SPACE FRAMES

In architecture and structural engineering, a space frame or space structure (3D truss) is a
rigid, lightweight, truss-like structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern.
Space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior supports. Like the truss, a space
frame is strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments)
are transmitted as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut.

SPACE FRAME

Its three dimensional structure. Assembled linear elements are arranged to transfer the load. Take
a form of a flat surface or curved surface. Designed with no intermediate columns to create large
open area.

HISTORY OF SPACE FRAME

 Space frames were independently developed by Alexander Graham Bell around 1900
based on tetrahedral geometry and Buckminster fuller in the 1950s Buckminster
fuller's focus was architectural structures; his work had greater influence.
 Bell's interest was primarily in using them to make rigid frames for nautical and
aeronautical engineering, with the tetrahedral truss being one of his inventions.
 Dr. Ing. Max Mengeringhausen developed the space grid system called MERO
(acronym of MEngeringhausen ROhrbauweise) in 1943 in Germany, thus initiating the
use of space trusses in architecture.
 It was developed in California during the 1960s and introduced to the South African
market in 1982, specifically developed for unstable soil conditions, the panels form a
monolithic structure offering superior wall strength in which no cracking will occur.

DESIGN METHOD

 Space frames are typically designed using a rigidity matrix. The special characteristic
of the stiffness matrix in an architectural space frame is the independence of the
angular factors.
  If the joints are sufficiently rigid, the angular deflections can be neglected, simplifying
the calculations.

OVERVIEW

The simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square pyramids and
tetrahedra built from aluminium or tubular steel struts. In many ways this looks like the horizontal
jib of a tower crane repeated many times to make it wider. A stronger form is composed of
interlocking tetrahedra in which all the struts have unit length. More technically this is referred to
as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width an octet truss. More complex variations
change the lengths of the struts to curve the overall structure or may incorporate other
geometrical shapes.

TYPES

Within the meaning of space frame, we can find three systems clearly different between them.

Curvature classification

 Space plane covers: These spatial structures are composed of planar substructures. Their
behaviour is similar to that of a plate in which the deflections in the plane are channelled
through the horizontal bars and the shear forces are supported by the diagonals.
 Barrel vaults: This type of vault has a cross section of a simple arch. Usually this type of
space frame does not need to use tetrahedral modules or pyramids as a part of its
backing.
 Spherical domes and other compound curves usually require the use of tetrahedral
modules or pyramids and additional support from a skin.
Classification by the arrangement of its elements

 Single layer grid: All elements are located on the surface to be approximated.
 Double layer grid: Elements are organized in two layers parallel to each other at a certain
distance apart. Each of the layers form a lattice of triangles, squares or hexagons in which the
projection of the nodes in a layer may overlap or be displaced relative to each other.
Diagonal bars connect the nodes of both layers in different directions in space. In this type of
meshes, the elements are associated into three groups: upper cordon, cordon and cordon
lower diagonal.
 Triple layer grid: Elements are placed in three parallel layers, linked by the diagonals. They are
almost always flat.

CASE STUDY:
HALL OF NATION AND NEHRU PAVILION, PRAGATI MAIDAN, DELHI.
INTRODUCTION

• On August 15, 1947, India became an independent state, free from British colonial
rule. In 1972, to mark the 25th anniversary of this momentous occasion, Prime
Minister Indira Gandhi unveiled the Hall of Nations, designed by Indian architect Raj
Rewal.
• It was the world’s first and largest-span space-frame structure
• The Permanent Exhibition Complex is designed to form the focus of 130 acres of
Exhibition ground designed by Raj Rewal in New Delhi. The design was evolved to
meet the constraints of time, availability of materials and labor, but above all, to
reflect symbolically and technologically, India's intermediate technology in the 25th
year of its independence.
• Officially known as the Hall of Nations and Industries, the building was made from
concrete cast in- situ and used a tessellating triangular structure to form a capped
pyramid.
• Rewal stated it as a “symbol of an achievement by young architects in a newly-
independent India, creating a style which could be constructed with limited means,
yet be uniquely Indian.”

THE DESIGN

• Raj Rewal leaned on geometry and proposed four halls linked by ramps.
• Largest of these is the hall of nations.
• The hall of nations is a structure based on tetrahedrons, triangulated forms and
hexagons, which is seen in jails' in India.
• Raj Rewal re-interpreted the traditional Indian element of design with ultra-modern
form and techniques. Hence he created a powerful image to represent India’s
modernity.
• He used space frames as both, roof and wall combined to diffuse the harsh sunlight
in Delhi. Hence the structure itself becomes a sun-breaker.
• Each of the four hall of industries is similar in design and is 44 x 22 x 16 M high.
• Free standing coffered mezzanine floors cantilevering out of cylindrical shaft like
columns provide extra exhibition space in each hall.
• The ‘hall of nations’ is supported on pile foundations ties together with post
tensioned beams.
 • The main pavilion of the Hall of Nations has a
clear span of 78 meters and a height varying
from three meters to 21 meters, thereby
providing a vast capacity for items to be
exhibited, from books to bulldozers.
• The plan of these pavilions is square with
chamfered corners, providing eight anchoring
points. The corners were inspired by the tomb
of Moghul Emperor Humayun.
• The depth of the structural system was utilized
as a Sun breaker and conceived of in terms of
the traditional 'jali', a geometrical pattern of
perforation that serves to obstruct directs rays
of the harsh Sun while permitting air circulation.

The concrete space frame structural system used, was very unusual at the time, because
conventional space frame structures were built in steel.

Reasons for using concrete instead of steel for construction was:

1. Steel sections was not readily available in India, hence had to be imported.

2. Skilled fabricators were not available.

3. Economic limitations.

Plan of Nehru pavilion Sections

 FOLDED PLATES

WHAT ARE FOLDED PLATES?

Folded plates are assemblies of flat plates rigidly

connected together along their edges in such a
way that the structural system capable of carrying
loads without the need for additional supporting
beams along mutual edges.

Engineer Eudene Freyssinet performed the first

roof with the folded structure in 1923 as an
aircraft hangar at Orly Airport in Paris.

FOLDING SYSTEMS IN NATURE

The principle of folding as a tool to develop a general structural shape has
been known for a long time. Folded structure systems which are analogous to
several biological systems such as found at broadleaf-tree leaves, petals and
foldable insect wings, are adopted to be employed in a new, technical way.

The Principle of Folding

 The structural characteristics of folding structures depend on-

 The pattern of the folding.
 Their geometrical basic shape.
 Its material.
 The connection of the different folding
planes.
 The design of the bearings.

Structural Behaviour of Folding

Load Distribution process: At first, the external
forces are transferred to the shorter edge of one
folding element. There, the reaction as an axial
force is divided between the adjacent elements, then the forces transferred to the bearings.

Classification of folded structures based on the material they are made of:

 Folded structures made of reinforced concrete

 Metal folded structures
 Folded structures of wood
 Folded structures of glass
 Folded structures of plastic materials
 Folded constructions made in combination of different materials.
TYPES OF FOLDED PLATES SYSTEM

TAPERED FOLDED PLATES:

• Folded plate structures may be built with tapered elements and only one of the many possible
combinations is shown here.
• The height of the shells at the center of the span is the critical dimension for bending strength.
Therefore, the structure is not very efficient and not suitable for long spans because of the excess
height required for the large ends.
• Another weak element in this design is the transfer of shear from the small end of the
triangular plate to the large end. If a large number of units are used in each span, the transfer of
loads may be difficult.
• A folded plate may be used for walls as a thin structural element by casting each plate flat on
the floor and grouting the joints full of concrete. A wall of this type can be made much thinner
than a flat wall.

EDGE SUPPORTED FOLDED

PLATES:

• The usual upturned edge plate

can be eliminated and the roof
structure can be made to appear
very thin if the edge plate is
replaced by a series of columns.
• The slab between columns must be designed as a beam and it may be convenient to extend the
main roof slab as a Cantilever Canopy.
• The beam element that carries the load of the roof between columns will then be wider and
windows under the slab will have the same function as in the previous examples of folded plates.
• Note the vertical columns in the end walls at the crown of the gable. These take the reactions of
the plates and the horizontal ties may be eliminated. Wind loads are taken by rigid frame action in
the Columns and Stiffeners.

FOLDED PLATE TRUSS:

• The term "folded plate truss" is intended to

indicate the structural action of this structure.
• There are horizontal ties across the width only
at the ends of the building.
• The thrusts from the triangular crossed
arches are carried lengthwise to the ends.
• The top chord of the inclined truss is formed
by the ridge member.
• The bottom chords are the ties at the base of the side gables and the diagonals are formed by
the sloping valleys at the intersection of the gables and the triangular plates.
• This is truly a space structure and its structural action is as shown and, therefore, the architectural
appearance is more subtle that the usual shell structure.
THREE SEGMENT FOLDED PLATE:

• The end stiffeners are rigid frames rather

than deep Girders as in the last example.
• The forces from the reactions of the
sloping plates on these rigid frames will be
quite large and at an outside column they
will not be balanced by thrusts from the
adjacent plates.
• The size of the frames may be reduced by
using a steel tie between the tops of the
columns which can be concealed in the
fenestration. The dimensions of the plates
are dependent on both the width of the
barrel and on the span.

• The depth of the shell should be about 0.10 times the span and the maximum slope of a plate
should not be greater than 40 degrees.
• For example, assume for the above structure that the span is 60 feet and the bay width is 24 feet.
The depth of the shell should be about 6 feet and the horizontal width of each plate with a three
segment plate should be about 8 feet.
• 6 the slope of the plates is 6/8, which is about 37 degrees and is satisfactory. The thickness of the
plates could be about 3 ½ inches.

CASE STUDY:
YOKOHOMA INTERNATIONAL PASSENGER TERMINAL

Architect: Foreign Office Architects (Alejandro Zaera-Polo and Farshid Moussavi)

Floor Area: 34,732 m2, Length: 430m, Height: 15m, Width: 70m.

INTRODUCTION

• The steel frame structure was designed with the beautiful scenery of the port in mind.
• It is a three level facility of a gentle curved form.
• The roof curves back in to form the ceiling of the level below and then again to form
the floor.
• The inside space is barrier free without columns or beams and the vertical circulation
is accomplished through ramps and elevators.

SITE AND GENERAL

The major pier possesses the ability to harbour vessels of varying sizing including the largest
passenger ships. The port has both pedestrian and vehicular connection to the mainland.
FUNCTIONS – • Basement- machinery rooms • First floor- parking • Second floor- passenger
terminal, multi-purpose space • Roof- roof plaza, visitor’s deck.

• The terminal is a shed building measuring 412 meters in length and composed of 27 steel
trusses averaging 42.5 meters in span and placed at 16 meter intervals.

• The trusses are joined longitudinally by trussed members of conventional configuration, and
purlins carrying, either metal cladding or glazing.

• The trusses are carried on concrete piers extending from the basement parking level through
the surface of the main level.

• The large shed employs a unified form though repetitive structural units to enclose a single
homogeneous space.

• The transformation yields a complex of spaces that smoothly incorporates the multiple terminal,
civic and garden programmes within and below its span.
The Delft PS auditorium, Netherlands.

Another example of a large-

scale folded roof, the most
prominent one to be built in The
Netherlands, covers the Delft
Polytechnic School auditorium.

Work on this building was

authorized to begin on 1 March
1961 but as a result of all
manner of difficulties (bad
weather in the winters of 1961-
2 and 1962-3, construction-
related complications and
labour strife during the period) the scheduled completion date had to be postponed to 1965.

The composition of this building is much more complex than any of the ones described above,
since the roof does not simply cover a large open area, but rather a wide variety of spaces requiring
very different support systems. Nonetheless, the most striking and interesting element from the
standpoint of structural solutions is the large trough-shaped auditorium located above grade at
the front of the building.

This unusual design was the outcome of the need to meet two conflicting but essential
requirements: the building, located at one end of the Mekelweg or main thoroughfare on the Delft
PS campus, had to be highly visible from the road without obstructing traffic.
• Consequently, the floor slab cantilevers 14 m outward of these columns. This
arrangement determined the need for an entirely cantilevered roof, since:
• It may be immediately inferred from the description of the trough (the floor under the
building amphitheatre), a structure with an area of 1600 m2 resting on two columns in
the middle, that it would not be able to support the weight of the roof as well. This
rules out the possibility of resting the roof on the trough.
• Moreover, while the edge of the roof is set back 2 or 3 m from edge of the trough, it
is still located 12 m beyond the columns; and since there may be no columns at any
intermediate point in the auditorium, the roof must be built to project outward from
the centre of the building.
• Given that loads could not be supported anywhere within the auditorium proper, the
closest structure suitable for this purpose was the wall along the front end enclosing
the service shafts.
• This meant cantilevering the roof 32 m in this part of the building. Together, then, the
trough and roof would look much like two semi-open valves of a sea shell. The
suspended roof envisaged in one of the preliminary designs was dismissed as unviable
both for reasons of acoustics and constructional feasibility.
• It was finally concluded that all the requirements could be met with a folded roof.
• All the structural members in the auditorium may be said, then, to be based on folded
plate systems, since the trough-shaped floor slab may also be classed in this general
category.
Dr. D.Y. Patil College of Architecture Nerul, Navi Mumbai

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

SPACE FRAMES STRUCURES

FOLDED PLATES STRUCTURES

SUBMITTED BY

SHUBHAM SONAWANE
Fifth Year- Sem. IX, B. Arch.