting the town’s water needs.
Pollution concerns.
Sources of pollution.
Effects of pollution on the people living by the riverside as well
as those living far away.
4. Find out with the help of your teachers and the internet (if possible),
whether there are any international agreements to control global
warming. Which are the gases covered under these agreements?
www.edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/air/air.htm
www.edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/water/pollu.htm
www.cpcb.nic.in/citizen’s%Charter/default_citizen’s.html
coe.mse.ac.in/kidswater.asp
coe.mse.ac.in/kidsair.asp
254 SCIENCE
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILD LIFE
5
H
ave you observed the type of trees, RELIEF
bushes, grasses and birds in the fields
and parks in and around your school? Land
Are they similar or there are variations? India Land affects the natural vegetation directly
being a vast country you can imagine the and indirectly. Do you expect the same type
types of bio-forms available through out the of vegetation in mountainous, plateau and
country. plain areas or in dry and wet regions? The
Our country India is one of the twelve nature of land influences the type of
mega bio-diversity countries of the world. vegetation. The fertile level is generally devoted
With about 47,000 plant species India to agriculture. The undulating and rough
occupies tenth place in the world and fourth terrains are areas where grassland and
in Asia in plant diversity. There are about woodlands develop and give shelter to a
15,000 flowering plants in India which variety of wild life.
account for 6 per cent in the world’s total
number of flowering plants. The country has Soil
many non-flowering plants such as ferns,
algae and fungi. India also has 89,000 species The soils also vary over space. Different types
of animals as well as a rich variety of fish in of soils provide basis for different types of
its fresh and marine waters. vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert
Natural vegetation refers to a plant support cactus and thorny bushes while wet,
community which has grown naturally without marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and
human aid and has been left undisturbed by deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with some
humans for a long time. This is termed as a depth of soil have conical trees.
virgin vegetation. Thus, cultivated crops and
fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not CLIMATE
natural vegetation.
Temperature
The virgin vegetation, which
are purely Indian are known as endemic or The character and extent of vegetation are
indigenous species but those which have come mainly determined by temperature along with
from outside India are termed as exotic plants. humidity in the air, precipitation and soil. On
the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the
The term flora is used to denote plants of Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the
a particular region or period. Similarly, the fall in the temperature affects the types of
species of animals are referred to as fauna. This vegetation and its growth, and changes it from
huge diversity in flora and fauna kingdom is tropical to subtropical temperate and alpine
due to the following factors. vegetation.
Table 5.1 : Temperature Characteristics of the Vegetation Zones
Why are the southern slopes in Himalayan The vegetation cover of India in large parts
region covered with thick vegetation cover as compared
to northern slopes of the same hills?
is no more natural in the real sense. Except in
some inaccessible regions like the Himalayas,
the hilly region of central India and the
Precipitation marusthali, the vegetation of most of the areas
has been modified at some places, or replaced
In India almost the entire rainfall is brought in
or degraded by human occupancy.
by the advancing southwest monsoon (June to
September) and retreating northeast monsoons. Activity
Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation
Study the bar graph (Figure 5.1) and
as compared to other areas of less rainfall. answer the following questions.
(i) Name the state having maximum area under
Why have the western stopes of the
forest cover.
western ghats covered with thick forests and not
(ii) Name the union territory having minimum
the eastern slopes?
area under forest cover and why?
Have you ever thought as to why forests
are important for human beings? Forests are
renewable resources and play a major role in In 2001, the actual forest
cover in India was only 20.55 per cent.
enhancing the quality of environment. They
modify local climate, control soil erosion,
regulate stream flow, support a variety of ECOSYSTEM
industries, provide livelihood for many
Plants occur in distinct groups of communities
communities and offer panoramic or scenic
in areas having similar climatic conditions. The
view for recreation. It controls wind force and
nature of the plants in an area, to a large extent,
temperature and causes rainfall. It provides
determines the animal life in that area. When
humus to the soil and shelter to the wild life. the vegetation is altered, the animal life also
India’s natural vegetation has undergone changes. All the plants and animals in an area
many changes due to several factors such as are interdependent and interrelated to each
the growing demand for cultivated land, other in their physical environment, thus,
AREA IN PERCENT 80
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forming an ecosystem. Human beings are areas of the Western Ghats and the island
also an integral part of the ecosystem. How groups of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar,
do the human beings influence the ecology upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu coast.
of a region? They utilise the vegetation and
wild life. The greed of human beings leads to
over utilisation of these resources. They cut
the trees and kill the animals creating
ecological imbalance. As a result some of the
plants and animals have reached the verge
of extinction.
Do you know that a very large ecosystem
on land having distinct types of vegetation and
animal life is called a biome. The biomes are
identified on the basis of plants.
TYPES OF VEGETATION
The following major types of vegetation may
be identified in our country (Figure 5.3).
(i) Tropical Rain Forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous Forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
(iv) Montane Forests
(v) Mangrove Forests
44 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Figure 5.3 : Natural Vegetation
Study the given map for the forest cover and try to find the reasons as to why certain states have more area under
forest as compared to others?
46 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
In these forests, the common animals are grazing by nomadic tribes like the Gujjars
rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild and the Bakarwals. At higher altitudes,
ass, horses and camels. mosses and lichens form part of tundra
vegetation.
Montane Forests The common animals found in these forests
are Kashmir stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack
In mountainous areas, the decrease in
rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow leopard,
temperature with increasing altitude leads to
squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare
the corresponding change in natural
red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.
vegetation. As such, there is a succession of
natural vegetation belts in the same order as
Mangrove Forests
we see from the tropical to the tundra region.
The wet temperate type of forests are found The mangrove tidal forests are found in the
between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres. areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and
Evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oaks and silt get accumutated on such coasts. Dense
chestnuts predominate. Between 1500 and mangroves are the common varieties with roots
3000 metres, temperate forests containing
coniferous trees like pine, deodar, silver fir,
spruce and cedar, are found. These forests
cover mostly the southern slopes of the
Himalayas, places having high altitude in
southern and north-east India. At higher
elevations, temperate grasslands are common.
At high altitudes, generally more than 3,600
metres above sea-level, temperate forests and
grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation.
Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the
common trees of these forests. However, they
get progressively stunted as they approach
the snow-line. Ultimately through shrubs and
scrubs, they merge into the Alpine
grasslands. These are used extensively for
Figure 5.7 : Mangrove Forests
Source : Medicinal Plants by Dr. S.K. Jain, 5th edition 1994, National Book Trust of Inida
Wildlife Protection
Act, was implemented in 1972 in India.
48 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Figure 5.8 : Wildlife Reserves
Activity
(i) Find out from the above newspaper cuttings, the main concern highlighted in the given news items.
(ii) Collect more information about various endangered species from newspapers and magazines.
(iii) Find out various steps taken by the Indian government to protect them.
(iv) Discribe how you can contribute to the protection of endangered animals and birds?
50 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
Migratory Birds
Some of the wetlands of India are popular
with migratory birds. During winter,
birds, such as Siberian Crane come in
large numbers. One such place
favourable with birds is the Rann of
Kachchh. At a place where the desert
merges with the sea, flamingo with their
brilliant, pink plumage, come in
thousands to build nest mounds from the
salty mud and raise their young ones. It
is one among many extraordinary sights
in the country. Is it not a rich natural
heritage of ours?
EXERCISE
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below:
(i) To which one of the following types of vegetation does rubber belong to?
(a) Tundra (c) Himalayan
(b) Tidal (d) Tropical Evergreen
(ii) Cinchona trees are found in the areas of rainfall more than
(a) 100 cm (c) 70 cm
(b) 50 cm (d) less than 50 cm
(iii) In which of the following state is the Simlipal bio-reserve located?
(a) Punjab (b) Delhi
(c) Orissa (d) West Bengal
(iv) Which one of the following bio-reserves of India is not included in the world
network of bioreserve?
(a) Manas (c) Gulf of Mannar
(b) Dihang-Dibang (d) Nanda devi
Map Skills
Project/Activity
52 CONTEMPORARY INDIA
C hapter 14
NATURAL RESOURCES
Our planet, Earth is the only one on which dioxide constitutes up to 95-97% of the
life, as we know it, exists. Life on Earth is atmosphere on Venus and Mars.
dependent on many factors. Most life-forms Eukaryotic cells and many prokaryotic
we know need an ambient temperature, cells, discussed in Chapter 5, need oxygen to
water, and food. The resources available on break down glucose molecules and get energy
the Earth and the energy from the Sun are for their activities. This results in the
necessary to meet the basic requirements of production of carbon dioxide. Another process
all life-forms on the Earth. which results in the consumption of oxygen
What are these resources on the Earth? and the concomitant production of carbon
dioxide is combustion. This includes not just
These are the land, the water and the air.
human activities, which burn fuels to get
The outer crust of the Earth is called the
energy, but also forest fires.
lithosphere. Water covers 75% of the Earth’s
Despite this, the percentage of carbon
surface. It is also found underground. These
dioxide in our atmosphere is a mere fraction
comprise the hydrosphere. The air that covers
the whole of the Earth like a blanket, is called of a percent because carbon dioxide is ‘fixed’
the atmosphere. Living things are found in two ways: (i) Green plants convert carbon
where these three exist. This life-supporting dioxide into glucose in the presence of
zone of the Earth where the atmosphere, the Sunlight and (ii) many marine animals use
hydrosphere and the lithosphere interact and carbonates dissolved in sea-water to make
make life possible, is known as the biosphere. their shells.
Living things constitute the biotic
component of the biosphere. The air, the 14.1.1 THE ROLE OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN
water and the soil form the non-living or
CLIMATE CONTROL
abiotic component of the biosphere. Let us
study these abiotic components in detail in We have talked of the atmosphere covering
order to understand their role in sustaining the Earth, like a blanket. We know that air is
life on Earth. a bad conductor of heat. The atmosphere
keeps the average temperature of the Earth
14.1 The Breath of Life: Air fairly steady during the day and even during
the course of the whole year. The atmosphere
We have already talked about the composition
prevents the sudden increase in temperature
of air in the first chapter. It is a mixture of
during the daylight hours. And during the
many gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and water vapour. It is interesting to night, it slows down the escape of heat into
note that even the composition of air is the outer space. Think of the moon, which is
result of life on Earth. In planets such as about the same distance from the Sun that
Venus and Mars, where no life is known to the Earth is. Despite that, on the surface of
exist, the major component of the atmosphere the moon, with no atmosphere, the
is found to be carbon dioxide. In fact, carbon temperature ranges from –190º C to 110º C.
Activity _____________ 14.1 the heating of water bodies and the activities
of living organisms. The atmosphere can be
• Measure the temperature of the heated from below by the radiation that is
following : reflected back or re-radiated by the land or
Take (i) a beaker full of water, (ii) a water bodies. On being heated, convection
beaker full of soil/sand and (iii) a closed currents are set up in the air. In order to gain
bottle containing a thermometer. Keep
some understanding of the nature of
them in bright Sunlight for three hours.
Now measure the temperature of all 3 convection currents, let us perform the
vessels. Also, take the temperature following activity:
reading in shade at the same time.
Activity _____________ 14.2
Now answer • Place a candle in a beaker or wide-
mouthed bottle and light it. Light an
1. Is the temperature reading more in incense stick and take it to the mouth
activity (i) or (ii)? of the above bottle (Figure 14.1).
2. Based on the above finding, which • Which way does the smoke flow when
would become hot faster – the land or the incense stick is kept near the edge
of the mouth?
the sea?
• Which way does the smoke flow when
3. Is the thermometer reading of the the incense stick is kept a little above
temperature of air (in shade) the same the candle?
as the temperature of sand or water? • Which way does the smoke flow when
What do you think is the reason for the incense stick is kept in other
this? And why does the temperature regions?
have to be measured in the shade?
4. Is the temperature of air in the closed
glass vessel/bottle the same as the
temperature taken in open air? (i) What
do you think is the reason for this?
(ii) Do we ever come across this
phenomenon in daily life?
As we have seen above, sand and water
do not heat up at the same rate. What do you
think will be their rates of cooling? Can we
think of an experiment to test the prediction?
190 SCIENCE
gets heated faster and starts rising. As this enter the bottle. Quickly close the bottle
air rises, a region of low pressure is created once more. Make sure that the cap is
and air over the sea moves into this area of fitting tightly. Press the bottle hard
between your hands and crush it as
low pressure. The movement of air from one
much as possible. Wait for a few
region to the other creates winds. During the seconds and release the bottle. Again
day, the direction of the wind would be from press the bottle as hard as you can.
the sea to the land.
At night, both land and sea start to cool.
Since water cools down slower than the land,
Now answer
the air above water would be warmer than 1. When did you observe that the air
the air above land. inside seemed to become ‘foggy’?
On the basis of the above discussion, what 2. When does this fog disappear?
can you say about:
3. When is the pressure inside the bottle
1. the appearance of areas of low and
higher?
high pressure in coastal areas at night?
2. the direction in which air would flow 4. Is the ‘fog’ observed when the pressure
at night in coastal areas? in the bottle is high or when it is low?
Similarly, all the movements of air 5. What is the need for smoke particles
resulting in diverse atmospheric phenomena inside the bottle for this experiment?
are caused by the uneven heating of the 6. What might happen if you do the
atmosphere in different regions of the Earth. experiment without the smoke from the
But various other factors also influence these incense stick? Now try it and check if
winds – the rotation of the Earth and the the prediction was correct. What might
presence of mountain ranges in the paths of be happening in the above experiment
the wind are a couple of these factors. We in the absence of smoke particles?
will not go into these factors in detail in this
The above experiment replicates, on a very
chapter, but think about this: how do the
small scale, what happens when air with a
presence of the Himalayas change the flow of
very high content of water vapour goes from
a wind blowing from Allahabad towards the
a region of high pressure to a region of low
north?
pressure or vice versa.
When water bodies are heated during the
14.1.3 RAIN day, a large amount of water evaporates and
Let us go back now to the question of how goes into the air. Some amount of water
clouds are formed and bring us rain. We could vapour also get into the atmosphere because
start by doing a simple experiment which of various biological activities. This air also
demonstrates some of the factors influencing gets heated. The hot air rises up carrying the
these climatic changes. water vapour with it. As the air rises, it
expands and cools. This cooling causes the
Activity _____________ 14.3 water vapour in the air to condense in the
form of tiny droplets. This condensation of
• Take an empty bottle of the sort in water is facilitated if some particles could act
which bottled water is sold. Pour about as the ‘nucleus’ for these drops to form
5-10 mL of water into it and close the around. Normally dust and other suspended
bottle tightly. Shake it well or leave it
particles in the air perform this function.
out in the Sun for ten minutes. This
causes the air in the bottle to be
Once the water droplets are formed, they
saturated with water vapour. grow bigger by the ‘condensation’ of these
• Now, take a lighted incense stick. Open water droplets. When the drops have grown
the cap of the bottle and allow some of big and heavy, they fall down in the form of
the smoke from the incense stick to rain. Sometimes, when the temperature of air
192 SCIENCE
Activity _____________ 14.6 people are forced to spend considerable
amounts of time in fetching water from far-
• Organisms called lichens are found to away sources.
be very sensitive to the levels of
contaminants like sulphur dioxide in Activity _____________ 14.7
the air. As discussed earlier in section
7.3.3, lichens can be commonly found • Many municipal corporations are trying
growing on the barks of trees as a thin water -harvesting techniques to
greenish-white crust. See if you can improve the availability of water.
find lichen growing on the trees in your • Find out what these techniques are and
locality. how they would increase the water that
• Compare the lichen on trees near busy is available for use.
roads and trees some distance away.
• On the trees near roads, compare the But why is water so necessary? And do
incidence of lichen on the side facing all organisms require water? All cellular
the road and on the side away from the processes take place in a water medium. All
road. the reactions that take place within our body
and within the cells occur between
What can you say about the levels of
polluting substances near roads and away substances that are dissolved in water.
from roads on the basis of your findings Substances are also transported from one
above? part of the body to the other in a dissolved
Q
form. Hence, organisms need to maintain the
Q
14.2.1 WATER POLLUTION
uestions
Water dissolves the fertilisers and pesticides
1. Why do organisms need water?
that we use on our farms. So some percentage
2. What is the major source of fresh
of these substances are washed into the water
water in the city/town/village
bodies. Sewage from our towns and cities and
where you live?
the waste from factories are also dumped into
3. Do you know of any activity
rivers or lakes. Specific industries also use
which may be polluting this water
water for cooling in various operations and
source?
later return this hot water to water-bodies.
Another manner in which the temperature of
194 SCIENCE
14.3 Mineral Riches in the Soil carries sand from one place to the
other like water does.
Soil is an important resource that decides the • Living organisms also influence the
diversity of life in an area. But what is the formation of soil. The lichen that we
soil and how is it formed? The outermost layer read about earlier, also grows on the
of our Earth is called the crust and the surface of rocks. While growing, they
minerals found in this layer supply a variety release certain substances that cause
of nutrients to life-forms. But these minerals the rock surface to powder down and
will not be available to the organisms if the form a thin layer of soil. Other small
minerals are bound up in huge rocks. Over plants like moss, are able to grow on
long periods of time, thousands and millions this surface now and they cause the
of years, the rocks at or near the surface of rock to break up further. The roots of
the Earth are broken down by various big trees sometimes go into cracks in
physical, chemical and some biological the rocks and as the roots grow bigger,
processes. The end product of this breaking the crack is forced bigger.
down is the fine particles of soil. But what
are the factors or processes that make soil? Activity ____________14.10
• The Sun: The Sun heats up rocks • Take some soil and put it into a beaker
during the day so that they expand. containing water. The water should be
At night, these rocks cool down and at least five times the amount of soil
contract. Since all parts of the rock taken. Stir the soil and water vigorously
do not expand and contract at the and allow the soil to settle down.
same rate, this results in the Observe after some time.
• Is the soil at the bottom of the beaker
formation of cracks and ultimately the
homogenous or have layers formed?
huge rocks break up into smaller • If layers have formed, how is one layer
pieces. different from another?
• Water: Water helps in the formation • Is there anything floating on the
of soil in two ways. One, water could surface of the water?
get into the cracks in the rocks formed • Do you think some substances would
due to uneven heating by the Sun. If have dissolved in the water? How would
this water later freezes, it would cause you check?
the cracks to widen. Can you think As you have seen, soil is a mixture. It
why this should be so? Two, flowing contains small particles of rock (of different
water wears away even hard rock over sizes). It also contains bits of decayed living
long periods of time. Fast flowing water organisms which is called humus. In addition,
often carries big and small particles soil also contains various for ms of
of rock downstream. These rocks rub microscopic life. The type of soil is decided
against other rocks and the resultant by the average size of particles found in it
abrasion causes the rocks to wear and the quality of the soil is decided by the
down into smaller and smaller amount of humus and the microscopic
particles. The water then takes these organisms found in it. Humus is a major
particles along with it and deposits it factor in deciding the soil structure because
further down its path. Soil is thus it causes the soil to become more porous and
found in places far away from its allows water and air to penetrate deep
parent-rock. underground. The mineral nutrients that are
• Wind: In a process similar to the way found in a particular soil depends on the
in which water rubs against rocks and rocks it was formed from. The nutrient
wears them down, strong winds also content of a soil, the amount of humus
erode rocks down. The wind also present in it and the depth of the soil are
Q
will grow on the rock.
196 SCIENCE
14.4.1 THE WATER-CYCLE water. Thus rivers carry many nutrients from
the land to the sea, and these are used by
You have seen how the water evaporates from the marine organisms.
the water bodies and subsequent
condensation of this water vapour leads to 14.4.2 THE NITROGEN-CYCLE
rain. But we don’t see the seas and oceans
drying up. So, how is the water returning to Nitr ogen gas makes up 78% of our
these water bodies? The whole process in atmosphere and nitrogen is also a part of
which water evaporates and falls on the land many molecules essential to life like proteins,
as rain and later flows back into the sea via nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and some
rivers is known as the water-cycle. This cycle vitamins. Nitrogen is found in other
is not as straight-forward and simple as this biologically important compounds such as
statement seems to imply. All of the water alkaloids and urea too. Nitrogen is thus an
that falls on the land does not immediately essential nutrient for all life-forms and life
flow back into the sea. Some of it seeps into would be simple if all these life-forms could
the soil and becomes part of the underground use the atmospheric nitrogen directly.
reservoir of fresh-water. Some of this However, other than a few forms of bacteria,
underground water finds its way to the life-for ms are not able to convert the
surface through springs. Or we bring it to comparatively inert nitrogen molecule into
the surface for our use through wells or tube- forms like nitrates and nitrites which can be
wells. Water is also used by terrestrial animals taken up and used to make the required
and plants for various life-processes molecules. These ‘nitrogen-fixing’ bacteria
(Fig. 14.5). may be free-living or be associated with some
species of dicot plants. Most commonly, the
nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in the roots
of legumes (generally the plants which give
us pulses) in special structures called root-
nodules. Other than these bacteria, the only
other manner in which the nitrogen molecule
is converted to nitrates and nitrites is by a
physical process. During lightning, the high
temperatures and pressures created in the
air convert nitrogen into oxides of nitrogen.
These oxides dissolve in water to give nitric
and nitrous acids and fall on land along with
rain. These are then utilised by various life-
forms.
What happens to the nitrogen once it is
converted into forms that can be taken up
and used to make nitrogen-containing
molecules? Plants generally take up nitrates
and nitrites and convert them into amino
Fig. 14.5: Water-cycle in nature acids which are used to make proteins. Some
other biochemical pathways are used to make
Let us look at another aspect of what the other complex compounds containing
happens to water during the water-cycle. As nitrogen. These proteins and other complex
you know, water is capable of dissolving a compounds are subsequently consumed by
large number of substances. As water flows animals. Once the animal or the plant dies,
through or over rocks containing soluble other bacteria in the soil convert the various
minerals, some of them get dissolved in the compounds of nitrogen back into nitrates and
nitrites. A different type of bacteria converts nucleic acids and vitamins. The endoskeletons
the nitrates and nitrites into elemental and exoskeletons of various animals are also
nitrogen. Thus, there is a nitrogen-cycle in formed from carbonate salts. Carbon is
nature in which nitrogen passes from its incorporated into life-forms through the basic
elemental form in the atmosphere into simple process of photosynthesis which is performed
molecules in the soil and water, which get in the presence of Sunlight by all life-forms that
converted to more complex molecules in living contain chlorophyll. This process converts
beings and back again to the simple nitrogen carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or
molecule in the atmosphere. dissolved in water into glucose molecules.
These glucose molecules are either converted
14.4.3 THE CARBON-CYCLE
into other substances or used to provide
Carbon is found in various forms on the energy for the synthesis of other biologically
Earth. It occurs in the elemental form as important molecules (Fig. 14.7).
diamonds and graphite. In the combined The utilisation of glucose to provide energy
state, it is found as carbon dioxide in the to living things involves the process of
atmosphere, as carbonate and hydrogen- respiration in which oxygen may or may not
carbonate salts in various minerals, while all be used to convert glucose back into carbon
life-forms are based on carbon-containing dioxide. This carbon dioxide then goes back
molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, fats, into the atmosphere. Another process that
198 SCIENCE
Fig. 14.7: Carbon-cycle in nature
adds to the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere could be kept warm during the winters in
is the process of combustion where fuels are colder climates. Such enclosures are called
burnt to provide energy for various needs like greenhouses. Greenhouses have also lent
heating, cooking, transportation and their name to an atmospheric phenomenon.
industrial processes. In fact, the percentage Some gases prevent the escape of heat from
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is said the Earth. An increase in the percentage of
to have doubled since the industrial such gases in the atmosphere would cause
revolution when human beings started the average temperatures to increase world-
burning fossil fuels on a very large scale. wide and this is called the greenhouse effect.
Carbon, like water, is thus cycled repeatedly Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse
through different forms by the various gases. An increase in the carbon dioxide
physical and biological activities. content in the atmosphere would cause more
heat to be retained by the atmosphere and
lead to global warming.
14.4.3 (i) THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Recall the reading taken by you under (iii) in Activity ____________14.12
Activity 14.1. Heat is trapped by glass, and • Find out what the consequences of
hence the temperature inside a glass global warming would be.
enclosure will be much higher than the • Also, find out the names of some other
surroundings. This phenomenon was used greenhouse gases.
to create an enclosure where tropical plants
200 SCIENCE
Q
Activity ____________14.13 uestions
• Find out which other molecules are 1. What are the different states in
thought to damage the ozone layer. which water is found during the
• Newspaper reports often talk about the water cycle?
hole in the ozone layer. 2. Name two biologically important
• Find out whether the size of this hole
compounds that contain both
is changing and in what manner
scientists think this would affect life oxygen and nitrogen.
on Earth (Fig. 14.9). 3. List any three human activities
which would lead to an increase
in the carbon dioxide content of air.
4. What is the greenhouse effect?
5. What are the two for ms of
oxygen found in the atmosphere?
What
you have
learnt
• Life on Earth depends on resources like soil, water and air,
and energy from the Sun.
• Uneven heating of air over land and water-bodies causes winds.
• Evaporation of water from water-bodies and subsequent
condensation give us rain.
• Rainfall patterns depend on the prevailing wind patterns in an
area.
• Various nutrients are used again and again in a cyclic fashion.
This leads to a certain balance between the various components
of the biosphere.
• Pollution of air, water and soil affect the quality of life and
harm the biodiversity.
• We need to conserve our natural resources and use them in a
sustainable manner.
Exercises
1. Why is the atmosphere essential for life?
2. Why is water essential for life?
3. How are living organisms dependent on the soil? Are organisms
that live in water totally independent of soil as a resource?
4. You have seen weather reports on television and in newspapers.
How do you think we are able to predict the weather?
202 SCIENCE
Flora and Fauna in India
Narak! My Lord, you are the creator of music
If you look around, you will be able to find
in the world of Lepchas
that there are some animals and plants which
Oh Narak! My Lord, let me dedicate are unique in your area. In fact, India is one
myself to you of the world’s richest countries in terms of
Let me gather your music from the its vast array of biological diversity, and has
springs, the rivers, the mountains, the forests, nearly 8 per cent of the total number of
the insects and the animals species in the world (estimated to be 1.6
Let me gather your music from the sweet million). This is possibly twice or thrice the
breeze and offer it to you number yet to be discovered. You have
already studied in detail about the extent
Source: Lepcha folk song from northern part of
and variety of forest and wildlife resources
West Bengal in India. You may have realised the
importance of these resources in our daily
life. These diverse flora and fauna are so
We share this planet with millions of other well integrated in our daily life that we take
living beings, starting from micro-organisms these for granted. But, lately, they are under
and bacteria, lichens to banyan trees, great stress mainy due to insensitivity to
elephants and blue whales. This entire our environment.
habitat that we live in has immense
biodiversity. We humans along with all living
organisms form a complex web of ecological Over 81,000 species of fauna and 47,000
system in which we are only a part and very species of flora are found in this country
much dependent on this system for our own so far? Of the estimated 47,000 plant
existence. For example, the plants, animals species, about 15,000 flowering species
and micro-organisms re-create the quality of are endemic (indigenous) to India.
the air we breathe, the water we drink and
the soil that produces our food without which
we cannot survive. Forests play a key role in Find out stories prevalent in your region
the ecological system as these are also the which are about the harmonious relationship
primary producers on which all other living between human beings and nature.
beings depend.
Some estimates suggest that at least 10
per cent of India’s recorded wild flora and
Biodiversity or Biological Diversity is 20 per cent of its mammals are on the
immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated threatened list. Many of these would now be
species, diverse in form and function but categorised as ‘critical’, that is on the verge
closely integrated in a system through of extinction like the cheetah, pink-headed
multiple network of interdependencies. duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet,
and plants like madhuca insignis (a wild
variety of mahua) and hubbardia accurate information about actual loss of
heptaneuron,(a species of grass). In fact, no natural forests.
one can say how many species may have
already been lost. Today, we only talk of the Let us now understand the different
larger and more visible animals and plants categories of existing plants and animal
that have become extinct but what about species. Based on the International Union for
smaller animals like insects and plants? Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN), we can classify as follows –
Normal Species: Species whose population
Do you know that among the larger levels are considered to be normal for
animals in India, 79 species of mammals, their survival, such as cattle, sal, pine,
44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and 3 of rodents, etc.
amphibians are threatened? Nearly 1,500 Endangered Species: These are species
plant species are considered endangered. which are in danger of extinction. The
Flowering plants and vertebrate animals survival of such species is difficult if the
have recently become extinct at a rate negative factors that have led to a decline in
estimated to be 50 to 100 times the their population continue to operate. The
average expected natural rate. examples of such species are black buck,
crocodile, Indian wild ass, Indian rhino, lion
tailed macaque, sangai (brow anter deer in
Vanishing Forests Manipur), etc.
The dimensions of deforestation in India are Vulnerable Species: These are species
staggering. The forest cover in the country is whose population has declined to levels from
estimated at 637,293 sq km, which is 19.39 where it is likely to move into the endangered
per cent of the total geographical area. category in the near future if the negative
(dense forest 11.48 per cent; open forest 7.76 factors continue to operate. The examples of
per cent; and mangrove 0.15 per cent). such species are blue sheep, Asiatic elephant,
According to the State of Forest Report Gangetic dolphin, etc.
(1999), the dense forest cover has increased
Rare Species: Species with small population
may move into the endangered or vulnerable
category if the negative factors affecting them
continue to operate. The examples of such
species are the Himalayan brown bear, wild
Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.
Endemic Species: These are species which
are only found in some particular areas
usually isolated by natural or geographical
barriers. Examples of such species are the
Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman
wild pig, mithun in Arunchal Pradesh.
Fig. 2.1
Extinct Species: These are species which
by 10,098 sq km since 1997. However, this are not found after searches of known or
apparent increase in the forest cover is due likely areas where they may occur. A species
to plantation by different agencies. The State may be extinct from a local area, region,
of Forest Report does not differentiate country, continent or the entire earth.
between natural forests and plantations. Examples of such species are the Asiatic
Therefore, these reports fail to deliver cheetah, pink head duck.
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 15
Fig. 2.2: A few extinct, rare and endangered species
Tribal women selling minor forest produce Leaf litter collection by women folk
Fig. 2.3
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES 17
Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, men. In many societies, women bear the major
over-exploitation, environmental pollution, responsibility of collection of fuel, fodder, water
poisoning and forest fires are factors, which and other basic subsistence needs. As these
have led to the decline in India’s biodiversity. resources are depleted, the drudgery of women
Other important causes of environmental increases and sometimes they have to walk for
destruction are unequal access, inequitable more than 10 km to collect these resources.
consumption of resources and differential This causes serious health problems for women
sharing of responsibility for environmental and negligence of home and children because
well-being. Over-population in third world of the increased hours of work, which often has
countries is often cited as the cause of serious social implications. The indirect impact
environmental degradation. However, an of degradation such as severe drought or
average American consumes 40 times more deforestation-induced floods, etc. also hits the
resources than an average Somalian. Similarly, poor the hardest. Poverty in these cases is a
the richest five per cent of Indian society direct outcome of environmental destruction.
probably cause more ecological damage Therefore, forest and wildlife, are vital to the
because of the amount they consume than the quality of life and environment in the
poorest 25 per cent. The former shares subcontinent. It is imperative to adapt to sound
minimum responsibilities for environmental forest and wildlife conservation strategies.
well-being. The question is: who is consuming
what, from where and how much? Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India
Conservation in the background of rapid
decline in wildlife population and forestry has
Do you know that over half of India’s become essential. But why do we need to
natural forests are gone, one-third of its conserve our forests and wildlife? Conservation
wetlands drained out, 70 per cent of its preserves the ecological diversity and our life
surface water bodies polluted, 40 per cent support systems – water, air and soil. It also
of its mangroves wiped out, and with preserves the genetic diversity of plants and
continued hunting and trade of wild animals for better growth of species and
animals and commercially valuable breeding. For example, in agriculture, we are
plants, thousands of plant and animal still dependent on traditional crop varieties.
species are heading towards extinction? Fisheries too are heavily dependent on the
maintenance of aquatic biodiversity.
In the 1960s and 1970s, conservationists
demanded a national wildlife protection
Have you noticed any activity which leads programme. The Indian Wildlife (Protection)
to the loss of biodiversity around you? Write Act was implemented in 1972, with various
a note on it and suggest some measures to provisions for protecting habitats. An all-India
prevent it. list of protected species was also published.
The thrust of the programme was towards
protecting the remaining population of certain
The destruction of forests and wildlife is not endangered species by banning hunting,
just a biological issue. The biological loss is giving legal protection to their habitats, and
strongly correlated with the loss of cultural restricting trade in wildlife. Subsequently,
diversity. Such losses have increasingly central and many state governments
marginalised and impoverished many established national parks and wildlife
indigenous and other forest-dependent sanctuaries about which you have already
communities, who directly depend on various studied. The central government also
components of the forest and wildlife for food, announced several projects for protecting
drink, medicine, culture, spirituality, etc. specific animals, which were gravely
Within the poor, women are affected more than threatened, including the tiger, the one-
18 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
Fig. 2.4: Rhino and deer in Kaziranga National Park
horned rhinoceros, the Kashmir stag or dropped to 3,600. There are 27 tiger
hangul, three types of crocodiles – fresh water reserves in India covering an area of
crocodile, saltwater crocodile and the Gharial, 37,761 sq km Tiger conservation has been
the Asiatic lion, and others. Most recently, the viewed not only as an effort to save an
Indian elephant, black buck (chinkara), the endangered species, but with equal
great Indian bustard (godawan) and the snow importance as a means of preserving
leopard, etc. have been given full or partial biotypes of sizeable magnitude. Corbett
legal protection against hunting and trade National Park in Uttaranchal, Sunderbans
throughout India. National Park in West Bengal, Bandhavgarh
National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska
Project Tiger Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, Manas
Tiger is one of the key wildlife species in Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger
the faunal web. In 1973, the authorities Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger
realised that the tiger population had reserves of India.
dwindled to 1,827 from an estimated
55,000 at the turn of the century. The major
The conservation projects are now focusing
threats to tiger population are numerous,
on biodiversity rather than on a few of its
such as poaching for trade, shrinking
components. There is now a more intensive
habitat, depletion of prey base species,
search for different conservation measures.
growing human population, etc. The trade
Increasingly, even insects are beginning to find
of tiger skins and the use of their bones in
a place in conservation planning. In the
traditional medicines, especially in the
notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and
Asian countries left the tiger population on
1986, several hundred butterflies, moths,
the verge of extinction. Since India and
beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to
Nepal provide habitat to about two-thirds
the list of protected species. In 1991, for the
of the surviving tiger population in the
first time plants were also added to the list,
world, these two nations became prime
starting with six species.
targets for poaching and illegal trading.
“Project Tiger ”, one of the well-
publicised wildlife campaigns in the world,
was launched in 1973. Initially, it showed Collect more information on the wildlife
success as the tiger population went up to sanctuaries and national parks of India and
4,002 in 1985 and 4,334 in 1989. But in cite their locations on the map of India.
1993, the population of the tiger had
Types and Distribution of Forest and (iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other
Wildlife Resources forests and wastelands belonging to
Even if we want to conserve our vast forest and both government and private individuals
wildlife resources, it is rather difficult to and communities.
manage, control and regulate them. In India, Reserved and protected forests are also
much of its forest and wildlife resources are referred to as permanent forest estates
either owned or managed by the government maintained for the purpose of producing
through the Forest Department or other timber and other forest produce, and for
government departments. These are classified protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the
under the following categories. largest area under permanent forests,
constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.
(i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the
Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,
total forest land has been declared
Uttaranchal, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
reserved forests. Reserved forests are
and Maharashtra have large percentages of
regarded as the most valuable as far as the
reserved forests of its total forest area whereas
conservation of forest and wildlife resources
Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
are concerned.
Orissa and Rajasthan have a bulk of it under
(ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the protected forests. All North-eastern states and
total forest area is protected forest, as declared parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage
by the Forest Department. This forest land are of their forests as un-classed forests managed
protected from any further depletion. by local communities.
20 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
Community and Conservation and treated as a part of temple devotees. In
Conservation strategies are not new in our and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan,
country. We often ignore that in India, forests herds of blackbuck, (chinkara), nilgai and
are also home to some of the traditional peacocks can be seen as an integral part of
the community and nobody harms them.
communities. In some areas of India, local
communities are struggling to conserve these
habitats along with government officials,
recognising that only this will secure their own Write a short essay on any practices which
long-term livelihood. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, you may have observed and practised in
Rajasthan, villagers have fought against your everyday lives that conserve and protect
mining by citing the Wildlife Protection Act. In the environment around you.
many areas, villagers themselves are protecting
habitats and explicitly rejecting government The famous Chipko movement in the
involvement. The inhabitants of five villages in Himalayas has not only successfully resisted
the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared deforestation in several areas but has also shown
1,200 hectares of forest as the Bhairodev that community afforestation with indigenous
Dakav ‘Sonchuri’, declaring their own set of species can be enormously successful.
rules and regulations which do not allow Attempts to revive the traditional conservation
hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against methods or developing new methods of
any outside encroachments. ecological farming are now widespread. Farmers
and citizen’s groups like the Beej Bachao
Sacred groves - a wealth of diverse Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown
and rare species that adequate levels of diversified crop
Nature worship is an age old tribal belief production without the use of synthetic
based on the premise that all creations of chemicals are possible and economically viable.
nature have to be protected. Such beliefs In India joint forest management (JFM)
have preserved several virgin forests in programme furnishes a good example for
pristine form called Sacred Groves (the involving local communities in the
forests of God and Goddesses). These management and restoration of degraded
patches of forest or parts of large forests have forests. The programme has been in formal
been left untouched by the local people and existence since 1988 when the state of Orissa
any interference with them is banned. passed the first resolution for joint forest
Certain societies revere a particular tree management. JFM depends on the formation
which they have preserved from time of local (village) institutions that undertake
immemorial. The Mundas and the Santhal of protection activities mostly on degraded forest
Chhota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia land managed by the forest department. In
latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus return, the members of these communities are
cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Orissa and entitled to intermediary benefits like non-timber
Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus forest produces and share in the timber
indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees harvested by ‘successful protection’.
during weddings. To many of us, peepal and The clear lesson from the dynamics of both
banyan trees are considered sacred. environmental destruction and reconstruction
Indian society comprises several in India is that local communities everywhere
cultures, each with its own set of traditional have to be involved in some kind of natural
methods of conserving nature and its resource management. But there is still a long
creations. Sacred qualities are often way to go before local communities are at the
ascribed to springs, mountain peaks, plants centre-stage in decision-making. Accept only
and animals which are closely protected. You those economic or developmental activities,
will find troops of macaques and langurs that are people centric, environment-friendly
around many temples. They are fed daily and economically rewarding.
22 CONTEMPORARY INDIA – II
CHAPTER 14
Sources of
Energy
I n Class IX, we learnt that the total energy during a physical or chemical
process is conserved. Why, then, do we hear so much about the energy
crisis? If energy can neither be created nor destroyed, we should have
no worries! We should be able to perform endless activities without
thinking about energy resources!
This riddle can be solved if we recall what else we learnt about energy.
Energy comes in different forms and one form can be converted to another.
For example, if we drop a plate from a height, the potential energy of the
plate is converted mostly to sound energy when it hits the ground. If we
light a candle, the process is highly exothermic so that the chemical
energy in the wax is converted to heat energy and light energy on burning.
What other products are obtained when we burn a candle?
The total energy during a physical or chemical process remains the
same but suppose we consider the burning candle again – can we
somehow put together the heat and light generated along with the products
of the reaction to get back the chemical energy in the form of wax?
Let us consider another example. Suppose we take 100 mL of water
which has a temperature of 348 K (75°C) and leave it in a room where
the temperature is 298 K (25°C). What will happen? Is there any way of
collecting all the heat lost to the environment and making the water hot
once it has cooled down?
In any example that we consider, we will see that energy, in the usable
form, is dissipated to the surroundings in less usable forms. Hence, any
source of energy we use, to do work, is consumed and cannot be used again.
14.1 WHA
WHATT IS A GOOD SOURCE OF ENERGY?
What can then be considered a good source of energy? We, in our daily
lives, use energy from various sources for doing work. We use diesel to
run our trains. We use electricity to light our street-lamps. Or we use
energy in our muscles to cycle to school.
Activity 14.1
List four forms of energy that you use from morning, when you
wake up, till you reach the school.
From where do we get these different forms of energy?
Can we call these ‘sources’ of energy? Why or why not?
242 Science
The muscular energy for carrying out physical work, electrical energy
for running various appliances, chemical energy for cooking food or
running a vehicle all come from some source. We need to know how do
we select the source needed for obtaining the energy in its usable form.
Activity 14.2
Consider the various options we have when we choose a fuel for
cooking our food.
What are the criteria you would consider when trying to categorise
something as a good fuel?
Would your choice be different if you lived
(a) in a forest?
(b) in a remote mountain village or small island?
(c) in New Delhi?
(d) lived five centuries ago?
How are the factors different in each case?
After going through the two activities above, we can see that the
particular source of energy, or fuel, we select for performing some work
depends on many different factors. For example, while selecting a fuel,
we would ask ourselves the following questions.
(i) How much heat does it release on burning?
(ii) Does it produce a lot of smoke?
(iii) Is it easily available?
Can you think of three more relevant questions to ask about a fuel?
Given the range of fuels we have today, what are the factors which
would limit our choices when it comes to a particular task like cooking
our food? Would the fuel selected also depend on the work to be done?
For example, would we choose one fuel for cooking and another for
heating the room in winter?
We could then say that a good source of energy would be one
which would do a large amount of work per unit volume or mass,
be easily accessible,
be easy to store and transport, and
perhaps most importantly, be economical.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. What is a good source of energy?
2. What is a good fuel?
3. If you could use any source of energy for heating your food, which one
would you use and why?
Think it over
How would our lives change if we could no longer get electricity supply?
The availability of electrical energy to each individual in a country is one of the
parameters to measure the growth of the country.
Activity 14.3
Take a table-tennis ball and make three slits into it.
Put semicircular ( ) fins cut out of a metal sheet into these slits.
Pivot the tennis ball on an axle through its centre with a straight
metal wire fixed to a rigid support. Ensure that the tennis ball
rotates freely about the axle.
244 Science
Now connect a cycle dynamo to this.
Connect a bulb in series.
Direct a jet of water or steam produced in a pressure cooker at the
fins (Fig. 14.2). What do you observe?
246 Science
The plant has a dome-like structure built with
bricks. A slurry of cow-dung and water is made in
the mixing tank from where it is fed into the digester.
The digester is a sealed chamber in which there is no
oxygen. Anaerobic micro-organisms that do not
require oxygen decompose or break down complex
compounds of the cow-dung slurry. It takes a few
days for the decomposition process to be complete
and generate gases like methane, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. The bio-gas is
Figure 14.4
stored in the gas tank above the digester from which Schematic diagram of a bio-gas plant
they are drawn through pipes for use.
Bio-gas is an excellent fuel as it contains up to 75% methane. It
burns without smoke, leaves no residue like ash in wood, charcoal and
coal burning. Its heating capacity is high. Bio-gas is also used for lighting.
The slurry left behind is removed periodically and used as excellent
manure, rich in nitrogen and phosphorous. The large-scale utilisation
of bio-waste and sewage material provides a safe and efficient method of
waste-disposal besides supplying energy and manure. Do you think
that bio-mass is a renewable source of energy?
Wind Energy
We saw in Class IX how unequal heating of the landmass
and water bodies by solar radiation generates air movement
and causes winds to blow. This kinetic energy of the wind
can be used to do work. This energy was harnessed by
windmills in the past to do mechanical work. For example,
in a water-lifting pump, the rotatory motion of windmill is
utilised to lift water from a well. Today, wind energy is also
used to generate electricity. A windmill essentially consists
of a structure similar to a large electric fan that is erected at
some height on a rigid support (Fig. 14.5).
To generate electricity, the rotatory motion of the windmill
is used to turn the turbine of the electric generator. The
output of a single windmill is quite small and cannot be used
for commercial purposes. Therefore, a number of windmills
are erected over a large area, which is known as wind energy
farm. The energy output of each windmill in a farm is coupled
together to get electricity on a commercial scale.
Figure 14.5 A windmill
Do You Know?
Denmark is called the country of ‘winds’. More than 25% of their electricity needs are
generated through a vast network of windmills. In terms of total output, Germany is
the leader, while India is ranked fifth in harnessing wind energy for the production of
electricity. It is estimated that nearly 45,000 MW of electrical power can be generated if
India’s wind potential is fully exploited. The largest wind energy farm has been
established near Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu and it generates 380 MW of electricity.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. What are the disadvantages of fossil fuels?
2. Why are we looking at alternate sources of energy?
3. How has the traditional use of wind and water energy been modified for
our convenience?
1 4 . 3 AL TERNA
ALTERNA TIVE OR NON-
TERNATIVE CONVENTIONAL
NON-CONVENTIONAL
SOURCES OF ENERGY
With technological progress, our demand for energy increases day by
day. Our life-styles are also changing, we use machines to do more and
more of our tasks. Our basic requirements are also increasing as
industrialisation improves our living standards.
Activity 14.4
Find out from your grand-parents or other elders –
(a) how did they go to school?
(b) how did they get water for their daily needs when they were young?
(c) what means of entertainment did they use?
Compare the above answers with how you do these tasks now.
Is there a difference? If yes, in which case more energy from
external sources is consumed?
As our demand for energy increases, we need to look for more and
more sources of energy. We could develop the technology to use the
available or known sources of energy more efficiently and also look to
new sources of energy. Any new source of energy we seek to exploit
would need specific devices developed with that source in mind. We shall
now look at some of the latest sources of energy that we seek to tap, and
the technology designed to capture and store energy from that source.
Think it over!
Some people say that if we start living as our ancestors, this would conserve energy and
our ecosystem. Do you think this idea is feasible?
248 Science
14.3.1 Solar Energy
The Sun has been radiating an enormous amount of energy at the present
rate for nearly 5 billion years and will continue radiating at that rate for
about 5 billion years more. Only a small part of solar energy reaches the
outer layer of the earth’s atmosphere. Nearly half of it is absorbed while
passing through the atmosphere and the rest reaches the earth’s surface.
Do You Know?
India is lucky to receive solar energy for greater part of the year. It is estimated that
during a year India receives the energy equivalent to more than 5,000 trillion kWh.
Under clear (cloudless) sky conditions, the daily average varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m2.
The solar energy reaching unit area at outer edge of the earth’s atmosphere exposed
perpendicularly to the rays of the Sun at the average distance between the Sun and
earth is known as the solar constant. It is estimated to be approximately 1.4 kJ per
second per square metre or 1.4 kW/m2.
Activity 14.5
Take two conical flasks and paint one white and the other black.
Fill both with water.
Place the conical flasks in direct sunlight for half an hour to one
hour.
Touch the conical flasks. Which one is hotter? You could also
measure the temperature of the water in the two conical flasks
with a thermometer.
Can you think of ways in which this finding could be used in your
daily life?
Activity 14.6
Study the structure and working of a
solar cooker and/or a solar water-heater,
particularly with regard to how it is Figure 14.6 A solar cooker
insulated and maximum heat absorption
is ensured.
It is easy to see that these devices are useful only at certain times
during the day. This limitation of using solar energy is overcome by
using solar cells that convert solar energy into electricity. A typical cell
develops a voltage of 0.5–1 V and can produce about 0.7 W of electricity
when exposed to the Sun. A large number of solar cells are, combined
in an arrangement called solar cell panel (Fig. 14.7) that can deliver
enough electricity for practical use.
The principal advantages associated with solar cells are that they
have no moving parts, require little maintenance and work quite
satisfactorily without the use of any focussing device. Another advantage
is that they can be set up in remote and inaccessible hamlets or very
sparsely inhabited areas in which laying of a power transmission line
may be expensive and not commercially viable.
Silicon, which is used for making solar cells, is abundant in nature
Figure 14.7 but availability of the special grade silicon for making solar cells is limited.
A solar cell panel The entire process of manufacture is still very expensive, silver used for
interconnection of the cells in the panel further adds to the cost. In spite
of the high cost and low efficiency, solar cells are used for many scientific
and technological applications. Artificial satellites and space probes like
Mars orbiters use solar cells as the main source of energy. Radio or
wireless transmission systems or TV relay stations in remote locations
use solar cell panels. Traffic signals, calculators and many toys are fitted
with solar cells. The solar cell panels are mounted on specially designed
inclined roof tops so that more solar energy is incident over it. The
domestic use of solar cells is, however, limited due to its high cost.
250 Science
Ocean Thermal Energy
The water at the surface of the sea or ocean is heated by the Sun while
the water in deeper sections is relatively cold. This difference in
temperature is exploited to obtain energy in ocean-thermal-energy
conversion plants. These plants can operate if the temperature difference
between the water at the surface and water at depths up to 2 km is
293 K (20°C) or more. The warm surface-water is used to boil a volatile
liquid like ammonia. The vapours of the liquid are then used to run the
turbine of generator. The cold water from the depth of the ocean is
pumped up and condense vapour again to liquid.
The energy potential from the sea (tidal energy, wave energy and
ocean thermal energy) is quite large, but efficient commercial exploitation
is difficult.
In a nuclear fission, the difference in mass, Δm, between the original nucleus and the
product nuclei gets converted to energy E at a rate governed by the famous equation,
E = Δm c2,
first derived by Albert Einstein in 1905, where c is the speed of light in vacuum. In
nuclear science, energy is often expressed in units of electron volts (eV): 1 eV = 1.602
× 10–19 joules. It is easy to check from the above equation that 1 atomic mass unit (u)
is equivalent to about 931 mega electron volts (MeV) of energy.
Nuclear fusion
Currently all commercial nuclear reactors are based on nuclear fission. But there is
another possibility of nuclear energy generation by a safer process called nuclear
fusion. Fusion means joining lighter nuclei to make a heavier nucleus, most commonly
hydrogen or hydrogen isotopes to create helium, such as
Do You Know?
2
H + 2H → 3He (+ n)
It releases a tremendous amount of energy, according to the Einstein equation, as
the mass of the product is little less than the sum of the masses of the original individual
nuclei.
Such nuclear fusion reactions are the source of energy in the Sun and other stars. It
takes considerable energy to force the nuclei to fuse. The conditions needed for this
process are extreme – millions of degrees of temperature and millions of pascals of
pressure.
The hydrogen bomb is based on thermonuclear fusion reaction. A nuclear bomb based
on the fission of uranium or plutonium is placed at the core of the hydrogen bomb.
This nuclear bomb is embedded in a substance which contains deuterium and lithium.
When the nuclear bomb (based on fission) is detonated, the temperature of this substance
is raised to 107 K in a few microseconds. The high temperature generates sufficient
energy for the light nuclei to fuse and a devastating amount of energy is released.
Activity 14.7
Discuss in class the question of what is the ultimate source of
energy for bio-mass, wind and ocean thermal energy.
Is geothermal energy and nuclear energy different in this respect?
Why?
Where would you place hydro electricity and wave energy?
252 Science
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. What kind of mirror – concave, convex or plain – would be best suited
for use in a solar cooker? Why?
2. What are the limitations of the energy that can be obtained from the
oceans?
3. What is geothermal energy?
4. What are the advantages of nuclear energy?
Activity 14.8
Gather information about various energy sources and how each
one affects the environment.
Debate the merits and demerits of each source and select the
best source of energy on this basis.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. Can any source of energy be pollution-free? Why or why not?
2. Hydrogen has been used as a rocket fuel. Would you consider it a cleaner
fuel than CNG? Why or why not?
Activity 14.9
Debate the following two issues in class.
(a) The estimated coal reserves are said to be enough to last us
for another two hundred years. Do you think we need to worry
about coal getting depleted in this case? Why or why not?
(b) It is estimated that the Sun will last for another five billion
years. Do we have to worry about solar energy getting
exhausted? Why or why not?
On the basis of the debate, decide which energy sources can be
considered (i) exhaustible, (ii) inexhaustible, (iii) renewable and
(iv) non-renewable. Give your reasons for each choice.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. Name two energy sources that you would consider to be renewable. Give
reasons for your choices.
2. Give the names of two energy sources that you would consider to be
exhaustible. Give reasons for your choices.
E X E R C I S E S
1. A solar water heater cannot be used to get hot water on
(a) a sunny day. (b) a cloudy day.
(c) a hot day. (d) a windy day.
254 Science
2. Which of the following is not an example of a bio-mass energy source?
(a) wood (b) gobar-gas
(c) nuclear energy (d) coal
3. Most of the sources of energy we use represent stored solar energy. Which of the
following is not ultimately derived from the Sun’s energy?
(a) geothermal energy (b) wind energy
(c) nuclear energy (d) bio-mass.
4. Compare and contrast fossil fuels and the Sun as direct sources of energy.
5. Compare and contrast bio-mass and hydro electricity as sources of energy.
6. What are the limitations of extracting energy from—
(a) the wind? (b) waves? (c) tides?
7. On what basis would you classify energy sources as
(a) renewable and non-renewable?
(b) exhaustible and inexhaustible?
Are the options given in (a) and (b) the same?
8. What are the qualities of an ideal source of energy?
9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a solar cooker? Are there
places where solar cookers would have limited utility?
10. What are the environmental consequences of the increasing demand for energy?
What steps would you suggest to reduce energy consumption?
1 5 . 1 WHA
WHATT HAPPENS WHEN WE ADD OUR WASTE TO
WASTE
THE ENVIRONMENT?
In our daily activities, we generate a lot of material that are thrown
away. What are some of these waste materials? What happens after we
throw them away? Let us perform an activity to find answers to these
questions.
Activity 15.1
Collect waste material from your homes. This could include all
the waste generated during a day, like kitchen waste (spoilt food,
vegetable peels, used tea leaves, milk packets and empty cartons),
waste paper, empty medicine bottles/strips/bubble packs, old and
torn clothes and broken footwear.
Bury this material in a pit in the school garden or if there is no
space available, you can collect the material in an old bucket/
flower pot and cover with at least 15 cm of soil.
Keep this material moist and observe at 15-day intervals.
What are the materials that remain unchanged over long periods
of time?
What are the materials which change their form and structure
over time?
Of these materials that are changed, which ones change the
fastest?
256 Science
We have seen in the chapter on ‘Life Processes’ that the food we eat is
digested by various enzymes in our body. Have you ever wondered why
the same enzyme does not break-down everything we eat? Enzymes are
specific in their action, specific enzymes are needed for the break-down
of a particular substance. That is why we will not get any energy if we
try to eat coal! Because of this, many human-made materials like plastics
will not be broken down by the action of bacteria or other saprophytes.
These materials will be acted upon by physical processes like heat and
pressure, but under the ambient conditions found in our environment,
these persist for a long time.
Substances that are broken down by biological processes are said
to be biodegradable. How many of the substances you buried were
biodegradable? Substances that are not broken down in this manner
are said to be non-biodegradable. These substances may be inert and
simply persist in the environment for a long time or may harm the various
members of the eco-system.
Activity 15.2
Use the library or internet to find out more about biodegradable
and non-biodegradable substances.
How long are various non-biodegradable substances expected to
last in our environment?
These days, new types of plastics which are said to be biodegradable
are available. Find out more about such materials and whether
they do or do not harm the environment.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. Why are some substances biodegradable and some non-biodegradable?
2. Give any two ways in which biodegradable substances would affect the
environment.
3. Give any two ways in which non-biodegradable substances would affect
the environment.
Activity 15.3
You might have seen an aquarium. Let us try to design one.
What are the things that we need to keep in mind when we create
an aquarium? The fish would need a free space for swimming (it
could be a large jar), water, oxygen and food.
We can provide oxygen through an oxygen pump (aerator) and
fish food which is available in the market.
If we add a few aquatic plants and animals it can become a self-
sustaining system. Can you think how this happens? An aquarium
is an example of a human-made ecosystem.
Can we leave the aquarium as such after we set it up? Why does
it have to be cleaned once in a while? Do we have to clean ponds
or lakes in the same manner? Why or why not?
258 Science
Activity 15.4
While creating an aquarium did you take care not to put an aquatic
animal which would eat others? What would have happened
otherwise?
Make groups and discuss how each of the above groups of
organisms are dependent on each other.
Write the aquatic organisms in order of who eats whom and form
a chain of at least three steps. → →
Would you consider any one group of organisms to be of primary
importance? Why or why not?
260 Science
Another interesting aspect of food chain is how unknowingly some
harmful chemicals enter our bodies through the food chain. You have
read in Class IX how water gets polluted. One of the reasons is the use of
several pesticides and other chemicals to protect our crops from diseases
and pests. These chemicals are either washed down into the soil or into
the water bodies. From the soil, these are absorbed by the plants along
with water and minerals, and from the water bodies these are taken up
by aquatic plants and animals. This is one of the ways in which they
enter the food chain. As these chemicals are not degradable, these get
accumulated progressively at each trophic level. As human beings occupy
the top level in any food chain, the maximum concentration of these
chemicals get accumulated in our bodies. This phenomenon is known
as biological magnification. This is the reason why our food grains such
as wheat and rice, vegetables and fruits, and even meat, contain varying
amounts of pesticide residues. They cannot always be removed by
washing or other means.
Activity 15.5
Newspaper reports about pesticide levels in ready-made food items
are often seen these days and some states have banned these
products. Debate in groups the need for such bans.
What do you think would be the source of pesticides in these food
items? Could pesticides get into our bodies from this source through
other food products too?
Discuss what methods could be applied to reduce our intake of
pesticides.
Q U E S T I O N S
1.
2.
What are trophic levels? Give an example of a food chain and state the
different trophic levels in it.
What is the role of decomposers in the ecosystem? ?
1 5 . 3 HOW DO OUR ACTIVITIES AFFECT THE
ENVIRONMENT?
We are an integral part of the environment. Changes in the environment
affect us and our activities change the environment around us. We have
already seen in Class IX how our activities pollute the environment. In
this chapter, we shall be looking at two of the environmental problems
in detail, that is, depletion of the ozone layer and waste disposal.
O + O2 → O3
(Ozone)
The amount of ozone in the atmosphere began to drop sharply in
the 1980s. This decrease has been linked to synthetic chemicals like
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used as refrigerants and in fire
extinguishers. In 1987, the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) succeeded in forging an agreement to freeze CFC production at
1986 levels.
Activity 15.6
Find out from the library, internet or newspaper reports, which
chemicals are responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer.
Find out if the regulations put in place to control the emission of
these chemicals have succeeded in reducing the damage to the
ozone layer. Has the size of the hole in the ozone layer changed in
recent years?
Activity 15.7
Find out what happens to the waste generated at home. Is there a
system in place to collect this waste?
Find out how the local body (panchayat, municipal corporation,
resident welfare association) deals with the waste. Are there
mechanisms in place to treat the biodegradable and non-
biodegradable wastes separately?
262 Science
Activity 15.8
Calculate how much waste is generated at home in a day.
How much of this waste is biodegradable?
Calculate how much waste is generated in the classroom
in a day.
How much of this waste is biodegradable?
Suggest ways of dealing with this waste.
Activity 15.9
Find out how the sewage in your locality is treated. Are there
mechanisms in place to ensure that local water bodies are not
polluted by untreated sewage.
Find out how the local industries in your locality treat their wastes.
Are there mechanisms in place to ensure that the soil and water
are not polluted by this waste?
Think it over
Disposable cups in trains
If you ask your parents, they will probably remember a time when tea in trains was
served in plastic glasses which had to be returned to the vendor. The introduction of
disposable cups was hailed as a step forward for reasons of hygiene. No one at that time
perhaps thought about the impact caused by the disposal of millions of these cups on a
daily basis. Some time back, kulhads, that is, disposable cups made of clay, were
suggested as an alternative. But a little thought showed that making these kulhads on
a large scale would result in the loss of the fertile top-soil. Now disposable paper-cups
are being used. What do you think are the advantages of disposable paper-cups over
disposable plastic cups?
Activity 15.10
Search the internet or library to find out what hazardous materials
have to be dealt with while disposing of electronic items. How would
these materials affect the environment?
Find out how plastics are recycled. Does the recycling process
have any impact on the environment?
?
1. What is ozone and how does it affect any ecosystem?
2. How can you help in reducing the problem of waste disposal? Give any
two methods.
E X E R C I S E S
1. Which of the following groups contain only biodegradable items?
(a) Grass, flowers and leather
(b) Grass, wood and plastic
(c) Fruit-peels, cake and lime-juice
(d) Cake, wood and grass
2. Which of the following constitute a food-chain?
(a) Grass, wheat and mango
(b) Grass, goat and human
(c) Goat, cow and elephant
(d) Grass, fish and goat
3. Which of the following are environment-friendly practices?
(a) Carrying cloth-bags to put purchases in while shopping
(b) Switching off unnecessary lights and fans
(c) Walking to school instead of getting your mother to drop you on her scooter
(d) All of the above
264 Science
4. What will happen if we kill all the organisms in one trophic level?
5. Will the impact of removing all the organisms in a trophic level be different for
different trophic levels? Can the organisms of any trophic level be removed without
causing any damage to the ecosystem?
6. What is biological magnification? Will the levels of this magnification be different at
different levels of the ecosystem?
7. What are the problems caused by the non-biodegradable wastes that we generate?
8. If all the waste we generate is biodegradable, will this have no impact on the
environment?
9. Why is damage to the ozone layer a cause for concern? What steps are being taken
to limit this damage?
W e learnt in Class IX, about some natural resources like soil, air
and water and how various components are cycled over and over
again in nature. In the previous chapter we also learnt about the pollution
of these resources because of some of our activities. In this chapter, we
shall look at some of our resources and how we are using them. May be
we should also think about how we ought to be using our resources so
as to sustain the resources and conserve our environment. We shall be
looking at our natural resources like forests, wild-life, water, coal and
petroleum and see what are the issues at stake in deciding how these
resources are to be managed for sustainable development.
We often hear or read about environmental problems. These are often
global-level problems and we feel helpless to make any changes. There
are international laws and regulations, and then there are our own
national laws and acts for environmental protection. There are also
national and international organisations working towards protecting our
environment.
Activity 16.1
Find out about the international norms to regulate the emission
of carbon dioxide.
Have a discussion in class about how we can contribute towards
meeting those norms.
Activity 16.2
There are a number of organisations that seek to spread awareness
about our environment and promote activities and attitudes that
lead to the conservation of our environment and natural resources.
Find out about the organisation(s) active in your neighbourhood/
village/town/city.
Find out how you can contribute towards the same cause.
266 Science
(see Fig. 16.1). Coliform is a group of bacteria, found in human intestines,
whose presence in water indicates contamination by disease-causing
microorganisms.
As you can see, there are some measurable factors which are used
to quantify pollution or the quality of the water that we use for various
activities. Some of the pollutants are harmful even when present in very
small quantities and we require sophisticated equipment to measure
them. But as we learnt in Chapter 2, the pH of water is something that
can easily be checked using universal indicator.
Activity 16.4
Have you ever visited a town or village after a few years of absence?
If so, have you noticed new roads and houses that have come up
since you were there last? Where do you think the materials for
making these roads and buildings have come from?
Try and make a list of the materials and their probable sources.
Discuss the list you have prepared with your classmates. Can
you think of ways in which the use of these materials be reduced?
268 Science
16.1 WHY DO WE NEED TO MANAGE OUR RESOURCES?
Not just roads and buildings, but all the things we use or consume –
food, clothes, books, toys, furniture, tools and vehicles – are obtained
from resources on this earth. The only thing we get from outside is energy
which we receive from the Sun. Even this energy is processed by living
organisms and various physical and chemical processes on the earth
before we make use of it.
Why do we need to use our resources carefully? Because these are
not unlimited and with the human population increasing at a
tremendous rate due to improvement in health-care, the demand for all
resources is increasing at an exponential rate. The management of
natural resources requires a long-term perspective so that these will
last for the generations to come and will not merely be exploited to the
hilt for short term gains. This management should also ensure equitable
distribution of resources so that all, and not just a handful of rich and
powerful people, benefit from the development of these resources.
Another factor to be considered while we exploit these natural
resources is the damage we cause to the environment while these
resources are either extracted or used. For example, mining causes
pollution because of the large amount of slag which is discarded for
every tonne of metal extracted. Hence, sustainable natural resource
management demands that we plan for the safe disposal of these
wastes too.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. What changes can you make in your habits to become more environment-
friendly?
2. What would be the advantages of exploiting resources with short-term
aims?
3. How would these advantages differ from the advantages of using a long-
term perspective in managing our resources?
4. Why do you think there should be equitable distribution of resources?
What forces would be working against an equitable distribution of our
resources?
Activity 16.5
Make a list of forest produce that you use.
What do you think a person living near a forest would use?
What do you think a person living in a forest would use?
Discuss with your classmates how these needs differ or do not
differ and the reasons for the same.
270 Science
local people – leaves for fodder, herbs for medicines, fruits and nuts for
food – can no longer be met from such forests. Such plantations are
useful for the industries to access specific products and are an important
source of revenue for the Forest Department.
Do you know how many industries are based on forest produce? A
short count reveals timber, paper, lac and sports equipment.
Activity 16.6
Find out about any two forest produce that are the basis for an
industry.
Discuss whether this industry is sustainable in the long run. Or
do we need to control our consumption of these products?
272 Science
‘complete alienation of the people from the administration’, resulting in
frequent clashes between forest officials and villagers. Forest and land
related conflicts in the region were also a major factor in fuelling the
militant peasant movements led by the Naxalites.
Accordingly, the Department changed its strategy, making a
beginning in the Arabari forest range of Midnapore district. Here, at the
instance of a far-seeing forest officer, A.K. Banerjee, villagers were involved
in the protection of 1,272 hectares of badly degraded sal forest. In return
for help in protection, villagers were given employment in both silviculture
and harvesting operations, 25 per cent of the final harvest, and allowed
fuelwood and fodder collection on payment of a nominal fee. With the
active and willing participation of the local community, the sal forests of
Arabari underwent a remarkable recovery – by 1983, a previously
worthless forest was valued Rs 12.5 crores.
Activity 16.7
Debate the damage caused to forests by the following –
(a) Building rest houses for tourists in national parks.
(b) Grazing domestic animals in national parks.
(c) Tourists throwing plastic bottles/covers and other litter in
national parks.
Q U E S T I O N S
1.
2.
Why should we conserve forests and wildlife?
Suggest some approaches towards the conservation of forests.
?
16.3 WATER FOR ALL
Activity 16.8
Villages suffering from chronic water shortage surround a water
theme park in Maharashtra. Debate whether this is the optimum
use of the available water.
Activity 16.9
Study the rainfall patterns in India from an atlas.
Identify the regions where water is abundant and the regions of
water scarcity.
16.3.1 Dams
Why do we seek to build dams? Large dams can ensure the storage of
adequate water not just for irrigation, but also for generating electricity,
as discussed in the previous chapter. Canal systems leading from these
dams can transfer large amounts of water great distances. For example,
the Indira Gandhi Canal has brought greenery to considerable areas of
Rajasthan. However, mismanagement of the water has largely led to the
benefits being cornered by a few people. There is no equitable distribution
274 Science
of water, thus people close to the source grow water intensive crops like
sugarcane and rice while people farther downstream do not get any water.
The woes of these people who have been promised benefits which never
arrived are added to the discontentment among the people who have
been displaced by the building of the dam and its canal network.
In the previous chapter, we mentioned the reasons for opposition to
the construction of large dams, such as the Tehri Dam on the river Ganga.
You must have read about the protests by the Narmada Bachao Andolan
(‘Save the Narmada Movement’) about raising the height of the Sardar
Sarovar Dam on the river Narmada. Criticisms about large dams address
three problems in particular –
(i) Social problems because they displace large number of peasants
and tribals without adequate compensation or rehabilitation,
(ii) Economic problems because they swallow up huge amounts of
public money without the generation of proportionate benefits,
(iii) Environmental problems because they contribute enormously
to deforestation and the loss of biological diversity.
The people who have been displaced by various development projects
are largely poor tribals who do not get any benefits from these projects
and are alienated from their lands and forests without adequate
compensation. The oustees of the Tawa Dam built in the 1970s are still
fighting for the benefits they were promised.
Q U E S T I O N S
?
1. Find out about the traditional systems of water harvesting/management
in your region.
2. Compare the above system with the probable systems in hilly/
mountainous areas or plains or plateau regions.
3. Find out the source of water in your region/locality. Is water from this
source available to all people living in that area?
276 Science
large number of goods upon which our lives depend. These energy needs
have been largely met by the reserves of coal and petroleum.
The management of these energy sources involves slightly different
perspectives from those resources discussed earlier. Coal and petroleum
were formed from the degradation of bio-mass millions of years ago and
hence these are resources that will be exhausted in the future no matter
how carefully we use them. And then we would need to look for alternative
sources of energy. Various estimates as to how long these resources will
last us exist and one is that at present rates of usage, our known
petroleum resources will last us for about forty years and the coal
resources will last for another two hundred years.
But looking to other sources of energy is not the only consideration
when we look at the consumption of coal and petroleum. Since coal and
petroleum have been formed from bio–mass, in addition to carbon, these
contain hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur. When these are burnt, the
products are carbon dioxide, water, oxides of nitrogen and oxides of
sulphur. When combustion takes place in insufficient air (oxygen), then
carbon monoxide is formed instead of carbon dioxide. Of these products,
the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and carbon monoxide are poisonous
at high concentrations and carbon dioxide is a green-house gas. Another
way of looking at coal and petroleum is that they are huge reservoirs of
carbon and if all of this carbon is converted to carbon dioxide, then the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is going to increase leading
to intense global warming. Thus, we need to use these resources
judiciously.
Activity 16.10
Coal is used in thermal power stations and petroleum products
like petrol and diesel are used in means of transport like motor
vehicles, ships and aeroplanes. We cannot really imagine life
without a number of electrical appliances and constant use of
transportation. So can you think of ways in which our consumption
of coal and petroleum products be reduced?
1 6 . 5 AN OVERVIEW OF NATUR
NATUR AL RESOURCE
TURAL
MANAGEMENT
Sustainable management of natural resources is a difficult task. In
addressing this issue, we need to keep an open mind with regard to the
interests of various stakeholders. We need to accept that people will act
with their own best interests as the priority. But the realisation that
such selfish goals will lead to misery for a large number of people and a
total destruction of our environment is slowly growing. Going beyond
laws, rules and regulations, we need to tailor our requirements,
individually and collectively, so that the benefits of development reach
everyone now and for all generations to come.
E X E R C I S E S
1. What changes would you suggest in your home in order to be environment-friendly?
2. Can you suggest some changes in your school which would make it environment-
friendly?
3. We saw in this chapter that there are four main stakeholders when it comes to
forests and wildlife. Which among these should have the authority to decide the
management of forest produce? Why do you think so?
278 Science
4. How can you as an individual contribute or make a difference to the management
of (a) forests and wildlife, (b) water resources and (c) coal and petroleum?
5. What can you as an individual do to reduce your consumption of the various
natural resources?
6. List five things you have done over the last one week to –
(a) conserve our natural resources.
(b) increase the pressure on our natural resources.
7. On the basis of the issues raised in this chapter, what changes would you incorporate
in your life-style in a move towards a sustainable use of our resources?
CLIMATE
W
e drink more water during summers. the weather and climate of different regions of
Your uniform during the summer is India. For example, the climate of Kerala and
different from the winters. Why do Tamil Nadu in the south are so different from
you wear lighter clothes during summers and that of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the north,
heavy woollen clothes during winters in north and yet all of these have a monsoon type of
India? In southern India, woollen clothes are climate. The climate of India has many regional
not required. In northeastern states, winters variations expressed in the pattern of winds,
are mild except in the hills. There are variations temperature and rainfall, rhythm of seasons
in weather conditions during different seasons. and the degree of wetness or dryness. These
These changes occur due to the changes in the regional diversities may be described as
elements of weather (temperature, pressure, sub-types of monsoon climate. Let us take a
wind direction and velocity, humidity and closer look at these regional variations in
precipitation, etc.). temperature, winds and rainfall.
While in the summer the mercury
Weather is the momentary state of the occasionally touches 55°C in the western
atmosphere while climate refers to the Rajasthan, it drops down to as low as minus
average of the weather conditions over a 45°C in winter around Leh. Churu in Rajasthan
longer period of time. Weather changes may record a temperature of 50°C or more on a
quickly, may be within a day or week but
June day while the mercury hardly touches
climate changes imperceptively and may
19°C in Tawang (Arunachal Pradesh) on the
be noted after 50 years or even more.
same day. On a December night, temperature
in Drass (Jammu and Kashmir) may drop down
You have already studied about the
to minus 45°C while Tiruvanantapuram or
monsoon in your earlier classes. You are also
Chennai on the same night records 20°C or
aware of the meaning of the word, “monsoon”.
22°C. These examples confirm that there are
Monsoon connotes the climate associated with
seasonal variations in temperature from place
seasonal reversal in the direction of winds.
to place and from region to region in India. Not
India has hot monsoonal climate which is the
only this, if we take only a single place and
prevalent climate in south and southeast Asia.
record the temperature for just one day,
variations are no less striking. In Kerala and in
UNITY AND DIVERSITY IN THE MONSOON CLIMATE
the Andaman Islands, the difference between
The monsoon regime emphasises the unity of day and night temperatures may be hardly
India with the rest of southeast Asian region. seven or eight degree Celsius. But in the Thar
This view of broad unity of the monsoon type desert, if the day temperature is around 50°C,
of climate should not, however, lead one to at night, it may drop down considerably upto
ignore its regional variations which differentiate 15°-20°C.
34 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Now, let us see the regional variations in experiences extreme climate with high daily
precipitation. While snowfall occurs in the and annual range of temperature.
Himalayas, it only rains over the rest of the
country. Similarly, variations are noticeable not The Himalayan Mountains : The lofty Himalayas
only in the type of precipitation but also in its in the north along with its extensions act as an
amount. While Cherrapunji and Mawsynram effective climatic divide. The towering mountain
in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya receive rainfall chain provides an invincible shield to protect
over 1,080 cm in a year, Jaisalmer in Rajasthan the subcontinent from the cold northern winds.
rarely gets more than 9 cm of rainfall during These cold and chilly winds originate near the
the same period. Arctic circle and blow across central and eastern
Tura situated in the Garo Hills of Asia. The Himalayas also trap the monsoon
Meghalaya may receive an amount of rainfall winds, forcing them to shed their moisture
in a single day which is equal to 10 years of within the subcontinent.
rainfall at Jaisalmer. While the annual
Distribution of Land and Water : India is
precipitation is less than 10 cm in the north-
flanked by the Indian Ocean on three sides in
west Himalayas and the western deserts, it
the south and girdled by a high and
exceeds 400 cm in Meghalaya.
continuous mountain-wall in the north. As
The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of
compared to the landmass, water heats up or
Orissa are hit by strong rain-bearing storms
almost every third or fifth day in July and cools down slowly. This differential heating of
August while the Coromandal coast, a land and sea creates different air pressure
thousand km to the south, goes generally dry zones in different seasons in and around the
during these months. Most parts of the country Indian subcontinent. Difference in air pressure
get rainfall during June-September, but on the causes reversal in the direction of monsoon
coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, it rains in the winds.
beginning of the winter season. Distance from the Sea : With a long coastline,
In spite of these differences and variations, large coastal areas have an equable climate.
the climate of India is monsoonal in rhythm Areas in the interior of India are far away from
and character. the moderating influence of the sea. Such
areas have extremes of climate. That is why,
FACTORS DETERMINING THE CLIMATE OF INDIA the people of Mumbai and the Konkan coast
India’s climate is controlled by a number of have hardly any idea of extremes of
factors which can be broadly divided into two temperature and the seasonal rhythm of
groups — factors related to location and relief, weather. On the other hand, the seasonal
and factors related to air pressure and winds. contrasts in weather at places in the interior of
the country such as Delhi, Kanpur and
Factors related to Location and Relief Amritsar affect the entire sphere of life.
Latitude : You already know the latitudinal and Altitude : Temperature decreases with height.
longitudinal extent of the land of India. You Due to thin air, places in the mountains are
also know that the Tropic of Cancer passes cooler than places on the plains. For example,
through the central part of India in east-west Agra and Darjiling are located on the same
direction. Thus, northern part of the India lies latitude, but temperature of January in Agra
in sub-tropical and temperate zone and the is 16°C whereas it is only 4°C in Darjiling.
part lying south of the Tropic of Cancer falls in
the tropical zone. The tropical zone being Relief : The physiography or relief of India also
nearer to the equator, experiences high affects the temperature, air pressure, direction
temperatures throughout the year with small and speed of wind and the amount and
daily and annual range. Area north of the distribution of rainfall. The windward sides of
Tropic of Cancer being away from the equator, Western Ghats and Assam receive high rainfall
CLIMATE 35
during June-September whereas the southern up in the lower troposphere, about three km
plateau remains dry due to its leeward above the surface of the earth, a different pattern
situation along the Western Ghats. of air circulation is observed. The variations in
the atmospheric pressure closer to the surface
Factors Related to Air Pressure and Wind of the earth have no role to play in the making of
upper air circulation. All of Western and Central
To understand the differences in local climates
Asia remains under the influence of westerly
of India, we need to understand the
winds along the altitude of 9-13 km from west
mechanism of the following three factors:
to east. These winds blow across the Asian
(i) Distribution of air pressure and winds continent at latitudes north of the Himalayas
on the surface of the earth. roughly parallel to the Tibetan highlands
(ii) Upper air circulation caused by factors (Figure 4.1). These are known as jet streams.
controlling global weather and the inflow Tibetan highlands act as a barrier in the path of
of different air masses and jet streams. these jet streams. As a result, jet streams get
(iii) Inflow of western cyclones generally bifurcated. One of its branches blows to the north
known as disturbances during the winter of the Tibetan highlands, while the southern
season and tropical depressions during branch blows in an eastward direction, south of
the south-west monsoon period into the Himalayas. It has its mean position at 25°N
India, creating weather conditions in February at 200-300 mb level. It is believed
favourable to rainfall. that this southern branch of the jet stream
The mechanism of these three factors can exercises an important influence on the winter
be understood with reference to winter and weather in India.
summer seasons of the year separately.
brought into India by the westerly jet stream. An shifts northwards, roughly parallel to the
increase in the prevailing night temperature Himalayas between 20° N and 25° N. By this
generally indicates an advance in the arrival of these time, the westerly jet stream withdraws from
cyclones disturbances. the Indian region. In fact, meteorologists have
Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of found an interrelationship between the
Bengal and the Indian ocean. These tropical northward shift of the equatorial trough (ITCZ)
cyclones have very high wind velocity and heavy and the withdrawal of the westerly jet stream
rainfall and hit the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh from over the North Indian Plain. It is generally
and Orissa coast. Most of these cyclones are very believed that there is a cause and effect
destructive due to high wind velocity and torrential relationship between the two. The ITCZ being
rain that accompanies it. Have you seen their a zone of low pressure, attracts inflow of winds
movement in the weather report in the television? from different directions. The maritime tropical
airmass (mT) from the southern hemisphere,
Mechanism of Weather in the Summer Season after crossing the equator, rushes to the low
pressure area in the general southwesterly
Surface Pressure and Winds : As the summer direction. It is this moist air current which is
sets in and the sun shifts northwards, the wind popularly known as the southwest monsoon.
circulation over the subcontinent undergoes
a complete reversal at both, the lower as well Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation : The
as the upper levels. By the middle of July, the pattern of pressure and winds as mentioned
low pressure belt nearer the surface [termed above is formed only at the level of the
as Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)] troposphere. An easterly jet stream flows over
the southern part of the Peninsula in June, and THE NATURE OF INDIAN MONSOON
has a maximum speed of 90 km per hour
(Figure 4.3). In August, it is confined to 15oN Monsoon is a familiar though a little known
latitude, and in September up to 22o N latitudes. climatic phenomenon. Despite the observations
The easterlies normally do not extend to the north spread over centuries, the monsoon continues
of 30o N latitude in the upper atmosphere. to puzzle the scientists. Many attempts have
been made to discover the exact nature and
causation of monsoon, but so far, no single
theory has been able to explain the monsoon
fully. A real breakthrough has come recently
when it was studied at the global rather than
at regional level.
Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall
in the South Asian region help to understand
the causes and salient features of the monsoon,
particularly some of its important aspects,
such as:
(i) The onset of the monsoon.
(ii) Rain-bearing systems (e.g. tropical
cyclones) and the relationship between
their frequency and distribution of
monsoon rainfall.
(iii) Break in the monsoon.
The frequency of the tropical depressions may be quite low, sometimes going below
originating from the Bay of Bengal varies from freezing point in Punjab and Rajasthan.
year to year. Their paths over India are mainly There are three main reasons for the excessive
determined by the position of ITCZ which is cold in north India during this season :
generally termed as the monsoon trough. As (i) States like Punjab, Haryana and
the axis of the monsoon trough oscillates, there Rajasthan being far away from the
are fluctuations in the track and direction of moderating influence of sea experience
these depressions, and the intensity and the continental climate.
amount of rainfall vary from year to year. The (ii) The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan
rain which comes in spells, displays a declining ranges creates cold wave situation; and
trend from west to east over the west coast, and (iii) Around February, the cold winds coming
from the southeast towards the northwest over from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan
the North Indian Plain and the northern part bring cold wave along with frost and fog
of the Peninsula. over the northwestern parts of India.
India, the air pressure is slightly lower. The Himalayan rivers during the summer
isobars of 1019 mb and 1013 mb pass months. The precipitation goes on
through northwest India and far south, decreasing from west to east in the
respectively (Figure 4.7). plains and from north to south in the
As a result, winds start blowing from mountains. The average winter rainfall
northwestern high pressure zone to the low air in Delhi is around 53 mm. In Punjab
pressure zone over the Indian Ocean in the and Bihar, rainfall remains between 25
south. mm and 18 mm respectively.
Due to low pressure gradient, the light (ii) Central parts of India and northern
winds with a low velocity of about 3-5 km per parts of southern Peninsula also get
hour begin to blow outwards. By and large, winter rainfall occasionally.
the topography of the region influences the (iii) Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in the
wind direction. They are westerly or northeastern parts of India also have
northwesterly down the Ganga Valley. They rains between 25 mm and 50 mm
become northerly in the Ganga-Brahmaputra during these winter months.
delta. Free from the influence of topography, (iv) D u r i n g O c t o b e r a n d N o v e m b e r,
they are clearly northeasterly over the Bay of northeast monsoon while crossing over
Bengal. the Bay of Bengal, picks up moisture
During the winters, the weather in India and causes torrential rainfall over the
is pleasant. The pleasant weather conditions, Tamil Nadu coast, southern Andhra
however, at intervals, get disturbed by shallow Pradesh, southeast Karnataka and
cyclonic depressions originating over the east southeast Kerala.
Mediterranean Sea and travelling eastwards
across West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and The Hot Weather Season
Pakistan before they reach the northwestern Temperature: With the apparent northward
parts of India. On their way, the moisture movement of the sun towards the Tropic of
content gets augmented from the Caspian Sea Cancer in March, temperatures start rising
in the north and the Persian Gulf in the south. in north India. April, May and June are the
What is the role of Westerly Jet Streams in months of summer in north India. In most
steering these depressions in India? parts of India, temperatures recorded are
Rainfall : Winter monsoons do not cause between 30°-32°C. In March, the highest day
rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It is temperature of about 38°C occurs in the
because firstly, they have little humidity; and Deccan Plateau while in April, temperature
secondly, due to anti cyclonic circulation on ranging between 38°C and 43°C are found
land, the possibility of rainfall from them in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. In May,
reduces. So, most parts of India do not have the heat belt moves further north, and in the
rainfall in the winter season. However, there are north-western part of India, temperatures
some exceptions to it: around 48°C are not uncommon (Figure 4.8).
(i) In northwestern India, some weak The hot weather season in south India is
temperate cyclones from the mild and not so intense as found in north
Mediterranean sea cause rainfall in India. The Peninsular situation of south
Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western India with moderating effect of the oceans
Uttar Pradesh. Although the amount keeps the temperatures lower than that
is meagre, it is highly beneficial for prevailing in north India. So, temperatures
rabi crops. The precipitation is in the remain between 26°C and 32°C. Due to
form of snowfall in the lower altitude, the temperatures in the hills of
Himalayas. It is this snow that Western Ghats remain below 25°C. In the
sustains the flow of water in the coastal regions, the north-south extent of
CLIMATE 43
monsoons. The monsoon may burst in the and Haryana, it too joins the Bay of
first week of June in the coastal areas of Kerala, Bengal branch. These two branches,
Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra while in the reinforced by each other, cause rains in
interior parts of the country, it may be delayed the western Himalayas,
to the first week of July. The day temperature
registers a decline of 5°C to 8°C between mid- Monsoon Winds of the Bay of Bengal
June and mid-July.
The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast
As these winds approach the land, their
of Myanmar and part of southeast
southwesterly direction is modified by the relief
Bangladesh. But the Arakan Hills along the
and thermal low pressure over the northwest
coast of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this
India. The monsoon approaches the landmass
branch towards the Indian subcontinent. The
in two branches:
monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and
(i) The Arabian Sea branch
Bangladesh from south and southeast
(ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.
instead of from the south-westerly direction.
From here, this branch splits into two under
Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea
the influence of the Himalayas and the
The monsoon winds originating over the thermal low is northwest India. Its one
Arabian Sea further split into three branches: branch moves westward along the Ganga
(i) Its one branch is obstructed by the plains reaching as far as the Punjab plains.
Western Ghats. These winds climb the The other branch moves up the Brahmaputra
slopes of the Wester n Ghats from valley in the north and the northeast, causing
900-1200 m. Soon, they become cool, widespread rains. Its sub-branch strikes the
and as a result, the windward side of the Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya.
Sahyadris and Western Coastal Plain Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi
receive very heavy rainfall ranging hills, receives the highest average annual
between 250 cm and 400 cm. After rainfall in the world.
crossing the Western Ghats, these winds Here it is important to know why the Tamil
descend and get heated up. This reduces Nadu coast remains dry during this season.
humidity in the winds. As a result, these There are two factors responsible for it:
winds cause little rainfall east of the
Western Ghats. This region of low rainfall (i) The Tamil Nadu coast is situated
is known as the rain-shadow area. Find parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of
out the rainfall at Kozhikode, Mangalore, southwest monsoon.
Pune and Bangalore and note the (ii) It lies in the rainshadow area of the
difference (Figure 4.10). Arabian Sea branch of the south-west
(ii) Another branch of the Arabian sea monsoon.
monsoon strikes the coast north of
Characteristics of Monsoonal Rainfall
Mumbai. Moving along the Narmada and
Tapi river valleys, these winds cause (i) Rainfall received from the southwest
rainfall in extensive areas of central India. monsoons is seasonal in character,
The Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm which occurs between June and
rainfall from this part of the branch. September.
Thereafter, they enter the Ganga plains (ii) Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed
and mingle with the Bay of Bengal branch. by relief or topography. For instance
(iii) A third branch of this monsoon wind the windward side of the Western Ghats
strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and the register a rainfall of over 250 cm. Again,
Kachchh. It then passes over west the heavy rainfall in the northeastern
Rajasthan and along the Aravallis, states can be attributed to their hill
causing only a scanty rainfall. In Punjab ranges and the Eastern Himalayas.
48 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
(iii) The monsoon rainfall has a declining over Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. By the
trend with increasing distance from the middle of December, the centre of low pressure
sea. Kolkata receives 119 cm during is completely removed from the Peninsula.
the southwest monsoon period, Patna The retreating southwest monsoon season
105 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi is marked by clear skies and rise in
56 cm. temperature. The land is still moist. Owing to
(iv) The monsoon rains occur in wet spells the conditions of high temperature and
of few days duration at a time. The wet humidity, the weather becomes rather
spells are interspersed with rainless oppressive. This is commonly known as the
interval known as ‘breaks’. These breaks ‘October heat’. In the second half of October,
in rainfall are related to the cyclonic the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly
depressions mainly formed at the head in northern India. The weather in the
of the Bay of Bengal, and their crossing retreating monsoon is dry in north India but
into the mainland. Besides the frequency it is associated with rain in the eastern part of
and intensity of these depressions, the the Peninsula. Here, October and November
passage followed by them determines are the rainiest months of the year.
the spatial distribution of rainfall. The widespread rain in this season is
(v) The summer rainfall comes in a heavy associated with the passage of cyclonic
downpour leading to considerable run depressions which originate over the
off and soil erosion. Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
(vi) Monsoons play a pivotal role in the eastern coast of the southern Peninsula. These
agrarian economy of India because over tropical cyclones are very destructive. The
three-fourths of the total rain in the thickly populated deltas of the Godavari,
country is received during the south- Krishna and Kaveri are their preferred targets.
west monsoon season. Every year cyclones bring disaster here. A few
(vii) Its spatial distribution is also uneven cyclonic storms also strike the coast of West
which ranges from 12 cm to more than Bengal, Bangladesh and Myanmar. A bulk of
250 cm. the rainfall of the Coromondal coast is derived
(viii) The beginning of the rains sometimes from these depressions and cyclones. Such
is considerably delayed over the whole cyclonic storms are less frequent in the
or a part of the country. Arabian Sea.
(ix) The rains sometimes end considerably
earlier than usual, causing great TRADITIONAL INDIAN SEASONS
damage to standing crops and making
In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into
the sowing of winter crops difficult.
six two-monthly seasons. This cycle of seasons,
which the common people in north and central
Season of Retreating Monsoon
India follow is based on their practical
The months of October and November are experience and age-old perception of weather
known for retreating monsoons. By the end phenomena. However, this system does not
of September, the southwest monsoon match with the seasons of south India where
becomes weak as the low pressure trough of there is little variation in the seasons.
the Ganga plain starts moving southward in
Seasons Months Months
response to the southward march of the sun. (According to the (According to the
The monsoon retreats from the western Indian Calendar) Indian Calendar)
Rajasthan by the first week of September. It
Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April
withdraws from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June
Ganga plain and the Central Highlands by the Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August
end of the month. By the beginning of October, Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October
the low pressure covers northern parts of the Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-December
Bay of Bengal and by early November, it moves Shishira Magha-Phalguna January-February
50 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Koeppen used letter symbols to denote (vii) Winter rainfall by temperate cyclones in
climatic types as given above. Each type is north India is highly beneficial for rabi crops.
further sub-divided into sub-types on the (viii) Regional climatic variation in India is
basis of seasonal variations in the reflected in the vast variety of food, clothes
distributional pattern of rainfall and and house types.
temperature. He used S for semi-arid and W
for arid and the following small letters to define GLOBAL WARMING
sub-types: f (sufficient precipitation), m (rain
forest despite a dry monsoon season), w (dry You know that change is the law of nature.
season in winter), h (dry and hot), c (less than Climate has also witnessed change in the past
four months with mean temperature over at the global as well as at local levels. It is
10°C), and g (Gangetic plain). Accordingly, changing even now but the change is
India can be divided into eight climatic regions imperceptible. A number of geological
(Table 4.1; Figure 4.13). evidences suggest that once upon a time,
Table 4.1 : Climatic Regions of India According to Koeppen’s Scheme
Type of Climate Areas
Amw Monsoon with short dry season West coast of India south of Goa
As – Monsoon with dry summer Coromandel coast of Tamil Nadu
Aw – Tripical savannah Most of the Peninsular plateaus, south of the Tropic of Cancer
Bwhw – Semi-arid steppe climate North-western Gujarat, some parts of western Rajasthan and
Punjab
Bwhw – Hot desert Extreme western Rajasthan
Cwg – Monsoon with dry winter Ganga plain, eastern Rajasthan, northern Madhya Pradesh,
most of North-east India
Dfc – Cold humid winter with short summer Arunachal Pradesh
E – Polar type Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal
Monsoons and the Economic Life in India (see geological time scale in Chapter 2 of
Fundamentals of Physical Geography, NCERT,
(i) Monsoon is that axis around which
2006) large part of the earth was under ice cover.
revolves the entire agricultural cycle of
Now you might have read or heard the debate
India. It is because about 64 per cent
on global warming. Besides the natural causes,
people of India depend on agriculture for
human activities such as large scale
their livelihood and agriculture itself is
industrialisation and presence of polluting gas
based on southwest monsoon.
(ii) Except Himalayas all the parts of the in the atmosphere are also important factors
country have temperature above the responsible for global warming. You might have
threashold level to grow the crops or heard about the “green house effect” while
plants throughout the year.. discussing global warming.
(iii) Regional variations in monsoon climate The temperature of the world is
help in growing various types of crops. significantly increasing. Carbon dioxide
(iv) Variability of rainfall brings droughts or produced by human activities is a major
floods every year in some parts of the country. source of concern. This gas, released to the
(v) Agricultural prosperity of India depends atmosphere in large quantities by burning
very much on timely and adequately of fossil fuel, is increasing gradually. Other
distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture gases like methane, chlorofluorocarbons,
is adversely affected particularly in those and nitrous oxide which are present in much
regions where means of irrigation are not smaller concentrations in the atmosphere,
developed. together with carbon dioxide are known as
(vi) Sudden monsoon burst creates problem green house gases. These gases are better
of soil erosion over large areas in India. absorbers of long wave radiations than carbon
54 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
dioxide, and so, are more effective at ice melt in response to warming. According
enhancing the green house effect. These to the current prediction, on an average, the
gases have been contributing to global sea level will rise 48 cm by the end of twenty
warming. It is said that due to global warming first century. This would increase the
the polar ice caps and mountain glaciers incidence of annual flooding. Climatic
would melt and the amount of water in the change would promote insect-borne
oceans would increase. diseases like malaria, and lead to shift in
The mean annual surface temperature climatic boundaries, making some regions
of the earth in the past 150 years has wetter and others drier. Agricultural pattern
increased. It is projected that by the year would shift and human population as well
2,100, global temperature will warm about as the ecosystem would experience change.
2°C. This rise in temperature will What would happen to the Indian sea
accompany many other changes: one of coasts if the sea level rises 50 cm above the
these is a rise in sea level, as glacier and sea present one?
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) What causes rainfall on the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu in the beginning
of winters?
(a) South-West monsoon (c) North-Eastern monsoon
(b) Temperate cyclones (d) Local air circulation
(ii) What is the proportion of area of India which receives annual rainfall less
than 75 cm?
(a) Half (c) Two-third
(b) One-third (d) Three-fourth
(iii) Which one of the following is not a fact regarding South India?
(a) Diurnal range of temperature is less here.
(b) Annual range of temperature is less here.
(c) Temperatures here are high throughout the year.
(d) Extreme climatic conditions are found here.
(iv) Which one of the following phenomenon happens when the sun shines
vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere?
(a) High pressure develops over North-western India due to low
temperatures.
(b) Low pressure develops over North-western India due to high
temperatures.
(c) No changes in temperature and pressure occur in north-western
India.
(d) ‘Loo’ blows in the North-western India.
(v) In which of the following states in India do we find ‘As’ type of climate as
per Koeppen’s classification?
(a) In Kerala and coastal Karnataka
(b) In Andaman and Nicobar Islands
(c) On Coromandal coast
(d) In Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
56 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
NATURAL VEGETATION
H
ave you ever been to a forest for a picnic? Tropical Evergreen and
You might have surely gone to a park if Semi Evergreen Forests
you live in a city or to a mango, guava
These forests are found in the western slope
or coconut orchard, if you live in a village. How
do you differentiate between the natural of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern
vegetation and the planted vegetation? The same region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
variety may be found growing wild in the forest They are found in warm and humid areas with
under natural conditions and the same tree an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and
may be the planted one in your garden under mean annual temperature above 22 oC.
human supervision. Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified,
Natural vegetation refers to a plant with layers closer to the ground and are
community that has been left undisturbed over covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
a long time, so as to allow its individual species structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
to adjust themselves to climate and soil In these forests, trees reach great heights up
conditions as fully as possible. to 60 m or above. There is no definite time for
India is a land of great variety of natural trees to shed their leaves, flowering and
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked with fruition. As such these forests appear green
temperate vegetation; the Western Ghats and all the year round. Species found in these
the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical forests include rosewood, mahogony, aini,
rain forests, the deltaic regions have tropical ebony, etc.
forests and mangroves; the desert and semi The semi evergreen forests are found in the
desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cactii, less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests
a wide variety of bushes and thorny vegetation. have a mixture of evergreen and moist
Depending upon the variations in the climate deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers
and the soil, the vegetation of India changes provide an evergreen character to these forests.
from one region to another. Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail.
On the basis of certain common features
such as predominant vegetation type and
climatic regions, Indian forests can be divided
into the following groups:
TYPES OF FORESTS
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi
Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Montane forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests. Figure 5.1 : Evergreen Forest
58 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The British were aware of the economic the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. In the
value of the forests in India, hence, large scale higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau
exploitation of these forests was started. The and the northern Indian plain, these forests
structure of forests was also changed. The oak have a parkland landscape with open stretches
forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced in which teak and other trees interspersed with
by pine (chirs) which was needed to lay railway patches of grass are common. As the dry
lines. Forests were also cleared for introducing season begins, the trees shed their leaves
plantations of tea, rubber and coffee. The completely and the forest appears like a vast
British also used timber for construction grassland with naked trees all around. Tendu,
activities as it acts as an insulator of heat. The palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc. are
protectional use of forests was, thus, replaced the common trees of these forests. In the
by commercial use. western and southern part of Rajasthan,
vegetation cover is very scanty due to low
Tropical Deciduous Forests rainfall and overgrazing.
These are the most widespread forests in India.
They are also called the monsoon forests. They Tropical Thorn Forests
spread over regions which receive rainfall Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which
between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist
availability of water, these forests are further of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes
divided into moist and dry deciduous. semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants
remain leafless for most part of the year and
give an expression of scrub vegetation.
Important species found are babool, ber, and
wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc.
Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m as
the under growth.
The Himalayan ranges show a succession The southern mountain forests include
of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, the forests found in three distinct areas of
which change in with the altitude. Deciduous Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the
forests are found in the foothills of the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer
Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the
temperate type of forests between an altitude sea level, vegetation is temperate in the higher
of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill ranges of regions, and subtropical on the lower regions
northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala,
and Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The temperate
such as oak and chestnut are predominant. forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris,
Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests are also Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other
well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine as trees of this forest of economic significance
a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a highly include, magnolia, laurel, cinchona and
valued endemic species grows mainly in the wattle. Such forests are also found in the
western part of the Himalayan range. Deodar Satpura and the Maikal ranges.
is a durable wood mainly used in construction
activity. Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, Littoral and Swamp Forests
which sustain the famous Kashmir India has a rich variety of wetland habitats.
handicrafts, belong to this zone. Blue pine and About 70 per cent of this comprises areas
spruce appear at altitudes of 2,225-3,048 m. under paddy cultivation. The total area of wet
At many places in this zone, temperate land is 3.9 million hectares. Two sites —
grasslands are also found. But in the higher Chilika Lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National
reaches there is a transition to Alpine forests Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl
and pastures. Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of
and rhododendrons, etc. occur between International Importance (Ramsar Convention).
3,000-4,000 m. However, these pastures are
used extensively for transhumance by tribes An international convention is an
like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas agreement among member states of
and the Gaddis. The southern slopes of the the United Nations.
Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover
because of relatively higher precipitation than The country’s wetlands have been grouped
the drier north-facing slopes. At higher into eight categories, viz. (i) the reservoirs of the
altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the
tundra vegetation. lagoons and other wetlands of the southern
west coast; (ii) the vast saline expanses of
Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh;
(iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat
eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo
National Park) and Madhya Pradesh; (iv) the
delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast
(Chilika Lake); (v) the freshwater marshes of the
Gangetic Plain; (vi) the floodplains of the
Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the
hills of northeast India and the Himalayan
foothills; (vii) the lakes and rivers of the montane
region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the
mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island
arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt
Figure 5.5 : Montane Forests marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries.
NATURAL VEGETATION 61
They consist of a number of salt-tolerant species Most of the forests in Punjab and Haryana have
of plants. Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant been cleared for cultivation. States with 10-20
water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter per cent forest area are Tamil Nadu and West
to a wide variety of birds. Bengal. In Peninsular India, excluding Tamil
Nadu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Goa, the area
under forest cover is 20-30 per cent. The
northeastern states have more than 30 per cent
of the land under forest. Hilly topography and
heavy rainfall are good for forest growth.
There is a lot of variation in actual forest cover,
which ranges from 9.56 per cent in Jammu and
Kashmir to 84.01 per cent in Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. From the table showing the
distribution of forests in India (Appendix IV), it is
clear that there are 15 states where the forest cover
is more than one-third of the total area, which is
the basic requirement for maintaining the
Figure 5.6 : Mangrove Forests ecological balance.
On the basis of the percentage of the actual
In India, the mangrove forests spread over forest cover, the states have been grouped into
6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the world’s four regions:
mangrove forests. They are highly developed in
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the The Region Percentage
Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other areas of Cover of the
Forest
significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and
the Krishna deltas. These forests too, are being (i) The region of high concentration > 40
encroached upon, and hence, need conservation. (ii) The region of medium concentration 20-40
(iii) The region of low concentration 10-20
FOREST COVER IN INDIA
(iv) The region of very low concentration < 10
According to state records, the forest area
covers 23.28 per cent of the total land area of Taking the data from Appendix IV, list the states under
the country. It is important to note that the the four regins of forest cover
forest area and the actual forest cover are not
the same. The forest area is the area notified FOREST CONSERVATION
and recorded as the forest land irrespective of Forests have an intricate interrelationship with
the existence of trees, while the actual forest life and environment. These provide numerous
cover is the area occupied by forests with
direct and indirect advantages to our economy
canopy. The former is based on the records of
and society. Hence, conservation of forest is of
the State Revenue Department, while the latter
vital importance to the survival and prosperity
is based on aerial photographs and satellite
of humankind. Accordingly, the Government
imageries. In 2001, the actual forest cover was
only 20.55 per cent. Of the forest cover, the of India proposed to have a nation-wide forest
share of dense and open forests was 12.60 per conservation policy, and adopted a forest
cent and 7.87 per cent rerspectively. policy in 1952, which was further modified in
Both forest area and forest cover vary from 1988. According to the new forest policy, the
state to state. Lakshadweep has zero per cent Government will emphasise sustainable forest
forest area; Andaman and Nicobar Islands have management in order to conserve and expand
86.93 per cent. Most of the states with less than forest reserve on the one hand, and to meet
10 per cent of the forest area lie in the north and the needs of local people on the other.
northwestern part of the country. These are The forest policy aimed at : (i) bringing 33
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana and Delhi. per cent of the geographical areas under forest
62 INDIA : PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
cover; (ii) maintaining environmental stability Based on the forest conservation policy the
and to restore forests where ecological balance following steps were initiated:
was disturbed; (iii) conserving the natural
heritage of the country, its biological diversity Social Forestry
and genetic pool; (iv) checks soil erosion,
Social forestry means the management and
extension of the desert lands and reduction of
protection of forests and afforestation on barren
floods and droughts; (v) increasing the forest
lands with the purpose of helping in the
cover through social forestry and afforestation
environmental, social and rural development.
on degraded land; (vi) increasing the
The National Commission on Agriculture
productivity of forests to make timber, fuel,
(1976) has classified social forestry into three
fodder and food available to rural population
dependant on forests, and encourage the categories. These are Urban forestry, Rural
substitution of wood; (vii) creating of a massive forestry and Farm forestry.
peoples movement involving women to Urban forestry pertains to the raising and
encourage planting of trees, stop felling of trees management of trees on public and privately
and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest. owned lands in and around urban centres
such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues,
Forests and Life industrial and commercial green belts, etc.
To a vast number of tribal people, the Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion
forest is a home, a livelihood, their of agro-forestry and community-forestry.
very existence. It provides them food, Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and
fruits of all kinds, edible leaves, honey, agriculture crops on the same land inclusive
nourishing roots and wild game. It of the waste patches. It combines forestry with
provides them with material to build agriculture, thus, altering the simultaneous
their houses and items for practising production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and
their arts. The importance of forests
fruit. Community forestry involves the raising
in tribal economy is well-known as
they are the source of sustenance and
of trees on public or community land such as
livelihood for tribal communities. It is the village pasture and temple land, roadside,
commonly believed that the tribal canal bank, strips along railway lines, and
communities live in harmony with schools etc. Community forestry programme
nature and protect forests. Out of a aims at providing benefits to the community
total of 593 districts 187 (2001) have as a whole. Community forestry provides a
been identified as tribal districts. The means under which the people of landless
tribal districts account for about 59.8 classes can associate themselves in tree-
per cent of the total forest cover of the
raising and thus, get those benefits which
country whereas the geographical
area of 187 tribal districts forms only otherwise are restricted for landowners.
33.6 per cent of the total geographical
area of the country. It demonstrates Farm Forestry
that tribal districts are generally rich Farm forestry is a term applied to the process
in forest cover.
under which farmers grow trees for
Forest and tribals are very closely commercial and non-commercial purposes on
related. The age-old knowledge of their farm lands.
tribals regarding forestry can be used Forest departments of various states
in the development of forests. Rather distribute seedlings of trees free of cost to
than treating tribals as minor forest
small and medium farmers. Several lands
produce collectors they should be
made growers of minor forest produce such as the margins of agricultural fields,
and encouraged to participate in grasslands and pastures, land around homes
conservation. and cow sheds may be used for raising trees
under non-commercial farm forestry.
NATURAL VEGETATION 63
(iii) Sunderbans; and (iv) Gulf of Mannar have weed and orchids like latifolie and
been recognised by the UNESCO on World rhododendron. The biosphere reserve has a
Network of Biosphere Reserves. rich fauna, for example the snow leopard,
black bear, brown bear, musk deer, snow-
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve cock, golden eagle and black eagle.
Major threats to the ecosystem are the
The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), the first collection of endangered plants for medicinal
of the fourteen biosphere reserves of India, was use, forest fires and poaching.
established in September 1986. It embraces
the sanctuary complex of Wyanad, Nagarhole, Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve
Bandipur and Mudumalai, the entire forested
hill slopes of Nilambur, the Upper Nilgiri It is located in the swampy delta of the river
plateau, Silent Valley and the Siruvani hills. Ganga in West Bengal. It extends over a vast
The total area of the biosphere reserve is area of 9,630 sq. km and consists of mangrove
around 5,520 sq. km. forests, swamps and forested islands.
The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve possesses Sunderbans is the home of nearly 200 Royal
different habitat types, unspoilt areas of Bengal tigers.
natural vegetation types with several dry The tangled mass of roots of mangrove
scrubs, dry and moist deciduous, semi- trees provide safe homes for a large number
evergreen and wet evergreen forests, evergreen of species, from fish to shrimp. More than 170
sholas, grasslands and swamps. It includes birds species are known to inhabit these
the largest known population of two mangrove forests.
endangered animal species, namely the Nilgiri Adapting itself to the saline and fresh water
Tahr and the Lion-tailed macaque. The largest environment, the tigers at the park are good
south Indian population of elephant, tiger, swimmers, and they hunt scarce preys such
gaur, sambar and chital as well as a good as chital deer, barking deer, wild pig and even
number of endemic and endangered plants are macaques. In the Sunderbans, the mangrove
also found in this reserve. The habitat of a forests are characterised by Heritiera fomes,
number of tribal groups remarkable for their a species valued for its timber.
traditional modes of harmonious use of the
environment are also found here. Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve
The topography of the NBR is extremely The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers
varied, ranging from an altitude of 250 m to an area of 105,000 hectares on the southeast
2,650 m. About 80 per cent of the flowering coast of India. It is one of the world’s richest
plants reported from the Western Ghats occur regions from a marine biodiversity perspective.
in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
The biosphere reserve comprises 21 islands
with estuaries, beaches, forests of the
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
nearshore environment, sea grasses, coral
The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve situated reefs, salt marshes and mangroves. Among the
in Uttaranchal includes parts of Chamoli, Gulf’’s 3,600 plant and animal species are the
Almora, Pithoragarh and Bageshwar districts. globally endangered sea cow (Dugong dugon)
The major forest types of the reserve are and six mangrove species, endemic to
temperate. A few important species are silver Peninsular India.
EXERCISES
1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
(i) Sandalwood is an example of:
(a) Evergreen forest (c) Deltaic forest
(b) Deciduous forest (d) Thorny forest
NATURAL VEGETATION 67
(ii) Which one of the following was the purpose of Project Tiger?
(a) to kill tigers (c) to protect tigers from illegal hunting
(b) to put tigers in the Zoo (d) to make films on tigers
(iii) In which one of the following states is the Nandadevi Biosphere reserve
situated?
(a) Bihar (c) Uttaranchal
(b) Uttar Pradesh (d) Orissa
(iv) How many of the following numbers of Biosphere reserves are recognised
by the IUCN?
(a) One (c) Three
(b) Two (d) Four
(v) Which one of the following proportion of area of the country was targeted
to be under forest in Forest Policy of India?
(a) 33 (c) 55
(b) 44 (d) 22
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) What is natural vegetation? Under what climatic conditions are tropical
evergreen forests develop?
(ii) What do you understand by social forestry?
(iii) Define Biosphere reserves?
(iv) What is the difference between forest area and forest cover?
3. Answer the following questions in not more than 150 words.
(i) What steps have been taken up to conserve forests?
(ii) How can people’s participation be effective in conserving forests and wildlife?
Project/Activity
1. On the outline map of India, mark and label the following.
(i) Areas having Mangrove forests.
(ii) Biosphere reserves of Nanda Devi, Sunderbans, Gulf of Mannar and Nilgiri.
(iii) Mark the location of Forest Survey of India Head Quarter.
2. List the trees, bush and shrub species found around your school. Write
their local names and their uses.
9
ENVIRONMENT AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
vital resources and we are compelled Thus, it is clear that the opportunity
to spend huge amounts on technology costs of negative environmental
and research to explore new resources. impacts are high.
Added to these are the health costs of The biggest question that arises is:
degraded environmental quality — are environmental problems new to this
decline in air and water quality (seventy century? If so, why? The answer to this
per cent of water in India is polluted) question requires some elaboration. In
have resulted in increased incidence of the early days when civilisation just
respiratory and water-borne diseases. began, or before this phenomenal
Hence the expenditure on health is also increase in population, and before
rising. To make matters worse, global countries took to industrialisation, the
environmental issues such as global demand for environmental resources
warming and ozone depletion also and services was much less than their
contribute to increased financial supply. This meant that pollution was
commitments for the government. within the absorptive capacity of the
environment and the rate of resource But with population explosion and with
extraction was less than the rate of the advent of industrial revolution
regeneration of these resources. Hence to meet the growing needs of the
environmental problems did not arise. expanding population, things
changed. The result was that the
demand for resources for both
production and consumption
went beyond the rate of
regeneration of the resources; the
pressure on the absorptive
capacity of the environment
increased tremendously — this
trend continues even today. Thus
what has happened is a reversal
of supply-demand relationship
for environmental quality — we
are now faced with increased
Fig. 9.2 Damodar Valley is one of India’s most demand for environmental
industrialised regions. Pollutants from the heavy
resources and services but their
industries along the banks of the Damodar river
are converting it into an ecological disaster supply is limited due to overuse
Source: Excerpts from ‘State of India’s Environment 2: The Second Citizens’ Report 1984-85’,
Centre for Science and Environment, 1996, New Delhi.
¾A truck driver had to pay Rs 1,000 as challan as his truck was emitting
black soot. Why do you think he was penalised? Was it justified? Discuss.
EXERCISES
1. Suppose 70 lakh cars are added every year to the roads of metropolitans.
Which type of resources do you think are undergoing depletion? Discuss.
2. Make a list of items that can be recycled.
REFERENCES
BOOKS
AGARWAL, ANIL and SUNITA NARAIN. 1996. Global Warming in an Unequal World.
Centre for Science and Environment, Reprint Edition, New Delhi.
BHARUCHA, E. 2005. Textbook of Environmental Studies for Undergraduate
Courses, Universities Press (India) Pvt Ltd.
CENTRE FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT. 1996. State of India’s Environment
1: The First Citizens’ Report 1982. Reprint Edition, New Delhi.
CENTRE FOR SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT. 1996. State of India’s Environment
2: The Second Citizens’ Report 1985, Reprint Edition, New Delhi.
KARPAGAM, M. 2001.Environmental Economics: A Textbook. Sterling Publishers,
New Delhi.
RAJAGOPALAN, R. 2005. Environmental Studies: From Crisis to Cure. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi.
SCHUMACHER, E.F. Small is Beautiful. Abacus Publishers, New York.
Journals
Scientific American, India, Special Issue, September 2005
Down to Earth, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi.
Websites
http://envfor.nic.in
http://cpcb.nic.in
http://www.cseindia.org
UNIT 14
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
(c) Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are atmosphere. With the increased use of fossil
composed of hydrogen and carbon only and fuels, a large amount of carbon dioxide gets
are formed by incomplete combustion of fuel released into the atmosphere. Excess of CO2
used in automobiles. Hydrocarbons are in the air is removed by green plants and this
carcinogenic, i.e., they cause cancer. They maintains an appropriate level of CO2 in the
harm plants by causing ageing, breakdown of atmosphere. Green plants require CO2 for
tissues and shedding of leaves, flowers and photosynthesis and they, in turn, emit oxygen,
twigs. thus maintaining the delicate balance. As you
(d) Oxides of Carbon know, deforestation and burning of fossil fuel
(i ) Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide (CO) increases the CO2 level and disturb the balance
is one of the most serious air pollutants. It is a in the atmosphere. The increased amount of
colourless and odourless gas, highly CO2 in the air is mainly responsible for global
poisonous to living beings because of its ability warming.
to block the delivery of oxygen to the organs Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect
and tissues. It is produced as a result of About 75 % of the solar energy reaching the
incomplete combustion of carbon. Carbon earth is absorbed by the earth’s surface, which
monoxide is mainly released into the air by increases its temperature. The rest of the heat
automobile exhaust. Other sources, which radiates back to the atmosphere. Some of the
produce CO, involve incomplete combustion
heat is trapped by gases such as carbon
of coal, firewood, petrol, etc. The number of
dioxide, methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbon
vehicles has been increasing over the years all
compounds (CFCs) and water vapour in the
over the world. Many vehicles are poorly
atmosphere. Thus, they add to the heating of
maintained and several have inadequate
the atmosphere. This causes global warming.
pollution control equipments resulting in the
release of greater amount of carbon monoxide We all know that in cold places flowers,
and other polluting gases. Do you know why vegetables and fruits are grown in glass
carbon monoxide is poisonous? It binds to covered areas called greenhouse. Do you know
haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin, that we humans also live in a greenhouse? Of
which is about 300 times more stable than the course, we are not surrounded by glass but a
oxygen-haemoglobin complex. In blood, when blanket of air called the atmosphere, which has
the concentration of carboxyhaemoglobin kept the temperature on earth constant for
reaches about 3–4 per cent, the oxygen centuries. But it is now undergoing change,
carrying capacity of blood is greatly though slowly. Just as the glass in a
reduced. This oxygen deficiency, results into greenhouse holds the sun’s warmth inside,
headache, weak eyesight, nervousness and atmosphere traps the sun’s heat near the
cardiovascular disorder. This is the reason why earth’s surface and keeps it warm. This is
people are advised not to smoke. In pregnant called natural greenhouse effect because it
women who have the habit of smoking the maintains the temperature and makes the
increased CO level in blood may induce earth perfect for life. In a greenhouse, visible
premature birth, spontaneous abortions and light passes through the transparent glass and
deformed babies. heats up the soil and the plants. The warm
(ii) Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide (CO2) is soil and plants emit infrared radiations. Since
released into the atmosphere by respiration, glass is opaque to infrared (heat) radiations, it
burning of fossil fuels for energy, and by partly reflects and partly absorbs these
decomposition of limestone during the radiations. This mechanism keeps the energy
manufacture of cement. It is also emitted of the sun trapped in the greenhouse.
during volcanic eruptions. Carbon dioxide gas Similarly, carbon dioxide molecules also trap
is confined to troposphere only. Normally it heat as they are transparent to sunlight but
forms about 0.03 per cent by volume of the not to the heat radiation. If the amount of
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 401
This plan aims at clearing the air in herbicides and insecticides that miss their
the ‘Taj Trapezium’– an area that includes targets and travel through air and form
the towns of Agra, Firozabad, Mathura and mists.
Bharatpur. Under this plan more than
(d) Fumes are generally obtained by the
2000 polluting industries lying inside the
trapezium would switch over to the use of condensation of vapours during
natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas sublimation, distillation, boiling and
instead of coal or oil. A new natural gas several other chemical reactions. Generally,
pipeline would bring more than half a organic solvents, metals and metallic
million cubic metres of natural gas a day oxides form fume particles.
to this area. People living in the city will
also be encouraged to use liquefied
The effect of particulate pollutants are
petroleum gas in place of coal, kerosene or largely dependent on the particle size. Air-
firewood. Vehicles plying on highways in borne particles such as dust, fumes, mist etc.,
the vicinity of Taj would be encouraged to are dangerous for human health. Particulate
use low sulphur content diesel. pollutants bigger than 5 microns are likely to
lodge in the nasal passage, whereas particles
2. Particulate Pollutants of about 1.0 micron enter into lungs easily.
Particulates pollutants are the minute solid Lead used to be a major air pollutant
particles or liquid droplets in air. These are emitted by vehicles. Leaded petrol used to be
present in vehicle emissions, smoke particles the primary source of air-borne lead emission
from fires, dust particles and ash from in Indian cities. This problem has now been
industries. Particulates in the atmosphere overcome by using unleaded petrol in most of
may be viable or non-viable. The viable the cities in India. Lead interferes with the
particulates e.g., bacteria, fungi, moulds, development and maturation of red blood cells.
algae etc., are minute living organisms that are Smog
dispersed in the atmosphere. Human beings The word smog is derived from smoke and fog.
are allergic to some of the fungi found in air. This is the most common example of air
They can also cause plant diseases. pollution that occurs in many cities
Non-viable particulates may be classified throughout the world. There are two types of
according to their nature and size as follows: smog:
(a) Smoke particulates consist of solid or (a) Classical smog occurs in cool humid
mixture of solid and liquid particles formed climate. It is a mixture of smoke, fog and
during combustion of organic matter. sulphur dioxide. Chemically it is a
Examples are cigarette smoke, smoke from reducing mixture and so it is also called
burning of fossil fuel, garbage and dry as reducing smog.
leaves, oil smoke etc. (b) Photochemical smog occurs in warm, dry
(b) Dust is composed of fine solid particles and sunny climate. The main components
(over 1µm in diameter), produced during of the photochemical smog result from the
crushing, grinding and attribution of solid action of sunlight on unsaturated
materials. Sand from sand blasting, saw hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides
dust from wood works, pulverized coal, produced by automobiles and factories.
cement and fly ash from factories, dust Photochemical smog has high
storms etc., are some typical examples of concentration of oxidising agents and is,
this type of particulate emission. therefore, called as oxidising smog.
(c) Mists are produced by particles of spray Formation of photochemical smog
liquids and by condensation of vapours in When fossil fuels are burnt, a variety of
air. Examples are sulphuric acid mist and pollutants are emitted into the earth’s
404 CHEMISTRY
troposphere. Two of the pollutants that are to produce chemicals such as formaldehyde,
emitted are hydrocarbons (unburnt fuels) and acrolein and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
nitric oxide (NO). When these pollutants build 3CH4 + 2O3 → 3CH2 = O + 3H2O
up to sufficiently high levels, a chain reaction
Formaldehyde
occurs from their interaction with sunlight in
which NO is converted into nitrogen dioxide CH2=CHCH=O CH3COONO2
(NO2). This NO2 in turn absorbs energy from
sunlight and breaks up into nitric oxide and O
free oxygen atom (Fig. 14.2). Acrolein Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN)
NO2(g) NO(g) + O(g) (i) Effects of photochemical smog
Oxygen atoms are very reactive and The common components of photochemical
combine with the O2 in air to produce ozone. smog are ozone, nitric oxide, acrolein,
formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN).
O(g) + O2 (g) U O3 (g) (ii) Photochemical smog causes serious health
The ozone formed in the above reaction (ii) problems. Both ozone and PAN act as powerful
reacts rapidly with the NO(g) formed in the eye irritants. Ozone and nitric oxide irritate the
reaction (i) to regenerate NO2. NO2 is a brown nose and throat and their high concentration
gas and at sufficiently high levels can causes headache, chest pain, dryness of the
contribute to haze. throat, cough and difficulty in breathing.
Photochemical smog leads to cracking of
NO (g) + O3 (g) → NO2 (g) + O2 (g) (iii) rubber and extensive damage to plant life. It
Ozone is a toxic gas and both NO2 and O3 also causes corrosion of metals, stones,
are strong oxidising agents and can react with building materials, rubber and painted
the unburnt hydrocarbons in the polluted air surfaces.
Fig. 14.2 Photochemical smog occurs where sunlight acts on vehicle pollutants.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 405
How can photochemical smog be in the production of plastic foam and by the
controlled ? electronic industry for cleaning computer
Many techniques are used to control or reduce parts etc. Once CFCs are released in the
the formation of photochemical smog. If we atmosphere, they mix with the normal
control the primary precursors of atmospheric gases and eventually reach the
photochemical smog, such as NO 2 and stratosphere. In stratosphere, they get broken
hydrocarbons, the secondary precursors such down by powerful UV radiations, releasing
as ozone and PAN, the photochemical smog chlorine free radical.
will automatically be reduced. Usually catalytic
CF2Cl2 (g) (g) + F2Cl (g) (i)
converters are used in the automobiles, which
prevent the release of nitrogen oxide and The chlorine radical then react with
hydrocarbons to the atmosphere. Certain stratospheric ozone to form chlorine monoxide
plants e.g., Pinus, Juniparus, Quercus, Pyrus radicals and molecular oxygen.
• •
and Vitis can metabolise nitrogen oxide and C l (g) + O3 (g) → Cl O (g) + O2 (g) (ii)
therefore, their plantation could help in this
matter. Reaction of chlorine monoxide radical with
atomic oxygen produces more chlorine
14.2.2 Stratospheric Pollution radicals.
• •
Formation and Breakdown of Ozone Cl O (g) + O (g) → C l (g) + O2 (g) (iii)
The upper stratosphere consists of The chlorine radicals are continuously
considerable amount of ozone (O3), which regenerated and cause the breakdown of
protects us from the harmful ultraviolet (UV)
ozone. Thus, CFCs are transporting agents for
radiations (λ 255 nm) coming from the sun.
continuously generating chlorine radicals into
These radiations cause skin cancer
the stratosphere and damaging the ozone layer.
(melanoma) in humans. Therefore, it is
important to maintain the ozone shield. The Ozone Hole
Ozone in the stratosphere is a product of In 1980s atmospheric scientists working in
UV radiations acting on dioxygen (O 2 ) Antarctica reported about depletion of ozone
molecules. The UV radiations split apart layer commonly known as ozone hole over the
molecular oxygen into free oxygen (O) atoms. South Pole. It was found that a unique set of
These oxygen atoms combine with the conditions was responsible for the ozone hole.
molecular oxygen to form ozone. In summer season, nitrogen dioxide and
methane react with chlorine monoxide
O2 (g) O(g) + O(g) (reaction iv) and chlorine atoms (reaction v)
O(g) + O2 (g) O3 (g) forming chlorine sinks, preventing much ozone
depletion, whereas in winter, special type of
Ozone is thermodynamically unstable and
clouds called polar stratospheric clouds are
decomposes to molecular oxygen. Thus, a
formed over Antarctica. These polar
dynamic equilibrium exists between the
stratospheric clouds provide surface on which
production and decomposition of ozone
chlorine nitrate formed (reaction iv) gets
molecules. In recent years, there have been
hydrolysed to form hypochlorous acid
reports of the depletion of this protective ozone
(reaction (vi)). It also reacts with hydrogen
layer because of the presence of certain
chloride produced as per reaction (v) to give
chemicals in the stratosphere. The main
molecular chlorine.
reason of ozone layer depletion is believed to •
be the release of chlorofluorocarbon Cl O (g) + NO2 (g) → ClONO2(g) (iv)
• •
compounds (CFCs), also known as freons. C l (g) + CH4 (g) → C H3(g) + HCl(g) (v)
These compounds are nonreactive, non
ClONO2(g) + H2O (g) → HOCl (g) + HNO3 (g) (vi)
flammable, non toxic organic molecules and
therefore used in refrigerators, air conditioners, ClONO2(g) + HCl (g) → Cl2 (g) + HNO3 (g) (vii)
406 CHEMISTRY
When sunlight returns to the Antarctica in where pollutants enter the water-source. Non
the spring, the sun’s warmth breaks up the point sources of pollution are those where a
clouds and HOCl and Cl2 are photolysed by source of pollution cannot be easily identified,
sunlight, as given in reactions (viii) and (ix). e.g., agricultural run off (from farm, animals
• • and crop-lands), acid rain, storm-water
HOCl (g)
hν
→ O H (g) + Cl(g) (viii)
drainage (from streets, parking lots and lawns),
•
Cl2 (g)
hν
→ 2 Cl (g) (ix) etc. Table 14.1 lists the major water pollutants
and their sources.
The chlorine radicals thus formed, initiate
the chain reaction for ozone depletion as 14.3.1 Causes of Water Pollution
described earlier. (i) Pathogens: The most serious water
Effects of Depletion of the Ozone Layer pollutants are the disease causing agents
called pathogens. Pathogens include bacteria
With the depletion of ozone layer, more UV
and other organisms that enter water from
radiation filters into troposphere. UV
domestic sewage and animal excreta. Human
radiations lead to ageing of skin, cataract,
excreta contain bacteria such as Escherichia
sunbur n, skin cancer, killing of many
coli and Streptococcus faecalis which cause
phytoplanktons, damage to fish productivity
gastrointestinal diseases.
etc. It has also been reported that plant
proteins get easily affected by UV radiations (ii) Organic wastes: The other major water
which leads to the harmful mutation of cells. pollutant is organic matter such as
It also increases evaporation of surface water leaves, grass, trash etc. They pollute water as
through the stomata of the leaves and a consequence of run off. Excessive
decreases the moisture content of the soil. phytoplankton growth within water is also a
Increase in UV radiations damage paints and cause of water pollution. These wastes are
fibres, causing them to fade faster. biodegradable.
The large population of bacteria
14.3 WATER POLLUTION decomposes organic matter present in water.
Water is essential for life. Without water there They consume oxygen dissolved in water. The
would be no life. We usually take water as amount of oxygen that water can hold in the
granted for its purity, but we must ensure the solution is limited. In cold water, dissolved
quality of water. Pollution of water originates oxygen (DO) can reach a concentration up to
from human activities. Through different 10 ppm (parts per million), whereas oxygen in
paths, pollution reaches surface or ground air is about 200,000 ppm. That is why even a
water. Easily identified source or place of moderate amount of organic matter when
pollution is called as point source. e.g., decomposes in water can deplete the water of
municipal and industrial discharge pipes its dissolved oxygen. The concentration of
Pollutant Source
Micro-organisms Domestic sewage
Organic wastes Domestic sewage, animal excreta and waste, decaying animals
and plants, discharge from food processing factories.
Plant nutrients Chemcial fertilizers
Toxic heavy metals Industries and chemical factories
Sediments Erosion of soil by agriculture and strip mining
Pesticides Chemicals used for killing insects, fungi and weeds
Radioactive substances Mining of uranium containing minerals
Heat Water used for cooling in industries
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 407
dissolved oxygen in water is very important The organic chemicals are another group
for aquatic life . If the concentration of dissolved of substances that are found in polluted water.
oxygen of water is below 6 ppm, the growth of Petroleum products pollute many sources of
fish gets inhibited. Oxygen reaches water water e.g., major oil spills in oceans. Other
either through atmosphere or from the process organic substances with serious impacts are
of photosynthesis carried out by many the pesticides that drift down from sprays or
aquatic green plants during day light. runof f from lands. Various industrial
However, during night, photosynthesis stops chemicals like polychlorinated biphenyls,
but the plants continue to respire, resulting (PCBs) which are used as cleansing solvent,
in reduction of dissolved oxygen. The detergents and fertilizers add to the list of
dissolved oxygen is also used by water pollutants. PCBs are suspected to be
microorganisms to oxidise organic matter. carcinogenic. Nowadays most of the detergents
available are biodegradable. However, their use
If too much of organic matter is added to
can create other problems. The bacteria
water, all the available oxygen is used up. This
responsible for degrading biodegradable
causes oxygen dependent aquatic life to die.
detergent feed on it and grow rapidly. While
Thus, anaerobic bacteria (which do not require
growing, they may use up all the oxygen
oxygen) begin to break down the organic waste
dissolved in water. The lack of oxygen kills all
and produce chemicals that have a foul smell
other forms of aquatic life such as fish and
and are harmful to human health. Aerobic
plants. Fertilizers contain phosphates as
(oxygen requiring) bacteria degrade these
additives. The addition of phosphates in water
organic wastes and keep the water depleted
enhances algae growth. Such profuse growth
in dissolved oxygen. of algae, covers the water surface and reduces
Thus, the amount of oxygen required by the oxygen concentration in water. This leads
bacteria to break down the organic matter to anaerobic conditions, commonly with
present in a certain volume of a sample of accumulation of abnoxious decay and animal
water, is called Biochemical Oxygen Demand death. Thus, bloom-infested water inhibits the
(BOD). The amount of BOD in the water is a growth of other living organisms in the
measure of the amount of organic material in water body. This process in which nutrient
the water, in terms of how much oxygen will enriched water bodies support a dense plant
be required to break it down biologically. Clean population, which kills animal life by depriving
water would have BOD value of less than it of oxygen and results in subsequent loss of
5 ppm whereas highly polluted water could biodiversity is known as Eutrophication.
have a BOD value of 17 ppm or more.
14.3.2 International Standards for
(iii) Chemical Pollutants: As we know that Drinking Water
water is an excellent solvent, water soluble
The International Standards for drinking water
inorganic chemicals that include heavy metals
are given below and they must be followed.
such as cadmium, mercury, nickel etc
constitute an important class of pollutants. All Fluoride: For drinking purposes, water
these metals are dangerous to humans should be tested for fluoride ion concentration.
because our body cannot excrete them. Over Its deficiency in drinking water is harmful to
the time, it crosses the tolerance limit. These man and causes diseases such as tooth decay
metals then can damage kidneys, central etc. Soluble fluoride is often added to drinking
nervous system, liver etc. Acids (like sulphuric water to bring its concentration upto 1 ppm
–3 –
acid) from mine drainage and salts from many or 1 mg dm . The F ions make the enamel on
different sources including raw salt used to teeth much harder by converting
melt snow and ice in the colder climates hydroxyapatite, [3(Ca3(PO4)2.Ca(OH)2], the
(sodium and calcium chloride) are water enamel on the surface of the teeth, into much
soluble chemical pollutants. harder fluorapatite, [3(Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 .CaF 2 ].
408 CHEMISTRY
–
However, F ion concentration above 2 ppm pollution levels. Ensure that appropriate
causes brown mottling of teeth. At the same action is taken. You can write to the press
time, excess fluoride (over 10 ppm) causes also. Do not dump waste into a
harmful effect to bones and teeth, as reported household or industrial drain which can
from some parts of Rajasthan. enter directly to any water body, such as,
Lead: Drinking water gets contaminated with river, pond, stream or lake. Use compost
lead when lead pipes are used for instead of chemical fertilizers in gardens.
transportation of water. The prescribed upper Avoid the use of pesticides like DDT,
limit concentration of lead in drinking water malathion etc., at home and try to use
is about 50 ppb. Lead can damage kidney, dried neem leaves to help keep insects
liver, reproductive system etc. away. Add a few crystals of potassium
permanganate (KMnO 4) or bleaching
Sulphate: Excessive sulphate (>500 ppm) in powder to the water tank of your house.
drinking water causes laxative effect, otherwise
at moderate levels it is harmless.
14.4 SOIL POLLUTION
Nitrate: The maximum limit of nitrate in
India being an agriculture based economy
drinking water is 50 ppm. Excess nitrate in
gives high priority to agriculture, fisheries and
drinking water can cause disease such as
livestock development. The surplus
methemoglobinemia (‘blue baby’ syndrome).
production is stored by governmental and
Other metals: The maximum concentration non-governmental organisations for the lean
of some common metals recommended in season. The food loss during the storage also
drinking water are given in Table 14.2. needs special attention. Have you ever seen the
damages caused to the crops, food items by
insects, rodents, weeds and crop diseases etc?
Table 14.2 Maximum Prescribed Concen- How can we protect them? You are acquainted
tration of Some Metals in
with some insecticides and pesticides for
Drinking Water.
protection of our crops. However, these
Metal Maximum concentration insecticides, pesticides and herbicides cause
–3
(ppm or mg dm ) soil pollution. Hence, there is a need for their
Fe 0.2 judicious use.
Mn 0.05 14.4.1 Pesticides
Al 0.2 Prior to World War II, many naturally
Cu 3.0 occurring chemicals such as nicotine (by
Zn 5.0 planting tobacco plants in the crop field), were
Cd 0.005 used as pest controlling substance for major
crops in agricultural practices.
Activity 2 During World War II, DDT was found to be
of great use in the control of malaria and other
You can visit local water sources and insect-borne diseases. Therefore, after the war,
observe if the river/lake/tank/pond are DDT was put to use in agriculture to control
unpolluted/slightly polluted/ moderately the damages caused by insects, rodents, weeds
polluted or severely polluted by looking and various crop diseases. However, due to
at water or by checking pH of water. adverse effects, its use has been banned in
Document the name of the river and the India.
nearby urban or industrial site from
where the pollution is generated. Inform Pesticides are basically synthetic toxic
about this to Pollution Control Board’s chemicals with ecological repercussions. The
office set up by Government to measure repeated use of the same or similar pesticides
give rise to pests that are resistant to that
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 409
group of pesticides thus making the pesticides sodium chlorate (NaClO3), sodium arsinite
ineffective. Therefore, as insect resistance of (Na3AsO3) and many others. During the first
DDT increased, other organic toxins such as half of the last century, the shift from
Aldrin and Dieldrin were introduced in the mechanical to chemical weed control had
market by pesticide industry. Most of the provided the industry with flourishing
organic toxins are water insoluble and non- economic market. But one must remember that
biodegradable. These high persistent toxins these are also not environment friendly.
are, therefore, transferred from lower trophic Most herbicides are toxic to mammals but
level to higher trophic level through food chain are not as persistent as organo-chlorides.
(Fig.14.3). Over the time, the concentration of These chemicals decompose in a few months.
toxins in higher animals reach a level which Like organo-chlorides, these too become
causes serious metabolic and physiological concentrated in the food web. Some herbicides
disorders. cause birth defects. Studies show that corn-
fields sprayed with herbicides are more prone
to insect attack and plant disease than fields
that are weeded manually.
Pesticides and herbicides represent only a
very small portion of widespread chemical
pollution. A large number of other compounds
that are used regularly in chemical and
industrial processes for manufacturing
activities are finally released in the atmosphere
in one or other form.
quantities of toxic wastes are usually destroyed household discards, there are medical,
by controlled incineration, whereas small agricultural, industrial and mining wastes. The
quantities are burnt along with factory improper disposal of wastes is one of the major
garbage in open bins. Moreover, solid wastes causes of environmental degradation.
if not managed effectively, affect the Therefore, the management of wastes is of
components of the environment. utmost importance.
Collection and Disposal
Do you know about waste recycling?
Domestic wastes are collected in small bins,
• Fuel obtained from plastic waste has which are then transferred to community bins
high octane rating. It contains no lead by private or municipal workers. From these
and is known as “green fuel”. community bins, these are collected and
• Due to recent developments made in carried to the disposable site. At the site,
chemical and textile industries, clothes garbage is sorted out and separated into
will be made from recycled plastic biodegradable and non-biodegradable
waste. These will be available soon in materials. Non-biodegradable materials such
the global textile market. as plastic, glass, metal scraps etc. are sent for
• In India, our cities and towns face recycling. Biodegradable wastes are deposited
endless hours of power cut. We can also in land fills and are converted into compost.
see piles of rotting garbage here and
The waste if not collected in garbage bins,
there. There is a good news that we can
finds its way into the sewers. Some of it is eaten
get rid from both these problems
by cattle. Non-biodegradable wastes like
simultaneously. Technology has now
been developed to produce electricity
polythene bag, metal scraps, etc. choke the
from the garbage. A pilot plant has been sewers and cause inconvenience. Polythene
set up, where after removing ferrous bags, if swallowed by cattle can cost their lives
metals, plastic, glass, paper etc. from also.
garbage, it is mixed with water. It is then As a normal practice, therefore, all
cultured with bacterial species for domestic wastes should be properly collected
producing methane, commonly known and disposed. The poor management causes
as biogas. The remaining product is health problems leading to epidemics due to
used as manure and biogas is used to contamination of ground water. It is specially
produce electricity. hazardous for those who are in direct contact
with the waste such as rag pickers and workers
14.6 STRATEGIES TO CONTROL involved in waste disposal, as they are the ones
who handle waste materials mostly without
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
protective device such as gloves or water proof
After studying air, water, soil and industrial boots and gas masks. What can you do for
waste pollution in this unit, by now you must them?
have started feeling the need of controlling
environmental pollution: How can you save 14.7 GREEN CHEMISTRY
your immediate environment? Think of the 14.7.1 Introduction
steps/activities, which you would like to
It is well known fact that self-sufficiency in food
undertake for controlling air, water, soil and th
industrial waste pollution in your has been achieved in India since late 20
neighbourhood. Here, an idea about the century by using fertilizers and pesticides and
strategies for the management of waste is given. exploring improved methods of farming, good
quality seeds, irrigation etc. But over -
14.6.1 Waste Management exploitation of soil and excessive use of
Solid waste is not the only waste, which you fertilizers and pesticides have resulted in the
see in your household garbage box. Besides deterioration of soil, water and air.
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 411
The solution of this problem does not lie in tetrachloride etc., are highly toxic. One should
stopping the process of development that has be careful while using them.
been set in; but to discover methods, which
As you know, a chemical reaction involves
would help in the reduction of deterioration of
reactants, attacking reagents and the medium
the environment. Green chemistry is a way of
in which the reaction takes place. Extent of any
thinking and is about utilising the existing
knowledge and principles of chemistry and reaction depends upon physical parameters
other sciences to reduce the adverse impact like temperature, pressure and use of catalyst.
on environment. Green chemistry is a In a chemical reaction, if reactants are fully
production process that would bring about converted into useful environmental friendly
minimum pollution or deterioration to the products by using an environment friendly
environment. The byproducts generated medium then there would be no chemical
during a process, if not used gainfully, add pollutants introduced in the environment.
to the environmental pollution. Such During a synthesis, care must be taken to
processes are not only environmental
choose starting materials that can be converted
unfriendly but also cost-ineffective. The
into end products with yield approximately
waste generation and its disposal both are
economically unsound. Utilisation of existing upto 100 per cent. This can be achieved by
knowledge base for reducing the chemical arriving at optimum conditions of synthesis.
hazards along with the developmental It may be worthwhile to carry out synthetic
activities is the foundation of green reactions in aqueous medium since water has
chemistry. Have you perceived the idea of green high specific heat and low volatility. Water is
chemistry ? It is well known that organic cost effective, noninflammable and devoid of
solvents such as benzene, toluene, carbon any carcinogenic effects.
SUMMARY
energy for the sustainance of life. The increase in the greenhouse gases is raising the
temperature of the earth’s atmosphere which, if not checked, may eventually result in
melting of polar ice caps and consequently may submerge the costal land mass. Many
human activities are producing chemicals, which are responsible for the depletion of
ozone layer in the stratosphere, leading to the formation of ozone hole. Through the
ozone hole, ultraviolet radiations can penetrate into the earth’s atmosphere causing
mutation of genes. Water is the elixir of life but the same water, if polluted by pathogens,
organic wastes, toxic heavy metals, pesticides etc., will turn into poison. Therefore, one
should take care to follow international standards to maintain purity levels of drinking
water. Industrial wastes and excessive use of pesticides, result into pollution of land
mass and water bodies. Judicious use of chemicals required for agricultural practices
can lead to sustainable development. Strategies for controlling environmental
pollution can be: (i) waste management i.e., reduction of the waste and proper disposal,
also recycling of materials and energy, (ii) adopting methods in day-to-day life, which
results in the reduction of environmental pollution. The second method is a new branch
of chemistry, which is in its infancy known as green chemistry. It utilizes the existing
knowledge and practices so as to bring about reduction in the production of pollutants.
EXERCISES
B
y now you might have realised that all E COLOGY
units of this book have acquainted you
You have been reading about ecological and
with the three major realms of the
environmental problems in newspapers and
environment, that is, the lithosphere, the
magazines. Have you ever thought what
atmosphere and the hydrosphere. You know
ecology is? The environment as you know, is
that living organisms of the earth, constituting
made up of abiotic and biotic components. It
the biosphere, interact with other environmental
would be interesting to understand how the
realms. The biosphere includes all the living
diversity of life-forms is maintained to bring a
components of the earth. It consists of all plants
kind of balance. This balance is maintained in
and animals, including all the micro-
a particular proportion so that a healthy
interaction between the biotic and the abiotic
Life on the earth is found almost components goes on.
everywhere. Living organisms are found The interactions of a particular group of
from the poles to the equator, from the organisms with abiotic factors within a
bottom of the sea to several km in the particular habitat resulting in clearly defined
air, from freezing waters to dry valleys, energy flows and material cycles on land, water
from under the sea to underground water
and air, are called ecological systems.
lying below the earth’s surface.
A habitat in the ecological sense is the totality ecosystem includes lakes, ponds, streams,
of the physical and chemical factors that marshes and bogs.
constitute the general environment. A system
Structure and Functions of Ecosystems
consisting of biotic and abiotic components is
known as ecosystem. All these components in The structure of an ecosystem involves a
ecosystem are inter related and interact with description of the available plant and animal
each other. Different types of ecosystems exist species. From a structural point of view, all
with varying ranges of environmental ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic factors.
conditions where various plants and animal Abiotic factors include rainfall, temperature,
species have got adapted through evolution. sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil
This phenomenon is known as ecological conditions, inorganic substances (carbon
adaptation. dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, etc.). Biotic factors include the
Types of Ecosystems
producers, (primary, secondary, tertiary) the
Ecosystems are of two major types: terrestrial consumers and the decomposers. The
and aquatic. Terrestrial ecosystem can be producers include all the green plants, which
further be classified into ‘biomes’. A biome is a manufacture their own food through
plant and animal community that covers a photosynthesis. The primary consumers
large geographical area. The boundaries of include herbivorous animals like deer, goats,
different biomes on land are determined mainly mice and all plant-eating animals. The
by climate. Therefore, a biome can be defined carnivores include all the flesh-eating animals
as the total assemblage of plant and animal like snakes, tigers and lions. Certain carnivores
species interacting within specific conditions. that feed also on carnivores are known as top
These include rainfall, temperature, humidity carnivores like hawks and mongooses.
and soil conditions. Some of the major biomes Decomposers are those that feed on dead
of the world are: forest, grassland, desert and organisms (for example, scavengers like
tundra biomes. Aquatic ecosystems can be vultures and crows), and further breaking
classed as marine and freshwater ecosystems. down of the dead matter by other decomposing
Marine ecosystem includes the oceans, coastal agents like bacteria and various micro-
estuaries and coral reefs. Freshwater organisms.
The producers are consumed by the aquatic and altitudinal biomes. Some features
primary consumers whereas the primary of these biomes are given in Table 15.1.
consumers are, in turn, being eaten by the
secondary consumers. Further, the secondary Biogeochemical Cycles
consumers are consumed by the tertiary The sun is the basic source of energy on which
consumers. The decomposers feed on the dead all life depends. This energy initiates life
at each and every level. They change them into processes in the biosphere through
various substances such as nutrients, organic photosynthesis, the main source of food and
and inorganic salts essential for soil fertility. energy for green plants. During photosynthesis,
Organisms of an ecosystem are linked together carbon dioxide is converted into organic
through a foodchain (Figure 15.1). For compounds and oxygen. Out of the total solar
example, a plant eating beetle feeding on a insolation that reaches the earth’s surface, only
paddy stalk is eaten by a frog, which is, in turn, a very small fraction (0.1 per cent) is fixed in
eaten by a snake, which is then consumed by photosynthesis. More than half is used for plant
a hawk. This sequence of eating and being respiration and the remaining part is
eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from temporarily stored or is shifted to other
one level to another is known as the food-chain. portions of the plant.
Transfer of energy that occurs during the Life on earth consists of a great variety of
process of a foodchain from one level to living organisms. These living organisms exist
another is known as flow of energy. However, and survive in a diversity of associations. Such
food-chains are not isolated from one another. survival involves the presence of systemic flows
For example, a mouse feeding on grain may such as flows of energy, water and nutrients.
be eaten by different secondary consumers These flows show variations in different parts
(carnivores) and these carnivores may be eaten of the world, in different seasons of the year
by other different tertiary consumers (top and under varying local circumstances. Studies
carnivores). In such situations, each of the have shown that for the last one billion years,
carnivores may consume more than one type the atmosphere and hydrosphere have been
of prey. As a result, the food- chains get composed of approximately the same balance
interlocked with one another. This inter- of chemical components. This balance of the
connecting network of species is known as food chemical elements is maintained by a cyclic
web. Generally, two types of food-chains are passage through the tissues of plants and
recognised: grazing food-chain and detritus animals. The cycle starts by absorbing the
food-chain. In a grazing food-chain, the first chemical elements by the organism and is
level starts with plants as producers and ends returned to the air, water and soil through
with carnivores as consumers as the last level, decomposition. These cycles are largely
with the herbivores being at the intermediate energised by solar insolation. These cyclic
level. There is a loss of energy at each level movements of chemical elements of the
which may be through respiration, excretion biosphere between the organism and the
or decomposition. The levels involved in a food- environment are referred to as biogeochemical
chain range between three to five and energy cycles. Bio refers to living organisms and geo
is lost at each level. A detritus food-chain is to rocks, soil, air and water of the earth.
based on autotrophs energy capture initiated There are two types of biogeochemical
by grazing animals and involves the cycles : the gaseous and the sedimentary cycle.
decomposition or breaking down of organic In the gaseous cycle, the main reservoir of
wastes and dead matter derived from the nutrients is the atmosphere and the ocean. In
grazing food-chain. the sedimentary cycle, the main reservoir is the
soil and the sedimentary and other rocks of
Types of Biomes the earth’s crust.
In the earlier paragraphs, you have learnt the The Water Cycle
meaning of the term ‘biome’. Let us now try to
identify the major biomes of the world. There All living organisms, the atmosphere and the
are five major biomes — forest, desert, grassland, lithosphere maintain between them a
130 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Desert A. Hot and Dry A. S a h a r a , A. Temp. 20 - 45°C. Rich in A-C. Scanty vege-
desert Kalahari, B. 21 - 38°C. nutrients with tation; few large
B. Semi arid Marusthali, C. 15 - 35°C. little or no mammals,
desert Rub-el-Khali D. 2 - 25°C organic matter insects, reptiles
C. Coastal B. Marginal areas A-D Rainfall is less than and birds
desert of hot deserts 50 mm D. Rabbits, rats,
D. Cold desert C. Atacama antelopes
D. Tundra climatic and ground
regions squirrels
Grassland A. Tropical A. Large areas A. Warm hot A. Porous with A. Grasses; trees
Savannah of A f r i c a , climates, Rainfall thin layer of and large shrubs
B. Temperate Australia, 500-1,250 mm humus. absent; giraffes
Steppe South B. Hot summers and B. Thin floccu- zebras, buffalos,
America and cold winter. lated soil, leopards, hyenas,
India Rainfall 500 - rich in bases elephants, mice,
B. P a r t s of 900 mm moles, snakes
Eurasia and and worms etc.,
North America are common
animals
B. Grasses; occ-
asional trees
such as cotton-
woods, oaks and
willows; gazelles,
zebras, rhin-
LIFE ON THE EARTH 131
oceros, wild
horses, lions,
varieties of birds,
worms, snakes
etc., are common
animals
Aquatic A. Freshwater A. Lakes, streams, A-B Temperatures vary A. Water, swamps Algal and other aquatic
B. Marine rivers and widely with cooler air and marshes and marine plant
wetlands temperatures and communities with
B. Oceans, coral high humidity B.Water, tidal varieties of water
reefs, lagoons swamps and dwelling animals
and estuaries marshes
Altitudinal ——— Slopes of high Temperature and Regolith over Deciduous to tundra
mountain ranges precipitation vary slopes vegetation varying
like the Himalayas, depending upon according to altitude
the Andes and the latitudinal zone
Rockies
circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous dioxide and are returned to the atmosphere
form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle (Figure 15.2).
(Chapter 13 of this book).
change in the species distribution. This change the ecosystem. This has destroyed its originality
is due to competition where the secondary and has caused adverse effects to the general
forest species such as grasses, bamboos or environment. Ecological imbalances have
pines overtakes the native species changing brought many natural calamities like
the original forest structure. This is called floods, landslides, diseases, erratic climatic
succession. occurrences, etc.
Ecological balance may be disturbed due There is a very close relationship between
to the introduction of new species, natural the plant and animal communities within
hazards or human causes. Human interference particular habitats. Diversity of life in a
has affected the balance of plant communities particular area can be employed as an
leading to disturbances in the ecosystems. indicator of the habitat factor. Proper
Such disturbances bring about numerous knowledge and understanding of such factors
secondary successions. Human pressure on provide a strong base for protecting and
the earth’s resources has put a heavy toll on conserving the ecosystems.
EXERCISES
Project Work
(i) Show the distribution of the different biomes on the outline map of the
world with a note highlighting the important characteristics of each biome.
(ii) Make a note of trees, shrubs and perennial plants in your school campus
and devote half a day to observe the types of birds which come to the
garden. Can you describe the diversity of birds?
CHAPTER
Y
ou have already learnt about the the earth are today extinct. Biodiversity is not
geomorphic processes particularly found evenly on the earth. It is consistently
weathering and depth of weathering richer in the tropics. As one approaches the
mantle in different climatic zones. See the polar regions, one finds larger and larger
Figure 6.2 in Chapter 6 in order to recapitulate. populations of fewer and fewer species.
You should know that this weathering mantle Biodiversity itself is a combination of two
is the basis for the diversity of vegetation and words, Bio (life) and diversity (variety). In
hence, the biodiversity. The basic cause for simple terms, biodiversity is the number and
such weathering variations and resultant variety of organisms found within a specified
biodiversity is the input of solar energy and geographic region. It refers to the varieties of
water. No wonder that the areas that are rich plants, animals and micro-organisms, the
in these inputs are the areas of wide spectrum genes they contain and the ecosystems they
of biodiversity. form. It relates to the variability among living
organisms on the earth, including the
Biodiversity as we have today is the result variability within and between the species and
of 2.5-3.5 billion years of evolution. Before that within and between the ecosystems.
the advent of humans, our earth Biodiversity is our living wealth. It is a result
supported more biodiversity than in any
of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary
other period. Since, the emergence of
history.
humans, however, biodiversity has begun
a rapid decline, with one species after Biodiversity can be discussed at three
another bearing the brunt of extinction levels : (i) Genetic diversity; (ii) Species diversity;
due to overuse. The number of species (iii) Ecosystem diversity.
globally vary from 2 million to 100 million,
with 10 million being the best estimate. Genetic Diversity
New species are regularly discovered
most of which are yet to be classified (an Genes are the basic building blocks of various
estimate states that about 40 per cent of life forms. Genetic biodiversity refers to the
fresh water fishes from South America variation of genes within species. Groups of
are not classified yet). Tropical forests are individual organisms having certain
very rich in bio-diversity. similarities in their physical characteristics are
called species. Human beings genetically
Biodiversity is a system in constant belong to the homo sapiens group and also
evolution, from a view point of species, as well differ in their characteristics such as height,
as from view point of an individual organism. colour, physical appearance, etc., considerably.
The average half-life of a species is estimated This is due to genetic diversity. This genetic
at between one and four million years, and 99 diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of
per cent of the species that have ever lived on population of species.
136 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
ecosystems of which we are also a species. This The International Union of Conservation of
fact must be drawn upon every one of us so Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has
that we live and let other species also live their classified the threatened species of plants and
lives. animals into three categories for the purpose
It is our ethical responsibility to consider of their conservation.
that each and every species along with us have
an intrinsic right to exist. Hence, it is morally Endangered Species
wrong to voluntarily cause the extinction of any
It includes those species which are in danger
species. The level of biodiversity is a good
of extinction. The IUCN publishes information
indicator of the state of our relationships with
about endangered species world-wide as the
other living species. In fact, the concept of
Red List of threatened species.
biodiversity is an integral part of many human
cultures.
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Since the last few decades, growth in human
population has increased the rate of
consumption of natural resources. It has
accelerated the loss of species and habitation
in different parts of the world. Tropical regions
which occupy only about one-fourth of the
total area of the world, contain about three-
fourth of the world human population. Over-
exploitation of resources and deforestation
have become rampant to fulfil the needs of large
population. As these tropical rain forests
contain 50 per cent of the species on the earth, Figure 16.2 : Red Panda — an endangered species
destruction of natural habitats have proved
disastrous for the entire biosphere.
Natural calamities such as earthquakes,
floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires,
droughts, etc. cause damage to the flora and
fauna of the earth, bringing change the
biodiversity of respective affected regions.
Pesticides and other pollutants such as
hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy
the weak and sensitive species. Species which
are not the natural inhabitants of the local
habitat but are introduced into the system, are
called exotic species. There are many
examples when a natural biotic community of Figure 16.3 : Zenkeria Sebastinei — a critically
endangered grass in Agasthiyamalai peak (India)
the ecosystem suffered extensive damage
because of the introduction of exotic species.
Vulnerable Species
During the last few decades, some animals like
tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, crocodiles, minks This includes the species which are likely to
and birds were hunted mercilessly by poachers be in danger of extinction in near future if the
for their horn, tusks, hides, etc. It has resulted factors threatening to their extinction continue.
in the rendering of certain types of organisms Survival of these species is not assured as their
as endangered category. population has reduced greatly.
138 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
different types of pressures. The islands of that are threatened by introduced species and
Hawaii have many unique plants and animals land development.
EXERCISES
Project Work
Collect the names of national parks, sanctuaries and biosphere reserves of the
state where your school is located and show their location on the map of India.
Diversity is not only a characteristic of living organisms but
Chapter 13
also of content in biology textbooks. Biology is presented either
Organisms and Populations
as botany, zoology and microbiology or as classical and
modern. The later is a euphemism for molecular aspects of
Chapter 14
biology. Luckily we have many threads which weave the
Ecosystem
different areas of biological information into a unifying
principle. Ecology is one such thread which gives us a holistic
Chapter 15
perspective to biology. The essence of biological understanding
Biodiversity and Conservation
is to know how organisms, while remaining an individual,
interact with other organisms and physical habitats as a group
Chapter 16
and hence behave like organised wholes, i.e., population,
Environmental Issues
community, ecosystem or even as the whole biosphere.
Ecology explains to us all this. A particular aspect of this is the
study of anthropogenic environmental degradation and the
socio-political issues it has raised. This unit describes as well as
takes a critical view of the above aspects.
Ramdeo Misra is revered as the Father of Ecology in India. Born on 26 August
1908, Ramdeo Misra obtained Ph.D in Ecology (1937) under Prof. W. H. Pearsall,
FRS, from Leeds University in UK. He established teaching and research in
ecology at the Department of Botany of the Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi. His research laid the foundations for understanding of tropical
communities and their succession, environmental responses of plant
populations and productivity and nutrient cycling in tropical forest and
grassland ecosystems. Misra formulated the first postgraduate course in
ecology in India. Over 50 scholars obtained Ph. D degree under his supervision
and moved on to other universities and research institutes to initiate ecology
teaching and research across the country.
He was honoured with the Fellowships of the Indian National Science
RAMDEO MISRA Academy and World Academy of Arts and Science, and the prestigious Sanjay
(1908-1998)
Gandhi Award in Environment and Ecology. Due to his efforts, the
Government of India established the National Committee for Environmental
Planning and Coordination (1972) which, in later years, paved the way
for the establishment of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (1984).
CHAPTER 13
Figure 13.1 Biome distribution with respect to annual temperature and precipitation
Regional and local variations within each biome lead to the formation of a
wide variety of habitats. Major biomes of India are shown in Figure 13.2.
220 On planet Earth, life exists not just in a few favourable habitats but even
in extreme and harsh habitats – scorching Rajasthan desert, perpetually
rain-soaked Meghalaya forests, deep ocean trenches, torrential streams,
permafrost polar regions, high mountain tops, boiling thermal springs,
and stinking compost pits, to name a few. Even our intestine is a unique
habitat for hundreds of species of microbes.
ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 13.2 Major biomes of India : (a) Tropical rain forest; (b) Deciduous forest;
(c) Desert; (d) Sea coast
What are the key elements that lead to so much variation in the
physical and chemical conditions of different habitats? The most
important ones are temperature, water, light and soil. We must remember
that the physico-chemical (abiotic) components alone do not characterise
the habitat of an organism completely; the habitat includes biotic
components also – pathogens, parasites, predators and competitors – of
the organism with which they interacts constantly. We assume that over
a period of time, the organism had through natural selection, evolved
adaptations to optimise its survival and reproduction in its habitat.
at different depths of the ocean. Among the red, green and brown algae
that inhabit the sea, which is likely to be found in the deepest waters?
Why?
Soil: The nature and properties of soil in different places vary; it is
dependent on the climate, the weathering process, whether soil is
transported or sedimentary and how soil development occurred. Various
characteristics of the soil such as soil composition, grain size and
aggregation determine the percolation and water holding capacity of the
soils. These characteristics along with parameters such as pH, mineral
composition and topography determine to a large extent the vegetation in
any area. This is in turn dictates the type of animals that can be supported.
Similarly, in the aquatic environment, the sediment-characteristics often
determine the type of benthic animals that can thrive there.
(iii) Migrate : The organism can move away temporarily from the
stressful habitat to a more hospitable area and return when stressful
period is over. In human analogy, this strategy is like a person
moving from Delhi to Shimla for the duration of summer. Many
animals, particularly birds, during winter undertake long-distance
migrations to more hospitable areas. Every winter the famous
Keolado National Park (Bhartpur) in Rajasthan host thousands of
migratory birds coming from Siberia and other extremely cold
northern regions.
(iv) Suspend: In bacteria, fungi and lower plants, various kinds of thick-
walled spores are formed which help them to survive unfavourable
conditions – these germinate on availability of suitable environment.
In higher plants, seeds and some other vegetative reproductive
structures serve as means to tide over periods of stress besides helping
in dispersal – they germinate to form new plants under favourable
moisture and temperature conditions. They do so by reducing their
metabolic activity and going into a date of ‘dormancy’.
In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, might avoid the
stress by escaping in time. The familiar case of bears going into
hibernation during winter is an example of escape in time. Some
snails and fish go into aestivation to avoid summer–related
problems-heat and desiccation. Under unfavourable conditions
many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds are known to enter
diapause, a stage of suspended development.
13.1.3 Adaptations
While considering the various alternatives available to organisms for
coping with extremes in their environment, we have seen that some are
able to respond through certain physiological adjustments while others
do so behaviourally (migrating temporarily to a less stressful habitat).
These responses are also actually, their adaptations. So, we can say that
adaptation is any attribute of the organism (morphological, physiological,
behavioural) that enables the organism to survive and reproduce in its
habitat. Many adaptations have evolved over a long evolutionary time
and are genetically fixed. In the absence of an external source of water,
the kangaroo rat in North American deserts is capable of meeting all its
water requirements through its internal fat oxidation (in which water is
a by product). It also has the ability to concentrate its urine so that
minimal volume of water is used to remove excretory products.
Many desert plants have a thick cuticle on their leaf surfaces and
225
have their stomata arranged in deep pits to minimise water loss through
transpiration. They also have a special photosynthetic pathway (CAM)
that enables their stomata to remain closed during day time. Some desert
plants like Opuntia, have no leaves – they are reduced to spines–and the
photosynthetic function is taken over by the flattened stems.
BIOLOGY
Mammals from colder climates generally have shorter ears and limbs
to minimise heat loss. (This is called the Allen’s Rule.) In the polar seas
aquatic mammals like seals have a thick layer of fat (blubber) below their
skin that acts as an insulator and reduces loss of body heat.
Some organisms possess adaptations that are physiological which
allow them to respond quickly to a stressful situation. If you had ever
been to any high altitude place (>3,500m Rohtang Pass near Manali and
Mansarovar, in China occupied Tibet) you must have experienced what
is called altitude sickness. Its symptoms include nausea, fatigue and
heart palpitations. This is because in the low atmospheric pressure of
high altitudes, the body does not get enough oxygen. But, gradually you
get acclimatised and stop experiencing altitude sickness. How did your
body solve this problem? The body compensates low oxygen availability
by increasing red blood cell production, decreasing the binding capacity
of hemoglobin and by increasing breathing rate. Many tribes live in the
high altitude of Himalayas. Find out if they normally have a higher red
blood cell count (or total hemoglobin) than people living in the plains.
In most animals, the metabolic reactions and hence all the
physiological functions proceed optimally in a narrow temperature range
(in humans, it is – 370C). But there are microbes (archaebacteria) that
flourish in hot springs and deep sea hydrothermal vents where
temperatures far exceed 1000C. How is this possible?
Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters where the temperature is always
below zero. How do they manage to keep their body fluids from freezing?
A large variety of marine invertebrates and fish live at great depths in
the ocean where the pressure could be >100 times the normal atmospheric
pressure that we experience. How do they live under such crushing
pressures and do they have any special enzymes? Organisms living in
such extreme environments show a fascinating array of biochemical
adaptations.
Some organisms show behavioural responses to cope with variations
in their environment. Desert lizards lack the physiological ability that
mammals have to deal with the high temperatures of their habitat, but
manage to keep their body temperature fairly constant by behavioural
means. They bask in the sun and absorb heat when their body
temperature drops below the comfort zone, but move into shade when
the ambient temperature starts increasing. Some species are capable of
burrowing into the soil to hide and escape from the above-ground heat.
227
Figure 13.4 Representation of age pyramids for human population
The size of the population tells us a lot about its status in the habitat.
Whatever ecological processes we wish to investigate in a population, be
it the outcome of competition with another species, the impact of a
BIOLOGY
per capita births) are represented as b and death rates (again, per
capita death rates) as d, then the increase or decrease in N during a
unit time period t (dN/dt) will be
dN/dt = (b – d) × N
Let (b–d) = r, then
dN/dt = rN
The r in this equation is called the ‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’
and is a very important parameter chosen for assessing impacts of
any biotic or abiotic factor on population growth.
To give you some idea about the magnitude of r values, for the
Norway rat the r is 0.015, and for the flour beetle it is 0.12. In
1981, the r value for human population in India was 0.0205. Find
out what the current r value is. For calculating it, you need to
know the birth rates and death rates.
The above equation describes the exponential or geometric growth
pattern of a population (Figure 13.5) and results in a J-shaped curve
when we plot N in relation to time. If you are familiar with basic
calculus, you can derive the integral form of the
exponential growth equation as
Nt = N0 ert
where
Nt = Population density after time t
N0 = Population density at time zero
r = intrinsic rate of natural increase
e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
Any species growing exponentially under unlimited
resource conditions can reach enormous population
densities in a short time. Darwin showed how even
Figure 13.5 Population growth curve a slow growing animal like elephant could reach
a when responses are not enormous numbers in the absence of checks. The
limiting the growth, plot is following is an anecdote popularly narrated to
exponential,
b when responses are limiting demonstrate dramatically how fast a huge
the growth, plot is logistic, population could build up when growing
K is carrying capacity exponentially.
The king and the minister sat for a chess game. The king, confident
of winning the game, was ready to accept any bet proposed by the
230 minister. The minister humbly said that if he won, he wanted only
some wheat grains, the quantity of which is to be calculated by placing
on the chess board one grain in Square 1, then two in Square 2,
then four in Square 3, and eight in Square 4, and so on, doubling each
time the previous quantity of wheat on the next square until all the 64
squares were filled. The king accepted the seemingly silly bet and started
the game, but unluckily for him, the minister won. The king felt that fulfilling
ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
Since resources for growth for most animal populations are finite
and become limiting sooner or later, the logistic growth model is
considered a more realistic one.
Gather from Government Census data the population figures
for India for the last 100 years, plot them and check which growth
pattern is evident. 231
+ + Mutualism
– – Competition
+ – Predation
+ – Parasitism
232 + 0 Commensalism
– 0 Amensalism
harm the host; they may reduce the survival, growth and
reproduction of the host and reduce its population density. They
might render the host more vulnerable to predation by making it
physically weak. Do you believe that an ideal parasite should be
able to thrive within the host without harming it? Then why didn’t
natural selection lead to the evolution of such totally harmless
parasites?
Parasites that feed on the external surface of the host organism
are called ectoparasites. The most familiar examples of this group
are the lice on humans and ticks on dogs. Many marine fish are
infested with ectoparasitic copepods. Cuscuta, a parasitic plant that
is commonly found growing on hedge plants, has lost its chlorophyll
and leaves in the course of evolution. It derives its nutrition from
the host plant which it parasitises. The female mosquito is not
considered a parasite, although it needs our blood for reproduction.
Can you explain why?
In contrast, endoparasites are those that live inside the host
body at different sites (liver, kidney, lungs, red blood cells, etc.).
The life cycles of endoparasites are more complex because of their
extreme specialisation. Their morphological and anatomical features
are greatly simplified while emphasising their reproductive potential.
Brood parasitism in birds is a fascinating example of parasitism
in which the parasitic bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and
lets the host incubate them. During the course of evolution, the
eggs of the parasitic bird have evolved to resemble the host’s egg in
size and colour to reduce the chances of the host bird detecting the
foreign eggs and ejecting them from the nest. Try to follow the
movements of the cuckoo (koel) and the crow in your neighborhood
park during the breeding season (spring to summer) and watch
brood parasitism in action.
(iv) Commensalism: This is the interaction in which one species benefits
and the other is neither harmed nor benefited. An orchid growing
as an epiphyte on a mango branch, and barnacles growing on the
back of a whale benefit while neither the mango tree nor the whale
derives any apparent benefit. The cattle egret and grazing cattle in
close association, a sight you are most likely to catch if you live in
236 farmed rural areas, is a classic example of commensalism. The
egrets always forage close to where the cattle are grazing because
the cattle, as they move, stir up and flush out from the vegetation
insects that otherwise might be difficult for the egrets to find and
catch. Another example of commensalism is the interaction between
sea anemone that has stinging tentacles and the clown fish that
ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
(a) (b)
Figure 13.6 Mutual relationship between fig tree and wasp: (a) Fig flower is pollinated
by wasp; (b) Wasp laying eggs in a fig fruit
lives among them. The fish gets protection from predators which
stay away from the stinging tentacles. The anemone does not appear
to derive any benefit by hosting the clown fish.
(v) Mutualism: This interaction confers benefits on both the interacting
species. Lichens represent an intimate mutualistic relationship
between a fungus and photosynthesising algae or cyanobacteria.
Similarly, the mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and the
roots of higher plants. The fungi help the plant in the absorption of
essential nutrients from the soil while the plant in turn provides the
fungi with energy-yielding carbohydrates.
The most spectacular and evolutionarily fascinating examples
of mutualism are found in plant-animal relationships. Plants need
the help of animals for pollinating their flowers and dispersing their
seeds. Animals obviously have to be paid ‘fees’ for the services that
plants expect from them. Plants offer rewards or fees in the form of
pollen and nectar for pollinators and juicy and nutritious fruits for
seed dispersers. But the mutually beneficial system should also
be safeguarded against ‘cheaters’, for example, animals that try to
steal nectar without aiding in pollination. Now you can see why
plant-animal interactions often involve co-evolution of the
mutualists, that is, the evolutions of the flower and its pollinator
species are tightly linked with one another. In many species of fig
trees, there is a tight one-to-one relationship with the pollinator
237
species of wasp (Figure 13.6). It means that a given fig species can
be pollinated only by its ‘partner’ wasp species and no other species.
The female wasp uses the fruit not only as an oviposition (egg-laying)
site but uses the developing seeds within the fruit for nourishing
its larvae. The wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence while searching
BIOLOGY
SUMMARY
As a branch of biology, Ecology is the study of the relationships of
living organisms with the abiotic (physico-chemical factors) and biotic
components (other species) of their environment. It is concerned
with four levels of biological organisation-organisms, populations,
communities and biomes.
Temperature, light, water and soil are the most important
physical factors of the environment to which the organisms are
adapted in various ways. Maintenance of a constant internal
environment (homeostasis) by the organisms contributes to optimal
performance, but only some organisms (regulators) are capable of
homeostasis in the face of changing external environment. Others
either partially regulate their internal environment or simply
conform. A few other species have evolved adaptations to avoid
unfavourable conditions in space (migration) or in time (aestivation,
238 hibernation, and diapause).
Evolutionary changes through natural selection take place at
the population level and hence, population ecology is an important
area of ecology. A population is a group of individuals of a given
species sharing or competing for similar resources in a defined
geographical area. Populations have attributes that individual
organisms do not- birth rates and death rates, sex ratio and age
ORGANISMS AND POPULATIONS
EXERCISES
1. How is diapause different from hibernation?
2. If a marine fish is placed in a fresh water aquarium, will the fish be
able to survive? Why or why not?
3. Define phenotypic adaptation. Give one example.
4. Most living organisms cannot survive at temperature above 450C. How
239
are some microbes able to live in habitats with temperatures exceeding
1000C?
5. List the attributes that populations but not individuals possess.
6. If a population growing exponentially double in size in 3 years, what is
the intrinsic rate of increase (r) of the population?
7. Name important defence mechanisms in plants against herbivory.
BIOLOGY
240
CHAPTER 14
ECOSYSTEM
14.1 Ecosystem–Structure
and Function
An ecosystem can be visualised as a functional unit of
14.2. Productivity nature, where living organisms interact among themselves
and also with the surrounding physical environment.
14.3 Decomposition Ecosystem varies greatly in size from a small pond to a
large forest or a sea. Many ecologists regard the entire
14.4 Energy Flow biosphere as a global ecosystem, as a composite of all
local ecosystems on Earth. Since this system is too much
14.5 Ecological Pyramids
big and complex to be studied at one time, it is convenient
14.6 Ecological Succession to divide it into two basic categories, namely the
terrestrial and the aquatic. Forest, grassland and desert
14.7 Nutrient Cycling are some examples of terrestrial ecosystems; pond, lake,
wetland, river and estuary are some examples of aquatic
14.8 Ecosystem Services ecosystems. Crop fields and an aquarium may also be
considered as man-made ecosystems.
We will first look at the structure of the ecosystem, in
order to appreciate the input (productivity), transfer of
energy (food chain/web, nutrient cycling) and the output
(degradation and energy loss). We will also look at the
relationships – cycles, chains, webs – that are created as
a result of these energy flows within the system and their
inter- relationship.
BIOLOGY
14.2. PRODUCTIVITY
A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem
to function and sustain. Primary production is defined as the amount of
ECOSYSTEM
biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by
plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g –2) or
energy (kcal m–2). The rate of biomass production is called productivity.
It is expressed in terms of g –2 yr –1 or (kcal m –2) yr –1 to compare the
productivity of different ecosystems. It can be divided into gross primary
productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). Gross primary
productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter
during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilised by plants
in respiration. Gross primary productivity minus respiration losses (R),
is the net primary productivity (NPP).
GPP – R = NPP
Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption
to heterotrophs (herbiviores and decomposers). Secondary productivity
is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by
consumers.
Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a
particular area. It also depends on a variety of environmental factors,
availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of plants. Therefore,
it varies in different types of ecosystems. The annual net primary
productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 170 billion tons
(dry weight) of organic matter. Of this, despite occupying about 70 per
cent of the surface, the productivity of the oceans are only 55 billion tons.
Rest of course, is on land. Discuss the main reason for the low
productivity of ocean with your teacher.
14.3 DECOMPOSITION
You may have heard of the earthworm being referred to as the farmer’s
‘friend’. This is so because they help in the breakdown of complex organic
matter as well as in loosening of the soil. Similarly, decomposers break
down complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon
dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition.
Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of
animals, including fecal matter, constitute detritus, which is the raw
material for decomposition. The important steps in the process of
decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and
mineralisation.
Detritivores (e.g., earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles.
This process is called fragmentation. By the process of leaching, water-
soluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated 243
as unavailable salts. Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into
simpler inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism.
It is important to note that all the above steps in decomposition operate
simultaneously on the detritus (Figure 14.1). Humification and
mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads
BIOLOGY
The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is
made up of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly
fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by
degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known as
saprotrophs (sapro: to decompose). Decomposers secrete digestive
enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into simple, inorganic
materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them.
In an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major conduit for energy flow.
As against this, in a terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy
flows through the detritus food chain than through the GFC. Detritus
food chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels:
some of the organisms of DFC are prey to the GFC animals, and in a natural
ecosystem, some animals like cockroaches, crows, etc., are omnivores.
These natural interconnection of food chains make it a food web. How
would you classify human beings!
Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or in a
community according to their feeding relationship with other organisms.
Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a specific
place in the food chain that is known as their trophic level. Producers
belong to the first trophic level, herbivores (primary consumer) to the
second and carnivores (secondary consumer) to the third (Figure 14.2).
246
Figure 14.4 (a) Pyramid of numbers in a grassland ecosystem. Only three top-carnivores are
supported in an ecosystem based on production of nearly 6 millions plants
Figure 14.4 (b) Pyramid of biomass shows a sharp decrease in biomass at higher trophic levels
248
Figure 14.4 (c) Inverted pyramid of biomass-small standing crop of phytoplankton supports large
standing crop of zooplankton
ECOSYSTEM
Figure 14.4 (d) An ideal pyramid of energy. Observe that primary producers convert only 1% of
the energy in the sunlight available to them into NPP
252
Figure 14.5 Diagramatic representation of primary succession
to meet with the deficit which occurs due to imbalance in the rate of influx
and efflux.
You have made a detailed study of nitrogen cycle in class XI. Here we
discuss carbon and phosphorus cycles.
SUMMARY
An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature and comprises abiotic and
biotic components. Abiotic components are inorganic materials- air,
water and soil, whereas biotic components are producers, consumers
and decomposers. Each ecosystem has characteristic physical structure
resulting from interaction amongst abiotic and biotic components.
Species composition and stratification are the two main structural
features of an ecosystem. Based on source of nutrition every organism
occupies a place in an ecosystem.
Productivity, decomposition, energy flow, and nutrient cycling are
the four important components of an ecosystem. Primary productivity
is the rate of capture of solar energy or biomass production of the
producers. It is divided into two types: gross primary productivity (GPP)
and net primary productivity (NPP). Rate of capture of solar energy or
total production of organic matter is called as GPP. NPP is the remaining
biomass or the energy left after utilisation of producers. Secondary
productivity is the rate of assimilation of food energy by the consumers.
In decomposition, complex organic compounds of detritus are converted
to carbon dioxide, water and inorganic nutrients by the decomposers.
Decomposition involves three processes, namely fragmentation of
detritus, leaching and catabolism.
Energy flow is unidirectional. First, plants capture solar energy
and then, food is transferred from the producers to decomposers.
Organisms of different trophic levels in nature are connected to each
other for food or energy relationship forming a food chain. The storage
and movement of nutrient elements through the various components
of the ecosystem is called nutrient cycling; nutrients are repeatedly
used through this process. Nutrient cycling is of two types. gaseous
and sedimentary. Atmosphere or hydrosphere is the reservoir for the
gaseous type of cycle (carbon), whereas Earth’s crust is the reservoir
for sedimentary type (phosphorus). Products of ecosystem processes
are named as ecosystem services, e.g., purification of air and water by
forests.
The biotic community is dynamic and undergoes changes with the
passage of time. These changes are sequentially ordered and constitute
ecological succession. Succession begins with invasion of a bare lifeless
area by pioneers which later pave way for successors and ultimately a
stable climax community is formed. The climax community remains
stable as long as the environment remains unchanged.
EXERCISES
256
1. Fill in the blanks.
(a) Plants are called as_________because they fix carbon dioxide.
(b) In an ecosystem dominated by trees, the pyramid (of numbers)
is_________type.
(c) In aquatic ecosystems, the limiting factor for the productivity
is_________.
ECOSYSTEM
BIODIVERSITY AND
CONSERVATION
15.1 Biodiversity
15.2 Biodiversity Conservation If an alien from a distant galaxy were to visit our planet
Earth, the first thing that would amaze and baffle him
would most probably be the enormous diversity of life
that he would encounter. Even for humans, the rich variety
of living organisms with which they share this planet never
ceases to astonish and fascinate us. The common man
would find it hard to believe that there are more than
20,000 species of ants, 3,00,000 species of beetles, 28,000
species of fishes and nearly 20,000 species of orchids.
Ecologists and evolutionary biologists have been trying
to understand the significance of such diversity by asking
important questions– Why are there so many species?
Did such great diversity exist throughout earth’s history?
How did this diversification come about? How and why
is this diversity important to the biosphere? Would it
function any differently if the diversity was much less?
How do humans benefit from the diversity of life?
15.1 BIODIVERSITY
In our biosphere immense diversity (or heterogeneity)
exists not only at the species level but at all levels of
biological organisation ranging from macromolecules
within cells to biomes. Biodiversity is the term popularised
by the sociobiologist Edward Wilson to describe the
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
15.1.1 How Many Species are there on Earth and How Many
in India?
Since there are published records of all the species discovered and named,
we know how many species in all have been recorded so far, but it is not
easy to answer the question of how many species there are on earth.
According to the IUCN (2004), the total number of plant and animal species
described so far is slightly more than 1.5 million, but we have no clear
idea of how many species are yet to be discovered and described. Estimates
vary widely and many of them are only educated guesses. For many
taxonomic groups, species inventories are more complete in temperate
than in tropical countries. Considering that an overwhelmingly large
proportion of the species waiting to be discovered are in the tropics,
biologists make a statistical comparison of the temperate-tropical species
richness of an exhaustively studied group of insects and extrapolate this 259
ratio to other groups of animals and plants to come up with a gross
estimate of the total number of species on earth. Some extreme estimates
range from 20 to 50 million, but a more conservative and scientifically
sound estimate made by Robert May places the global species diversity
at about 7 million.
BIOLOGY
260 It should be noted that these estimates do not give any figures for
prokaryotes. Biologists are not sure about how many prokaryotic species
there might be. The problem is that conventional taxonomic methods are
not suitable for identifying microbial species and many species are simply
not culturable under laboratory conditions. If we accept biochemical or
molecular criteria for delineating species for this group, then their diversity
alone might run into millions.
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
Although India has only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land area, its share
of the global species diversity is an impressive 8.1 per cent. That is what
makes our country one of the 12 mega diversity countries of the world.
Nearly 45,000 species of plants and twice as many of animals have been
recorded from India. How many living species are actually there waiting
to be discovered and named? If we accept May’s global estimates, only
22 per cent of the total species have been recorded so far. Applying this
proportion to India’s diversity figures, we estimate that there are probably
more than 1,00,000 plant species and more than 3,00, 000 animal species
yet to be discovered and described. Would we ever be able to complete
the inventory of the biological wealth of our country? Consider the immense
trained manpower (taxonomists) and the time required to complete the
job. The situation appears more hopeless when we realise that a large
fraction of these species faces the threat of becoming extinct even before
we discover them. Nature’s biological library is burning even before we
catalogued the titles of all the books stocked there.
shows that extinctions across taxa are not random; some groups like
amphibians appear to be more vulnerable to extinction. Adding to the
grim scenario of extinctions is the fact that more than 15,500 species
world-wide are facing the threat of extinction. Presently, 12 per cent of
all bird species, 23 per cent of all mammal species, 32 per cent of all
amphibian species and 31per cent of all gymnosperm species in the world
face the threat of extinction.
From a study of the history of life on earth through fossil records, we
learn that large-scale loss of species like the one we are currently
witnessing have also happened earlier, even before humans appeared on
the scene. During the long period (> 3 billion years) since the origin and
diversification of life on earth there were five episodes of mass extinction
of species. How is the ‘Sixth Extinction’ presently in progress different
from the previous episodes? The difference is in the rates; the current
species extinction rates are estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster
than in the pre-human times and our activities are responsible for the
faster rates. Ecologists warn that if the present trends continue,
nearly half of all the species on earth might be wiped out within the next
100 years.
In general, loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to (a) decline in
plant production, (b) lowered resistance to environmental perturbations
such as drought and (c) increased variability in certain ecosystem processes
such as plant productivity, water use, and pest and disease cycles.
Causes of biodiversity losses: The accelerated rates of species
extinctions that the world is facing now are largely due to human
activities. There are four major causes (‘ The Evil Quartet ’ is the sobriquet
used to describe them).
(i) Habitat loss and fragmentation: This is the most important
cause driving animals and plants to extinction. The most dramatic
examples of habitat loss come from tropical rain forests. Once
covering more than 14 per cent of the earth’s land surface, these
rain forests now cover no more than 6 per cent. They are being
destroyed fast. By the time you finish reading this chapter, 1000
more hectares of rain forest would have been lost. The Amazon
rain forest (it is so huge that it is called the ‘lungs of the planet’)
harbouring probably millions of species is being cut and cleared
for cultivating soya beans or for conversion to grasslands for raising
beef cattle. Besides total loss, the degradation of many habitats by
264 pollution also threatens the survival of many species. When large
habitats are broken up into small fragments due to various human
activities, mammals and birds requiring large territories and certain
animals with migratory habits are badly affected, leading to
population declines.
(ii) Over-exploitation: Humans have always depended on nature for
food and shelter, but when ‘need’ turns to ‘greed’, it leads to
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
SUMMARY
Since life originated on earth nearly 3.8 billion years ago, there had
been enormous diversification of life forms on earth. Biodiversity refers
to the sum total of diversity that exists at all levels of biological
organisation. Of particular importance is the diversity at genetic, species 267
and ecosystem levels and conservation efforts are aimed at protecting
diversity at all these levels.
More than 1.5 million species have been recorded in the world, but
there might still be nearly 6 million species on earth waiting to be
discovered and named. Of the named species, > 70 per cent are animals,
of which 70 per cent are insects. The group Fungi has more species
BIOLOGY
than all the vertebrate species combined. India, with about 45,000
species of plants and twice as many species of animals, is one of the 12
mega diversity countries of the world.
Species diversity on earth is not uniformly distributed but shows
interesting patterns. It is generally highest in the tropics and decreases
towards the poles. Important explanations for the species richness of
the tropics are: Tropics had more evolutionary time; they provide a
relatively constant environment and, they receive more solar energy
which contributes to greater productivity. Species richness is also
function of the area of a region; the species-area relationship is generally
a rectangular hyperbolic function.
It is believed that communities with high diversity tend to be less
variable, more productive and more resistant to biological invasions.
Earth’s fossil history reveals incidence of mass extinctions in the past,
but the present rates of extinction, largely attributed to human activities,
are 100 to 1000 times higher. Nearly 700 species have become extinct
in recent times and more than 15,500 species (of which > 650 are from
India currently face the threat of extinction. The causes of high
extinction rates at present include habitat (particularly forests) loss
and fragmentation, over -exploitation, biological invasions and
co- extinctions.
Earth’s rich biodiversity is vital for the very survival of mankind.
The reasons for conserving biodiversity are narrowly utilitarian, broadly
utilitarian and ethical. Besides the direct benefits (food, fibre, firewood,
pharmaceuticals, etc.), there are many indirect benefits we receive
through ecosystem services such as pollination, pest control, climate
moderation and flood control. We also have a moral responsibility to
take good care of earth’s biodiversity and pass it on in good order to our
next generation.
Biodiversity conservation may be in situ as well as ex situ. In in situ
conservation, the endangered species are protected in their natural
habitat so that the entire ecosystem is protected. Recently, 34
‘biodiversity hotspots’ in the world have been proposed for intensive
conservation ef forts. Of these, three (Wester n Ghats-Sri Lanka,
Himalaya and Indo-Burma) cover India’s rich biodiversity regions. Our
country’s in situ conservation efforts are reflected in its 14 biosphere
reserves, 90 national parks, > 450 wildlife sanctuaries and many sacred
groves. Ex situ conservation methods include protective maintenance
of threatened species in zoological parks and botanical gardens, in vitro
fertilisation, tissue culture propagation and cryopreservation of
gametes.
268
EXERCISES
1. Name the three important components of biodiversity.
2. How do ecologists estimate the total number of species present in the
world?
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
3. Give three hypotheses for explaining why tropics show greatest levels
of species richness.
4. What is the significance of the slope of regression in a species – area
relationship?
5. What are the major causes of species losses in a geographical region?
6. How is biodiversity important for ecosystem functioning?
7. What are sacred groves? What is their role in conservation?
8. Among the ecosystem services are control of floods and soil erosion.
How is this achieved by the biotic components of the ecosystem?
9. The species diversity of plants (22 per cent) is much less than that of
animals (72 per cent). What could be the explanations to how animals
achieved greater diversification?
10. Can you think of a situation where we deliberately want to make a
species extinct? How would you justify it?
269
CHAPTER 16
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
There are several ways of removing particulate matter; the most widely
used of which is the electrostatic precipitator (Figure 16.1), which can
remove over 99 per cent particulate matter present in the exhaust from a
thermal power plant. It has electrode wires that are maintained at several
thousand volts, which produce a corona that releases electrons. These
electrons attach to dust particles giving them a net negative charge. The
collecting plates are grounded and attract the charged dust particles.
The velocity of air between the plates must be low enough to allow the
dust to fall. A scrubber (Figure 16.1) can remove gases like sulphur
dioxide. In a scrubber, the exhaust is passed through a spray of water or
lime. Recently we have realised the dangers of particulate matter that are 271
very very small and are not removed by these precipitators. According to
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), particulate size 2.5 micrometers
or less in diameter (PM 2.5) are responsible for causing the greatest harm
to human health. These fine particulates can be inhaled deep into the
lungs and can cause breathing and respiratory symptoms, irritation,
inflammations and damage to the lungs and premature deaths.
BIOLOGY
level to 35 per cent. Corresponding to the fuel, vehicle engines will also
need to be upgraded. The Bharat Stage II (equivalent to Euro-II norms),
which is currently in place in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai,
Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra,
will be applicable to all automobiles throughout the country from April
1, 2005. All automobiles and fuel-petrol and diesel – were to have met
the Euro III emission specifications in these 11 cities from April 1, 2005
and have to meet the Euro-IV norms by April 1, 2010. The rest of the
country will have Euro-III emission norm compliant automobiles and
fuels by 2010.
Thanks to the efforts made, the air quality of Delhi has significantly
improved. According to an estimate, a substantial fall in CO2 and SO2
level has been found in Delhi between 1997 and 2005.
In India, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act came
into force in 1981, but was amended in 1987 to include noise as an air
pollutant. Noise is undesired high level of sound. We have got used to
associating loud sounds with pleasure and entertainment not realising
that noise causes psychological and physiological disorders in humans.
The bigger the city, the bigger the function, the greater the noise!! A
brief exposure to extremely high sound level, 150 dB or more generated
by take off of a jet plane or rocket, may damage ear drums thus
permanently impairing hearing ability. Even chronic exposure to a
relatively lower noise level of cities may permanently damage hearing
abilities of humans. Noise also causes sleeplessness, increased heart
beating, altered breathing pattern, thus considerably stressing humans.
Considering the many dangerous effects of noise pollution can you
identify the unnecessary sources of noise pollution around you which
can be reduced immediately without any financial loss to anybody?
Reduction of noise in our industries can be affected by use of sound-
absorbent materials or by muffling noise. Stringent following of laws laid
down in relation to noise like delimitation of horn-free zones around
hospitals and schools, permissible sound-levels of crackers and of
loudspeakers, timings after which loudspeakers cannot be played, etc.,
need to be enforced to protect ourselves from noise pollution.
bodies, the Government of India has passed the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to safeguard our water resources.
274
275
16.7 O Z O N E D E P L E T I O N IN THE
STRATOSPHERE
You have earlier studied in the Chemistry
textbook of Class XI about ‘bad’ ozone, formed
in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) that harms
plants and animals. There is ‘good’ ozone also;
this ozone is found in the upper part of the
atmosphere called the stratosphere, and it acts
as a shield absorbing ultraviolet radiation from
the sun. UV rays are highly injurious to living
organisms since DNA and proteins of living
organisms preferentially absorb UV rays, and its
high energy breaks the chemical bonds within
these molecules. The thickness of the ozone in a
Figure 16.8 Ozone hole is the area above column of air from the ground to the top of the
Antarctica, shown in purple atmosphere is measured in terms of Dobson
colour, where the ozone layer
units (DU).
is the thinnest. Ozone
thickness is given in Dobson Ozone gas is continuously formed by the
unit (see carefully the scale action of UV rays on molecular oxygen, and also
shown in colour violet to red). degraded into molecular oxygen in the
The ozone hole over Antarctica
stratosphere. There should be a balance between
develops each year between
late August and early production and degradation of ozone in the
October. Curtesy: NASA stratosphere. Of late, the balance has been
disrupted due to enhancement of ozone
282 degradation by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
CFCs find wide use as refrigerants. CFCs discharged in the lower part of
atmosphere move upward and reach stratosphere. In stratosphere, UV
rays act on them releasing Cl atoms. Cl degrades ozone releasing
molecular oxygen, with these atoms acting merely as catalysts; Cl atoms
are not consumed in the reaction. Hence, whatever CFCs are added to
the stratosphere, they have permanent and continuing affects on Ozone
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The degradation of natural resources can occur, not just by the action of
pollutants but also by improper resource utilisation practices.
Soil erosion and desertification: The development of the fertile top-soil
takes centuries. But, it can be removed very easily due to human activities
like over-cultivation, unrestricted grazing, deforestation and poor
irrigation practices, resulting in arid patches of land. When large barren
patches extend and meet over time, a desert is created. Internationally, it
has been recognised that desertification is a major problem nowadays,
particularly due to increased urbanisation.
Waterlogging and soil salinity: Irrigation without proper drainage of
water leads to waterlogging in the soil. Besides affecting the crops,
waterlogging draws salt to the surface of the soil. The salt then is deposited
as a thin crust on the land surface or starts collecting at the roots of the
plants. This increased salt content is inimical to the growth of crops and
is extremely damaging to agriculture. Waterlogging and soil salinity are
some of the problems that have come in the wake of the Green Revolution.
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16.9 DEFORESTATION
Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested ones.
According to an estimate, almost 40 per cent forests have been lost in the
tropics, compared to only 1 per cent in the temperate region. The present
scenario of deforestation is particularly grim in India. At the beginning of
BIOLOGY
the twentieth century, forests covered about 30 per cent of the land of
India. By the end of the century, it shrunk to 19.4 per cent, whereas the
National Forest Policy (1988) of India has recommended 33 per cent forest
cover for the plains and 67 per cent for the hills.
How does deforestation occur? A number of human activities
contribute to it. One of the major reasons is the conversion of forest to
agricultural land so as to feed the growing human population. Trees are
axed for timber, firewood, cattle ranching and for several other purposes.
Slash and burn agriculture, commonly called as Jhum cultivation in
the north-eastern states of India, has also contributed to deforestation.
In slash and burn agriculture, the farmers cut down the trees of the forest
and burn the plant remains. The ash is used as a fertiliser and the land is
then used for farming or cattle grazing. After cultivation, the area is left
for several years so as to allow its recovery. The farmers then move on to
other areas and repeat this process. In earlier days, when Jhum cultivation
was in prevalence, enough time-gap was given such that the land recovered
from the effect of cultivation. With increasing population, and repeated
cultivation, this recovery phase is done away with, resulting in
deforestation.
What are the consequences of deforestation? One of the major effects
is enhanced carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere because
trees that could hold a lot of carbon in their biomass are lost with
deforestation. Deforestation also causes loss of biodiversity due to habitat
destruction, disturbs hydrologic cycle, causes soil erosion, and may lead
to desertification in extreme cases.
Reforestation is the process of restoring a forest that once existed
but was removed at some point of time in the past. Reforestation may
occur naturally in a deforested area. However, we can speed it up by
planting trees with due consideration to biodiversity that earlier existed
in that area.
16.9.1 Case Study of People’s Participation in
Conservation of Forests
People’s participation has a long history in India. In 1731, the king of
Jodhpur in Rajasthan asked one of his ministers to arrange wood for
constructing a new palace. The minister and workers went to a forest
near a village, inhabited by Bishnois, to cut down trees. The Bishnoi
community is known for its peaceful co-existence with nature. The effort
to cut down trees by the kings was thwarted by the Bishnois. A Bishnoi
284 woman Amrita Devi showed exemplary courage by hugging a tree and
daring king’s men to cut her first before cutting the tree. The tree mattered
much more to her than her own life. Sadly, the king’s men did not heed to
her pleas, and cut down the tree along with Amrita Devi. Her three
daughters and hundreds of other Bishnois followed her, and thus lost
their lives saving trees. Nowhere in history do we find a commitment of
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
this magnitude when human beings sacrificed their lives for the cause of
the environment. The Government of India has recently instituted the
Amrita Devi Bishnoi Wildlife Protection Award for individuals or
communities from rural areas that have shown extraordinary courage
and dedication in protecting wildlife.
You may have heard of the Chipko Movement of Garhwal Himalayas.
In 1974, local women showed enormous bravery in protecting trees from
the axe of contractors by hugging them. People all over the world have
acclaimed the Chipko movement.
Realising the significance of participation by local communities,
the Government of India in 1980s has introduced the concept of
Joint Forest Management (JFM) so as to work closely with the local
communities for protecting and managing forests. In return for their
services to the forest, the communities get benefit of various forest products
(e.g., fruits, gum, rubber, medicine, etc.), and thus the forest can be
conserved in a sustainable manner.
SUMMARY
Major issues relating to environmental pollution and depletion of
valuable natural resources vary in dimension from local, regional to
global levels. Air pollution primarily results from burning of fossil fuel,
e.g., coal and petroleum, in industries and in automobiles. They are
harmful to humans, animals and plants, and therefore must be removed
to keep our air clean. Domestic sewage, the most common source of
pollution of water bodies, reduces dissolved oxygen but increases
biochemical oxygen demand of receiving water. Domestic sewage is rich
in nutrients, especially, nitrogen and phosphorus, which cause
eutrophication and nuisance algal blooms. Industrial waste waters are
often rich in toxic chemicals, especially heavy metals and organic
compounds. Industrial waste waters harm living organisms. Municipal
solid wastes also create problems and must be disposed of in landfills.
Disposal of hazardous wastes like defunct ships, radioactive wastes
and e-wastes requires additional efforts. Soil pollution primarily results
from agricultural chemicals (e.g., pesticides) and leachates from solid
wastes deposited over it.
Two major environmental issues of global nature are increasing
greenhouse effect, which is warming Earth, and depletion of ozone in
the stratosphere. Enhanced greenhouse effect is mainly due to
increased emission of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and CFCs., 285
and also due to deforestation. It may drastically change rainfall pattern,
global temperature, besides deleteriously affecting living organisms.
Ozone in the stratosphere, which protects us from harmful effects of
ultraviolet radiation, is depleting fast due to emission of CFCs thus
increasing the risks of skin cancer, mutation and other disorders.
BIOLOGY
EXERCISES
1. What are the various constituents of domestic sewage? Discuss the
effects of sewage discharge on a river.
2. List all the wastes that you generate, at home, school or during your
trips to other places, could you very easily reduce? Which would be
difficult or rather impossible to reduce?
3. Discuss the causes and effects of global warming. What measures need
to be taken to control global warming?
4. Match the items given in column A and B:
Column A Column B
(a) Catalytic converter (i) Particulate matter
(b) Electrostatic precipitator (ii) Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides
(c) Earmuffs (iii) High noise level
(d) Landfills (iv) Solid wastes
5. Write critical notes on the following:
(a) Eutrophication
(b) Biological magnification
(c)Groundwater depletion and ways for its replenishment
6. Why ozone hole forms over Antarctica? How will enhanced ultraviolet
radiation affect us?
7. Discuss the role of women and communities in protection and
conservation of forests.
8. What measures, as an individual, you would take to reduce
environmental pollution?
9. Discuss briefly the following:
(a) Radioactive wastes
(b) Defunct ships and e-wastes
(c) Municipal solid wastes
10. What initiatives were taken for reducing vehicular air pollution in Delhi?
Has air quality improved in Delhi?
11. Discuss briefly the following :
(a) Greenhouse gases
(b) Catalytic converter
(c) Ultraviolet B
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