Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district
The shape and type of a CBD or downtown almost always closely reflects the city's
history. Cities with maximum building height restrictions often have a separate historic
section quite apart from the financial and administrative district.
Central business districts usually have very small residential population.
Goals and Concepts of a C.B.D.
• The ultimate goal to which nearly every major city aspires is to create an environment
conducive to a lively atmosphere and satisfying day/night variety of “People Activities”.
• The building of a balanced mix of new
office, shopping and recreational facilities
which must include the extension of
facilities to attract people in the after
business hours, e.g, theater, sports, music
and special events; the diversification of
jobs and an increase in the employment
opportunities. The provision for multilevel
parking for private and public sectors, the
preservation and restoration of buildings of
historical heritage add a character to the
city and creates an interest for the citizens.
• The provision for protected pedestrian
walkways (whether elevated, at ground
level, or underground) linking the major
shopping, office and the municipal
buildings.
Source: Redstone, Louis G., The New Downtowns (Rebuilding Business Districts), 1976, Pg: 19
Historical Background
The CBD developed as the market square in ancient cities. On market days, farmers,
merchants and consumers would gather in the center of the city to exchange, buy, and
sell goods. This ancient market is the forerunner to the CBD. As cities grew and
developed, CBDs became fixed location where retail and commerce took place. The
CBD is typically at or near the oldest part of the city and is often near a major
transportation route that provided the site for the city's location, such as a river, railroad,
or highway.
Over time, the CBD developed into a center of finance and control or government as
well as office space. In the early 1900s, European and American cities had CBDs that
featured primarily retail and commercial cores. In the mid-20th century, the CBD
expanded to include office space and commercial businesses while retail took a back
seat. The growth of the skyscraper occurred in CBDs, making them more and more
dense.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district
Agora
The Roman Agora served as a marketplace where
merchants kept stalls or shops to sell their goods
amid colonnades. Actually Agora served as a twin
function of being a centre for political and
commercial space activity.
Forum
A forum was the public space in the middle of a
Roman city.In addition to its standard function as
a marketplace, Forum was a gathering place of
great social significance, and often the scene of
diverse activities, including political discussions
and debates, meetings, et cetera.
Bazaar
A bazaar was a permanent merchandising area,
marketplace, or street of shops where goods and
services are exchanged or sold. The word derives
from the Persian word bāzār, meaning "the place
of prices". Although the current meaning of the
word is believed to have originated in Persia, its
use has spread and now has been accepted into
the vernacular in countries around the world.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/agora
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/forum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/bazaar
Souq
A souq is a commercial quarter in an Arab
or Berber city. The term is often used to
designate the market in any Arabized or
Muslim city. In Modern Standard Arabic the
term refers to markets in both the physical
sense and the abstract economic sense.
Mercado
Mercado in Mexico and throughout Latin
America combines the elements of open-air
street markets, and the more formal
structures that house the bigger vendors in
the major cities. Many of the Mercado have
the qualities of the Mexico city’s tiangus,
street markets selling a variety of goods
from produce to small appliances, clothing
and handicrafts that setup in different
neighbourhoods each day of the week,
providing variety and stability at the same
time.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/souq
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/mercado
Urban Structure
Urban structure is the arrangement of land use in urban areas. Sociologists, economists,
and geographers have developed several models, explaining where different types of
people and businesses tend to exist within the urban setting. Urban structure can also refer
to the urban spatial structure, which concerns the arrangement of public and private
space in cities and the degree of connectivity and accessibility.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sector_model
Multiple Nuclei Model
The multiple nuclei model is an ecological model put forth by Chauncy Harris and
Edward Ullman in the 1945 article "The Nature of Cities." The model describes the layout
of a city. It notes that while a city may have started with a central business district, similar
industries with common land-use and financial requirements are established near each
other. These groupings influence their immediate neighborhood. Hotels and restaurants
spring up around airports, for example. The number and kinds of nuclei mark a city's
growth.
The theory was formed based on the idea that people have greater movement due to
increased car ownership. This increase of movement allows for the specialization of
regional centers (eg. heavy industry, business park). There is no clear CBD (Central
Business District) in this type of model.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/multiple_nuclei_model
The Core - Frame Model of a C.B.D.
The Core frame model is a model showing the urban structure of the Central Business
District of a town or city.
The model includes an inner core where land is expensive and used intensively,
resulting in vertical development. This area is the focus of the transport system and has
a concentrated daytime population. The outer core and frame have lower land values
and are less intensively developed. The various land uses are linked to the bid rent
theory. The zone of assimilation and zone of discard are together called the zone of
transition.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/zone_of_transition
Basic Layouts of the CBD
Layout I
•It introduces separate area for pedestrians in
the form of a pedestrian mall.
•Service traffic is not separate from customer
traffic.
•Long walk from parking to access.
Layout II
• It shows a similar layout but end placed
structures are activity notes like a museum or
library.
• Access to parking is provided by a circulatory
road within the site itself.
• Introduction of basement delivery road.
Layout III
• It shows an arrangement with three different
blocks enclosing a common space.
• Pedestrian flow would tend to flow from one of
the main magnet to another.
• Produces a variety of spaces.
Layout IV
•In this layout a centralized parking is provided
with a peripheral service road, which leads to
segregation of customer and service traffic.
•Store fronts and signs can be viewed both from
public road and parking lot.
•One major disadvantage of this layout is that it
faces rush and traffic jams during peak hours when
offices open and close for work.
Layout V
• It represents an approach with one court & two
magnets placed in diagonal manner.
• Complex is widened by court. This court can be
used for public events, kiosks etc.
• Provides equal opportunities to the stores.
• Even distribution of pedestrian flow.
Layout IV
• This shows approach to the centre with two
magnets.
• This is simplest and most often used solution.
Essential Features of a Central Business District:
If an area meets many or all of the following criteria, it would probably be considered a
CBD:
• Houses large public buildings such as libraries, churches, stations and town halls.
• Contains specialist shops and branches of major department stores.
• Contains social amenities such as cinema halls, clubs and theatres.
• Contains little housing, but often hotels.
• Contains little or no industry.
• Contains offices and other professional buildings.
• Contains buildings that tend to be
taller than other buildings in the
city (because land prices tend to
be at a premium, making high-rise
buildings economically favorable)
• Has high pedestrian levels and the
greatest parking restrictions.
• Often is the geographical centre of
the settlement.
• Often is the area with the highest
land value.
• Is well connected by public
transport, with large numbers of
passengers.
• Has a high traffic level.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district
The Modern CBD
By the beginning of the 21st century, the CBD had become a diverse region of the
metropolitan area and included residential, retail, commercial, universities, entertainment,
government, financial institutions, medical centers, and culture. The experts of the city are
often located at workplaces or institutions in the CBD – lawyers, doctors, academics,
government officials and bureaucrats, entertainers, directors and financiers.
In recent decades, the combination of
residential expansion and development of
shopping malls as entertainment centers have
given the CBD new life. One can now find, in
addition to housing, mega-malls, theaters,
museums, and stadiums.
Pedestrian Malls
Pedestrian malls are also common today in
CBDs in an effort to make the CBD a 24 hour
a day destination for not only those who work
in the CBD but also to bring in people to live
and to play in the CBD, keeping the vehicular
movement restricted to the outskirts and to a
minimum. Without entertainment and cultural
opportunities, the CBD is often far more
populated during the day than at night as
relatively few workers live in the CBD and
most do commute to their jobs in the CBD.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district
Land Value and the Bid Rent Theory
Land users, whether they be retail; office; or residential, all compete for the most
accessible land within the CBD. The amount they are willing to pay is called bid rent.
This can generally be shown in a ‘bid rent curve’. Based upon the reasoning that the
more accessible the land, generally in the centre, is the more expensive land.
• Commerce (in particular large department stores/chain stores) is willing to pay the
greatest rent to be located in the inner core. The inner core is very valuable for
them because it is traditionally the most accessible location for a large population.
As a result, they are willing and able to pay a very high land rent value.
• As you move from the inner core, the amount commerce is willing to pay declines
rapidly. Industry, however, is willing to pay to be in the outer core.
• As you move further out, so the land is less
attractive to industry due to the reducing
communication links and a decreasing market
place. Because the householder does not rely
heavily on these and can now afford the
reduced costs (when compared with the inner
and outer core) is able to purchase land.
• The further you go from the inner core and
outer core, the cheaper the land. This is why
inner city areas are very densely populated
(terraces, flats and high rises), whilst the
suburbs and rural areas are sparsely
populated (semi and detached houses with
gardens).
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_business_district
Central Business District- Components
GENERAL APPEARANCE
The study of various aspects like urban and open spaces , enclosure and
relation of buildings is important at planning stage. Design harmony among
buildings is attained by describing a predominant character to urban spaces.
An interesting skyline is maintained along with landscaped green open spaces
and plantings to create a unifying design concept among the buildings.
•Variety of vistas, visual focal points and views are created along with
interesting architectural details.
•Unnecessary signs, poles and wires add visual chaos to the surroundings so
they need to be avoided and vacancies are to created that allow space for
expansion.
A urban space must be distinguished by a predominant character:
•Quality of enclosure
•Quality of its detailed treatment
•Activity that takes place in it
•The scale of open spaces is determined by trees, rocks, shrubs and group
surface rather than their gross width and length.
Assuming that the CBD will be served by accessible transport, we need to
introduce the universal design elements in the physical design of CBD. The
proposed design for the CDB has been modified for the following components.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.6-9,10
THE GRAND PUBLIC SPACE
A public space is a social space such as a town square that is open and
accessible to all, regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, age or socio-economic
level.
Located near a diversity of land uses( office, retail, warehouses) it tends to
attract the users from a greater distances and in a great variety.
Such a plaza is often big and and flexible enough to host the brown-bag lunch
crowds, outdoor cafes; passers through; and the occasional concerts, art
shows, exhibits, and rallies.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.-1
WALKWAY SYSTEMS AND SKYWAY BRIDGES
• Elevated walkway systems are a comparatively recent development in the
provision of a pedestrian linkage to the major buildings in the most effective
area of the central business district.
•These second level passages not only offers protection from bad weather
but also afford the pedestrians a safe and pleasant means of circulation
within the CBD, completely separated from the motor vehicles and their
pollutants.
•The space in the buildings connected by skyways is often devoted to retail
business, so areas around the skyway may operate as a shopping mall.
Points of consideration:
1.SIGN DESIGN.
Consider both pedestrian and vehicular traffic in
selecting and designing signage.
2.SIGNAGE AND THE BUILDING
Signage should be low-key in order to avoid
competition with the architecture of the structure.
Materials and design should be compatible with
the building’s materials and style. Locate signs so
that they emphasize design elements of the
facade, but do not obscure architectural details,
windows or other significant features.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.8-11
•Signs can also reinforce the horizontal lines of
moldings and transoms, and accent architectural
details when placed appropriately.
•The design and style of both the lettering and sign
should complement the style of the building.
•Signs for multiple businesses in a single building
should be designed with similar materials, backs
and lettering styles.
3.MATERIALS
Glass, painted wood, painted metal or architectural decorative metals such as
copper, bronze, brass, aluminum or stainless steel are appropriate sign
materials. Unfinished, non-decorative materials, including unpainted wood and
highly reflective materials are discouraged. Plastic is only allowed as individual
three dimensional letters applied to a sign or building, or where the face of an
existing sign is to be replaced with like materials.
4.SIGN LIGHTING.
Sign lighting should be indirect, not bright and glaring. Internal illumination of
signs is prohibited. Neon lighting should be used only in small amounts and
where appropriate to the building design.
5.The signs should be such that they direct the visitors to the elevators,
restrooms, telephones and cafeterias or coffee shops.
6.On leaving the building, clear signs indicating the way to the transit stop, taxi
stands, and the nearby streets.
7.For larger developments and parking lots, directional signs can be
incorporated that are designed to be an attractive addition to the streetscape.
Public Seating
Points of consideration:
1.The design must recognize that the seating is the most important element
in encouraging the plaza use.
2.The seating meets the needs of the various types of sitters commonly
found in most of the plazas.
3.These seating must be placed in those locations that are not sunny during
the lunch hours; in the shade.
4.Secondary seating (mounts of grass, steps with a view, seating walls,
retaining walls that allow sitting) must be incorporated in the plaza design, to
increase the overall seating capacity without creating a “sea of benches” .
5.A sense of privacy must be created for some of the seating, through the
placement of the planters and the other design elements.
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.8-7
VENDORS
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.8-10
•Street vendors and informal trade, provides employment and incomes to a
significant percentage of people, in particular within the urban areas.
•The trade takes place at strategic points with heavy human traffic - along
main roads, streets, parks, pavements, within shopping centers, and at
prominent corners of streets and roads where traders are visible to
pedestrians and motorists.
•Vending certain types of goods in particular locations increases the
popularity of retail areas, enliven the environment of a plaza or a sidewalk,
and provides security.
Points of consideration:
• The plaza should be designed to accommodate the vendors, whose
presence will add to the vitality of that place, provides a measure of security,
and often increases the popularity of the surrounding retail outlets.
• Providing vendors should be colorful, fabric ”roof” be provided for that area,
to draw the attention to the facility, provide the shelter and shade, the
contrast with the scale of the CBD buildings.
• The area for the vendors or market should be situated so as to be easily
accessible and highly visible.
ART IN THE CBD environment
Source: Redstone, Louis G., The New Downtowns (Rebuilding Business Districts), 1976, Pg: 55
LANDSCAPING
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.8-8
Major Functions of Plant
Materials
Aesthetics
Environmental Modification
Screening
Circulation Control
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streets
ALLEYS
"Alley" is of French
origin, meaning "a
way to go", and has
been adapted in
English as a name
for avenue or a
parkway i.e. any type
of road lined with
trees.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alleys
PEDESTRIANS WALKING DISTANCES
Walking distances, are important because they are a factor in plan configuration,
and a measure of design serviceability. The practical limit of human walking
distances appears to be related more to the context and the situation than the
human energy.
For most persons the maximum tolerable distance is in the range of a normal
5-10 minute walk.
WALKING SPEEDS
The pedestrians vary their walking speeds over a wide range. The average
free flow walking speed of the non baggage carrying pedestrians in the
surveys, for
• all males: 270ft(88m) /min
• females: 254ft(77m) /min
•and the combination of all the pedestrians: 265ft(80m) /min
PEDESTRIAN VOLUME
The equation for pedestrians flow volume,(P), in pedestrians per foot width of
the pedway section, per minute,(PFM)is expressed as follows:
Ped volume= Average Ped Speed,feet/min
Average Ped Area, sq.ft/ped
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 6.5-5
HUMAN BODY DIMENSIONS:
the body ellipse
Body depth
measurements used by
18”
designers of pedestrian spaces
and facilities. Shoulder breadth
is a factor affecting the practical
capacity of the doorways
,passageways, stairways and
mechanical devices such as 24”
escalators and the moving
Shoulder breadth
walks. In a plan view, the
average adult human body A large ellipse of 18inch by 24inch,
occupies an area of about 1-1.5 equivalent to an area of 2.3 sqft(2 sq.mts),
sq.ft(1.4 sqmts). allow for the fact that many pedestrians are
carrying personal articles, natural
psychological preferences to avoid bodily
contact with the others. This determines the
practical standard for pedestrian design as an
ellipse of 24inch by 18inch.
In this formulation, the designer has a clearer concept of relative design
quality, since the units are easier to understand and manipulate. For e.g. a
normal average walking speed of 250sq.ft per minute is attained with an
approximate average pedestrian area of 25sq.ft.person. the simple division of
area occupancy into average speed gives an equivalent design volume of 10
pedestrians per foot(density) width of walkway per minute.
PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY AND SECURITY IN PUBLIC PLACES
•Design for the pedestrians to move about in the well-lit, wide circulation
routes that reflect the existing patterns of movement
the principle asserts the well-used and the vibrant streets are essential for the
safety. Measures that detract from the street life nay increase the risks, such as
overhead walkways and underground malls.
•Consider safety of people and property together rather than separately
In the traditional Neighbourhood Watch approaches and the Business Watch
approaches, it is sometimes assumed that the concern is about robbery rather
than the personal safety. Street crime, assault and harassment-less visible than
the broken windows and stolen property-have higher economic and social
costs.
•Use opportunities for enhancing natural surveillance.
Responsible business owners, neighbours and strangers are the best defenses
against crime. Urban plazas, parks, pathways and parking lots should be
designed not only to allow people to see and be see and be seen but also be
provided with call boxes and graphics clearly indicating ways of helping
yourself or getting help.
•Provide good maintenance
Good maintenance is crucial for lasting design improvements. Adding lighting
does no good if not frequently cleaned or if burned out bulbs are not
immediately replaced. A broken fence no longer fulfills its function. Critical
maintenance items should be designed for easy access for easy access for
cleaning, replacements and repair.
•Make sure solutions to one problem don’t cause another
Safety is part of the integrated design objectives to improve urban quality and
public amenity.
Active, carefully designed, well lit and well maintained urban places help
address all such concerns.
•Involve neighborhoods in public safety planning
Local business owners, residents, and community leaders will know local and
nuisance patterns that pose safety risks and should be invited to serve a
significant role in creating a comprehensive urban design plan for safety and
security.
TRAFFIC CALMING
Traffic calming slows motorized to a “desired speed” (i-e, the speeds that
the community wants);typically 20mhp(32kph) or less for residential streets,
and 25-30mhp (40 to 48 kph) on commercial streets, collector streets,
and the arterial streets. Traffic calming can be accomplished by:
Source: Watson Donald, Plattus Alan and Shibley Robbert, Time savers standards for urban design, Pg- 7.2-1
ROUNDABOUTS
Textured
pavement raised
3”-5”
Zebra crossing
Lane
Sidewalk corridor/
pedestrian path
DESIGN FEATURES FOR UNIVERSAL DESIGN FROM A MANUAL FOR
A BARRIER FREE ENVIRONMENT.
•
WALKWAY
• For free movement of wheelchair, the minimum width of walkway should
be 1.5m.
•The minimum unobstructed width of walkway should be 0.9m.
•The shopping arcade has 6m wide walkway.
•The walkways along the open space and along the service road have
minimum width and that is 3m. Thus, the walkway widths conform to
universal design guidelines.
•Ramps are introduced at the pedestrian crossing points to let the
wheelchair access the walkway from road.
•The transition between walkway and the green landscaped area should be
marked with edge stone, which would protrude from the floor of the walkway
to alert the sightless persons and also to guide the movement of wheelchair.
• None of these elements generate extra cost for implementation but
demands an eye for detail.
CROSSINGS
•All pedestrian crossings will be provided with ramps. This element also does
not generate any additional cost but demands designer's attention to
detailing.
•Proper signaling system should also be installed to allow wheel chair users
and other mobility impaired individuals to cross safely. Moreover, the non-
users of the facility should be considerate in this matter.
PARKING
•A certain percentage of the parking will be transformed into parking for
disabled people. Thus, the width of parking will be transformed into 3.6 m
instead of 2.5m. Hence, the number of a part of the parking will be reduced to
0.70 (2.5/3.6) times.
•The design elements are Kerb stone, Ramps, Tactile materials to be used for
surface of walkway, Signaling, Fewer Parking Spaces.
Shops
• In order to design satisfactory shops, the first requirement is an understanding of those
portions of current merchandising theories which affect the design problem . Briefly,
''merchandising psychology" consists of, first, arousing interest ; second, satisfying it .
Offices
Single/ Group Normal Maximum
Office
Depth of Office 3.75 – 7.50 mt 9.25 m
Dist. b/w Windows 1.00 – 3.25 mt 6.00 m
Dist. b/w Columns 1.75 – 7.50 mt 11.00 m
Main Corridor 1.75 – 2.50 mt 3.25 m
Width
Side Corridor Width 1.50 – 2.00 mt 2.50 m
2. Ramp :
o Inclined plane or surface connecting different levels; a stair without a risers, to enable a person to
climb without interruption and to permit the use of wheeled carts, chair or vehicles.
o A ramp when provided shall not have a slope greater than 1 : 12. Larger slopes shall be provided for
special uses but in no case greater than 1 : 8.
o Minimum clear width shall be 36” (3 feet).The minimum width of the ramps in the basement using
car parking shall be 6.0 mt.
o Handrails shall be provided on both sides of the ramp.
o Ramps shall have level landings at bottom and top of each ramp and each ramp run.
o If ramps change direction at landings, the minimum landing size shall be 60” x 60”.
o Each ramp shall have at least 180 cm of straight clearance at the bottom.
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -444
National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 113
3. Lifts or Elevators :
o The upward and downward moment of people in newly erected
multi-storey buildings is achieved by lifts.
o In large multistory building it is usual to look at the lifts at a
central pedestrian circulation point.
o Lift position should be such that it does not obstruct the main
entrance to the building and adjacent to the principle staircase.
o Area allowed varies from 0.14- 0.28 sq m per person.
o For a block of offices of not more than five stories the speed
may be from 37 to 60 m per min.
o For a multistory departmental store with a restaurant on the top
floor, speed of 90 to 120 m per min.
o A lift shall be provided in buildings as prescribed hereunder:
(i) In case of Building having height more than 13.0 Mts. lift shall
Passenger Lift
be provided.
(ii) Lift shall be provided of one lift per 1000.00 sq.mts. or part
thereof of built-up area for commercial buildings.
oIn multi-storey building elevators are principal means of vertical circulation for those confined to
wheelchairs and for others with difficulty in walking.
oMinimum dims of elevator car to accommodate standard wheelchair:1100 internal depth, 900width ,
700 clear door opening.
oIn public building there should be sufficient space for another person to accompany chair-
bond:1400 min. width, 1100 width.
oIn special residential homes large wheelchairs are to be accommodated; dimensions:1800 depth ,
1000width, 800 door opening.
oElevator cars must be accurate in leveling and at landings.
oPhotoelectric devices in doors to prevent premature closing desirable .
oControl buttons should light to operate .
oMean height should be 1400, max 1600
oTo position wheel chairs there should be clear space at least 1500 x 1500 before each lift door.
4. Escalators :
o An escalator is a moving staircase conveyor transport device for
carrying people between floors of a building. It consists of a motor-
driven chain of individual, linked steps that move up or down on tracks,
allowing the step treads to remain horizontal.
o It continuously receives and discharges its live load at a constant speed
with practically no waiting periods at any loading.
Characteristics
o These are Installed at an angle of 30 0 but within 350 .
o Installations are generally 2 speed-with the higher speed (120 fpm) utilized during rush hours and
the lower (90 fpm) at off hours.
o Moving stairways are generally available in widths of 32” and 48”, measured at hip level between the
balustrades; 40” can carry 2 persons/tread.
o 32” has a tread width of 24” and 48” width has 40” tread.
o All treads have a rise of 8” and 16” depth.
o 32” wide step-5, 000 passengers/hour, with a speed of 90 fpm, and 6,666 passengers/hour with a
speed of 120 fpm.
o 48” wide step-8, 000 passengers/hr with 90 fpm speed and 10,665 passengers/hr at a speed of 120
fpm.
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -443
National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 107,108
Types of Parking
Open 23
Ground floor covered 28
Basement 32
Multilevel with ramps 30
Automated multilevel with lifts 16
(Area in m2 per ECS)
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -440
National Building Code of India 2005, Pg – 107
Parking spaces are usually outlined by 12-20 mm
wide yellow or white painted lines.
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -439
Specifications of Parking meant for Building Serving Physically Disabled
The size and location of parking spaces required must confirm to the following standards:
An accessible parking space must be at least 8 feet wide.
An access aisle adjacent to an accessible parking must be at least 5 feet wide and may not be
restricted by a built-up curb ramp, planters, curbs, wheel stops ,or any other obstructions.
An access aisle:
A) Must be part of an accessible route to the building or facility; and
B) Must either merge with the accessible route or have a curb ramp to the accessible route
An accessible parking space and an access aisle must Have a surface slope of not more than
1:50 in all directions.
An accessible parking space and an access aisle must be designated with blue lines.
Source: National Building Code of India 2005, Annex-D, Clause 12.21, Pg – 126, 127, 128
Fire Fighting
Building regulations require that due consideration must
be given in buildings to:
Active Precautions -:
•Active precautions are those systems that are
automatically deployed in the event of fire.
50 people 800mm
110 900mm
220 1100mm
220+ extra 5mm per person
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg – 131, 138
Automatic Water Sprinklers
Automatic sprinklers are devices for automatically distributing
water upon a fire in sufficient quantity to extinguish it
completely or to prevent its spread, by keeping the fire under
control, by the water discharged from the sprinklers.
•It consists of a network of pipes 20 mm. dia fixed to the
ceiling of the room. Pipes spaced at 3m c/c.
•Heat actuated sprinkler heads fixed to these pipes at regular
intervals. Pipes get supply from a header.
•Each sprinkler head provided with a fusible plug.
•The fusible plug in the sprinkler nearest to the fire melts and
water gushes out. Fire is thus brought under control in a short
period of time.
Types of Sprinkler Systems:
• Wet - The pipes are permanently charged with water and used for all locations except where
freezing temperatures are likely to occur or special conditions exist.
• Dry - The pipes are normally charged with air under pressure.
• Alternate - Can be arranged to be either wet or dry depending upon ambient temperature
conditions.
• Pre-action - The pipes are normally charged with air, and get filled with water when a fire actuates
a separate detection system.
Hazard class General Special risk areas or
Storage racks
Fire Staircase
oFire escape stairs shall have straight flight not less than 125 cm wide with 25 cm treads and risers
not more than 15 cm.
oHandrails shall be at a height not less than 100 cm from the center of tread.
oFire escape staircase in the buildings above 24 mts. height shall be a fire tower
oWidth of the same shall not be less than the width of the main staircase.
oRisers shall be limited to 15 per flight. The minimum unobstructed head room in a passage under the
landing of a staircase and under the staircase shall be 2.2 m.
oExternal exit door of staircase enclosure at ground level shall open directly to the open spaces
oNo combustible material shall be allowed in the fire tower.
oThe treads shall be constructed and maintained in a manner to prevent slipping.
Source: Neufert, Ernst and Peter, Architects’ Data, Third Edition, Pg -74
Rain Water Harvesting
•Rainwater harvesting is the gathering, or accumulating and
storing, of rainwater.
•Rainwater harvesting has been used to provide drinking
water, water for livestock, water for irrigation or to
refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge.
•Rainwater systems are simple to construct from inexpensive
local materials, and are potentially successful in most
habitable locations.
•Household rainfall catchment systems are appropriate in
areas with an average rainfall greater than 200mm per year.
•The rate at which water can be collected from either system
is dependent on the plan area of the system, its efficiency,
and the intensity of rainfall.
•There are a number of types of systems to harvest rainwater
ranging from very simple to the complex industrial systems.
SUBSURFACE DYKE
oA subsurface dyke is built in an aquifer to obstruct the natural
flow of groundwater, thereby raising the groundwater level and
increasing the amount of water stored in the aquifer.
oThe subsurface dyke at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur
under Kerala Agricultural University with the support of ICAR,
has become an effective method for ground water conservation
by means of rain water harvesting technologies. The sub-
surface dyke has demonstrated that it is a feasible method for
conserving and exploiting the groundwater resources of
the Kerala state of India. The dyke is now the largest rainwater
harvesting system in that region.
•Height- Unlimited, if there is any airport in the district, then special permission is taken
from the Airport Authority of India.
•F.A.R.-1.75
•Parking- 3 E.C.S. / 100sq m. covered area on all the floors
•For open parking,1 E.C.S.-23 sq m.
•For stilt or ground floor parking,1 E.C.S.-28sq m.
•For basement parking,1 E.C.S.-32 sq m.
•Stilt & basement parking will not considered in F.A.R.
•Stilt floor’s height must not exceed 8’6” beyond the building block except in the set-backs
provided it is used for parking only.
•Multi level basement will be allowed behind the building in zoned area except
in set-backs provided it is proposed for parking purposes only and satisfy the
Public Health and Structural requirements.
•Parking grid in basements & stilt floors must be between 400-600 sq. feet.
•If at any stage, FAR is increased at any level after the auction of the site, proportionate
additional price shall be chargeable
•Direct access on a road not less than 80 ft. wide with a road frontage of not
less than 100 ft.
Provision of basement
The construction of double level basement shall be compulsory for parking and the
entire area of the basement shall be used for parking purposes only except the area
used for Air-conditioning plant and lift room which in no case shall exceed 10% of the
area. Basement shall be permitted only under the built up area at the ground level.
Parking
At present the norms of parking for multiplexes are @ 1ECS for 40 Sq. Yds. Of covered area
on all floors whereas as per NBC the norms for parking work out to be 1 ECS for 44 Square
Yards assuming that in a multiplex 60% area is used for commercial, 25% for cinema and
15% for food courts. After detailed deliberations considering the road network available in the
towns of Punjab and NBC provisions, it was decided that the existing norms in the Municipal
Building Byelaws for parking and other provisions of Multiplexes are in order and should be
retained as such.
oMinimum size for Filling-cum-Service Station and Filling Station shall be as per the
recommendations of TCPO and shall not be less than 30m X 30m in case of Filling
Station and 36 mX30m in case of Filling-cum-Service Station.
oThe minimum distance of the property line of the Filling Station from the Central
line of the road must not be less than 15.00 metres or half the proposed right-of-
way of the road, whichever, is more. In case of national highways, state highways
and major roads in urban areas they should be set back so as to be outside the
ultimate right-of-way of the highway along which it is to be located. However,
variations can be approved in special cases if allowed by the competent authority
after complete investigations.
oThe station area should have clear sign-boards (‘IN' & E X I T' boards) properly
indicating the approach and exit from the premises and these should be installed
within the site without interfering with the right of way of the highway. These
sign boards should be provided with proper lighting arrangements in the night. Any
other sign boards or bill boards should also be stated within the premises without
distracting the traffic along the highway.
oAs a general rule, the clear distance between two adjacent fuel filling stations (these
will also include fuel filling-cum-service stations) should not be less than 300 metres.
oThere should be sufficient standing space inside the fuel filling station for vehicles to
wait for their turn. In order to reduce the number of waiting vehicles, it is desirable
to have oil. air. toilets etc. installed at some distance from the fuel filling pump so that
vehicles which have been refuelled can immediately be drawn away from the fuel
pump. There should be adequate drainage arrangements in the fuel filling station
so that the surface water does not flow over the road but is collected in
suitable drains and led away to a natural course.
Height
oThe maximum height permitted for canopy/building shall be restricted to
20 feet inclusive of the parapet.
oNumber of storeys permitted within the built up area shall not exceed one
oNo mezzanine or basement within or under the built up area shall be
permitted.
Boundary Wall
oHeight of the side and Rear boundary walls shall be restricted to 4 feet.
oNo boundary wall shall be constructed on the front.
Storage Tanks
oUnderground fuel storage tanks within the site shall be permitted provided
the minimum distance from the boundary wall shall be 1.5 metres in case
of tanks being buried in earth without any masonry pit around them.
oIt should have a management tie up or franchise arrangement with National / International
hotel chain of repute having at least five hotels consisting of minimum of 50 rooms each in
India /abroad.
oThe land owner can have joint venture/Development agreement /revenue sharing
arrangement with the developer / Hotelier.
oF.A.R is allowed upto 3 ( 20-25% of this FAR can be used for commercial purposes)
60
50
40
30
20
Percent
10
0
Multiple services un Ambience and Shoppin
Conversation w ith re Entertainment and Le
The people surveyed seem show that the consumers value the availability
Of multiple services at a place rather the ambience or entertainment
associated with the place.
Shopping pattern of people surveyed
50
40
30
20
10
Percent
0
Buy as and w hen requ Bulk Buying
visit once/tw ice a m Trying new products
The people surveyed seem to fall in one of the 2 categories – those who shop for
products as and when the need arises and also those who visit a store
once/twice a month and stock up. The markets need to decide on a strategy to
target the buyers who shop as and when the need arises as such people greatly
value convenience and usually buy such products from the nearby local vendors.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Percent
0
Low er price and less Pack Quantity
Higher price and lon Value for money
This chart emphasizes the traditional value seeking behavior of the Indian
consumer. Any retail format aiming to target the masses must be seen as
providing the best value for the consumer’s money.
Factors that influence people the most
50
40
30
20
10
Percent
0
Brand Loyalty Retailer's Recommend
Wide Range Warranty/ Guarantee
Another aspect that emerged was the strong preference of the buyer for
tried and tested brands and also his penchant for variety at the point of
purchase. Traditionally, kirana stores are known to keep an inventory of
brands that their regular customers usually buy (e.g. Parachute Hair Oil)
while malls stock up on a wide range of brands in the same category. While
the customers do appreciate a large variety to choose from, the more
popular brands should be displayed prominently to attract them.
Problems and Issues
Traffic Congestion
The problem of traffic congestion is particularly peculiar in the mornings and in the
evenings when the people go and come back from their work respectively. These are
known as the peak traffic hours. Today due to ever icreasing vehicles on our roads, it
has become a major problem to tackle especially in a commercial centre like a CBD,
where the major working class commutes in the peak hours. The main issues related
to this problem are:
• Narrow streets
• Unauthorized roadside parking.
• Ever increasing number of car ownership.
• Grid Lock- The inability to move on a
transport network in a grid plan.
Suggested Solutions could be:
• Ring Roads and Bye-passes
• Flyovers and Urban motorways
• Multistory car parks
• Pedestrianization of streets
• Congestion Charge Zone Concept: in this motorists are charged a fee for driving in
the congestion charge zone to avoid traffic jams in such heavily loaded areas.
• Park and Ride: are car parks with connections to public transport that allow
commuters and others wishing to travel into city centres to leave their personal
vehicles in a car park and transfer to a bus, rail system (rapid transit, light rail or
commuter rail), or carpool for the rest of their trip.
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/HNurton/the-central-business-district-a-basic-outline
Microclimate and Climate Responsive Architecture
A microclimate is a local atmospheric zone where the climate differs from the surrounding area.
Microclimates exist, for example, near bodies of water which may cool the local atmosphere, or in
heavily urban areas where brick, concrete, and asphalt absorb the sun's energy, heat up, and
reradiate that heat to the ambient air.
Urban Heat Island
An urban heat island (UHI) is a metropolitan area which
is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas.
The main causes of this modification are:
•Modification of the land surface by urban development.
•Waste heat generated by energy usage.
•Due to increased population levels.
Climate Responsive Architecture
Architecture that effectively responds to the climate provides substantially improved natural comfort
and energy efficiency. Responding to the daily and seasonal changes in the sun and breeze patterns
of the site is an integral part of sustainable architecture. The way each of these climatic features is
handled depends on the climatic region in which the building is located. Each climatic region
requires a different design response. Climate responsive design is achieved through careful
consideration of five factors:
1. Orientation
2. Solar Access and Shading
3. Ventilation
4. Insulation
5. Building Materials
Source: http://www.skyringarchitects.com.au/climate.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microclimate
Pollution
Central Business districts are the significant areas to face the problem of pollution of all
sorts (Air, water, soil, noise etc.). It is very important to deal with the problem wisely so
as to make such high density urban areas more healthy and livable. The main effects of
an excessively polluted environment are:
• Unhealthy working class
• Unhygenic surroundings and the working conditions
• Unpleasant site of the urban district as a whole
• Finally loss of the commercial activity for which the centre is designed.
Suggested Solutions could be:
• Laws against the dumping of litter and sewage
in the surroundings
• Provision of litter bins and road sweeping
(include a relatively recent addition of different
types of bins to encourage recycling)
• Clean Air Acts
• Vehicles which run on cleaner fuels.
• Encouraging public and mass transport.
• Enhanced solid-waste management programs
• Increased planting of trees and plants i.e.
provision of widespread green areas in the
urban areas
• Strict implementation of bye-laws with special
emphasis on ground coverage and F.A.R.
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/HNurton/the-central-business-district-a-basic-outline
Lack of Space and High Cost of Land
As the central business district forms the hub for all the commercial activities in the city,
hence the land prices are expected to be high in this case. And with the bid rent theory
governing the cost of ownership and tenancy, occupation of a space becomes an
expensive affair. The related issues are:
• Small retailers are forced away.
• High cost of ownership compared to the rental revenue.
• Business losses to the small sector occupants.
• Quick occupation and vacancy of holdings due to lower margin of profits.
• Clone town is a term (esp. used in the U.K.) for a town where the High Street or other
major shopping areas are significantly dominated by Chain stores, which can bear the
high cost of ownership and can ensure the guaranty required for such high cost
tenancy. This phenomenon is particularly damaging to the society because of the
removal of the diversity.
Some of the suggested solutions could
be:
• Providing space to tenants at competitive
rates after studying the feasibility of the
retail businesses and the offices.
• There should be a check on the promoters
by the authorities so that making money is
not their sole aim.
• The concept of Clone Town should be
discouraged in order to provide variety to
the people at competitive prices.
Source: http://www.slideshare.net/HNurton/the-central-business-district-a-basic-outline
Urban Decline
As CBDs compete with out of town centres they experience decline especially in terms of:
• Vacant properties
• Vandalism
• Lack of maintenance in the common areas.
• No interest shown by the authorities after the commissioning of the project.
• Growth of internet etc means CBD may no longer be the attractive location it once was,
especially for those such as offices who do not need to attract passing trade.