Heat Treatment of Steel 1

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 Metallic crystal structures:
 Three relatively simple crystal structures are found for
most of the common metals:
1. Face-centered cubic, (FCC)
2. Body-centered cubic, (BCC)
3. Hexagonal close-packed, (HCP)

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 Point (a):
 Pure iron solidifies from the liquid
at 1538 oC (2800 oF) (top of Fig.1).
 A crystalline structure, known as
ferrite, or delta iron (δ) or delta
ferrite, is formed (point a, Fig. 1).
 This structure, in terms of atom
arrangement, is known as a body-
centered cubic lattice (bcc).
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 Point (b):
 As cooling proceeds further and point b
(Fig. 1) is reached (1394 oC, or 2540 oF),
the atoms rearrange into a 14-atom
lattice a shown in Fig. 2(at b).
 The lattice now has an atom at each
corner and one at the center of each
face. This is known as a face-centered
cubic lattice (fcc).
 This
phase is called Austenite or
gamma iron (γ).
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 Point (c):
 As cooling further proceeds to
910 oC (or ~1675 oF) (point c,
Fig. 1), the structure reverts to
the nine-atom lattice ferrite or
alpha iron (α) or alpha
ferrite.
 The entire field below 910 oC
(or ~1675 oF) is composed of
alpha ferrite, which continues
on down to room temperature
and below. 16
 Point (d):
 The change at point d on Fig. 1 at
770 oC (or ~1420 oF) merely
denotes a change from
nonmagnetic to magnetic iron
and does not represent a phase
change.

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 Importance of carbon existence in iron:
 As an elemental metal, pure iron has only limited engineering
usefulness despite its allotropy.
 Carbon is the main alloying addition that capitalizes on the allotropic
phenomenon and lifts iron from mediocrity into the position of a
unique structural material, broadly known as steel.
 Even in the highly alloyed stainless steels, it is the quite minor
constituent carbon that virtually controls the engineering properties.
 Furthermore, due to the manufacturing processes, carbon in effective
quantities persists in all irons and steels unless special methods are
used to minimize it.
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 Level of solubility of carbon in iron:
 Carbon is almost insoluble in iron, which is in the alpha or
ferritic phase (910 oC, or 1675 oF). However, it is quite
soluble in gamma iron.
 Carbon actually dissolves; that is, the individual atoms of
carbon lose themselves in the interstices among the iron
atoms.

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 Effect of carbon on iron:
 The effects of carbon on certain characteristics of pure iron are shown in Fig. 3. Figure
3(a) is a simplified version of Fig. 1; that is, a straight line constitutional diagram of
commercially pure iron.
 In Fig. 3(b), the diagram is expanded horizontally to depict the initial effects of carbon
on the principal thermal points of pure iron.
 Thus, each vertical dashed line, like the solid line in Fig. 3(a), is a constitutional
diagram, but now for iron containing that particular percentage of carbon.
 Note that carbon lowers the freezing point of iron and that it broadens the
temperature range of austenite by raising the temperature A4 at which (delta) ferrite
changes to austenite and by lowering the temperature A3 at which the austenite reverts
to (alpha) ferrite.
 Hence, carbon is said to be an austenitizing element. 22
 Equilibrium transformations:
 In a practical approach, however, it should be emphasized that Fig. 1,
as well as Fig. 3, represents changes that occur during very slow
cooling, as would be possible during laboratory-controlled
experiments, rather than under conditions in commercial practice.
 Furthermore, in slow heating of iron, these transformations take place
in a reverse manner.
 Transformations occurring at such slow rates of cooling and
heating are known as equilibrium transformations, due to the fact
that temperatures indicated in Fig. 1.

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 Transformation:
 Therefore, the process by which iron changes from one atomic
arrangement to another when heated through 910 oC (1675 oF) is
called a transformation.
 Transformations of this type occur not only in pure iron but also in
many of its alloys; each alloy composition transforms at its own
characteristic temperature.
 It is this transformation that makes possible the variety of properties
that can be achieved to a high degree of reproducibility through use
of carefully selected heat treatments.

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1. Explain the metallurgical phenomena of pure iron?
2. When the quantity of carbon in steel increase then:
a. The melting point increase
b. The melting point decrease
3. Why do we call carbon is the austenitizing element?
4. What temperature that iron change crystal structure from
alpha iron to gamma iron ? And from gamma iron to delta
iron? And what are the related crystalline structures?

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 What is a phase diagram?
 It is a graphical representation of the equilibrium temperature and
composition limits of phase fields and phase reactions in an alloy system.
 In the iron-cementite system, temperature is plotted vertically, and
composition is plotted horizontally.
 The iron-cementite diagram (Fig. 4), deals only with the constitution of
the iron-iron carbide system, i.e., what phases are present at each
temperature and the composition limits of each phase.
 Any point on the diagram, therefore, represents a definite composition and
temperature, each value being found by projecting to the proper reference
axis.
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 Phase:
 It is a portion of an alloy, physically, chemically, or
crystallographically homogeneous throughout, which is separated
from the rest of the alloy by distinct bounding surfaces.
 Phases of steel should not be confused with microstructures. There
are only three phases involved in any steel—ferrite, carbide Fe3C
(cementite), and austenite.

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1. Ferrite phases:
1. Delta iron (δ-Fe)
2. Alpha iron (α-Fe)
(see explanation at point a, c & d of pure iron)

2. Gamma iron / Austenite(γ-Fe):

(see explanation at point b of pure iron)

3. Cementite phase:
 Cementite (or iron carbide) is a compound of iron and carbon, more precisely an
intermediate transition metal carbide with the formula Fe3C. It has an orthorhombic
crystal structure. It is a hard, brittle material, normally classified as a ceramic in its
pure form.

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 Transformation of Austenite phase to martensite phase:
 Martensite is formed in carbon steels by the rapid cooling
(quenching) of the austenite form of iron at such a high rate that
carbon atoms do not have time to diffuse out of the crystal structure
in large enough quantities to form cementite (Fe3C).
 As a result of the quenching, the face-centered cubic austenite
transforms to a highly strained body-centered tetragonal form called
martensite that is supersaturated with carbon.

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 Heating temperature level
for heat treatment of steel:
 Although this diagram (Fig. 4)
extends from a temperature of
1870 oC (3400 oF) down to
room temperature.
 Steel heat treating practice
rarely involves the use of
temperatures above 1040 oC
(1900 oF) (Fig. 11).
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1. How many phase of steel?
2. How can martensite structure occur?
3. At what maximum temperature can heat treatment of steel
be performed?

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 Heat Treatments:
 Heat treatments are used to alter the physical and mechanical
properties of metal without changing its shape.
 They are essential processes in metal manufacturing which increase
desirable characteristic of metal, while allowing for further
processing to take place.
 Various heat treatment processes involve carefully controlled heating
and cooling of metal.
 Steel, for example, is commonly heat treated for use in a variety of
commercial applications.
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 Heat treatment of steels operation:
 All heat-treating operations consist of subjecting a metal to a definite
time-temperature cycle, which may be divided into three parts:
1. Heating: The rate of heating is not particularly important unless a steel is in
a highly stressed condition, such as is imparted by severe cold working or
prior hardening.
2. Holding at temperature (soaking): The object of holding a steel at heat-
treating temperature is to assure uniformity of temperature throughout its
entire volume.
3. Cooling: The structure and properties of a steel depend upon its rate of
cooling and this, in turn, is governed by such factors as mass, quenching
media, etc.

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 Classification of Heat Treating Processes:
I. Annealing
II. Hardening
III. Tempering
IV. Case Hardening
V. Surface Hardening

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I. Annealing:

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II. Hardening:

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III. Tempering:

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IV. Case Hardening:
 Case hardening is a process of hardening a ferrous alloy so that the
surface layer or case is made substantially harder than the interior or
core.
 The chemical composition of the surface layer is altered during the
treatment by the addition of carbon, nitrogen, or both.
 The most frequently used case-hardening processes are:
a. Carburizing
b. Nitriding

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a. Carburizing:

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b) Nitriding:

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V. Surface Hardening:
 It is frequently desirable to harden only the surface of steels without
altering the chemical composition of the surface layers.
 If a steel contains sufficient carbon to respond to hardening, it is possible to
harden the surface layers only by very rapid heating for a short period, thus
conditioning the surface for hardening by quenching.
 The surface layer of a machine part such as a gear, roller or shaft is subject
to wear caused by rolling or sliding motion. The surface layer must
therefore be very hard, whereas the core remain tough.
 Surface hardening is carried out by either the (a) flame or (b) induction
hardening method.
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a) Flame Hardening:
 Flame hardening is a process of heating the surface layers of steel above the
transformation temperature by means of a high-temperature flame and then
quenching.
 In this process the gas flames impinge directly on the steel surface to be hardened.
The rate of heating is very rapid, although not so fast as with induction heating.
 Plain carbon steels are usually quenched by a water spray, whereas the rate of
cooling of alloy steels may be varied from a rapid water quench to a slow air cool
depending on the composition.
 Any type of hardenable steel can be flame hardened. For best results, the carbon
content should be at least 0.35 percent, the usual range being 0.40 to 0.50 percent.
The boundary layer thus becomes hard but the core remains tough.

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b) Induction Hardening:
 In induction hardening, a high-frequency current is passed through a coil
surrounding the steel, the surface layers of which are heated by electro-magnetic
induction.
 The depth to which the heated zone extends depends on the frequency of, the
current (the lower frequencies giving the greater depths) and on the duration of
the heating cycle. The time required to heat the surface layers to above the Ac3 is
surprisingly brief, frequently being a matter of only a few seconds.
 At the end of the heating cycle, the steel is usually quenched by water jets passing
through the inductor coils.
 Precise methods for controlling the operation, that is, rate of energy input, duration
of heating, and rate of cooling, are necessary. These features are incorporated in
induction hardening equipment, which is usually entirely automatic in operation.

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1. What is the purpose of annealing process?
2. What is the purpose of hardening process?
3. What is the purpose of tempering process?
4. What is the purpose of case hardening
process?
5. What is the purpose of surface hardening
process?
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Q&A
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