PHYSICAL SCIENCE proton

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS neutron
- “nucleo” - nucleus ; “synthesis” - formation
- nucleus formation *reactant and product - should always be
- proton + neutron equal
*kapag yung particle nasa product, decay
Primordial Nucleosynthesis *kapag nasa reactant refer sa symbols
- all the remaining free neutrons were rapidly
bound up in deuterium nuclei = light nuclei ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS
formed A. Big Bang Theory
- deuterium bottleneck cleared = newly B. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
formed deuterium undergoes further C. Supernova
nuclear reactions = higher elements
1. Prior to 100 seconds
- bottleneck
- too much ambient heat for collisions
to stick
2. After 100 seconds to 20 minutes
- weak force can barely hold =
deuterium (stable isotope of
hydrogen; twice that of the usual
isotope)
- n + p collides
• Nuclear Fusion
- nucleus combines with another = larger !
nuclei BIG BANG THEORY
• Nuclear Fission - birth/expansion of the universe
- nucleus splits into smaller nuclei - most widely accepted explanation to the
origin of the universe
NUCLEAR REACTIONS - a hot, dense mass about 1 cm (diameter)
- change of nucleus after nuclear fusion or experiences a huge explosion spreading
fission its product
Types - accompanied by an emission of a huge
• Alpha Decay amount of light
- loss of an alpha particle - elements H to He
• Beta Decay
- loss of an beta particle Cosmology
• Gamma Radiation - studies the science and development of
- emission of gamma ray the universe
• Positron Emission
- conversion of proton to neutron with SERIES OF EVENTS (BIG BANG)
release of positron 1. Singularity
• Electron Capture - center of a blackhole
- drawing of electron into the nucleus - contains huge mass in an infinitely
• Bombardment small space
- addition of alpha or beta 2. Inflation
SYMBOLS - the universe when into a fast
expansion
alpha particle - matter forms but can't combine due
beta particle to heat
3. Formation of Matter and Anti-Matter
positron 4. Annihilation
- particles collide with each other =
gamma ray new particles
- cancellation of matter & anti-matter
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 5. Cooling Down of the Universe
- primordial nucleosynthesis
6. Big Bag Nucleosynthesis
- nucleus formation
7. Recombination
- attachment of protons or neutrons =
nucleons
8. Dark Ages
- formation/making of cosmic bodies
9. Formation of Cosmic Bodies
PERSONALITIES (BIG BANG)
• Einstein
- Theory of Relativity
- universe is static
• Hubble
- expressed the first evidence of big bang
(1900s)
- universe is expanding
- galaxies = getting farther
- the further away the galaxy = greater
redshift
- many stars & galaxies shine wth light
shifted toward the red end of the visible
spectrum
• Redshift phenomenon
- light waves of cosmic bodies are
stretched into low-frequency red
waves as they move away from
an observer on Earth
• Hubble’s Law
- the size of the redshift is
proportional to the distance and
speed of a star moving away
from Earth
! - H & He fusion
• Lemaitre
- hypothesis of the primeval atom
- universe was smaller yesterday
• Gamow
- hot big bang
- H and He = cooled and condensed to
form stars and galaxies
- high density = rapid expansion
EVIDENCES FOR BIG BANG
1. Redshift Phenomenon
- moving t the red spectrum
2. Relative Abundance
- percent of elements in the universe
3. Cosmic Microwave Background
- electromagnetic radiation left over
from an early stage of the universe
in Big Bang cosmology
- tells the age and composition o the
universe
- gaano kalayo yung energy
produced
STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
- universe continuously expanded = cloud of
H & He gases condensed = stars
- stars made of hydrogen = became hotter &
denser as time passed
- from a small, young, yellow star to giant red
star
- elements Li to Fe
SUPERNOVA
- violent explosion of the star
- due to the: exhaustion of the nuclear fuel of
light elements = core started to collapse
- released a huge amount of nuclear energy
& produced higher elements (through
neutron capture & radioactive decay)
- elements Co and up
Formation of a Star
1. Nebula
- gas and dust
- uneven distribution of H & He allowed
gravity to act in the areas of higher
concentration = clumping of matter
2. Protostar
- nagdikit ang H & He
- atoms become more tightly packed
- high velocity of atoms = high
temperature
- high density and frequency of collision
= more spherical H & He
3. Stellar Nucleosynthesis
- temperature & density continued to
increase until nuclei reached the “flash
point”
- conditions reached the flash point =
strong nuclear force bind smaller
nuclei = more massive nucleus
(fusion)
4. Main Sequence Star
- proton-proton chain (H ⇢ He)
- typical star
- CNO cycle
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 5. Red Giant Star
• Triple-Alpha Process 1. Perihelion
- He ⇢ C - closest to the sun (January)
- dagdag ng alpha particle ng tatlong 2. Aphelion
beses don sa element - farthest from the sun (July)
• Alpha Ladder
- C ⇢ Fe Zodiac Constellation
- tuloy lang yung triple-alpha process - constellations on the celestial
hangang umabot sa Fe sphere
- most stable = Fe (di nagrerelease - origin of astrology
ng energy pero nag-aabsorb) - seasoning of annual motion
- exhausts the nuclear fuel C. Diurnal Motion
6. Supernova - daily motion of the celestial bodies
- Co up to higher elements across the sky (rotation)
- explosion = r-process & s-process - rise in the east, set in the west
r-process s-process MEASUREMENTS FOR ROTATION
1. Mean Solar Day
stable isotopes
unstable/radioactive - next noon
isotopes - 24 hours
continuous capture of 2. Sidereal Day
neutron
undergo Beta decay - time it actually takes
- 23:56:04 (time)
7. Blackhole
- forms when a star collapses from its MODELS OF THE UNIVERSE
own gravity • Eudoxus’ Model
- region of space - celestial spheres share one common
- high force of gravity (matter is center (homocentric)
pressed into tiny space) - first geocentric model (Earth = center)
- where light is not able to escape - 27 spheres; 5 planets
• Aristotle's Model
UNIVERSALITY OF THE LAWS OF PHYSICS - geocentric model
- proved that the earth is spherical
The Spherical Earth - stars = fixed points & rotate on a single
- believed by the Babylonians & Greeks celestial spheres
- started by Pythagoras - 56 spheres
- taught by Plato but without justification - prime mover = drives the motions of the
Aristotle planets (gravity but wasn't named yet)
- there were stars in Egypt that could not be • Aristarchus' Model
seen on the other parts of the world - first heliocentric (sun = center)
Eratosthenes - sun & stars = fixed
- estimated the circumference of the Earth - earth revolves in a circular orbit
- shadow cast during summer solstice - tries to measure the sun & moon's sizes
and distances
MOTIONS OF THE EARTH • Ptolemy's Model
A. Axial Precession - geocentric model
- change in the orientation of the - orbits and cycles
rotational axis of any rotating body - proposed a point close to the orbit’s
over a period of time center (equant)
- precession of the equinoxes/change in - shows deferent & epicycle
orientation of the Earth's axis • Deferent - circular path which
B. Annual Motion planets move
- ecliptic paths • Epicycle - circles where planets
- movement of a body along a path move
around some point in space
(revolution)

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 • Copernicus' Model KINEMATICS IN TRANSLATION
- heliocentric model • Scalar
- celestial motions = uniform, infinite, - fully described by a magnitude and
circular appropriate unit
- earth's motion explains the retrograde - numerical value and unit
motion of other planets • Vector
- earth = spins on a tilted axis = seasons - fully described by a magnitude,
• Tycho's Model appropriate unit, and direction
- geoheliocentric model (earth & sun = - numerical value, unit, direction
center)
- magulo SCALAR VECTOR
- not really accepted Distance Displacement
• Kepler's Model
- heliocentric model Speed Velocity
- planets move on an elliptical orbit
Acceleration
Galileo's Astronomical Observations
• LUNAR CRATERS
- craters found on the moon DISTANCE
- moon = not so different from Earth - how much ground an object covered during
its motion
• PHASES OF VENUS - how far you traveled
- venus = merely illuminated by the light
from the sun DISPLACEMENT
- phases of venus = similar to the phases - how far out of place an object is
of moon
- where you are in relation to where you
stared
• MOONS OF JUPITER
- Jupiter has 4 moons revolving around it Resultant Vector
- sum of 2 or more vectors represented
• SUNSPOTS
- sun has blemishes by a single vector
- use pythagorean theorem
• SUPERNOVA
SPEED
• SIZES OF THE STARS - how fast a body moves
KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION • Instantaneous Speed
• 1st Law (Ellipses) - speed at a particular time
- elliptical orbit • Average Speed
- perihelion and aphelion - total distance traveled in a given
period of time
• 2nd Law (Equal Areas)
- planet sweeps out equal areas in equal VECTOR
intervals of time
- how fast and which way a body moves
- perihelion or aphelion points = still equal - changes if the speed, direction or both
area and time changes
• Instantaneous Velocity
• 3rd Law (Harmonies)
- squares of the revolutions (period) of the - velocity at a particular time
planet are directly proportional to the • Average Velocity
cubes of their average distances (range) - total displacement traveled in a given
- larger orbit = longer revolution period of time
ACCELERATION
- change in velocity with respect to time
- change in speed, direction or both
!
FREE FALL
KINEMATICS - moving freely under the sole influence of
- describes the motion in terms of gravity
displacement, velocity, and acceleration - does not depend on the object’s original
Translation - motion in a straight line motion
Dynamics - relates force and motion - constant acceleration/acceleration due to
gravity (9.8m/s²)
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PROJECTILE MOTION
- motion of body thrown horizontally or at an • Velocity
angle with the horizontal
- motion in a trajectory
NEWTON'S LAW OF MOTION
!
• Law of Inertia
- object remains at rest or in motion unless
acted of by an external unbalanced force • Acceleration
A = vf-vi/t
• Law of Acceleration
- acceleration of body = directly • Free Fall
proportional to the net force and
inversely proportional to the mass
- deals with the effect of force on the
change in velocity or acceleration
F = ma
• Law of Interaction
- whenever an object exerts a force on a
second object, the second object exerts !
an equal and opposite force
• Projectile Motion
MOMENTUM
- quantity of motion of a moving body
- “mass in motion”
- vector quantity
P = mv
Law of Momentum Conservation
- the total momentum of two objects before
the collision is equal to the total momentum
of the objects after the collision
- momentum is neither lost nor gained
- follows the Law of Interaction
• Elastic - moves separately after collision
• Inelastic - objects stick together after
collision
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ELECTRON DISTRIBUTION
- important in understanding chemical
IMPULSE reactions
- change in momentum - made when an atom is in its ground state
- impulse = change in momentum General Rules on Electron Distribution
• Aufbau Principle
I = Ft - electrons should occupy the first orbitals
Ft = m! v with lower energy before those with
higher energy
FORMULAS: • Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
- most stable arrangement o electrons in
• Speed subshells is the one with greatest
number of parallel spins
• Pauli's Exclusion Principle
- no two electrons in a atom can possess
the same set of quantum numbers
!

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Types of Electron Distribution (Notation)
1. Electron Configuration
- uses symbols of the orbitals and the
no. of electrons that occupy each
orbital
2. Noble Gas Electron Configuration*
- shorthand configuration
- for elements with high atomic no.
- use of core symbols (element inside a
bracket)
3. Orbital Diagram
- uses boxes and arrows that represent
the orbital and electrons
QUANTUM NUMBERS
- address of electrons
- describe the atomic orbitals as well as the
properties of the electrons in those orbitals
• Bohr’s Model
- one-dimensional
- describes the size of the orbit (n
quantum number)
• Schrodinger's Model
- occupies three-dimensional space
- 3 quantum numbers:
• principal (n) - size
• angular (l) - shape
• magnetic (m) - orientation
Quantum Numbers
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
- highest energy level (1-7)
2. Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l)
- shape of the orbital
- also known as Azimuthal Quantum No.
l=0 s METAL + NONMETAL
l=1 p retain name root + “ide”
l=2 d
l=3 f - sharing of electrons
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (mₗ)
- orientation of the orbital around the
nucleus (-1, 0, 1)
- check the position of the last arrow
drawn
4. Electron Spin Quantum Number (mₛ)
- orientation of the spin
- check the direction of the last arrow
drawn
Upwards = +1/2
Downwards = -1/2
PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
• John A.R. Newlands
- law of octaves
- based on ascending atomic masses &
regularities every 8 elements
• Julius Lothar Meyer
- separately proposed an arrangement of
elements based on ascending atomic
masses
• Dmitry Mendeleev
- published the idea first
- improvement of Newland’s
- “eka”
• Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley
- atomic no. = no. of protons —
determines the order of elements in the
table
INTRAMOLECULAR FORCES
Chemical Bonding
- electrical attraction between the nuclei and
valence electron
- binds atoms together
- often called intramolecular force
- may be ionic, covalent, or metallic
A. IONIC BONDING
- transfer of electrons
- metal & nonmetal elements
- forms ions/charged particles
- follows the octet rule
Metal - loses electron; cation
Nonmetal - gains electron; anion
NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS
B. COVALENT BONDING
- nonmetal & nonmetal
- may be polar or nonpolar
1. Polar Compound
- asymmetrical
- uneven distribution of electrons
2. Nonpolar Compound
- symmetrical
- even distribution of electrons
NAMIING COVALENT COMPOUNDS
NONMETAL + NONMETAL
prefix + name prefix + root + “ide”
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*Difference of electronegativity = type of
compound
< 0.4 NONPOLAR

0.4 - 1.7 POLAR

> 1.7 IONIC

POLYATOMIC IONS
- somehow follows ionic bonding
- retains both names

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